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A  DICTIONARY  OF   RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NKW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  ■    DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


A 

DICTIONARY 

OF 

RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


EDITED  BY 
Shailer  Mathews,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

!  I 

Professor  of  Historical  and  Comparative  Theology,  and  Dean 
of  the  Divinity  School,  University  of  Chicago 

AND 

Gerald  Birney  Smith,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Christian  Theology, 
University  of  Chicago 


NEW   YORK 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1923 


31.  3/ 


Copyright,  1921 
By  the   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  September,  1921. 


PWNTEP  W  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION 

AND  ETHICS 


fADENET,  Walter  Frederick,  D.D. 

Late  Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and 
Church  History;  Principal  of  Lancaster  Inde- 
pendent College,  Manchester,  England. 

Alexander,  Hartley  Burr,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Neb- 
raska, Lincoln,  Neb.;  Associate  Editor  Mid- 
West  Quarterly,  and  Midland. 

Allen,  Thomas  George,  Ph.D. 

Instructor  in  Egyptology,  University  of  Chi- 
cago; Secretary  of  Haskell  Oriental  Museum. 

Ames,  Edward  Scribner,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Philosophy,  University 
of  Chicago. 

Baker,  Archibald  Gillies. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Missions,  University  of 
Chicago. 

Barnes,  Lemuel  Call,  D.D. 

Secretary  of  the  Department  of  EvangeUsm, 
American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society. 

Barton,  George  Aaron,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Semitic 
Languages,  BrynMawr  College,  BrynMawr,  Pa. 

Barton,  James  Levi,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Foreign  Secretary  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions. 

Baskervill,  Charles  Read,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  University  of 
Chicago;  Managing  Editor  Modern  Philology. 

Beckwith,  Clarence  Augustine,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Christian  Theology,  Chicago 
Theological  Seminary;  Associate  Editor  The 
New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious 
Knowledge. 

Benson,  Louis  Fitzgerald,  D.D. 

Editor  of  various  hymnals,  and  Author  of 
standard  books  on  the  history  of  hymnology. 

Boas,  Franz,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Sc.D. 

Professor  of  Anthropology,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York,  Editor  Journal  of  American 
Folk-Lore. 

Burgess,  Ernest  Watson,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Sociology,  University  of 
Chicago. 

Burt,  Frank  H.,  LL.D. 

President  Y.M.CA.  College,  Chicago,  111. 

Burton,  Margaret 

General  Secretary  Y.W.C.A.,  New  York  City. 

Case,  Shirley  Jackson,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Early  Church  History  and  NewTest- 
',         ament  Interpretation,  University  of  Chicago. 
Christie,  Francis  Albert,  D.D. 
I         Professor  of  Church  History,  Meadville  Theo- 
I         logical  Seminary,  Meadville,  Pa. 
ClarKj  Charles  A. 

Missionary  in  Korea. 
Clark,  Walter  Eugene,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Indo- 
European  Comparative  Philology,  University 
of  Chicago. 


Cook,  Stanley  Arthur,  A.M.,  Litt.D. 

Ex-FeUow  and  Lecturer  in  the  Comparative 
Study  of  Rehgions  and  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac, 
Gk)nville  and  Gaius  College,  Cambridge, 
England. 

Cope,  Henry  Frederick,  D.D. 

General  Secretary  of  the  Religious  Education 
Association.     Editor  Religious  Education. 

Coulter,  John  Merle,  Ph.D. 

Professor  and  Head  of  the  Department  of 
Botany,  University  of  Chicago;  Editor  The 
Botanical  Gazette. 

Crawford,  John  Forsyth,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  Beloit  College,  Beloit, 
Wis. 

Cross,  George,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

Deutsch,  Gotthard,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Jewish  History  and  Literature, 
Hebrew  Union  College,  Cincinnati,  O. 

Dickerson,  James  Spencer,  Litt.D. 

Formerly  Editor  The  Standard,  Chicago,  111. 

Dickinson,  Edward,  Litt.D. 

Professor  of  the  History  and  Criticism  of 
Music,  Oberlin  College,  Oberhn,  O. 

DowD,  Quincy  L. 

Author,  Funeral  Management  and  Costs. 

Easton,  Burton  Scott,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  New  Testament  History  and 
Interpretation,  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York. 

Ellwood,  Charles  Abram,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Sociology,  University  of  Missouri. 

Erb,  Frank  Otis,  Ph.D. 

Editor  of  Young  People's  Publications,  Ameri- 
can Baptist  Pubhcation  Society. 

Everett,  Walter  Goodnow,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Natural  Theology, 
Brown  University,  Providence,  R.I. 

Fallows,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  D.D. 

Bishop  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
Chicago,  111. 

Faris,  Ellsworth,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Sociology,  University  of  Chicago. 

Fisher,  Lewis  Beals,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Dean  of  the  Ryder  (Universalist)  Divinity 
School,  Chicago. 

Gardiner,  Robert  H. 

Secretary  World's  Conference  on  Faith  and 
Order. 

Gilbert,  George  Holley,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Theologian  and  Author;  Formerly  Professor  of 
New  Testament  Literature  and  Interpretation, 
Chicago  Theological  Seminary. 


t  Deceased. 


463 131 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


GiLMORE,  George  William 

Associate  Editor  The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Ency- 
clopedia of  Religious  Knowledge;  Associate 
Editor  The  Homiletic  Review. 

Goodspeed,  Edgar  Johnson,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Biblical  and  Patristic  Greek, 
University  of  Chicago;  Assistant  Director  of 
Haskell  Oriental  Museum. 

Gordon,  Alexander  Reid,  Litt.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Literature  and 
Exegesis,  Presbyterian  College,  Montreal, 
Canada. 

Gould,  Chester  Nathan,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  German  and  Scandi- 
navian Literature,  University  of  Chicago. 

Gray,  Lottis  Herbert,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Nebraska; 
Editor  Mythology  of  All  Races;  Assistant  Editor 
Hastings  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics; 
Departmental  Editor  New  International  Ency- 
clopedia. 

Gkiffis,  William  Elliot,  D.D.,  L.H.D. 

Lecturer;  Author;  and  formerly  Educator  in 
Japan. 

Hall,  Francis  Joseph,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology,  and  President, 

General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 
Harada,  Tasuktt,  LL.D.,  D.D. 

Former  President,  Doshisha  University,  Kyoto, 

Japan. 
Harvey,  Albert  Edward,  Ph.D. 

Formerly  Instructor  in  History,  University  of 

Chicago. 
Haydon,  Albert  Eustace,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  the  History  of  ReUgions, 

University  of  Chicago. 

HoBEN,  Allan,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Sociology,  Carleton  College, 
Northfield,  Minn. 

HoLTOM,  Daniel  Clarence,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Baptist  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

HuRREY,  Charles 

General  Secretary,  Committee  on  Friendly 
Relations  among  Foreign  Students. 

Jackson,  Abraham  Valentine  Williams,  L.H.D. 
Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Indo-Iranian  Languages,  Columbia 

University,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Jones,  Rufus  Matthew,  Litt.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy,   Haverford  College, 

Haverford,  Pa. 

Kantor,  Jacob  Robert,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Psychology,  University  of  Indiana, 
Bloomington,  Ind. 

King,  Irving,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Education,  University  of 

Iowa,  Iowa  City,  la. 
fKiNGMAN,  Henry 

Formerly  Missionary  in  China;   Late  Pastor, 

Congregational  Church,  Claremont,  Calif. 
Kuring,  Adolph,  A.m. 

Pastor,  Lutheran  Church,  Chicago. 

Laing,  Gordon  Jennings,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Chicago. 

LUCKENBILL,  DaNIEL  DaVID,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  the  Semitic  Languages 
and  Literatures,  University  of  Chicago. 

t  Deceased. 


Lyman,  Eugene  William,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  of  ReUgion,  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Mathews,  Shailer,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Dean  of  the  Divinity  School  of  the  University 
of  Chicago;  Professor  of  Historical  and 
Comparative  Theology. 

McGlothlin,  William  Joseph,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 
LL.D. 
President,  Furnam  University,  Greenville, 
S.C;  formerly  Professor  of  Church  History, 
Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  Louis- 
ville, Ky. 

McLaughlin,  Andrew  Cunningham,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  History  and  Head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  History,  University  of  Chicago. 

McNeill,  John  Thomas,  Ph.D. 

Instructor  in  European  History,  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Kingston,  Canada. 

Mead,  George  Herbert 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Chicago. 

Mead,  Lucia  True  Ames 

National  Secretary  of  Woman's  Peace  Party. 

Merrill,  Elmer  Truesdell,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Chicago; 
Editor  Classical  Philology. 

Michel,  F.  J. 

Field  Secretary  of  Laymen's  Missionary 
Movement. 

Mode,  Peter  George,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Church  History,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

Moore,  Clifford  Herschel,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D. 

Professor  of  Latin,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

MuzzEY,  David  Saville,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  History,  Columbia 
University,  Director  of  History,  Ethical  Culture 
School,  NewYork,  N.Y. 

Myers,  Harry  S. 

Secretary,  Missionary  Education  Movement  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Newman,  Albert  Henry,  LL.D.,  D.D. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Church  History,  Baylor 
University,  Waco,  Tex. 

Odlin,  W.  S. 

Assistant  Director  of  Publicity,  American  Red 
Cross,  Washington,  D.C. 

Palmieri,  a. 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
Paton,  Lewis  Bayles,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor    of    Old    Testament    Exegesis    and 

Criticism,     Hartford    Theological    Seminary, 

Hartford,  Conn. 
Paul,  Charles  Thomas,  A.M. 

President,  College  of  Missions,  Indianapolis,  O. 
Pound,  Roscoe,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  General  Jurisprudence,  and  Dean 

of  the  Faculty  of  Law,  Harvard  University, 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
Pratt,  James  Bisset,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Philosophy, 

Williams  College,  WiUiamstown,  Mass. 
Price,  Ira  Maurice,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  the  Old  Testament  Language  and 

Literature,  University  of  Chicago. 

fRAUSCHENBUSCH,  WaLTER,  D.D. 

Late  Professor  of  Church  History,  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N.Y. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Reagan,  Joseph  Nicholas,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Greek,  St.  Bonaventure's  College, 
Allegany,  N.Y. 

Reinhart,  Harold  F. 

Rabbi,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

Richards,  George  Warren,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States,  Lancaster,  Pa.;  Associate 
Editor  Reformed  Church  Review. 

Rockwell,  William  Walker,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York,  N.Y. 

RowE,  Henry  Kalloch,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Social  Science  and  History, 
Newton  Theological  Institution,  Newton 
Center,  Mass. 

Salter,  William  Mackintire,  D.B. 

Lecturer,  The  Society  for  Ethical  Culture. 

BcHAFP,  David  Schley,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  and  History 
of  Doctrine,  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Scott,  Ernest  Findlay,  D.D. 

Professor  of  New  Testament,  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Sears,  Charles  Hatch,  D.D. 

Executive  Secretary  of  New  York  City  Baptist 
Mission  Society. 

Shapley,  John,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Art,  Brown  University, 
Providence,  R.I. 

Sharpe,  Charles  Manford,  Ph.D. 

Dean,  College  of  BibUcal  and  Religious  Studies, 
Metropohtan  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, Detroit,  Mich. 

Sheldon,  Henry  Clay,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Boston 
University. 

Smith,  Gerald  Birney,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Christian  Theology,  University  of 
Chicago;  Editor  Journal  of  Religion. 

Smith,  Henry  Preserved,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Literature,  and 
Chief  Librarian,  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  N.Y. 

t  Deceased. 


Smith,  John  Merlin  Powis,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  the  Old  Testament  Language  and 
Literature,  University  of  Chicago;  Editor  the 
American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and 
Literatures. 

Scares,  Theodore  Gerald,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Homiletics  and  Religious  Edu- 
cation, and  Head  of  the  Department  of  Prac- 
tical Theology,  University  of  Chicago. 

Sprengling,  Martin,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  the  Semitic  Languages 
and  Literatures,  University  of  Chicago. 

fTARBELL,  Frank  Bigelow,  Ph.D. 

Late  Professor  of  Classical  Archeology,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

Thompson,  James  Westfall,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Medieval  History,  University  of 
Chicago. 

Tufts,  James  Hayden,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  and  Head  of  the  Department  of 
Philosophy,  University  of  Chicago;  Editor 
International  Journal  of  Ethics. 

Vedder,  Henry  Clay,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Crozer  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Chester,  Pa. 

VoTAW,  Clyde  Weber,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Literature,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

Walker,  Henry  Hammersley,  Ph.D. 

Professor   of   Ecclesiastical   History,    Chicago 

Theological  Seminary. 
tWABFiELD,  Benjamin  Breckenridge,  DD.,  LL.D., 
LiTT.D.,  S.T.D. 

Professor  of  Didactic  and  Polemic  Theology, 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary, Princeton,  N.J. 

Watson,  Arthur  Clinton,  Ph.D. 

Professor     of     Philosophy     and     Education, 

Marietta  College,  Marietta,  O. 
Webster,  Hutton,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Social  Anthropology,  University 

of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 
WooDBURNE,  Angus  Stewart,  Ph.D. 

Professor    of    Psychology,    Madras    Christian 

College,  Madras,  India. 

YouTZ,  Herbert  Alden,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  of  Religion  and 
Christian  Ethics,  Graduate  School  of  Theology, 
OberUn  College,  Oberlin,  O. 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  Dictionary  is  to  define  all  terms  (not  strictly  biblical)  of  importance  in  the  field 
of  rehgion  and  ethics,  and  at  the  same  time  to  discuss  with  some  fullness  terms  of  primary  value.  The 
general  plan  thus  involves  the  generous  use  of  cross  references  as  a  means  of  bringing  the  treatment  within 
the  limits  of  a  single  volume. 

The  general  plan  of  editing  involves : 

1.  The  definition  of  ail  terms  and  a  more  extended  discussion  of  the  more  important  topics. 

2.  Particular  attention  to  the  clear  explanation  of  the  important  terms  used  in  primitive  and  ethnic 
rehgions. 

3.  Especial  regard  to  the  psychology  and  history  of  religion. 

4.  Historical  rather  than  apologetic  or  partisan  treatment  of  all  topics. 

5.  Biographical  articles  limited  to  persons  especially  significant  in  rehgion  and  morals.  No  Uving 
persons  are  included. 

6.  No  attempt  to  standardize  the  transUteration  of  foreign  words,  each  contributor  being  left  free 
to  employ  the  system  which  he  prefers.  Where  different  spelUngs  of  a  word  are  in  common  use,  the 
variants  appear  in  the  titles  at  the  proper  places. 

7.  The  omission  of  technical  terms  loosely  connected  with  religion  and  morals  which  would  not 
naturally  be  sought  in  such  a  dictionary. 

8.  For  ease  of  consultation,  compound  words  arranged  in  sequence  after  the  first  compound  term. 

9.  Bibhographies  in  an  appendix  to  the  volume  can  thus  easily  be  kept  up  to  date. 

The  editors  wish  to  express  their  gratitude  to  Drs.  A.  S.  Woodburne,  A.  Eustace  Haydon,  and  J.  N. 
Reagan  for  valuable  assistance  in  preparation  of  copy  and  reading  proof,  and  to  Dr.  Frank  E.  Lewis  for 
supervising  the  preparation  of  the  bibliographies.  While  every  article  and  definition  has  been  independently 
produced  their  thanks  are  due  to  Funk  &  Wagnalls  for  their  kind  consent  to  the  use  of  some  especially 
admirable  expressions  and  arrangements  contained  in  copyright  material  in  the  Standard  Dictionary  and 
New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge. 


vu 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION 

AND  ETHICS 


AB,  NINTH  OF.— A  Jewish  holiday  on  the 
fifth  month  of  the  Jewish  year,  corresponding 
approximately  to  August.  It  is  the  traditional 
anniversary  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  586  b.c,  and  of  the  fall  of  the 
holy  city  before  Titus  in  70  a.d.  Long  observed 
as  one  of  fasting  and  mourning,  the  day  is  still  so 
kept  by  orthodox  Jews.  Reform  Jews  regard 
the  day  as  of  solemn  historic  significance,  but  do 
not  distinguish  it  with  special  observance. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 

ABBEY,  ABBOT  and  ABBESS.— An  abbey  was 
originally  a  monastic  institution,  comprising  a 
cathedral  or  church,  cloisters  for  the  monks  and 
other  appurtenances.  The  abbey  was  the  out- 
growth of  the  development  of  monasticism  (q.v.)  into 
coenobitic  form,  which  began  in  the  4th.  century 
with  Pachomius,  an  Egyptian.  The  organization 
of  monastic  orders,  beginning  with  Benedict  of 
Nursia  (q.v.)  contributed  to  the  development. 
The  monk  in  charge  was  called  the  abbot,  which 
philologically  means  "father."  He  ruled  paternally, 
his  authority  "being  limited  only  by  canonical 
rules."  Abbots  were  originally  laymen,  but  from  the 
7th.  century  began  to  be  ordained,  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages  performed  episcopal  duties.  The  correspond- 
ing head  of  a  female  institution  or  nunnery  is 
called  an  abbess.  Certain  churches  and  cathedrals, 
formerly  connected  with  monastic  institutions, 
still  retain  the  name,  as,  e.g.,  Westminster  Abbey. 

ABELARD,  PETER  (1079-1142).— French  Scho- 
lastic philosopher  and  theologian,  known  in 
Uterature  through  his  romantic  connection  with 
Heloise.  In  the  controversy  between  Nominalism 
and  Realism  he  worked  out  a  mediating  position 
which  promoted  a  more  vital  kind  of  logic.  In 
theology  he  opposed  a  mere  submission  to  ecclesi- 
astical authority,  and  attempted  a  rationaUstic 
explanation  of  church  doctrines.  In  his  Sic  et  Non 
he  collected  Patristic  quotations  on  both  siides  of 
debatable  positions  in  matters  of  doctrine.  While 
this  aroused  distrust  at  the  time,  his  method  was 
subsequently  adopted  and  elaborated  in  Catholic 
dogmatics.  The  chief  opponent  of  his  rationalistic 
tendency  was  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  who  secured 
his  condemnation.  His  last  years  were  spent  in 
silent  submission  to  the  chiu-ch. 

ABHISEKA.— In  the  later  Vedic  reUgion  of 
India  a  ceremony  used  for  emperors,  kings  and 
high  state  functionaries  to  give  power;  the  name 
applied  by  the  Buddhists  to  the  last  of  their  ten 
stages  of  perfection:  used  among  the  Hindus  of 
ceremonial  bathing  in  sacred  waters. 

ABJURATION. — A  renunciation  of  heresy 
reqmred  by  the  Roman  Cathohc  church  of  those. 


already  baptized,  who  are  suspected  of  error  in  re- 
hgious  belief.  It  has  taken  various  forms :  in  the  4th. 
century  a  written  statement,  in  the  period  of  the 
Inquisition  a  solemn  public  pronouncement,  and 
more  recently  a  private  profession  before  priestly 
witnesses.  Converts  make  a  formal  renunciation 
of  all  doctrine  opposed  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Roman  church. 

ABLUTION. — See  Bathing;  Purification. 

ABRAHAM.TESTAMENT  OF.— An  apocryphal 
book  of  Jewish  origin  describing  the  last  days  of 
Abraham. 

ABSOLUTE.— That  which  is  free  from  all 
limitations. 

In  religious  Ufe  as  in  philosophical  thinking, 
there  is  the  natural  desire  to  escape  from  the  imper- 
fections of  finite  experience.  The  ultimate  reahty 
is  pictured  as  eternally  perfect,  above  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  time  and  space  and  change.  Complete 
security  of  the  human  spirit  can  be  found  only  in 
alliance  with  this  perfect  Absolute.  In  the  rehgion 
of  the  Vedanta  (see  India,  Religions  and  Phi- 
losophies OP,  Sec.  1)  the  ultimate  aim  is  to  lose 
one's  finite  personahty  in  the  Infinite.  Platonism 
provides  a  philosophical  way  in  which  men  may 
participate  in  absolute  ideas.  Mysticism  is  an 
emotional  identification  of  the  inner  self  with  the 
Absolute.  IdeaUstic  philosophy  in  modern  times 
has  attempted  through  the  doctrine  of  dynamic 
monism  to  relate  the  Absolute  concretely  to  finite 
existence.  See  God;  Monism;  Idealism;  Prag- 
matism. Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ABSOLUTION.— According  to  the  Larger  Cate- 
chism prescribed  by  Pope  Pius  X.,  "Absolution  is 
the  sentence  which  the  Priest  pronounces  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ  to  remit  the  penitent's  sins." 
Roman  theologians  appeal  to  Matt.  16: 19;  18: 18; 
John  20:21-23.  Absolution  presupposes  contrition 
(q.v.),  confession  (q.v.),  and  the  promise  of  satis- 
faction; and  valid  absolution  can  be  imparted  only 
by  a  duly  ordained  priest  who  has  jurisdiction 
over  the  penitent.  The  present  form  of  absolution 
is  declarative  or  indicative,  "I  absolve  thee." 

In  the  Holy  Orthodox  and  in  other  oriental  com- 
munions the  form  of  absolution  is  precatory,  in  the 
form  of  a  prayer  for  pardon.  Precatory  forms  were 
in  common  use  in  the  Latin  church  till  the  middle 
of  the  13th.  century. 

For  certain  serious  offences  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest  cannot  grant  absolution  without  special 
authorization  from  the  bishop  or  even  from  the 
pope.  The  restrictions  in  these  "reserved  cases" 
are  relaxed,  however,  in  the  hour  of  death. 

Wm.  WaLKEB  RoCKWEUi 


Abyss 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


.  ABYSS.^The  boltoroless  space  (originally  filled 
with  water)  which  was  believed  to  be  under  the 
r  earths  , 

;,  ;  '.!ja  Bairyloniap  thought  tne  abyss  was  possibly 
the' primeval  chaos  from  which  our  universe  and  all 
Ufe  sprang.  From  this  original  substance  God 
created  the  imiverse,  according  to  Genesis.  The 
cosmology  of  the  Bible  represents  the  earth  as 
resting  on  and  surrounded  by  waters  extending 
imder  the  earth,  thus  constituting  the  abyss. 

Through  usage  which  it  is  not  possible  fully  to 
trace,  the  abyss  ceased  to  be  thought  of  as  filled 
with  water  and  became  identified  with  the  abode 
of  the  departed  spirits,  that  is,  Sheol  or  Hades.  The 
latter  place  is  said  by  Job  38 :  16  to  be  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  It  is  from  the  conception  of  Hades  that 
the  word  came  also  to  denote  the  imderground  place 
of  punishment,  or  Hell.  From  the  time  of  Enoch 
it  was  apparently  regarded  as  filled  with  fire  rather 
than  water. 

With  the  appearance  of  the  apocalyptic  litera- 
ture the  word  is  used  in  a  more  general  sense  to  repre- 
sent the  underworld  in  which  was  the  abyss  of 
fire  in  which  the  demons  lived  and  where  Satan, 
according  to  the  Apocalypse  of  John,  is  to  be  confined 
for  a  thousand  years.  The  term  included  also  Hades 
wherein  the  spirits  of  the  dead  Uved,  and  in  which 
Christ  himself  is  said  by  the  later  church  Fathers 
to  have  spent  the  days  between  his  death  and  his 
resurrection. 

In  the  later  cosmologies  developed  by  gnosticism 
the  abyss  was  personified  as  the  first  principle  of  the 
infinite  deity  from  which  all  aeons  were  evolved  and 
so  the  universe  created 

In  modern  thought  these  earlier  conceptions 
have  entirely  disappeared,  and  the  word  is  used 
simply  as  a  synonym  for  a  deep  chasm. 

Shailer  Mathews 

ABYSSINIA,  RELIGION  OF.— The  reUgion  of 
the  peoples  of  Abyssinia  is  a  curious  blend  of  primi- 
tivity  with  the  reUgious  ideas  of  Judaism,  early 
Arabia,  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity.  The 
basis  of  all  modern  forms  is  the  nature-reUgion  which 
consists  (1)  of  the  tribal  provision  for  the  life- 
needs  of  the  people  when  the  chief  performs  reUgious 
ceremonies  for  crops  and  food;  (2)  of  the  control  of 
spirits  through  the  agency  of  shamans  who  know  the 
magical  forms.  The  influence  of  early  Arabia  is 
seen  in  the  presence  of  the  mother-goddess,  AUat, 
and  of  the  male  Ashtar.  Christianity  entered  in 
the  middle  of  the  5th.  century  probably  from  Syria 
and  after  long  struggle  is  now  finally  estabUshed  as 
the  official  religion  of  the  Abyssinian  empire.  It 
is  of  the  monophysite  form  generally;  though  so 
many  elements  are  mingled  in  it  as  to  give  it  almost 
the  character  of  a  new  religion.  Islam  is  making 
rapid  progress,  has  gained  control  of  all  the  tribes 
surrounding  the  Christians,  and  is  penetrating  their 
territory.  The  source  and.  influence  of  Judaism  is 
still  obscure,  though  there  are  undoubted  evidences 
of  distinctively  Jewish  ideas  and  practices. 

A.  Eustace  Haydon 

ACACIUS  OF  CAESAREA.— Bishop  of  Caesarea 
in  the  4th.  century  and  one  of  the  most  prominent 
of  the  moderate  opponents  of  the  Nicene  Creed  in 
the  Arian  controversy. 

ACCEPTANCE.— The  attitude  of  satisfaction 
with  which  God  regards  those  who  have  met  the 
requirements  necessary  for  obtaining  divine  favor. 
Among  some  primitive  and  even  among  some  more 
highly  developed  religions  the  deity  is  beheved 
to  be  naturally  hostile,  and  hence  offerings  and 
sacrifices  are  considered  necessary  to  acceptance. 
In  the  Hebrew  prophetic  books  and  in  the  New 
Testament,  acceptance  is  dependent  on  moral  right- 


eousness or  faith  in  Jesus.     Many  types  of  theology 
have  made  it  dependent  on  belief  in  right  doctrine. 

ACCEPTILATION.-^-Originally  a  form  of 
Roman  legal  practice  in  which  a  creditor  acknowl- 
edged payment  of  a  debt  though  no  payment  had 
been  made.  The  term  is  loosely  used  in  Christian 
theology  to  characterize  theories  of  atonement  in 
which  the  efficacy  of  Christ's  work  depends  upon  its 
acceptance  by  God  rather  than  upon  its  own  intrinsic 
worth,  e.g.,  the  theory  of  Duns  Scotus  (q.v.). 

ACCIDENT. — (1)  An  event  occurring  unex- 
pectedly and  contrary  to  rational  order.  An 
accident  upsets  plans,  and  hence  demands  special 
rehgious  or  moral  explanation.  (2)  Philosophically, 
a  property  not  absolutely  essential  to  the  existence  of 
an  object.  The  term  is  important  in  some  scholastic 
explanations  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

ACCIDENTALISM.— A  world  view  which 
allows  the  possibility  of  tincaused  and  unpredict- 
able events  and  acts. 

ACCLAMATION.— (1)  The  uncanvassed  and 
spontaneous  election  of  a  pope  by  the  college  of 
cardinals.  (2)  A  congregational  response  in  anti- 
phonal  singing. 

ACCOMMODATION.— The  modification  or 
adjustment  of  a  statement  so  as  to  meet  specific 
needs  or  conditions  such  as  the  immaturity  of  the 
person  to  be  taught. 

In  bibUcal  interpretation  certain  apparently 
crude  conceptions  found  in  Scripture  have  been 
explained  on  the  ground  that  God  accommodated 
his  revelation  to  the  capacity  of  men  to  receive  it. 
Misquotations  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New 
have  been  similarly  explained.  The  references  of 
Jesus  to  demons  are  considered  by  some  theologians 
to  be  instances  of  accommodation. 

In  the  18th.  century  rationahstic  theologians 
carried  the  principle  to  absurd  lengths,  attempting 
to  find  in  the  Bible  their  own  theology,  and  thus 
explaining  all  features  which  are  unacceptable  to 
modern  thinking  as  instances  of  accommodation. 
Historical  interpretation  today  repudiates  this 
attitude,  and  attempts  to  set  forth  the  exact  teach- 
ings of  the  Bible  as  honest  and  straightforward 
convictions,  rather  than  as  accommodations  of  a 
predetermined  theological  system. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  church  a  so-called 
"accommodation  controversy"  occurred  in  the 
16th.  and  17th.  centuries,  when  the  popes  dis- 
approved of  the  concessions  made  by  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries to  current  ideas  in  India  and  China. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ACEPHALI. — A  religious  sect  which  acknowl- 
edged no  bishop  or  authoritative  head;  as  e.g.,  the 
mediaeval  Flagellants. 

ACOEMETAE. — ^An  eastern  order  of  ascetics  of 
the  5th.  century,  so  designated  from  their  custom 
of  continuous  prayer  and  praise  night  and  day. 

ACOLYTE.— A  member  of  the  highest  of  the 
minor  orders  in  the  Roman  CathoUc  church,  whose 
duties  are  attendance  on  a  priest  performing  some 
rite  especially  the  celebration  of  the  mass. 

ACOSMISM.— That  type  of  pantheism  which 
asserts  that  the  universe  has  no  real  existence  apart 
from  the  Absolute. 

ACQUIRED  AND  CONGENITAL  CHARAC- 
TERISTICS.—In     the    study    of    heredity,    two 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Adamites 


general  kinds  of  characters  are  recognized,  namely, 
those  determined  by  the  constitution  of  the  "germ 
plasm"  and  those  acquired  by  the  body  during 
its  development.  Germ  plasm  is  the  essential 
substance  of  eggs  and  sperms,  and  determines  the 
fundamental  structure  of  the  offspring.  Acquired 
characters  appear  in  response  to  the  varying  condi- 
tions that  obtain  during  development.  Formerly 
it  was  supposed  that  acquired  characters  might  be 
inherited  and  increased  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. Weismann  was  the  first  to  analyze  the  situa- 
tion, and  to  show  that  germ  plasm  and  body  plasm 
are  entirely  distinct.  Germ  plasm  gives  rise  to 
body  plasm,  which  in  turn  builds  the  body;  but 
germ  plasm  itself  is  continuous  from  generation 
to  generation,  passing  on  what  it  has  received  from 
previous  generations.  An  acquired  character  is  a 
response  of  the  body  plasm,  and  disappears  with 
the  body.  It  has  no  more  influence  upon  germ 
plasm  than  has  a  stream  upon  the  spring  from 
which  it  has  issued.  From  this  point  of  view, 
the  body  is  simply  a  container  of  the  germ  plasm, 
and  no  more  affects  its  constitution  than  does  a 
water  bag  affect  the  constitution  of  the  contained 
water.  It  is  beginning  to  be  realized,  however, 
that  some  acquired  characters  may  affect  the 
organism  so  profoundly  as  to  influence  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  germ  plasm.  The  body  is  a  physiological 
unity,  so  that  while  such  an  acquired  character  as 
a  mutilation,  for  example,  cannot  affect  the  germ 
plasm,  any  character  which  profoundly  affects  the 
physiology  of  the  body  may  include  the  germ 
plasm  in  its  effects.  The  conclusion  is  that  while 
in  general  acquired  characters  are  not  inherited, 
because  they  involve  only  body  structures,  some 
acquired  characters  may  involve  every  region  of  the 
organism,  including  the  germ  plasm. 

The  problem  concerns  ethics  in  so  far  as  it  is 
desirable  to  ascertain  what  stress  should  be  laid 
on  the  education  of  the  individual  in  view  of  the 
factors  in  his  inheritance.        John  M.  Coulter 

ACTA  MARTYRUM.— A  collection  of  the  biog- 
raphies of  early  Christian  martyrs.  The  latest 
is  from  the  4th.  century.  Their  value  varies 
according  to  the  degree  of  legendary  material 
included. 

ACTA  SANCTORUM.— A  collection  of  lives 
of  the  saints  and  information  concerning  festivals, 
etc.,  associated  with  them,  made  subsequently 
to  the  4th.  century.  The  literary  remains  to  be 
included  are  so  numerous  and  the  questions  involved 
so  difficult  that  although  the  Bollandists  began 
publication  in  1643  the  collection  is'not  yet  complete. 
The  lives  are  arranged  according  to  the  months  in 
which  a  saint's  feast  is  celebrated. 

ACTION  SERMON.— A  sermon  immediately 
preceding  the  Lord's  Supper  in  Scotch  Presbyterian 
churches,  so  named  because  the  Supper  was  desig- 
nated "the  Action." 

ACT  OF  GOD. — An  occurrence  considered  in- 
evitably necessary  because  due  to  the  operation  of 
cosmic  forces  from  which  the  human  agency  is 
entirely  absent;  used  as  an  excuse  both  from 
liability  for  moral  wrong  and  (legally)  from  civil 
damages  in  courts  of  law. 

ACTS  OF  UNIFORMITY.— Enactments  to 
secure  uniformity  of  worship  in  the  churches  of 
England. 

According  to  the  first  (1549)  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  was  to  be  used  by  all  priests  on  penalty 
of  losing  a  year's  revenue  from  the  benefice,  and 
six   months'    imprisonment   for   a  first   offense,    a 


year's  imprisonment  for  a  second  offense,  and  life 
imprisonment  for  a  third.  Laymen  disturbing 
worship  or  encouraging  priests  to  violate  uniformity 
were  liable  to  fines  and  imprisonment.  A  second 
Act  (1552)  legalized  the  ecclesiastical  censure  and 
excommunication  of  laymen, who  failed  to  attend 
prayer  on  Sundays  and  holy  days,  and  imposed  upon 
those  attending  unauthorized  forms  of  worship  penal- 
ties much  as  in  the  Act  of  1549.  Elizabeth's  Act  of 
Uniformity  (1559)  revived  the  Edwardian  statute, 
but  to  the  penalty  of  ecclesiastical  censure  added 
a  fine  levied  by  the  church  wardens  for  parish 
revenue.  With  the  restoration  of  Charles  II 
(1662)  the  use  of  a  revised  prayer  book  in  every  place 
of  public  worship  was  made  compulsory.  Incum- 
bents were  required  to  make  declaration  of  their 
acceptance  of  the  prayer  book.  University  teachers, 
school  masters  and  private  tutors  were  required 
to  accept  the  Liturgy  and  the  doctrine  of  non- 
resistance.  A  bishop's  license  was  required  of  all 
schoolmasters  and  private  tutors.  For  refusing  to 
conform,  hundreds  of  clergymen  lost  their  benefi- 
ces in  the  "Great  Eviction,"  and  the  Estabhshed 
Church  forced^  from  her  fellowship  much  of  the 
strongest  religious  leadership  of  the  age.  The 
statute,  fortified  by  such  legislation  as  the  Con- 
venticle and  Corporation  Acts  (q.v.),  remained  in 
force  until  the  Toleration  Act  (q.v.)  made  substan- 
tial moderations.  Peter  G.  Mode 

ADAD. — An  ancient  storm-god  of  the  Amorites, 
known  as  Hadad  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  who  appears 
later  as  an  important  figure  in  the  pantheon  of 
Babylonia  as  god  of  storms  and  rain.  He  is  also 
known  as  Rammon. 

ADALBERT    OF    HAMBURG    BREMEN.— 

Archbishop  from  1043  or  1045  to  1072;  strove  to 
unify  the  church  of  Northern  Europe  with  himself 
as  patriarch,  a  plan  frustrated  by  Rome. 

ADALBERT,  SAINT,  OF  PRAGUE.— Bishop  of 
Prague,  b.  950;  forced  to  flee  his  see  by  papal 
opposition ;  undertook  a  mission  to  the  Prussians,  by 
whom  he  was  murdered,  997;  known  as  the  "Apostle 
of  Bohemia"  and  "Apostle  of  the  Prussians." 

ADAM. — Man,  or  Adam  a  proper  name. 

The  word  is  used  in  Genesis,  both  as  a  generic 
term  and  as  a  proper  name.  The  account  of  crea- 
tion according  to  the  priestly  document  deals  with 
the  making  of  man  from  clay  by  God  who 
breathed  into  him  the  breath  of  God.  The  account 
then  proceeds  to  treat  the  first  created  member  of 
the  human  race  as  possessing  the  name  Adam; 
how  he  was  given  a  mate  made  from  one  of  his 
ribs,  how  the  two  lived  in  a  garden  in  innocence 
until  sin  came  through  temptation  by  the  serpent 
(q.v.)  on  the  ground  that  the  pair  might  by  dis- 
obeying God  get  new  moral  knowledge.  This 
disobedience  led  to  the  exclusion  of  the  pair  from 
the  garden  and  their  being  made  subject  to  death. 

There  are  many  Babylonian  and  other  parallels 
to  the  Hebrew  story  of  Adam,  but  none  sets  forth 
the  problem  of  temptation  and  sin  with  such 
beauty  or  psychological  precision. 

This  Adam  of  Genesis  became  a  figure  in  Chris- 
tian theology.  As  the  actual  progenitor  of  a  race 
begotten  after  the  Fall  he  has  been  treated  as  the 
source  of  original  sin  and  his  experience  and  position 
have  been  determining  factors  in  the  orthodox 
treatment  of  sin  and  salvation. 

Shailer  Mathews 

ADAMITES. — An  obscure  sect  originating  in 
North  Africa  in  the  2nd.  century,  the  members  of 
which  laid  claim  to  the  innocence  of  Adam  and 
ordered  their  lives  after  their  conception  of  Eden. 
Neo-Adamites  arose  in  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of 


Adapa 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


the  Free  Spirit  of  the  13th.  century  and  the  Beghards 
of  the  14th.  century. 

ADAPA. — A  figure  of  Babylonian  mythology, 
favorite  of  Ea,  who  was  offered  the  bread  and 
water  of  life  by  the  gods  but  through  a  misunder- 
standing refused  it  and  forfeited  immortality. 

ADELOPHAGI.— A  4th.  century  sect,  who  held 
that  Christians  should  eat  in  secret,  supposedly  in 
imitation  of  the  prophets. 

ADIAPHORA. — A  word  of  Greek  origin  denot- 
ing actions  or  rites  which  are  neither  positively 
commanded  nor  positively  forbidden,  hence  liberty 
of  opinion  and  action  must  be  recognized.  Wher- 
ever the  attempt  is  made  to  organize  religion  or 
ethics  in  terms  of  a  complete  legal  system  such 
morally  indifferent  items  are  a  source  of  perplexity 
and  give  rise  to  controversy.  See  Adiaphokistic 
Controversies. 

ADIAPHORISTIC  CONTROVERSIES.— Dur- 
ing the  Protestant  Reformation  an  attempt  was 
made  by  the  emperor,  Charles  V.,  to  reunite  the 
Catholic  and  the  Lutheran  bodies.  (See  Augs- 
burg Interim;  Leipzig  Interim.)  Necessarily 
this  involved  countenancing  certain  rites  of  Catholi- 
cism which  Luther  had  repudiated  (Latin  Mass, 
candles,  fasts,  etc.)  Those  who,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Melanchthon  favored  granting  liberty  of 
practice  were  called  Adiaphorists.  The  contro- 
versy continued  until  the  Formula  of  Concord 
(1577)  decided  in  favor  of  the  stricter  view. 

A  second  controversy  called  by  this  name 
occurred  in  the  17th.  century  over  the  question  of 
"doubtful  amusements,"  the  Pietists  contending 
for  the  more  puritanical  position  against  the  con- 
ventional Lutherans.        Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ADIBUDDHA. — A  name  used  to  refer  to  the 
essential,  eternal  Buddha  from  whose  acts  of 
meditation  come,  by  emanation,  the  five  great 
Buddhas  and  through  them  the  lower  orders  of 
divine  and  earthly  existence.  He  seems  to  have 
at  times  the  character  of  a  personal  God,  at  others 
to  be  the  pantheistic  world-ground. 

ADITI. — A  word  used  as  a  divine  name  in 
Vedic  reUgion  meaning  "the  Boundless,"  important 
as  indicating  the  early  drift  from  polytheism  to  an 
abstract  unity  in  Indian  theology. 

ADITYAS. — A  group  of  shining  gods  of  the 
Vedic  religion  often  identified  with  the  planets. 

ADJURATION. — An  urgent  entreaty  or  com- 
mand, re-enforced  by  coupling  with  it  an  oath. 
For  its  use  in  Scripture  see  Matt.  26:63  and  Mark 
5:7.  In  Roman  Catholic  usage,  devils  may  be 
exorcized  by  adjuring  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  _  In  the  Roman  ritual  there  are 
other  forms  of  adjuration,  used  especially  in  the 
sacrament  of  baptism. 

ADMONITION.— Gentle  reproof;  a  method  of 
discipline,  public  or  private,  aiming  at  either  the 
reinstatement  or  the  eventual  excommunication 
of  the  culpable. 

ADOLESCENCE.— That  period  of  human 
development  extending  from  the  beginning  of 
puberty  to  complete  adult  maturity. 

Among  all  primitive  peoples,  among  the  nations 
of  antiquity  and  in  practically  all  religious  sects 
this  period  has  received  special  attention  as  an 
important  transition  stage  between  childhood  and 
adult  life.  Various  initiation  ceremonies,  special 
educational  regimens   and   religious   efforts   have 


been  associated  with  it.  Recent  studies  of  the 
physical  and  mental  changes  of  this  period  have 
confirmed  the  commonly  accepted  view  of  its 
being  more  or  less  a  well  marked  epoch  in  human 
development. 

Physical  changes. — These  are  more  definitely 
determined  than  the  mental,  social  and  religious. 
They  consist  in  greatly  accelerated  bodily  growth 
in  both  height  and  weight.  The  reproductive 
organs  increase  in  size  and  come  to  functional 
maturity;  the  skin  becomes  coarser,  the  second 
molars  appear,  lung  capacity  increases  greatly, 
especially  in  boys,  the  heart  enlarges  rapidly,  the 
voice  changes. 

Mental  changes. — The  physical  changes  are 
definitely  associated  with  a  rapid  and  striking 
enlargement  of  the  mental  life.  Children  of  normal 
pubertal  development  are  on  the  whole  better 
developed  mentally  and  more  successful  in  their 
school  work  than  are  the  immature  of  the  same 
age  or  than  those  whose  physical  development 
has  been  unduly  deferred.  The  sexual  ripening 
brings  an  entirely  new  outlook  upon  fife.  The  earn- 
ing instinct  looms  large  in  the  boy  and  the  home- 
making  instinct  in  the  girl.  "The  type  of  play 
changes,  new  companions  are  sought,  new  hkings, 
tendencies,  enthusiasms  and  emotions  make  over 
the  whole  life."  The  central  tendency  of  these 
changes  appears  to  be  near  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth 
year.  Ambition  for  the  future,  periods  of  elation 
and  depression,  great  dreaminess  in  some  and  great 
exuberance  of  physical  and  mental  activity  in 
others,  tempestuous  passions,  and  in  the  later 
teens  a  marked  development  of  social,  ethical,  and 
reUgious  impulses  appear  to  be  quite  common. 
Friendship  comes  to  occupy  a  large  place  in  the 
youth's  life,  his  susceptibility  to  good  or  to  bad 
social  influences  is  especially  marked.  In  the 
later  adolescent  years  philosophic  speculation  and 
rehgious  doubts  appear  in  some.  This  may  lead 
either  to  a  cynical  indifference  to  all  higher  values 
or  to  a  life  permeated  by  a  lofty  idealism  and  an  en- 
thusiasm to  serve  humanity  in  some  far-reaching  way. 

The  exuberance  of  the  adolescent  often  leads 
him  into  clashes  with  the  conventional  restrictions 
of  home  and  school,  resulting,  in  the  case  of  the 
more  intense  natures,  in  more  or  less  "storm  and 
stress."  Inductive  studies  of  youth  lead,  however, 
to  the  view  that  proper  guidance  and  a  not  too 
repressive  social  environment  should  result  in  a 
steady  growth  rather  than  in  one  marked  by  sudden 
and  tempestuous  transitions.  Unfavorable  and 
repressive  environments  produce  various  abnormali- 
ties such  as  are  s§en  characteristically  in  adolescent 
criminality  and  insanity.  In  the  former  the  impulse 
to  action  breaks  all  bounds  and  in  the  latter  the 
youth  becomes  self -centered,  subjective,  loses  all 
power  of  practical  expression  and  develops  some 
form  of  dementia  precox. 

Practical  phases. — The  securing  of  normal  sex 
development  is  the  most  vital  problem.  Instruc- 
tion in  the  hygiene  of  the  sex  life  is  coming  to  be 
regarded  as  essential.  Modern  hfe  tends  in  many 
ways  to  overstimulate  the  youth,  and  common  com- 
mercialized amusements  flourish  through  their 
exploitation  of  the  normal  sex  interests  with  dis- 
astrous results. 

On  the  side  of  general  hygiene,  plenty  of  physical 
exercise,  proper  food  and  rest,  avoidance  of  over- 
exertion, opportunity  for  normal  social  reactions, 
and  emphasis  upon  service  and  work  rather  than  a 
life  of  pleasure  or  of  morbid  introspection  are 
indispensable  general  rules.  All  authorities  recom- 
mend that  children  of  the  same  degrees  of  physical 
development,  irrespective  of  chronological  age, 
be  grouped  together  for  secular  and  religious 
instruction. 


5 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Advocate 


Moral  and  religious  phases. — While  the  youth 
often  seems  iadifferent  to  such  matters,  there  is 
evidence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  adolescent  period 
of  a  deep-seated  interest  in  the  larger  problems  of 
hfe  and  of  right  living.  Special  attention  should 
therefore  be  given  to  moral  and  religious  education 
in  order  that  suitable  ideals  may  be  established. 
Religious  conversions  are  more  frequent  in  middle 
and  later  adolescence  than  at  any  other  time. 
Many  studies  indicate  that  ideals  and  ambitions 
acquired  in  these  years  tend  to  become  the  perma- 
nent possessions  of  the  adult.  Irving  Kino 

ADONIS. — The  youth  beloved  by  Aphrodite  in 
the  Greek  form  of  the  mystery-symbolism  of 
fertility  and  resurrection.     See  Mother  Goddesses. 

ADOPTIANISM.— (1)  A  theory  current  among 
certain  Christians  of  the  second  and  third  centuries 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  in  nature  a  man  who  became 
the  Son  of  God  only  by  adoption.  (2)  A  heresy  which 
appeared  in  the  8th.  century  in  Spanish  and  Frankish 
churches,  and  was  officially  suppressed  in  799, 
though  traces  of  it  continued  until  860.  This 
form  of  adoptianism  distinguished  between  the 
divine  Christ  and  the  human  Christ,  the  former 
being  the  real,  and  the  latter  the  adopted,  Son 
of  God. 

ADOPTION,— (1)  The  legal  procedure  by 
which  an  adult  person  assumes  to  a  minor  the  rela- 
tion of  parent  to  child.  (2)  Analogously,  the  act 
whereby  God  receives  the  behever  into  the  relation- 
ship of  child,  a  figure  originating  in  the  PauUne 
literature. 

ADORATION.— (1)  An  attitude,  act  or  emo- 
tion of  deep  admiration  and  awe  leading  to  special 
reverence,  applicable  to  God  and  to  persons  or 
objects  with  special  rehgious  significance  such  as 
the  Virgin  Mary,  saints,  martyrs,  the  crucifix  or 
the  host.  (2)  The  worshipful  recognition  of  a 
newly  elected  pope  by  the  cardinals. 

ADRIAN. — The  name  of  six  popes. 

Adrian  I.,  Pope  772-795;  a  contemporary  of 
Charlemagne  with  whom  he  had  several  struggles 
regarding  the  extent  of  his  temporal  power. 

Adrian  II.,  Pope  867-872. 

Adrian  III.,  Pope  884-885. 

Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Breakspeare),  Pope  1154- 
1159;  the  only  English  pope,  his  pontificate  being 
marked  by  a  stormy  conflict  with  Frederick  Bar- 

Adrian  V.,  Pope  July  12  to  August  18,  1276, 
but  died  before  his  ordination. 

Adrian  VI.,  Pope  1522-1523,  during  the  time 
of  Luther,  who  endeavored  to  reunite  Christendom 
by  acknowledging  the  evils  of  papal  rule  and 
promising  reforms,  while  at  the  same  time  insisting 
on  the  elimination  of  Luther. 

ADULTERY. — Legally,  sexual  intercourse  be- 
tween persons  one  of  whom  is  married  to  a  third 
person.  Figuratively,  moral  unfaithfulness  to  God, 
as  applied  by  the  prophets  to  the  nation  Israel. 

In  the  world  religions,  two  motives  underlie  the 
aversion  to  adultery:  (1)  the  desire  to  protect  the 
wife  as  the  husband's  property;  (2)  the  need  of 
guarding  the  status  of  the  family  or  caste.  Morally, 
adultery  involves  a  lack  of  sexual  self-control,  and 
is  condemned  along  with  other  forms  of  unrestrained 
sexual  indulgence. 

ADVAITA. — A  doctrine  of  the  Vedanta  phi- 
losophy of  India  which  maintains  that  there  is  no 
dualism  of  spirit  and  matter,  self  and  the  world. 


thought  and  being;  that  the  one  indefinable  reality 
miderlying  all  existence  is  Brahman. 

ADVENT. — A  term  used  to  describe: 

1.  The  Incarnation  as  the  coming  of  the  Son 
of  God  into  the  world  through  the  Virgin  birth. 

2.  The  Second  Advent,  the  return  of  Jesus 
Christ  from  heaven  to  carry  on  his  Messianic  work. 
See  Parousia. 

3.  A  feast  celebrated  the  first  season  of  the 
church  year  as  a  preparation  for  Christmas.  It 
began  originally  in  different  months  according  to 
the  practices  of  the  different  churches.  In  the 
western  church  the  Advent  season  begins  on  the 
Sunday  nearest  to  St.  Andrew's  Day,  November  30, 
and  contains  four  Sundays  devoted  respectively 
to  the  Second  Coming,  the  Bible,  the  Ministry,  and 
the  Incarnation  (in  the  Anglican  Church). 

Shailer  Mathews 
ADVENTISTS.— The  general  name  for  a  num- 
ber of  religious  bodies  who  believe  in  the  imminent 
bodily  return  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  earth. 

The  Adventists  were  founded  by  Wm.  Miller 
(q.v.)  in  1816,  and  were  generally  called  "Millerites." 
The  Adventists  are  grouped  in  a  number  of 
organizations  usually  congregational  in  goveriunent. 
Of  these  the  Life  and  Advent  Union  and  the  Church 
of  God  (Adventist)  each  numbers  less  than  a  thousand 
members,  and  may  be  disregarded  except  as  indica- 
tive of  the  tendency  of  the  group  to  divide  and 
organize  independent  bodies  on  the  basis  of  some 
eschatological  detail. 

1.  The  most  important  of  the  bodies  is  the 
Seventh  Day  Adventist.  Unlike  other  Adventists 
they  observe  the  Seventh  Day  in  place  of  Sunday. 
They  are.  premillenarian,  hold  to  the  sleep  of  the 
dead,  practice  tithing,  feet  washing  in  connection 
with  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  immersion.  Their 
most  important  teacher  was  Mrs.  Ellen  G.  White, 
to  whom  they  attribute  inspiration  and  powers  of 
prophecy.  Their  organization  is  unlike  other 
Adventist  bodies  in  that  it  is  presbyterian  rather 
than  congregational.  They  are  particularly  careful 
of  health,  especially  as  affected  by  food,  and  have 
established  a  number  of  sanitaria.  Their  ministry 
is  composed  of  evangelists.  They  have  7  colleges  and 
seminaries,  publish  a  number  of  papers,  and  main- 
tain foreign  missions.     1  hey  have  87,583  members. 

2.  Advent  Christians  separated  from  the  Evan- 
gelical Adventists  in  1855  because  of  a  difference 
in  belief  as  to  immortality  of  the  soul.  The  former, 
holding  that  immortality  is  a  result  of  regeneration, 
and  that  all  unregenerate  are  to  be  annihilated, 
organized  themselves  as  the  Advent  Christian 
Church.  They  have  1  college,  1  school  of  theology, 
and  publish  several  papers.  They  have  30,597 
members. 

The  Evangelical  Adventists  are  now  a  small 
body  holding  to  what  are  essentially  the  common 
positions  of  premillenarian  Christiani<^y. 

3.  The  Churches  of  God  in  Christ  are  a  small 
group  of  Adventists  who  believe  in  the  restitution 
of  all  things  by  God,  including  the  establishment 
of  a  Jewish  state  in  Jerusalem.  They  have  3,457 
members. 

ADVOCATE. — One  who  defends  a  cause  or  a 
person  before  a  judicial  tribunal. 

In  Christian  doctrine,  the  penitent  and  believing 
sinner  finds  in  Jesus  Christ  an  advocate  before  the 
judgment  seat  of  God  (I  John  2:1).  The  inter- 
cessory work  of  Christ  has  been  thus  interpreted. 
The  Holy  Spirit  is  also  called  an  Advocate  (e.g., 
John  14:16),  although  the  word  paraclete  in  the 
4th.  gospel  is  often  translated  "comforter." 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  ceremony 
of  beatification  or  of  canonization  requires  a  '"devil's 


Advowson 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHIC,"^ 


6 


advocate"  {advocalus  diaboli)  whose  duty  it  is  to 
secure  serious  consideration  of  all  possible  objections 
against  the  proposed  action.  His  arguments  are 
answered  by  "God's  advocate"  (advocalus  Dei). 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 
ADVOWSON.— The  legal  right  of  naming  an 
incumbent  to  a  church  or  a  vacant  ecclesiastical 
benefice  in  England.    See  Benefice. 

AEGEAN  RELIGION.— The  reUgion  of  the 
coast  lands  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  in 
the  prehistoric  age,  often  referred  to  as  the  period 
of  Mycenaean  or  Minoan  culture.  Cretan  excava- 
tions indicate  that  the  central  figures  of  the  rehgion 
were  an  unmarried  goddess,  symbol  of  fertihty  and 
life,  and  her  son  who  dies  and  comes  to  life  again. 
The  divine  names  were  probably  Rhea  and  Zeus. 
See  Mother  Goddesses. 

AEGIS  or  EGIS.— In  Greek  mythology,  the 
shield  given  by  Zeus  to  Apollo  and  Athena;  hence, 
any  protecting  power  or  influence. 

AEON. — (1)  A  term  used  to  describe  a  group 
of  successive  emanations  from  Absolute  Being  by 
which  the  spiritual  or  divine  is  mediated  to  the 
material  world.  (See  Gnosticism.)  (2)  The  Greek 
word  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time  constituting  0, 
cosmic  cycle  or  epoch.    See  Age. 

AESIR  (ASA). — The  name  of  a  group  of  gods 
of  the  Teutonic  pantheon  under  the  leadership  of 
Odin,  the  All-Father.     ' 

AESTHETICISM  or  ESTHETICISM.— Devo- 
tion to  beauty  in  its  sensuous  forms,  implying  the 
subordination  of  moral  values  to  beauty. 

AESTHETICS.— Aesthetics  is  commonly  de- 
fined as  the  science  of  the  beautiful.  In  this  case, 
however,  beautiful  must  be  taken  in  the  broad  sense 
as  including  the  sublime,  comic,  tragic,  pathetic, 
ugly,  etc.  Originally  used  by  Baumgarten  in  his 
Aesthetica  (1750-58)  to  signify  the  science  of 
sensuous  knowledge,  supplementary  and_  parallel 
to  logic,  the  science  of  clear  thinking  or  the  intellect. 
As  the  excellence  of  clear  thinking  is  truth,  so  the 
perfection  of  sensuous  knowledge  was  held  to  be 
beauty. 

Modern  aesthetics  deals  on  the  one  hand  with 
problems  of  aesthetic  appreciation,  on  the  other 
with  those  of  artistic  production.  Under  aesthetic 
appreciation  falls  (1)  the  study  of  the  psychology 
of  aesthetic  feeling  and  imagination,  and  (2)  an 
analysis  of  the  characteristics  or  essential  qualities 
of  the  aesthetic  as  contrasted  with  the  spheres  of 
logic,  ethics,  economics,  etc.  Under  "Study  of 
Art  Production"  fall  (1)  study  of  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  art,  (2)  the  end  of  essential  nature  of  art, 
and  (3)  the  relation  of  art  to  other  activities  and  to 
the  progress  of  civiUzation. 

Plato's  discussions  of  art  were  chiefly  from  a 
moral  and  educational  point  of  view,  and  beauty 
played  an  important  role  in  his  metaphysical 
system.  Aristotle's  Poetics  laid  the  found.ation 
of  philosophical  analysis  of  tragedy.  Kant's 
Critique  of  the  Aesthetic  Judgment  was  the  beginning 
of  a  treatment  of  art  problems  largely  metaphysical 
in  interest  and  method  which  was  continued  by 
Schelling,  Hegel,  Vischer  and  others.  The  more 
modern  treatment  makes  use  of  psychological,  and 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  experimental,  studies. 
Instead  of  setting  up  some  one  single  characteristic 
as  the  essential,  such  as  (a)  unity  and  variety,  or 
(6)  perfection  for  contemplation,  or  (c)  shareable- 
ness,  the  tendency  is  rather  to  recognize  the  com- 
plexity of  aesthetic  feehng  and  to  find  its  important 


characteristics  all  involved  in  varying  degree  in  a 
state  of  heightened  emotion  and  thrill  which  is  con- 
templative rather  than  practical,  and  which  regards 
its  object  as  quasi-personal.  This  latter  aspect  is 
what  is  called  Einfuhlung  or  empathy.  When  we 
say  "the  tower  is  strong,"  "the  mountain  rises  from 
the  plain,"  "the  tree  is  graceful,"  etc.,  we  illustrate 
this  attitude.  The  most  significant  recent  studies 
in  the  field  of  art  are  those  which  show  hkewise  its 
social  origins  and  significance.  Much  art  seems 
to  serve  enhancement  of  emotion  by  re-echoing 
the  individual's  own  feeling.        James  H.  Tufts 

AETHER  or  ETHER.— (1)  A  term  appearing  ia 
ancient  Greek  hterature  descriptive  of  cosmological 
theory,  being  a  fifth  element  in  addition  to  earth, 
air,  fire  and  water,  and  the  substance  of  which  stars 
are  composed.  In  Stoicism  (q.v.)  aether  was 
described  as  creative  fire  and  identified  with  God. 
(2)  In  modern  science  ether  is  a  hypothetical 
physical  medium  pervading  all  space  and  serving  to 
transmit  energy,  as,  e.g.,  light  waves. 

AETIOLOGY  or  ETIOLOGY.— The  science  of 
efficient  or  physical  causes,  in  contrast  with  explana- 
tions in  terms  of  purpose,  or  final  causes;  the 
explanation  of  the  phenomenal  universe  by  refer- 
ence to  a  First  Cause. 

AFFIRMATION.— The  solemn  declaration  made 
before  a  magistrate  or  other  official  by  persons 
having  conscientious  objections  to  taking  a  judicial 
oath,  such  as  Quakers.  It  is  accepted  as  a  legal 
equivalent  of  an  oath. 

AFRICA,  MISSIONS  TO.— Apart  from  its 
outer  edges  and  a  limited  penetration  of  its  southern 
portion  Africa  remained  essentially  both  a  "dark" 
and  "closed"  Continent  till  1875.  The  heroic 
but  fruitless  efforts  of  Raymond  Lull  to  win  the 
Moslems  of  Tunis  to  Christianity  ended  only  with 
his  death  in  1315.  The  15th.  and  16th.  centuries 
witnessed  the  ineffective  attempts  of  the  great 
Orders,  working  in  conjunction  with  the  Portuguese, 
to  win  the  Congo  region  for  Rome.  Ecclesiastical 
connivance  with  the  slave  traffic  served  as  a  serious 
handicap  to  these  efforts.  The  Dutch,  who  reached 
South  Africa  in  the  17th.  century  made  only  a 
feint  at  missions  among  the  natives.  The  late 
18th.  century  found  the  Moravians  in  South- West 
Africa.  The  actual  opening  of  the  African  Conti- 
nent to  the  impact  of  Christianity  and  western 
civiUzation  was  first  accompHshed  by  Livingstone 
(q.v.),  whose  epoch-making  explorations,  supple- 
mented by  those  of  Stanley,  penetrated  the  heart 
of  Africa,  blazing  the  trail  for  commerce  and  ulti- 
mately the  suppression  of  the  slave  traffic.  They 
also  served  as  a  powerful  inspiration  to  the  mis- 
sionary impulse  which  was  so  significant  a  factor 
in  Livingstone  himself.  They  led  also  to  the 
mobilization  of  forces  and  the  creation  of  new 
missionary  agencies  for  the  Christian  conquest  of 
Africa.  The  past  half  century  has  witnessed  the 
penetration  and  occupation  of  vast  areas  by  well 
organized  and  steadily  increasing  missionary 
organizations.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  modern 
missions  in  Africa  may  be  grouped  in  the  following 
geographical  areas. 

I.  Egypt  and  North  Africa. — In  Egypt  the 
most  significant  missionary  work  is  that  directed 
toward  the  revitahzation  of  the  ancient  Coptic 
Church.  The  United  Presbyterians  have  a  chain 
of  stations  extending  from  Alexandria  and  Cairo 
to  the  Nile  Cataracts.  Education  and  Colportage 
are  especially  emphasized.  The  most  difficult 
problem  in  Egypt,  the  Soudan,  and  the  French, 
ItaUan  and  Spanish  territories  of  North  Africa  is 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Africa,  Religions  of 


that  involved  in  the  vast  Moslem  population.  No 
significant  progress  has  as  yet  been  made  either  by 
Catholics  or  Protestants.  The  latter  have  found 
medical  missions  their  most  effective  instrument 
in  evangelization  (Cairo,  Khartum,  Morocco), 

II.  West  Africa. — Including  the  entire  coast 
and  hinterland  from  the  Senegal  River  to  German 
South-West  Africa.  This  territory  is  occupied 
by  France,  Britain,  Belgium,  and  Portugal.  In 
French  and  Portugese  possessions  Roman  Catholic 
Missions  predominate.  In  British  and  former 
German  possessions  (Togoland,  the  Cameroons) 
Protestant  work  is  in  the  ascendancy.  Among 
early  19th.  century  missions  in  this  region  may  be 
named  those  of  the  Wesleyan,  Church  Missionary, 
and  Basel  Societies.  The  missions  of  the  Basel 
Society  and  the  American  Board  (Angola)  empha- 
size education.  Christian  missions  in  this  region 
have  faced  peculiar  difficulties:  a  deadly  chmate, 
compelling  the  employment  of  native  leadership 
often  ill-prepared  for  this  responsibility;  the  Mos- 
lem menace,  today  constituting  the  Equator  as 
the  zone  of  conflict  between  Christianity  and  the 
Mohammedan  tide  sweeping  southward  from  the 
Soudan;  the  liquor  traffic;  the  intricate  complex 
of  tribes  (117  represented  in  Sierra  Leone  alone) 
with  the  linguistic  problems  herein  involved. 
Of  these  the  Moslem  problem  is  by  far  the  most 
serious.  As  nowhere  else  in  the  world,  Christianity 
and  Mohammedanism  here  meet  in  a  life  and  death 
struggle  for  the  conquest  of  a  Continent.  To 
meet  this  oncoming  tide  there  are  some  400  mis- 
sionaries representing  15  Protestant  societies 
in  the  Congo  region.  A  more  recent  problem  has 
grown  out  of  the  Great  War,  followed  as  it  was  by 
Germany's  loss  of  her  African  Colonies,  the  enforced 
retirement  of  most  of  her  missionaries,  and  the 
consequent  redistribution  of  their  work  among 
missionary  societies.  Catholic  and  Protestant, 
of  Britain  and  France.  Among  the  institutions 
engaged  in  raising  up  an  adequate  native  leadership 
should  be  mentioned  Fourah  Bay  College  (Sierra 
Leone).  In  Angola  and  elsewhere  both  Romanists 
and  Protestants  are  employing  industrial  missions 
as  a  means  of  propagandism. 

III.  South  Africa. — The  work  of  the  German 
missions  in  South- West  Africa  has  been  seriously 
curtailed  in  the  territorial  readjustments  following 
the  War.  In  South  Africa  proper  modern  missions 
began  a  century  ago  when  the  Anglicans  took  up 
the  work  which  has  given  them  a  position  of  leader- 
ship. This  has  been  ably  supplemented  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society  and  the  American 
Board  (Congregational),  Wesleyan,  Scottish,  Ger- 
man and  Scandinavian  Societies,  over  thirty 
organizations  in  all  now  laboring  in  this  field. 
The  names  of  Livingstone  and  Moffat  are  indelibly 
stamped  on  the  missionary  map  of  South  Africa. 
The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  has  made  a 
notable  contribution  to  the  problem  of  industrial 
education  at  Lovedale  (1824)  and  Blythswood 
(1877).  Lovedale,  the  largest  Christian  industrial 
center  in  South  Africa,  draws  its  students  from 
and  contributes  its  graduates  to,  every  part  of 
South  Africa.  The  latter  serve  as  ministers, 
catechists,  teachers,  tradesmen,  farmers,  etc. 
The  American  Board  labors  among  the  Zulus  in 
Natal  (1834).  Its  extensive  educational  work,  as 
illustrated  in  Amanzimtote  Seminary  and  In- 
dustrial School  is  aided  by  substantial  government 
grants. 

IV.  East  and  Central  Africa. — The  explora- 
tions of  Livingstone  (Nyasaland)  and  Stanley 
(Uganda)  led  to  the  opening  of  this  territory  to 
missionary  effort.  The  Universities'  Mission,  1861 
(Anglican),  was  organized  in  direct  response  to 
Livmgstone's  appeal.     This  was  followed  by  the 


United  Free,  and  the  Church  of  Scotland  Missions 
(1875-76),  the  Church  (1875),  and  London  (1877) 
Missionary  Societies.  The  Livingstonia  Institution 
(1875),  Nyasaland,  is  one  of  the  chief  centers  for 
industrial  training.  Of  all  the  missions  in  Africa 
none  is  more  romantic  in  inception,  or  phenomenal 
in  growth  than  that  in  Uganda.  Beginning  in  1875 
in  response  to  Stanley's  appeal,  it  has  enrolled 
some  of  the  greatest  names  in  the  missionary 
history  of  the  Dark  Continent  (Hannington, 
d.  1885;  Mackay,  d.  1890).  Its  missionary  force 
of  ca.  100  foreign,  and  ca.  3,000  native  workers 
conducts  a  press,  hospital,  dispensary,  and  schools 
enrolhng  over  90,000. 

UnUke  India  or  China,  with  their  ancient 
civilizations,  philosophies  and  religious,  Africa 
presents  the  problem  of  a  vast  congeries  of  tribes  on 
the  lowest  plane  of  culture,  and  bound  by  the  most 
degrading  superstition.  The  future  success  of 
missions  in  Africa  appears  to  lie  in  education, 
especially  industrial  education,  and  the  raising  up 
of  a  trained  Christian  leadership.  It  is  generally 
recognized  that  the  key  to  the  future  of  Christianity 
in  Africa  lies  in  the  conversion  of  certain  particu- 
larly virile  tribes  (Hausas  of  Nigeria;  Zulus  of 
Natal,  etc.),  and  the  winning  of  the  Continent 
through  them.  Missionary  statistics  (approximate) 
are  as  follows :  Societies  at  work,  119;  total  foreign 
staff,  ca.  5,365;  residence  stations  ca.  1,485; 
native  staff  ca.  29,700;  organized  churches  ca.  6,770; 
communicants  ca.  729,000;  baptized  non- 
communicants  (including  children)  503,000; 
others  under  Christian  instruction  543,000;  en- 
rolled in  Sunday  Schools  338,000;  enrolled  in 
schools  of  all  grades  725,000;  medical  missions  121. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

AFRICA,  RELIGIONS  OF.— The  native  reli- 
gions of  Africa  are  found  chiefly  among  the  Negroes 
of  the  West  Coast  and  the  Bantus  of  Central  and 
South  Africa.  North  and  North-east  Africa 
including  the  Sudan  have  largely  come  under  the 
influence  of  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity 
has  a  hold  in  the  two  extremes  of  the  continent. 
While  Mohammedanism  has  approached  at  some 
points  to  within  a  few  hundred  miles  of  the  equator 
and  while  Christian  missions  are  represented  in  all 
the  pohtical  divisions  of  the  land,  the  vast  bulk 
of  the  Negroes  and  Bantus  are  but  little  influenced 
as  yet  by  either  of  the  two  militant  rehgions.  Al- 
though the  Negroes,  the  Bantus,  the  Hottentots, 
and  the  Bushmen  comprise  a  vast  number  of  sepa- 
rate tribes  differing  in  language,  cultural  level,  and 
political  development,  yet  it  is  possible  to  make 
out  the  outstanding  characteristic  features  of  the 
religions  of  the  primitive  races  of  Africa  as  all  of 
these  may  be  justly  termed. 

The  religious  practices  are  best  understood 
after  a  consideration  of  the  main  features  of  their 
social  and  political  life,  and  cannot  really  be  com- 
prehended apart  from  it.  The  political  units  are 
for  the  most  part  small,  the  separate  tribes  are 
isolated,  there  is  a  total  lack  of  literacy,  with  the 
result  that  the  political  genius  of  the  able  leaders, 
which  cannot  be  denied,  has  insuperable  obstacles 
to  overcome.  Slavery  is  all  but  universal,  and 
polygamy  prevails  as  a  natural  consequence.  But 
no  ruler  is  absolute,  a  sort  of  feudaUsm  prevaihng 
even  where  superficially  the  despotic  chief  seems  to 
have  absolute  power.  Diplomatic  skill  is  highly 
esteemed  and  the  art  of  oratory  is  cultivated  and 
greatly  prized.  While  wandering  hunting  tribes 
are  not  wholly  wanting  and  some  pastoral  tribes 
are  found,  yet  for  the  most  part  they  are  settled 
and  agricultural.  All  are  warlike  and  the  slave 
raid  and  the  slave  trade  seem  to  be  both  indigenous. 
They  have  a  very  high  degree  of  control  over  their 
children  but  their  control  over  the  forces  of  natm'e 


Africa,  Religions  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


8 


is  very  slight.  Their  main  dependence  is  on 
magic,  and  superstition  takes  the  place  of  science. 

The  rehgion  of  such  a  people  impresses  the 
civihzed  observer  on  first  contact  mainly  by  its 
negations.  There  is  of  course  no  sacred  literature, 
there  are  no  temples  or  sacred  meeting  places, 
no  prayer  of  a  formal  sort,  no  worship  as  civilized 
people  define  worship,  no  priest  strictly  speaking, 
for  the  "witch-doctor"  is  very  different  from  a 
minister  of  religion,  and  finally  there  are  no  "idols." 

Nevertheless,  there  is  a  religion.  Or  rather 
the  different  peoples  have  each  a  group  of  practices 
and  observances  which  are  to  be  identified  with 
the  reUgious  life.  If  we  define  rehgion  as  that 
type  of  behavior  in  which  the  ideals  and  ultimate 
ends  of  the  group  are  defined  and  made  real,  then 
it  is  in  the  ceremonials  that  are  so  frequent  a  phase 
of  African  hfe  that  we  should  look  for  the  typical 
manifestations  of  religion.  _  These  ceremonials 
are  manifold.  They  concern  birth,  marriage,  death, 
puberty  and  initiation,  seedtime,  harvest,  rain- 
making  and  rain  prevention,  fishing,  hunting,  war 
and  peace,  crime  and  punishment,  and  in  fact  all 
the  crises  of  their  life. 

The  ceremonials  are  characteristically  social 
and  for  the  most  part  public  in  nature  and  appear 
in  many  forms.  Chief  among  these  is  the  cere- 
monial dance.  This  may  be  one  of  three  forms: 
a  preparatory  ceremonial,  in  which  case  it  has 
magical  influence  such  as  a  hunting  dance  which 
actually  makes  the  game  more  easily  caught; 
or  a  subsequent  celebration  in  which  the  natural 
emotions  following  a  successful  enterprise  are 
given  vent;  or  a  third  stage  in  which  the  dances 
become  mere  celebrations  and  entertainment. 
The  religious  ceremony  becomes  the  festival.  Illus- 
trations of  this  tendency  may  be  found  in  the  observ- 
ance in  America  of  Hallowe'en — no  longer  a  serious 
reUgious  festival  but  in  some  respects  like  a  carnival. 

It  is  not  easy  to  make  a  clear  distinction  between 
magic  and  religion  and  the  question  is  one  on  which 
the  experts  in  the  field  are  at  present  not  in  agree- 
ment. But  if  we  try  to  think  of  the  preparatory 
ceremony  as  a  practical  effort  to  secure  certain 
results,  and  then  of  the  subsequent  ceremony  (such 
as  the  dance  of  victory)  as  a  spontaneous  expression, 
it  is  possible  to  isolate  a  state  of  feeling  and  a  type 
of  behavior  in  which  the  ideal  interests  of  the  tribe 
will  receive  definition  and  emotional  emphasis  in 
the  exalted  moments  of  such  a  social  celebration. 

Other  types  of  ceremonial  besides  the  dances 
are  to  be  found  in  the  initiation  of  adolescent 
boys  into  the  tribe  and  corresponding  formaUties 
connected  with  the  advent  of  puberty  in  girls. 
It  is  too  much  perhaps  to  identify  this  with  the 
conversion  experience  of  some  Protestant  churches 
or  the  confirmation  ceremony,  but  the  seriousness 
with  which  all  parties  to  the  transaction  regard 
the  whole  procedure  and  the  high  emotional  tone 
which  characterizes  the  community  makes  it 
necessary  to  include  this  also  as  religious.  Of  the 
same  general  nature  are  the  ceremonies  surrounding 
the  inauguration  of  a  chief  with  its  precautions 
and  solemnity. 

Funeral  customs  vary  greatly.  The  amount  of 
attention  depends  on  the  prominence  of  the 
deceased,  slaves  and  strangers  being  often  left 
unburied,  while  chiefs  and  their  relatives  receive 
the  greatest  care.  Doubtless  one  motive  is  that  of 
ostentation  and  pride;  for  a  costly  funeral  testifies 
not  only  to  the  affection  for  the  deceased  but  also 
to  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  survivors.  Mackay 
records  how  he  made  an  enormous  coffin  for  the 
mother  of  Mutesa  into  whose  grave  there  went 
trade  cloth  to  the  value  of  $75,000.  But  there 
is  also  the  feehng  of  fear  and  the  desire  for  caution 
and  security  which  secures  the  friendliness  of  the 


spirit  of  the  departed.     This  also  can  be  called 
rehgious. 

The  question  of  the  ordeal  is  not  so  easy.  It 
is  universally  practiced  but  usually  as  an  integral 
part  of  a  formal  judicial  procedure.  Africans  are 
very  fond  of  court  trials  and  among  them  judicial 
procedure  has  developed  farther  than  among  any 
other  primitive  people.  Almost  everywhere  there 
is  an  orderly  procedure  before  constituted  tribunals. 
Within  this  procedure  the  ordeal  is  often  a  merely 
technical  device,  analogous  to  the  "third  degree 
of  the  modern  police. 

Totemism,  which  characterizes  Australian  and 
North  American  Indian  life,  is  difficult  to  Irace  in 
the  African  culture.  There  are,  indeed,  some  facts 
which  seem  to  indicate  that  they  have  passed 
through  some  form  of  totemic  organization,  but,  as 
now  existing,  the  institution  of  totemism  plays  no 
important  part  either  in  the  reUgious  or  social  Ufe. 

Quite  otherwise  is  it  with  tabu.  Tabu  in  the 
sense  of  being  forbidden,  unclean,  harmful,  is 
encountered  on  every  hand.  There  is  also  the 
conception  of  tabu  as  belonging  to  a  specific  owner, 
such  as  the  chief,  and  the  wizard.  Each  tribe  has 
certain  food  animals  that  are  tabu,  and  within  the 
tribe  there  will  be  tabus  for  the  men,  others  for  the 
women,  while  special  families  will  have  family 
tabus  of  diet,  and  individuals  have  Ufe-long  injunc- 
tions concerning  food,  the  eating  of  which  wiU  be 
very  harmful  or  perhaps  fatal.  There  are  also 
temporary  tabus  of  food,  tabud  clothing,  tabud 
places,  articles,  and  seasons,  as  well  as  persons, 
rulers,  and  relations.  The  social  attitudes  toward 
the  tabus  vary  greatly  but  in  some  instances  the 
tabu  is  treated  with  the  greatest  reverence  and 
awe.  It  is  not  easy  to  make  out  any  moral  quality 
and  there  is  no  connection  between  the  tabu  and 
the  sacred  or  morally  holy  such  as  can  be  made  out 
in  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  reUgions.  The  mission- 
aries usually  find  the  word  for  tabu  unsuitable  for 
any  reUgious  ideas  they  wish  to  impart  to  their 
converts. 

Another  universal  phenomenon  is  the  fetish  or 
charm.  It  appears  both  as  an  amulet  to  keep  off 
evil  and  as  a  taUsman  to  bring  desirable  results. 
Here  again  the  variation  is  great.  Some  fetishes 
are  new,  private,  and  untried  with  little  to  make 
them  prized,  others  are  very  old,  very  powerful, 
and  greatly  esteemed  or  feared  or  both.  In  some 
parts  of  the  continent  the  fetish  is  in  the  form  of 
a  human  being  but  this  is  not  essential  and  is  the- 
exception.  It  was  this  fact  that  led  early  writers 
to  speak  of  the  fetishes  as  gods  or  idols  and  to  speak 
of  fetishism  as  if  it  were  a  system  or  a  reUgion. 
It  is  better  to  regard  the  fetish  as  one  of  the  many 
devices  for  controlUng  the  environment  and  varying 
all  the  way  from  trivially  magical  to  profoundly 
emotional  and  socially  important  devices. 

Thus  far  nothing  has  been  said  of  the  beliefs  of 
the  Africans.  There  is  the  very  greatest  confusion 
in  the  writings  of  the  earlier  investigators  and  the 
reason  is  now  plain.  T|ie  primitive  man  has  no 
religious  doctrines  which  are  in  any  sense  definite 
and  systematic.  There  are  no  theologies  because 
there  are  no  sects,  no  parties,  no  debates  or  argu- 
ments about  such  conceptions.  Their  cosmologies 
are  still  in  the  stage  of  folk-lore  and  folk-lore  is  stiU 
art  which  each  narrator  feels  free  to  embelUsh. 
There  is  a  universal  belief  in  ghosts,  and  a  sort  of 
primitive  mysticism  is  imiversal.  But  when  one 
attempts  to  get  specific  names  for  God  and  the 
devil,  or  definite  doctrines  about  the  fate  of  the  good 
men  and  the  bad  in  the  next  world,  it  is  soon  realized 
that  the  search  is  vain. 

One  result  of  this  situation  is  that  the  mission- 
aries of  the  developed  religions,  whether  Mohana- 
medan  or  Christian,  never  encounter  any  systematic 


9 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Agnosticism 


opposition.  Primitive  religions  represent  crude  and 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  meet  the  ills  of  life. 
Their  adherents  are  quick  to  accept  a  better  way. 

Ellsworth  Faris 

AGAPE. — The  name  of  a  social  reUgious  meal 
widely  and  variously  celebrated  in  the  early  church. 
Its  association  with  the  Lord's  Supper  was  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  First  Supper  had  been 
connected  with  a  feast.  This  meal  seems  to  have 
originated  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  2:42,  46),  as  an 
expression  of  Christian  brotherliness.  It  was 
easily  transferred  to  the  Gentile  churches  because 
similar  meals  were  common  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  world. 

If  it  is  the  Agape  which  is  mentioned  in  I  Cor. 
11:20-34,  we  should  conclude  that  each  person 
brought  food  as  he  was  able;  but  of  the  custom  on 
this  point  in  subsequent  times  we  have  no  certain 
knowledge.  It  appsars  from  some  early  writers 
(e.g.,  Tertullian  and  the  Apostohc  Constitutions) 
that,  at  the  Agape,  tha  needy  were  remembered  in 
practical  ways. 

Among  Gentile  converts  the  Agape  took  on  a 
more  or  less  pronounced  pagan  character.  This 
fact  and  the  church's  supreme  regard  for  the 
Eucharist  led,  perhaps  as  early  as  Justin  Martyr, 
first,  to  the  separation  of  the  Agape  from  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  then  to  its 
gradual  suppression.  The  Synod  of  Laodicea 
(ca.  363)  forbade  holding  the  Agape  in  churches, 
and  the  Council  of  Carthage  (419)  declared  that, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  people  were  to  be  kept  from 
these  feasts.  But  here  and  there  the  custom  still 
persisted  for  centuries.    See  also  Eucharist. 

George  Holley  Gilbert 

AGAPETI  and  AGAPETAE.— Monks  and  nuns 
of  the  early  Middle  Ages  who  while  professing 
celibacy  dwelt  together  in  holy  love.  The  practise 
was  suppressed  by  the  Lateran  Council,  1139. 

AGAPETUS.— The  name  of  two  popes. 

Agapelus  I.,  535-536;  chiefly  noted  for  his 
rigorous  defence  of  orthodoxy;  canonized  by  the 
church,  his  festival  occurring  September  20. 

Agapelus  II.,  946-955. 

AGATHA,  ST.— Virgin  and  martyr  listed  in 
the  Western  church  calendar,  who  lived  in  Sicily 
in  the  3rd.  century.  Patron  saint  of  Catania, 
Sicily. 

AGATHO.— Pope,  678-681,  active  in  the 
Monothelite  controversy. 

AGE. — One  of  the  elemental  divisions  into  which 
time  was  divided  by  the  Jews. 

According  to  Jewish  speculation,  subsequently 
carried  over  into  Christianity,  there  were  two  Ages 
or  Aeons,  the  Present  and  the  Coming.  Between 
the  two  were  the  Days  of  the  Messiah. 

The  Present  Age  was  regarded  as  under  the 
control  of  its  prince,  Satan,  and  abounded  in  evils 
inflicted  on  the  servants  of  God,  who  were  identified 
with  the  Jews. 

In  the  Coming  Age  the  sovereign  authority 
of  God  would  be  established;  evil  doers,  particularly 
the  oppressors  of  the  Jewish  people,  would  be 
punished  and  the  people  of  God  be  given  the 
blessings  attendant  upon  righteousness  and  loyalty 
to  Yahweh. 

According  to  the  eschatological  conception  (see 
Eschatology)  of  the  time,  the  Coming  Age  would 
be  introduced  miraculously.  The  dead  (at  least 
the  righteous)  would  be  raised  from  Sheol  and  with 
those  who  were  alive  at  its  coming  share  in  the 
judgments  and  blessings  accorded  at  the  great 
assize  with  which  the  Coming  Age  was  to  be  estab- 


lished. After  the  Judgment  Day  the  final  or 
Age-status  of  suffering  for  the  evil  and  happiness 
for  the  good  would  begin. 

The  word  is  sometimes  used  in  the  plural,  as  the 
Ages  of  Ages,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  endless 
duration  of  time.  Shailer     Mathews 

AGE,  CANONICAL.— The  age  which  has  been 
fixed  by  the  canons  or  decisions  of  the  church  for 
the  ordination  of  an  official  or  for  the  execution  of 
any  specific  act.  The  Synod  of  Neocaesarea  (of 
314  or  325)  first  fixed  the  canonical  age  for  ordina- 
tion of  a  priest  at  30,  corresponding  to  Jesus' 
entry  upon  his  pubhc  ministry.  The  final  decisions 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  were  those  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1563)  which  fixed  the  canonical 
age  for  ordination  of  a  priest  at  24,  a  deacon  at  23, 
a  subdeacon  at  22,  and  a  bishop  at  30.  The  canoni- 
cal age  of  discretion  for  children  is  7  when  they 
come  under  the  discipline  of  the  church.  The 
canonical  age  for  marriage  is  14  in  boys  and  12  in 
girls,  with  certain  exceptions.  The  age  for  the 
observance  of  fasts  is  21-60. 

AGE  OF  CONSENT.— The  age  at  which 
marriage  may  be  contracted  by  common  law.  If  a 
girl  is  below  that  age,  a  man  may  be  prosecuted 
for  rape,  even  though  she  consents  to  intercourse. 
The  age  varies  in  different  countries.  In  Europe 
it  ranges  from  12  to  18  for  females.  The  American 
states  formerly  fixed  the  age  at  12  years  for  girls, 
but  moral  education  has  stimulated  pubUc  opinion 
to  demand  greater  legal  protection,  and  the  age  of 
consent  has  been  raised  in  a  majority  of  cases  to  16 
or  18  years  (in  Wyoming,  21).      Henry  K.  Rowe 

AGNES,  SAINT.— A  Christian  girl  who  suffered 
martyrdom  in  the  persecutions  of  Diocletian,  in  304; 
venerated  as  a  saint  by  the  Latin  church  on  Janu- 
ary 21  and  28,  and  by  the  Greek  church  on  January 
14,  21,  and  July  5.     Patron  saint  of  young  maidens. 

AGNI. — The  fire-god  of  Vedi'c  reUgion.  He  is 
one  of  the  three  most  important  gods  of  the  priestly 
reUgion  because  of  his  essential  relation  to  the 
magical  ritual  of  sacrifice. 

AGNOETAE.— (1)  A  4th.  century  sect  which 
limited  the  omniscience  of  God  to  present  time. 
(2)  A  6th.  century  sect  which  denied  the  omnis- 
cience of  Jesus. 

AGNOSTICISM.— A  philosophical  attitude 
asserting  the  impossibiUty  of  knowledge  beyond 
the  limits  of  verifiable  experience,  and  usually 
expressing  disapproval  of  any  attempts  to  make 
afl&rmations  as  to  reaUty  beyond  these  limits. 

In  science  or  philosophy  agnosticism  means  the 
refusal  to  discuss  metaphysical  substances  or 
causes,  thus  limiting  investigation  to  the  realm  of 
verifiable  experience.  Usually  agnosticism  here 
involves  the  restriction  of  inquiry  to  the  observable 
sequences  of  events,  either  in  the  physical  world  or 
in  the  processes  of  consciousness,  without  entering 
into  speculation  concerning  the  hidden  causes  lying 
back  of  these  processes.;'  Rehgiousty,  agnosticism 
declares  that  the  supersensible  objects  of  faith, 
such  as  God,  incorporeal  spirits,  or  fife  after  death, 
cannot  be  known  td^exist. 

Huxley  brought  the  word  into  currency  to  desig- 
nate an  attitude  of  ignorance  as  morally  preferable 
to  either  reUgious  dogmatism  or  aggressive  material- 
ism in  questions  as  to  the  nature  of  transcendent 
reality.  Herbert  Spencer's  definition  of  the  ultimate 
reality  as  the  Unknowable  Energy  from  which  all 
things  proceed,  involves  a  degree  of  agnosticism; 
but  Spencer  contended  that  men  may  assume  a 


Agnus  Dei 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


10 


positive  religious  attitude  toward  this  Unknowable 
in  the  form  of  cosmic  mysticism.  The  Ritschlian 
theology,  following  Kant,  is  to  a  certain  extent 
agnostic,  holding  that  the  objects  of  rehgious  belief 
are  not  scientifically  demonstrable,  faith  alone 
giving  practical  assurance  of  their  reality. 

Because  of  the  veto  placed  on  metaphysical 
discussion,  agnosticism  tends  to  give  the  right 
of  way  to  unquestionable  physical  facts,  and 
easily  passes  over  into  avowed  skepticism  so  far  as 
religion  is  concerned.  Romanes,  in  his  Thoughts 
on  Religion,  contended  that  an  impartial  agnosti- 
cism would  show  that  religious  beliefs  are  preferable 
to  any  non-religious  alternatives.  Recent  psycho- 
logical and  epistemological  investigations  indicate 
that  our  relation  to  environment  is  so  complex 
that  no  sharp  dividing  Une  can  be  drawn  between 
knowledge  in  the  strict  sense  and  vaguer  sensory 
apprehensions  of  reality.  A  certain  degree  of 
agnosticism  therefore  is  not  incompatible  with  a 
positive  interpretation  of  religious  experience. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

AGNUS  DEI.— (1)  Lat.,  "the  Lamb  of  God,"  a 
name  applied  to  Jesus.  (2)  The  figure  of  a  lamb 
symboUzing  Jesus,  usually  bearing  a  banner  and  a 
cross.  (3)  In  the  Roman  Catholic  church  a  wax 
cake  or  medallion  bearing  the  impression  of  the 
emblem  and  blessed  by  the  pope.  (4)  In  the  Greek 
church  a  cloth  marked  with  this  figure,  used  to  cover 
the  elements  of  the  Eucharist.  (5)  A  section  of  the 
mass,  and  of  the  Gloria  beginning  with  these  words. 

AGRAPHA. — Sayings  attributed  to  Jesus  Christ 
which  are  not  to  be  found  in  our  canonical  literature, 
but  were  carried  along  by  oral  tradition  until 
finally  embodied  in  some  writing. 

If  misquotations  or  variations  of  canonical 
utterances  of  Jesus  are  not  counted,  these  sayings 
are  not  numerous  and,  with  the  exception  of  possibly 
a  dozen  cases,  of  no  particular  importance.  Possibly 
the  most  interesting  are: 

1.  "On  the  sapie  day,  having  seen  one  working 
on  the  Sabbath,  he  said  to  him,  'O  man,  if  indeed 
thou  knovvest  what  thou  doest,  thou  art  blessed; 
but  if  thou  knowest  not,  thou  are  accursed  and  a 
trangressor  of  the  law.'" 

2.  "Jesus  said  to  his  disciples,  'Ask  great  things, 
and  the  small  shall  be  added  unto  you;  and  ask 
heavenly  things  and  the  earthly  shall  be  added 
unto  you.'  " 

3.  "Rightly,  therefore,  the  Scripture  in  its 
desire  to  make  us  such  dialecticians,  exhorts  us: 
'Be  ye  skilful  money-changers,'  rejecting  some 
things,  but  retaining  what  is  good." 

Shailer  Mathews 
AGRICOLA,  JOHANN.— German  theologian, 
1494-1566;  noted  chiefly  as  the  originator  of  the 
antinomian  controversy  among  the  German  Re- 
formers which  brought  him  into  conflict  with 
Melanchthon  and  later  with  Luther.  See  Anti- 
nomianism. 

AGRICULTURE,  RITES  OF.— In  the  narrow 
sense  agricultural  rites  deal  with  the  technique  of 

Ereparing  the  soil,  sowing,  protecting  the  crop  and 
arvest.  The  principle  underlying  the  ceremonies 
is  that  of  the  use  of  a  magical  power  controlled  by 
the  group  to  overcome  influences  hostile  to  the 
crops.  Typical  examples  only  may  be  given  here. 
The  ground  is  prepared  by  dabces  around  the 
borders,  by  sprinkling  with  human  blood,  by 
burning  a  human  victim  whose  ashes  are  sprinkled 
on  the  field  (America),  by  the  sacrifice  of  cows  to 
Earth  and  to  Ceres,  by  firebrands  sent  across  the 
fields  tied  to  the  tails  of  foxes  (Roman).  The 
first  furrow  is  often  turned  by  the  chief  or  king 
to   open   the   season   auspiciously    (Siam,    China). 


At  the  time  of  sowing,  the  seed  is  stimulated  by 
phallic  processions,  by  the  use  of  obscene  language 
(India,  Greece),  by  cursing  (Greece),  by  incantation 
formulae  which  command  the  gods  of  food  (Japan), 
by  mixing  it  with  material  of  great  potency  such 
as  the  seed  of  the  last  sheaf  of  the  previous  harvest, 
or  human  blood,  or  remnants  of  pigs  devoured  by 
snakes  as  in  the  Greek  Thesmophoria  (q.v.).  The 
growing  crops  are  protected  by  recitation  of  magical 
rituals  (Japan),  processions  around  the  boundary 
and  sacrifices  (Roman),  by  carrying  the  image  of  the 
deity  around  the  fields  (Germany,  France,  Peru). 
There  are  many  magical  arts  for  securing  rain  and 
for  making  the  stalks  grow  long.  The  great  time  of 
the  year  is  the  harvest.  All  over  the  world  the 
first-fruits  call  for  special  ceremonies.  The  first 
grain  is  cut  with  great  caution,  often  with  lamenta- 
tion or  by  someone  who  possesses  special  powers,  a 
Eriest  or  magician.  The  crop  is  made  safe  to  eat 
y  offering  the  first  fruits  to  the  god,  to  the  king, 
chief  or  priests,  or  by  a  sacred  meal  shared  in  com- 
mon. The  last  sheaf  of  the  year  embodies  the  corn- 
spirit.  It  is  called  by  such  names  as  "cornmother," 
"the  maiden,"  "the  old  woman,"  and  becomes  the 
center  of  dancing  and  feasting.  There  is  evidence 
that  at  this  time  human  victims  were  killed,  their 
blood  mingled  with  the  first  cakes  baked  from  the 
new  corn  and  eaten  in  a  sacred  meal  (S.  America). 
At  this  point  the  harvest  festival  merges  in  the 
great  cult  of  vegetation  at  the  autumnal  equinox 
when  the  waning  life  of  the  year  is  stimulated  by 
special  rites  from  which  arise  the  great  fertihty 
goddesses  (see  Mother-Goddesses)  and  the 
Mysteries  (q.v.). 

The  most  elaborate  development  of  the  agri- 
cultural rites  is  seen  in  the  state  rehgion  of  China 
where  the  whole  splendor  of  the  state  ritual  is  con- 
centrated in  spring,  at  seed-time,  in  times  of  drought, 
and  especially  in  the  autumn  upon  the  one  object 
of  securing  prosperity  by  control  of  the  powers  of 
heaven,  air,  and  earth.        A.  Eustace  Haydon 

AHIMSA. — A  principle  common  to  many  of  the 
ascetic  sects  of  India  which  forbids  injury  to  any 
form  of  sentient  life;  sometimes,  as  with  the  Jains, 
carried  to  the  extreme  of  tolerating  vermin. 

AHIQAR,  THE  STORY  OF.— A  story  of  the 
sage  Ahiqar,  found  in  some  versions  of  the  Thousand 
and  One  Nights,  derived  from  Syrian  Christian  litera- 
ture, and  probably  a  part  of  the  lost  literature  of 
the  Aramaeans  of  the  pre-Christian  era.  Several 
Aramaean  deities  are  mentioned  in  it. 

AHMADIYA. — The  name  of  a  modern  reform 
movement  among  the  Moslems  of  India  begun  in 
1891  by  Ghulam  Ahmad  who  claimed  to  be  the 
expected  Madhi  of  Islam,  the  returning  Spirit  of 
Christ,  the  Messiah  of  the  Jews  and  an  avatar 
of  Krishna.  The  movement  is  chiefly  a  rehgious 
protest  against  Moslem  formalism.  There  are 
70,000  members  at  the  present  time. 

AHRIMAN. — The  personified  principle  of  evil 
in  the  Zoroastrian  religion;  the  source  of  sin, 
disease,  disorder,  and  death.  He  is  a  creative 
power  coeval  with  the  good  God,  Ormazd,  but  is 
doomed  to  defeat  and  annihilation  at  the  end  of 
the  world. 

AHURA  MAZDA.— See  Ormazd. 

AINUS,  RELIGION  OF.— The  survivors  of  this 
dwindling  race  five  in  Siberia,  Saghalin  and  the 
northern  islands  of  Japan.  Their  religion  is  an 
interesting  example  of  the  manner  in  which  primitive 
people  build  up  social  relationships  with  the  environ- 


11 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Albert  of  Brandenberg 


ing  nature  forces  affecting  their  life.  Their  customs 
consist  of  methods  of  control  of  the  favorable  and 
dangerous  things  in  nature — sun,  fire,  vegetation, 
storms,  trees,  sea,  mountains,  swamps,  animals, 
diseases,  and  the  unknown  potencies  of  the  outer 
world.  The  most  central  ceremonies  are  those 
which  deal  with  food  in  the  forms  of  vegetation  and 
of  the  eating  of  the  bear.  They  secure  protection 
from  evil  forces  such  as  diseases  and  the  danger 
of  the  forsst  and  swamp  by  means  of  magic  spells, 
charms,  amulets  and  fetish-sticks.  No  clear  ideas 
have  developed  of  the  soul,  of  after-life,  of  gods  or  of 
spirits.  The  dead  go  underground;  the  religious 
objects  are  the  potencies  in  grain,  in  fire,  in  the  bear; 
the  nearest  approach  to  spirit  is  the  concept  of  the 
dangerous  presence  in  the  disease-giving  swamp. 
There  is  nothing  corresponding  to  the  organization, 
temples  or  priesthood  of  developed  religion. 

AIR  GODS. — This  name  refers  strictly  to  that 
class  of  supernatural  beings  belonging  to  atmos- 
pheric and  meteorological  phenomena  as  differ- 
entiated both  from  the  gods  of  the  sky  and  from 
spirits,  demons  and  ghosts  dwelUng  in  the  air  or 
clouds.  The  powers  of  the  air  which  have  shown 
themselves  sufficiently  important  in  the  hfe  of  early 
man  to  attain  divine  rank  are  rain,  winds,  storm, 
thunder  and  lightning.  To  these  should  be  added 
the  gods  of  the  four  quarters  symbohzed  in  ancient 
America  by  the  cross.  Ancient  Egypt  alone  has  a 
god  of  the  air,  Shu.  The  gift  of  rain  is  often  a 
function  of  the  sky  gods  but  where  agriculture  is 
important  a  special  rain  god  usually  develops  as  in 
Vedic  India  (Parjana,  Indra),  and  in  China  (Master 
of  Rain).  Wind  gods  are  very  prominent  in  the 
rehgions  of  America.  They  are  usually  associated 
with  the  cardinal  points  of  the  sky  and  function  as 
fertiUty  and  creative  powers.  In  India  the  good 
wind  gods  are  Vata  and  Vayu  while  the  destructive 
and  troublesome  winds  are  represented  in  Rudra 
and  the  Maruts.  Greece  and  Rome  picture 
anthropomorphic  gods  of  the  wind,  e.g.,  Boreas, 
the  north  wind.  An  earlier  name  for  the  winds  of 
Greece,  however,  is  the  "snatchers"  or  Harpies 
which  comes  to  refer  largely  to  the  pestilential  and 
maleficent  winds.  China  has  her  Prince  of  the 
Wind.  A  combination  of  the  rain,  wind,  thunder 
and  lightning  is  seen  in  the  various  storm  gods — 
Indra,  the  slayer  of  the  drought-demon,  Vritra 
(India),  Adad,  Rammon  (Semitic),  Woden,  leader 
of  the  Wild  Hunt  of  Souls  and  Thor  (Teutonic), 
Suso-no-wo,  who  disputes  the  region  of  the  sky 
with  his  sister  the  sun-goddess  (Japan).  The 
god  is  sometimes  called  simply  the  Thunderer  as  in 
China,  or  the  lightning  stands  out  as  an  individual 
thing  as  in  the  Dragon-Sword  of  Shinto.  The  early 
descriptions  of  Yahweh,  as  of  the  Babylonian  Enhl, 
suggest  a  connection  with  storm,  wind  and  clouds. 

It  should  be  said,  in  regard  to  these  gods  of  the 
air,  that  they  rarely  remain  separated  but  either 
ascend  to  heaven  and  mingle  their  functions  with 
those  of  the  sky-gods  or  descend  to  earth  and 
take  on  the  characteristics  of  fertility  powers  or 
war  gods.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

AjrVlKAS. — An  ascetic  community  of  India 
led  at  the  close  of  the  6th.  century  b.c.  by  Gosala,  a 
contemporary  of  the  founders  of  the  Buddhist  and 
Jain  communities.  In  cosmogony  and  psychology 
their  behef  was  practically  identical  with  that  of 
the  Jains  (q.v).  Their  chief  distinctive  beUefs 
were  (1)  a  thorough-going  determinism;  (2)  the 
impossibility  of  free-will  or  responsibility  since 
man's  life  is  fixed  by  fate,  by  his  own  inherited 
nature,  and  by  his  environment;  (3)  the  universal 
salvation  of  all  souls  after  the  lapse  of  vast  ages 
of  transmigration. 


AKBAR. — Emperor  of  all  North  India  in  the 
second  half  of  the  16th.  century  a.d.  His  real 
greatness  lay  in  his  ability  as  an  administrator  and 
in  his  powers  of  concihation.  He  is  best  known  for 
his  easy  tolerance  of  all  religious  faiths  and  for 
his  attempt  to  estabhsh  a  religion  for  his  empire  by 
selection  from  several  faiths,  especially  from  Islam 
and  Parsism.  Representatives  of  all  the  great 
rehgions,  free-thinkers  and  atheist?  were  welcomed 
to  present  their  views  at  his  coai't.  He  was  of 
sufficiently  calm  vision  to  see  that  the  good  life 
for  man  and  the  security  of  the  empire  did  not 
depend  upon  the  outcome  of  the  battle  of  creeds. 
He  was  not  a  religious  enthusiast  or  a  skeptic; 
it  may  fairly  be  said  that  his  faith  centered  in  a 
belief  in  one  God  whose  agent  he  was  for  the 
administration  of  the  empire. 

AKIBA  BEN  JOSEPH.— Jewish  rabbi  and 
practical  philosopher,  50-132(-5).  He  was  strongly 
opposed  to  the  Christian  schism,  to  gnosticism  and 
to  mysticism.  In  the  period  following  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  he  helped  to  modify  Jewish 
thought  by  his  Uteralistic  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  by  his  systematization^  of  Pharisaic 
tradition.  One  of  the  greatest  of  Jewish  teachers,  he 
supported  the  Jewish  Messiah  Bar  Kokhbar  (q.v.) 
and  suffered  martyrdom  before  the  revolt  headed 
by  the  latter  was  crushed  by  the  Romans. 

ALASKA,  RELIGIONS  OF  AND  MISSIONS 
TO.— 

1.  Religions,  see  Eskimos,  North  American 
Indians. 

2.  Missions. — Immediately  after  Russian  occu- 
pation of  Alaska,  the  Russian  Orthodox  church 
began  its  mission.  In  1915  there  were  in  the 
Diocese  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  North  America 
10,000  Indians,  Aleutians,  _  Creoles  and  Eskimos. 
Moravian  work  was  begun  in  1855  and  sixty  years 
later  this  church  counted  1,400  baptized  Indians. 
Among  the  most  prosp)erous  of  the  Protestant 
missions  is  that  of  the  Presbyterian  church,  begun 
in  1877,  which  in  1915  had  eight  stations  serving 
four  thousand  Christians.  The  Presbyterian  Board 
in  1920  took  over  the  Congregational  work  at 
Wales,  which  since  1890  had  been  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  American  Missionary^  Association. 
The  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  1915  had 
twenty  churches  with  twelve  clergymen  and  six 
lay  readers.  The  Methodists  had  but  four  churches 
in  1919,  the  number  of  adherents  being  but  98. 
This  service  was  almost  entirely  to  the  white  popula- 
tion. The  Roman  Catholics  have  16  churches  with 
resident  priests,  20  mission  chapels  and  several 
schools.  In  addition  to  strictly  religious  work,  most 
of  the  denominations  carry  on  educational  activities 
which  include  industrial  training.  Missionaries 
have  found  that  there  is  better  response  from  the 
natives  than  from  the  white  population  which  is 
temporary  and  is  interested  chiefly  in  getting 
gold.  Almost  all  of  the  natives  (1920)  are  adher- 
ents of  some  sect,  although  this  adherence  is  often 
nominal.  Harry  Thomas  Stock 

ALB. — (1)  A  linen  robe,  reaching  to  the  feet  and 
having  closely  fitting  sleeves,  worn  by  Roman 
Catholic  priests  when  celebrating  mass.  (2)  A  robe 
worn  by  the  newly  baptized  in  the  early  church. 

ALBERT  V.  OF  BAVARIA.— Duke  of  Bavaria, 
1528-1579,  a  vigorous  and  influential  leader  of  the 
Counter-Reformation. 

ALBERT  OF  BRANDENBERG.— Elector  of 
Mainz  and  cardinal  of  the  Roman  CathoUc  church, 
1490-1545;  at  first  tolerant  toward  the  Reformers, 


Albert  of  Prussia 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


12 


but  later  a  supporter  of  the  Catholic  reaction  in 
Germany. 

ALBERT  OF  PRUSSIA.— First  duke  of  Prussia, 
1490-1568;  a  friend  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
and  a  supporter  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany; 
foimder  of  the  Prussian  national  church. 

ALBERTU«  MAGNUS  (ca.  1193-1280).— 
Schoolman  and  iieologian,  a  leader  in  the  Domini- 
can order  in  Germany,  especially  in  Cologne;  a 
man  of  wide  learning  in  science,  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  one  of  the  teachers  of  Thomas 
Aquinas.  His  significance  was  in  the  substitution 
of  Aristotelian  for  Platonic  logic  and  metaphysics. 
His  assertion  of  a  higher  sphere  of  authority  for 
revelation  beyond  the  limits  of  reason  was  the 
beginning  of  the  long  conflict  between  naturalism 
and  supernaturalism,  science  and  theology. 

ALBIGENSES.— Name  derived  from  Albi 
(S.  France) ;  called  also  New  Manichaeans,  Cathari. 
Among  Christians  they  were  the  expression  of  the 
oriental,  Manichaean,  Gnostic  and  Arian  influ- 
ences which  poured  over  Italy  and  France  in  the 
earUer  Christian  centuries  and  held  their  ground 
against  Catholicism.  They  were  Manichaean 
(q.v.)  in  theology;  rejected  the  Old  Testament 
as  the  work  of  an  evil  deity;  substituted  the 
consolamentum  (an  elaborate  ceremony  of  laying 
on  of  hands  and  fasting)  for  baptism;  forbade 
marriage,  ownership  of  property,  and  eating  of 
meat;  taught  transmigration  of  souls  of  the  un- 
perfected,  the  saints  going  at  once  to  a  state  of 
eternal  happiness.  They  were  scattered  and  almost 
exterminated  by  the  Crusades  and  Inquisition. 

ALEXANDER.— The  name  of  eight  popes. 

Alexander  I. — -Bishop  of  Rome  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  2nd.  century. 

Alexander  //.—Pope,  1061-1073. 

Alexander  III. — Pope,  1159-1181,  one  of  the 
greatest  popes;  was  successful  in  his  pohtical 
contests  with  Frederick  Barbarossa  of  Germany 
and  Henry  II.  of  England. 

Alexander  IV.— Pope,  1254-1261.  Italy  suf- 
fered much  during  his  reign  by  the  conflict  between 
the  GhibelUnes  and  the  Guelphs,  the  pope  siding 
with  the  latter. 

Alexander  V. — Pope,  1409-1410.  His  claim 
was  disputed  by  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory  XII., 
the  latter  of  whom  is  frequently  regarded  as  the 
rightful  pope. 

Alexander  VI. — Pope,  1492-1503,  a  man  of 
unusual  talents,  but  charged  with  immoral  char- 
acter, and  the  ambition  to  elevate  his  alleged 
children,  particularly  Caesar  and  Lucretia  Borgia, 
to  positions  of  wealth  and  influence. 

Alexander  VII. — Pope,  1655-1667,  a  friend  of 
the  Jesuits  and  an  ally  of  Spain  on  whom  he  was 
partly  dependent. 

Alexander  VIII. — Pope,  1689-1691,  a  supporter 
of  learning  and  of  civic  improvements  in  Rome,  and 
a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  movement  for  the 
greater  freedom  of  the  church  in  France  known  as 
GaUicanism  (q.v.). 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES.— Englsh  scholastic 
theologian  of  the  13th.  century;  called  Doctor 
Irrefragabilis.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  order 
in  1222,  and  his  work,  the  Summa  Theologiae,  is  the 
first  important  contribution  from  the  Franciscans. 
It  is  written  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer, 
and  is  typically  scholastic  in  method  and  content. 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS.— Roman  emperor, 
222-235;   of  noble  character;   his  religious  policy 


was  syncretistic  and  tolerant,  the  image  of  Jesus 
being  placed  in  his  domestic  chapel  besides  those 
of  Abraham,  ApoUonius  of  Tyana  and  Orpheus. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL.— A  theological 
school  of  great  influence  in  the  early  Greek  church. 
The  Johannine  literature  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  are  influenced  by  Alexandrian  thought. 
The  Gnostic  schools  of  Basilides  and  Valentinus 
originated  in  Alexandria.  The  great  catechetical 
school  of  Alexandria  numbered  among  its  heads 
Pantaenus,  Clement  and  Origen  (q.v.),  and  served 
as  the  formulater  and  defender  of  orthodoxy.  The 
theology  of  the  Cappadocians  is  an  Alexandrian 
product.  Athanasius  (q.v.),  "the  father  of  ortho- 
doxy," was  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Cyril  (q.v.), 
who  was  the  leader  of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  his 
day  in  opposition  to  the  theologians  of  the  Antiochan 
school  (q.v.),  was  an  influential  figure  in  the  con- 
troversies over  the  person  of  Christ. 

ALEXANDRINUS,    CODEX.— See  Codex 

Al<bxandrinus. 

ALEXIANS. — A  R.C.  order  which  arose  in 
the  Netherlands,  at  the  time  of  the  Black  Death, 
in  the  middle  of  the  i4th.  century.  Its  purpose 
was  to  bury  the  dead  and  care  for  the  sick.  They 
chose  St.  Alexius  (5th.  cent.)  as  patron.  Other 
names  for  the  order  are  Celhtes,  Cell-brethren, 
Lollards  and  Nollards. 

'ALIYAH.— (Hebrew,  "going  up".)  In  the 
services  of  the  Synagog,  the  act  of  going  up  to 
the  reading-desk  to  take  part  in  the  reading  of 
the  Scroll  of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses. 

ALLAH. — (Arab.)  God,  the  name  used  in  the 
Qu'ran  and  among  Mohammedans  for  the  Supreme 
Being.     See  Mohammedanism. 

ALLEGORY. — An  elaborated  metaphor  in  which 
conceptions  of  one  class  are  expressed  in  forms  of 
another;  as  when  abstract  ideas  are  personified  and 
given  relations  involved  in  such  personification. 

The  word  also  is  used  to  express  the  reverse 
process  by  which  personal  narratives  are  explained 
as  representing  abstract  ideas.  Thus  a  character 
may  be  said  to  represent  a  virtue  or  a  vice,  and  his 
actions  may  be  regarded  as  symbohcal  of  the 
effects  of  such  virtue  or  vice  in  society. 

As  examples  of  the  former  meaning  of  the  word, 
the  two  best  known  works  in  English  are  Spenser's 
"Fairie  Queene"  and  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress," 
the  latter  being  a  pictorial  exposition  of  the  author's 
theology.  The  method  of  finding  allegorical 
teaching  in  the  Bible  was  elaborately  developed  by 
Philo  of  Alexandria  with  the  purpose  of  giving  uni- 
versal validity  to  the  O.T.  narratives.  This  method 
of  expression  was  common  with  church  teachers 
like  Origen  and  is  still  in  vogue  among  bibUcal 
students  who  hold  that  Scripture  has  other  mean- 
ings than  those  reached  by  historical  and  critical 
methods.  Shailer  Mathews 

ALL  FOOL'S  DAY.— April  the  first,  named  from 
the  practise  of  perpetrating  practical  jokes  on  that 
day  at  the  expense  of  the  victim's  creduhty;  origi- 
nated in  the  Celtic  cult  of  Arianrhod,  the  counter- 
part of  Venus. 

ALLIANCE  OF  THE  REFORMED 
CHURCHES. — A  fraternal  alhance  of  all  churches, 
throughout  the  world  of  presbyterial  polity,  organ- 
ized in  London  in  1875.  The  membership  is  com- 
posed of  churches  of  Presbyterian  principles,  in 
harmony  with  the  Reformed  churches  who  hold 


13 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Ambrose,  Saint 


to  the  authority  of  the  Bible  in  matters  of  faith  and 
morals.  The  Alliance  holds  its  General  Councils 
once  every  3  or  4  years,  its  functions  being  advisory, 
but  not  legislative.  It  is  popularly  known  as  the 
"Presbyterian  AUiance." 

ALL  SAINTS'  DAY.— A  church  festival  in 
honor  of  all  saints  and  martyrs,  known  and  un- 
known, observed  Nov.  1st.  by  the  R.C.  church  and 
the  Church  of  England,  and  on  the  first  Sunday 
after  Pentecost  by  the  Eastern  church;  also  called 
All-Hallows,  Allhallowmas. 

ALL  SOULS'  DAY.— A  R.C.  festival,  observed 
Nov.  2nd.,  when  the  souls  of  all  the  faithful  dead 
are  remembered  in  prayer. 

ALMARICIANS. — See  Brothers  of  the  Free 
Spirit. 

ALMSGIVING. — See  Charity  and  Almsgiving. 

ALOGL — A  heretical  sect  of  the  2nd.  and  3rd. 
centuries  known  only  through  references  in  Irenaeus, 
Hippolytus  and  Epiphanius,  according  to  which 
they  rejected  the  application  of  the  Logos  doctrine 
to  Jesus,  and  the  Johannine  authorship  of  the  4th. 
Gospel  and  of  the  Apocalypse. 

ALOMBRADOS  (or  ALUMBRADOS).— A  sect 
of  ascetic  mystics,  arising  in  .Spain  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  16th.  century,  and  later  suppressed 
by  the  Inquisition. 

ALTAR. — A  piece  of  furniture  for  a  sanctuary, 
consisting  of  a  raised  structure  on  which  offerings 
to  the  deity  are  burnt. 

In  its  simplest  form  the  altar  may  be  a  mound  of 
earth,  a  heap  of  stones  or  a  single  large  stone.  To 
speak  of  a  depressed  altar,  meaning  an  excavation 
into  which  victims  are  thrown,  is  hardly  accurate. 
In  the  more  ornate  temples  the  stone  might  be  carved, 
and  at  the  latest  stage  metal  altars  were  introduced. 
Since  food  was  presented  on  it  the  altar  was  thought 
of  as  a  table  and  is  in  fact  sometimes  called  the 
table  of  the  god  (Ezek.  41:22,  44:16).  The  fire 
which  was  kept  burning  on  it  was  the  means  by 
which  the  food  was  sublimated  and  carried  to  the 
divinity.  There  are  however  traces  of  a  stage 
of  rehgion  at  which  fire  was  not  used,  and  the 
blood  of  the  victim  was  simply  poured  or  smeared 
on  the  altar.  Since  the  intention  of  the  offerer 
was  to  give  this  part  of  the  sacrifice  to  the  god  it 
seems  clear  that  he  was  thought  to  reside  in  the 
stone.  The  altar  then  was  originally  the  sacred 
stone,  the  Bethel  (house  of  God)  in  which  the 
divinity  was  at  home.  Stories  which  relate  that 
fire  broke  out  from  the  stone  on  which  the  offering 
was  placed  and  consumed  the  gift  confirm  this 
impression.  The  story  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac 
shows  that  in  one  form  of  the  ritual  the  victim 
was  bound  and  laid  on  the  wood  of  the  altar  and 
its  throat  was  then  cut  so  that  the  blood  would 
flow  directly  onto  the  altar.  This  as  well  as  the 
Arab  custom  of  pouring  the  blood  into  an  excava- 
tion at  the  foot  of  the  altar  points  in  the  same 
direction.  The  pouring  of  the  blood  upon  the  altar 
is  precisely  parallel  to  the  anointing  of  the  sacred 
stone  at  Bethel. 

Later  the  altar  and  the  sacred  stone  were 
differentiated,  the  former  becoming  the  table  of 
the  divinity.  As  the  ritual  became  more  refined 
unbloody . offerings  were  brought — fruit,  grain,  or 
incense — and  the  altar  became  smaller.  In  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  there  was  a  small  golden  altar 
for  incense  as  well  as  the  large  one  of  stone  for 
animal  sacrifice. 


Where  the  Christian  Eucharist  is  regarded  as  a 
sacrifice  the  table  at  which  it  is  celebrated  is  properly 
called  an  altar.  H.  P.  Smith 

ALTAR-BREAD. — The  bread  used  in  the 
Eucharist  by  both  the  Western  and  Eastern  CathoUc 
churches,  usually  in  the  form  of  an  unleavened 
wafer;  also  designated  the  host  (q.v.). 

ALTAR-CARDS. — Three  cards  containing  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Mass  in  R.C. 
churches,  and  placed  on  the  altar  to  assist  the 
memory  of  the  celebrant.  Their  use  dates  from 
the  16th.  century. 

ALTAR-FELLOWSHIP.— A  Lutheran  term  for 
the  outward  communion  of  the  church  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  unmixed  altar-fellowship  being  equivalent 
to  close  communion  and  mixed  altar-fellowship  to 
open  communion. 

ALTER.— Lat.  "other."  In  Social  Psychology 
and  Ethics  the  "other"  of  the  social  environment, 
conditioning  the  experience  of  the  personal  "ego." 
See  Altruism  for  an  earher  use  of  the  word. 

ALTRUISM. — (1)  In  psychology,  a  term 
correlative  to  egoism,  meaning  an  attitude  having 
the  specific  purpose  of  benefiting  a  social  other. 
(2)  In  ethics  an  attitude  of  moral  interest  in  others 
and  activity  on  their  behalf,  in  contrast  to  the 
seeking  of  selfish  satisfaction. 

AMANA  SOCIETY. — An  American  communis- 
tic religious  society.  Founded  in  Germany  in  1714, 
as  the  Community  of  True  Inspiration,  in  protest 
against  the  formaUty  and  lack  of  spirituality  of 
Lutheranism.  The  members  banded  themselves 
together  to  live  in  brotherly  relations  as  the  chil- 
dren of  God  seeking  salvation.  They  refused  to 
serve  as  soldiers,  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  or  to 
send  their  children  to  Lutheran  schools.  Suffering 
persecution  in  Germany  they  finally  moved  to 
America,  N.Y.  state,  in  1842  and  to  Iowa  in  1855, 
where  they  now  own  26,000  acres.  They  were 
incorporated  as  the  Amana  Society  in  1859.  The 
main  purpose  of  the  community  is  religious,  to  train 
the  soul  in  preparation  for  the  future  Ufe.  Out  of 
the  religious  purpose  has  developed  a  remarkably 
successful  communism.  The  Society  is  governed 
by  a  central  board  of  thirteen  trustees  elected 
annually  by  all  the  people  from  among  the  elders. 
Industrially  the  community  is  entirely  modern  and 
provides  for  every  need  of  its  1800  people.  There 
is  no  emphasis  upon  religious  dogma  or  ceremony 
but  upon  spirituality  and  piety.  On  this  basis  the 
people  are  graded  in  three  ranks  and  advanced  or 
reduced  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  Great 
Council  of  Trustees.  All  work  at  their  chosen 
specialty  under  central  direction  and  share  in 
common. 

AMATERASU. — The  sun-goddess,  chief  of  the 
divine  figures  of  the  native  Japanese  rehgion  and 
ancestress  of  the  ruUng  line  of  Mikados. 

AMBO. — An  official  reading  desk  in  the  early 
church,  later  superseded  by  the  pulpit  and  the 
lectern. 

AMBROSE,  SAINT  (ca.  340-397).— Bishop  of 
Milan,  and  one  of  the  four  Latin  doctors  of  the 
church.  He  was  educated  as  a  lawyer  and  called 
from  a  magisterial  post  to  be  bishop  of  Milan  in  374. 
On  accepting  the  office  he  divested  himself  of  his 
property,  and  became  a  model  of  episcopal  faithful- 
ness.   His  power  and  influence  were  great,  enabling 


Ambrosian  Chant 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


14 


him  even  to  rebuke  and  prescribe  penance  for  an 
emperor.  Ambrose  accepted  the  ascetic  ideal  of 
his  day,  emphasizing  the  virtue  of  virginity,  and 
promulgating  a  high  standard  of  Christian  ethics 
in  both  individual  and  social  relations.  He  was  one 
of  the  foremost  exegetes  and  hymn-writers  of  the 
early  church,  as  well  as  a  great  pulpit  orator. 

AMBROSIAN  CHANT.— A  spirited  congrega- 
tional song  or  chant,  growing  out  of  a  combination 
of  Greek  music  with  the  church  psalter,  and  tra- 
ditionally accredited  to  Ambrose  of  Milan  (q.v.). 
It  dominated  church  music  from  the  time  of 
Ambrose  till  the  Gregorian  reaction  at  the  close 
of  the  6th.  century.     See  Music. 

AMBROSIANS.— (1)  Name  of  certain  R.C. 
congregations  originating  in  or  near  Milan  since  the 
14th.  century,  taking  their  name  from  Ambrose  of 
Milan.  (2)  A  16th.  century  Anabaptist  sect  whose 
leader  was  named  Ambrose,  and  who  claimed  imme- 
diate revelation  from  God.  Doctrinally  the  Am- 
brosians  belonged  to  the  branch  of  the  Anabaptists 
(q.v.)  called  Pneumatics. 

AMBROSIASTER.— The  name  used  to  desig- 
nate the  author  of  certain  4th.  century  Christian 
writings  wrongly  ascribed  to  Ambrose  of  Milan, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  a  commentary 
on  the  epistles  of  Paul. 

AMEN. — A  Hebrew  word,  the  meaning  of  which 
is  to  confirm  or  strengthen.  It  has  been  used  in 
Jewish,  Christian  and  Muhammadan  liturgies. 
Sometime  its  use  is  with  reference  to  the  words  of  an- 
other speaker,  e.g..  Rev.  22:20,  or  the  response  of 
the  congregation  to  the  prayer  offered  by  the  priest  in 
the  R.C.  and  AngUcan  churches.  Sometimes  it  is 
used  by  the  speaker  to  strengthen  his  own  words, 
e.g.,  Jesus'  usage  as  in  John  16:23,  or  in  the  doxolo- 
gies,  or  as  the  final  word  of  a  prayer.  I  Cor.  14 :  16 
is  cited  as  the  first  evidence  of  its  liturgical  usage  in 
Christianity. 

AMERICAN  BOARD  OF  COMMISSIONERS 
FOR  FpREIGN  MISSIONS.— The  legal  name  of 
the  foreign  missionary  society  of  the  Congregational 
Denomination,  in  America. 

AMERICAN  LECTURES  ON  HISTORY  OF 
RELIGIONS. — See  Lectures  on  History  of 
Religions. 

AMERICANISM. — A  name  used  to  indicate 
the  Uberal  tendencies  of  a  type  of  Catholic  preach- 
ing and  teaching  alleged  to  have  been  practiced 
in  America  by  Father  Isaac  Thomas  Hecker,  the 
founder  of  the  Pauhsts.  The  controversy  arose 
several  years  after  Hecker's  death,  and  was  due  to 
French  advocacy  of  liberahsm  based  on  a  French 
translation  of  a  life  of  Hecker.  In  1899  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  condemned  the  movement;  and  American 
Catholic  officials  gave  evidence  that  they  were  in 
accord  with  the  pope's  declaration.  The  same  lib- 
eral ideals  later  found  expressionin  Modernism  (q.v.) . 

AMESHA  SPENTAS.— A  group  of  six  divine 
figures  of  the  Zoroastrian  reUgion  acting  as  the 
immediate  attendants  and  executives  of  Ormazd. 
Their  names  suggest  that  they  are  attributes  of  the 
high  God  personified  as  archangels — "Good 
Thought,"  "Perfect  Righteousness,"  "Desired  King- 
dom," "Holy  Harmony,"  "Saving  Health,"  and 
"Immortality." 

AMIATINUS,  CODEX.— A  parchment  manu- 
script containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  the 


Latin  Vulgate,  for  which  it  is  the  best  authority; 
written  early  in  the  8th.  century  in  the  north  of 
England  and  sent  in  a.d.  716  as  a  present  to  the 
Pope;  afterward  given  to  Monte  Amiata  (whence 
its  name),  but  now  in  the  Laurentian  Library  at 
Florence. 

AMICE. — (1)  A  fur  or  fur-lined  hood  or  cloak, 
formerly  worn  in  cold  weather  by  priests  and  monks, 
and  still  used  on  the  left  arm  as  a  badge  by  some 
French  clerics.  (2)  A  vestment  consisting  of  a 
rectangular  piece  of  white  hnen  worn  around  the 
neck  or  shoulders  by  R.C.  priests  in  celebrating 
mass. 

AMIDA. — See  Amitabha. 

AMITABHA.— One  of  the  five  Buddhas  of  con- 
templation, a  step  removed  from  the  eternal 
Buddha  (see  Adibuddha).  He  is  the  merciful 
figure  who  vowed  not  to  enter  into  complete 
Buddhahood  until  assured  that  all  who  trust  his 
grace  would  find  eternal  salvation  in  the  happy 
western  Paradise  over  which  he  presides. 

AMMON.— See  Amon, 

AMON. — God  of  the  nome  of  Thebes  in  Egypt 
who  rose  to  importance  when  Thebes  became  the 
political  center  of  the  empire.  He  was  later 
coupled  with  the  sun-god.  Re,  and  assumed  the 
character  of  a  solar  deity  as  Amon-Re. 

A  M  O  R  A .  — (Aramaic,  "interpreter,"  plural: 
Amoraim.)  One  of  the  Jewish  masters  of  Babylonia 
and  Palestine  in  the  3rd.  to  6th.  centuries,  who 
expounded  the  Mishna  (q.v.)  and  whose  teachings 
are  contained  in  the  Gemara  (q.v.) 

AMORITES.— See  Canaanites. 

AMPHICTYONY.— A  union  of  Greek  tribal 
groups  with  a  common  rehgious  interest  meeting 
under  a  "truce  of  God"  at  the  temple  of  the  deity. 
The  two  chief  amphictyonic  unions  were  those  cen- 
tered at  Delos  and  Delphi  (earlier  probably  at 
Pylae). 

AMPULLA.— A  flask  employed  in  the  R.C. 
church  as  a  container  for  the  consecrated  oil,  wine 
or  water,  used  in  baptism,  confirmation,  extreme 
unction,  mass  and  the  consecration  of  kings. 

AMULETS. — See  Charms  and  Amulets. 

AMUSEMENTS.— All  forms  of  pleasant  occupa- 
tions, mental  or  physical,  which  are  associated  with 
relaxation  from  vocational  activities  or  other  serious 
pursuits. 

In  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term,  all  kinds  of 
play  and  recreation,  especially  of  older  children 
and  adults  are  referred  to.  In  a  narrower  sense, 
amusements  may  be  considered  hghter  or  more 
frivolous  than  recreation,  involving  less  expendi- 
ture of  energy.  They  have,  however,  the  same  end 
for  the  normal  individual,  viz.,  the  recuperation 
of  wearied  bodily  and  mental  capacities,  or  means 
of  whiling  away  time  when  one  cannot  engage  in 
"useful"  pursuits.  The  association  of  amusements 
with  idle  enjoyment  and  their  relatively  slight 
demand  on  energetic  action  has  led  many  to 
condemn  them  as  essentially  sinful. 

Positive  significance. — Amusements,  even  though 
abused,  have  a  positive  and  valuable  function  in 
Ufe.  It  is  true  that  one's  daily  work,  if  it  is  whole- 
some and  furnishes  due  opportunity  for  initiative, 
does  afford  much  genuine  satisfaction.    Neverth©- 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Anabaptists 


theless,  the  most  absorbed  worker  is  in  definite 
need  of  periods  of  relaxation  and  lighter  pleasure. 

Specific  values. — When  amusements  take  the 
form  of  active  play,  they  contribute  to  health, 
not  merely  by  way  of  furnishing  diversions  but  also 
by  bringing  into  action  those  parts  of  the  body 
not  sufficiently  exercised  by  work.  They  restore 
mental  poise  and  spontaneity  by  furnishing  employ- 
ments which  are  less  exacting  upon  the  higher  and 
more  unstable  mental  processes.  Most  wholesome 
amusements  depend  for  their  specific  values  upon 
the  extent  to  which  they  are  avenues  for  the  free 
expression  of  various  instincts.  Instinctive  activi- 
ties are  generally  satisfying  and  hence  amusing  by 
contrast  with  serious  pursuits. 

The  appeal  of  low  types  of  amusements. — There 
has  always  been  a  distinct  tendency  for  commercial 
interests  to  debauch  the  over-worked  individual 
in  his  normal  quest  for  amusement  by  appealing  to 
or  exciting  these  impulses  in  their  least  desirable 
forms,  as  in  various  kinds  of  staged  fights,  the 
immoral  theatrical  performance,  the  lewd  dance, 
and  more  recently  by  the  indecent  motion  picture. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  assume  that  the  coarse  and  filthy 
is  naturally  more  amusing  than  the  clean  and 
beautiful.  It  is  often  lack  of  opportunity  for  the 
latter  that  leads  many  people  to  turn  to  and  acquire 
a  taste  for  the  former. 

The  social  and  religious  problem,. — Social  and 
religious  workers  cannot  afford  to  ignore  the  normal 
human  craving  for  amusements.  If  religion  is  to 
include  the  whole  life  it  must  include  pleasurable 
diversions  as  well  as  emphasize  the  more  serious 
responsibilities  of  life.  There  is  no  more  important 
service  to  be  rendered  to  any  community  than  the 
careful  planning  and  organization  of  lighter  forms 
of  diversions.  This  service  is  increasingly  necessary 
on  account  of  the  high  tension  under  which  many 
live  and  on  account  of  the  monotonous  grind  that 
fills  the  lives  of  many  others.  Most  communities 
will  rise  to  higher  levels  in  their  tastes  for  amuse- 
ments if  the  latter  are  intelligently  planned  and 
properly  carried  out.  A  standard  can  thus  be  set 
up  which  will  gradually  affect  for  the  better  the 
commercialized  forms.  The  social  and  religious 
importance  of  all  such  efforts  may  be  appreciated 
when  we  reflect  that  many  of  our  ideals  of  life  are 
most  effectively  built  up  in  connection  with  the 
occupations  of  leisure.  Training  in  the  right  use  of 
leisure  is  regarded  today  as  one  of  the  necessary 
ends  of  education.  Irving  King 

ANABAPTISTS.— (From  the  Greek  through  the 
Latin,  "those  who  baptize  again,"  "rebaptizers.") 
A  group  of  radical  reformers  of  the  16th.  and 
subsequent  centuries,  so  named  because  they  bap- 
tized {rebaptized  as  their  opponents  charged)  those 
who  had  been  christened. 

The  rise  of  the  party  was  due  to  dissatisfaction 
with  the  compromising  and  opportunist  pohcies  of 
the  leading  reformers.  These  leaders  acknowledged 
that  the  scriptural  conception  of  a  church  was  a 
community  of  believers  or  saints  walking  in  the 
faith  and  fellowship  of  the  gospel;  but  regarding  the 
attainment  of  this  ideal  as  impossible  they  lowered 
their  standards  in  practice  to  a  point  where  sub- 
stantially the  whole  of  society  could  live  comfortably 
within  the  ample  bosom  of  the  church.  While  they 
rejected  the  Catholic  conception  of  a  universal 
church  they  set  up  national  churches  in  which  con- 
ditions of  membership  were  not  materially  different 
from  those  of  the  Catholic  church.  Infant  bap- 
tism was  continued,  church  discipline  remained  in 
abeyance,  the  alliance  between  church  and  state 
was  not  dissolved  and  moral  conditions  were  not 
greatly  improved,  especially  in  the  earlier  years  of 
tlie  reform. 


The  Anabaptist  ideal  was  a  pure  church,  a 
community  of  saints  or  believers  within  the  social 
order,  in  the  world  but  not  of  the  world,  possessed  of 
a  passion  for  personal  righteousness,  for  scriptural- 
ness  in  fife  and  church  institutions,  and  for  the 
imitation  of  Christ.  To  reaUze  this  ideal  the 
Anabaptists  apphed  Sci'ipture  in  the  most  literal 
way  to  all  phases  of  their  Uves;  rejected  infant 
baptism  as  contrary  to  Scripture,  and  the  source  of 
all  kinds  of  evil;  exercised  a  very  rigid  discipline  as 
the  only  means  of  keeping  the  church  pure ;  asserted 
the  complete  freedom  of  the  soul  under  Christ, 
repudiating  all  religious  persecution;  demanded  the 
entire  separation  of  church  and  state,  leaving 
each  free  to  perform  its  appointed  functions  without 
interference  from  the  other;  and  they  refused  to 
take  an  oath,  hold  civil  office  or  bear  arms. 

Beyond  this  there  was  much  difference  of 
opinion  among  them.  Some  professed  to  have  a 
direct  and  special  illumination  of  the  Spirit  which 
constituted  a  new  prophecy ;  some  refused  to  pay  war 
taxes  or  interest  on  money;  some  went  still  further 
and  favored  community  of  goods,  actually  establish- 
ing great  communal  houses;  objection  to  the  death 
penalty  was  common ;  their  members  were  urged  to 
engage  in  productive  employments  only,  refraining 
from  keeping  public  houses  or  engaging  in  the 
liquor  business.  Radical  millenarianism  was  widely 
held  and  ultimately  wrecked  the  movement. 

Anabaptist  views  appeared  in  the  circles  around 
Luther  and  Zwingli  and  spread  from  these  centers 
over  much  of  Europe.  The  influence  of  the  party 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  every  important  reformer 
wrote  against  them,  every  creed  drawn  up  in  that 
period  condemns  and  almost  every  government  at 
one  time  or  another  persecuted  them.  For  a  time 
the  movement  threatened  to  sweep  into  its  folds  a 
goodly  share  of  all  the  reformed  peoples  of  Europe, 
but  the  dihgent  polemic  of  the  theologians  and  the 
drastic  persecutions  inflicted  by  the  church  and 
the  state  speedily  reduced  it  to  insignificance  and 
in  some  places  suppressed  it  altogether.  Within  fif- 
teen years  it  passed  the  zenith  of  its  power,  and  then 
gradually  died  away  almost  to  the  vanishing  point. 

Anabaptists  may  be  treated  in  four  groups — 
German,  Swiss-Moravian,  Italian  and  Dutch. 
Radical  views  first  appeared  at  Wittenberg  in 
1522  while  Luther  was  at  the  Wartburg.  He 
returned  to  Wittenberg  and  in  a  few  powerful  ser- 
mons succeeded  in  turning  the  tide  against  them. 
Carlstadt,  one  of  the  ablest  professors  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg,  was  forced  to  leave  and 
henceforth  Anabaptism  was  outlawed  in  Germany. 
It  was  never  well  organized  and  was  ruined  in  the 
Peasants'  War  in  1525.  Feeble  I'emnants  continued, 
but  it  was  never  again  a  force  in  Germany. 

The  Swiss  group  was  decidedly  the  ablest  and 
most  moderate  of  all,  having  a  number  of  men  of 
culture  and  marked  ability.  Conrad  Grebel  and 
Felix  Manz  were  university  men,  the  latter  a  Hebrew 
scholar  of  distinction.  Closely  associated  with 
them  were  several  men  of  learning  and  ability  in 
southern  Germany,  the  most  notable  of  whom  were 
Ludwig  Hatzer,  John  Denck  and  Balthaser  Hiib- 
maier.  Hatzer  assisted  in  translating  the  Old 
Testament  into  German  from  the  Hebrew  text 
some  years  before  Luther  took  up  this  task.  Hiib- 
maier  was  a  great  preacher  and  was  for  some  years 
a  professor  in  the  University  of  Ingolstadt.  When 
persecution  drove  the  Anabaptists  from  Switzer- 
land he  followed  them  to  Moravia  where  he  pro- 
duced a  number  of  tracts  setting  forth  their  peculiar 
views  very  ably. 

The  Italian  group  were  largely  Socinian  in  their 
Christology.  Driven  out  of  the  country  by  perse- 
cution they  reassembled  in  Poland  but  never  pros- 
pered again. 


AnacletuS 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


16 


The  Dutch  Anabaptists  were  strongly  tinged 
with  radical  millenariauism  introduced  among  them 
by  Melchior  Hoffman.  After  his  imprisonment 
this  tendency  burst  into  a  fanatical  flame  in  the 
city  of  Miinster  in  Westphalia  where  a  kingdom 
was  set  up  in  1534.  The  excesses  of  this  kingdom, 
committed  in  the  name  of  religion,  fixed  a  lasting 
stigma  on  the  Anabaptist  cause,  though  the  party 
taken  as  a  whole  had  desired  nothing  but  a  quiet 
inoffensive  hfe.  The  remnants  of  this  catastrophe 
were  gathered  up  and  organized  as  Mennon- 
ites  (q.v.). 

Early  in  the  17th.  century  some  Enghsh  Inde- 
pendents who  were  refugees  in  Holland  accepted 
certain  Anabaptist  views  and  thus  founded  the 
Enghsh  Anabaptists,  later  known  as  Baptists 
(q.v.). 

Anabaptists  were  never  entirely  suppressed 
and  still  maintain  an  existence  under  various 
names.  They  never  formed  a  complete  church 
or  denomination,  nor  even  a  unified  movement. 
Some  of  their  views  were  crude  and  dangerous  while 
others  were  centuries  ahead  of  that  day,  and  are 
now  among  the  priceless  treasures  of  our  modern 
hfe.  W.  J.  McGlothlin 

ANACLETUS. — The  name  of  one  pope  and  one 
antipope. 

Anacletus  I. — Roman  presbyter  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  1st.  century,  asserted  to  be  the  2nd.  pope 
in  succession  to  St.  Peter. 

Anacletus  11. — Antipope,  1130-1138. 

ANAHITA. — A  Persian  goddess  of  fertilizing 
waters,  of  fertility  and  of  war.  See  Mother 
Goddesses. 

ANALOGY. — A  form  of  reasoning  which  makes 
affirmations  concerning  an  object  on  the  basis  of 
a  comparison  with  some  other  object  more  or  less 
similar. 

In  cases  where  direct  observation  is  impossible, 
some  form  of  reasoning  from  analogy  is  almost 
inevitable.  In  the  formation  of  religious  ideas 
analogy  has  played  a  large  part,  the  characteristics 
of  invisible  reahties  being  determined  by  trans- 
ferring to  the  unseen  realm  certain  qualities  found 
in  the  visible  world.  Thus  the  character  of  God 
has  been  pictured  after  the  analogy  of  an  earthly 
sovereign.  The  future  hfe  is  represented  in 
images  drawn  from  present  experience.  The  most 
famous  instance  in  Protestant  theology  is  Bishop 
Butler's  "Analogy  of  Religion  Natural  and  Revealed 
to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature." 

The  term  "analogy  of  faith"  is  used  theo- 
logically to  indicate  the  principle  that  all  portions 
of  revealed  truth  ought  to  be  consistent,  and  to 
suggest  that  obscure  passages  should  always  be 
understood  in  the  light  of  fundamental  doctrines. 
In  Roman  CathoUc  theology  the  unanimous  teaching 
of  the  fathers  of  the  church  constitutes  the  standard 
from  which  inferences  may  be  derived  by  analogy, 
while  Protestants  insist  on  the  unquestioned  doc- 
trines of  Scripture  as  the  norm. 

The  danger  attending  use  of  analogy  is  evident. 
It  should  always  be  employed  with  caution,  and 
must  always  be  estimated  by  or  made  to  give  way 
to  the  results  of  direct  observation. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ANAPHORA.— In  the  Greek  hturgies,  the 
most  hallowed  part  of  the  Eucharistic  service, 
including  the  kiss  of  peace,  prayers  and  gifts. 

ANARCHISM.— The  theory  that  men,  if 
unfettered  by  external  control,  will  obtain  the 
largest  development  of  their  faculties  and  that 
society  would  be  a  network  of  voluntary  groups 


covering  all  fields  of  human  activity  and  co-operating 
in  the  satisfaction  of  social  needs.  Anarchism  hke 
Sociahsm  (q.v.)  opposes  private  ownership  of  land, 
capitahstic  production,  the  wage-system,  but 
unhke  Sociahsm  it  would  ehminate  state  control  of 
economic  factors.  Modern  anarchism  began  in 
France  with  Pierre  Joseph  Proudhon  (1809-1865) 
who  advocated  mutualism  or  an  exchange  of 
services,  maintaining  that  "property  is  theft." 
Individualistic  anarchism  found  its  ablest  expres- 
sion in  Germany,  Max  Stirner  advocating  the  libera- 
tion of  the  individual  from  all  social  bonds.  Michael 
Backunin  (1814-1876),  a  Russian,  advocated  the 
annihilation  of  the  existing  order,  and  in  that  way 
has  fathered  revolutionary  anarchism.  Anarchist- 
Communism,  as  advocated  by  Prince  Peter  Kropotkin 
proposed  a  civic  agreement  by  which  the  indi- 
vidual's needs  would  all  be  guaranteed,  education, 
art  and  recreation  as  well  as  food,  clothing  and 
shelter.  Count  Leo  Tolstoi  represented  a  Christian 
anarchism,  seeking  a  basis  for  the  anarchist  theory 
of  state  and  property  in  the  teachings  of  Jesus. 

ANASTASIUS.— The  name  of  four  popes  and 
one  antipope: 

Anastasiusl. — 398^01,  who  condemned  Origen- 
ism. 

AnastasiusII. — 496-498,  opposed  Traducianism 
and  sought  to  reunite  the  Eastern  church  with 
Rome. 

Anastasius  III. — 911-913,  active  in  determining 
the  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  Germany. 

Anastasius  IV. — 1153-1154,  instrumental  in 
the  restoration  of  the  Roman  pantheon. 

Anastasius,  antipope,  855, 

ANATHEMA. — A  word  occurring  in  Gr.  and 
Lat.,  literally  meaning  a  thing  set  apart.  (1)  In 
Gr,  religion  it  signified  a  gift  of  gratitude  or  of 
propitiation  to  the  deity,  such  as  portions  of  the 
spoils  of  war.  The  custom  was  to  fasten  such  gifts 
to  trees  or  pillars.  From  that  anathema  came  to 
designate  God's  absolute  property  to  be  dealt  with 
according  to  his  justice.  (2)  In  the  Septuagint, 
the  New  Testament  and  in  later  church  history  the 
word  signifies  "accursed,"  e.g.,  in  I  Cor.  16:22. 
In  the  R.C.  discipline  the  word  is  officially  used  as 
a  formula  of  excommunication. 

ANCESTOR  WORSHIP,— The  rehgious  placa- 
tion  of  spirits  of  deceased  ancestors. 

The  belief  in  the  survival  of  the  immaterial 
part  of  men  seems  almost  universal  at  the  earlier 
stages  of  civiUzation.  And  since  disembodied 
spirits  may  have  power  to  work  good  or  evil  they 
are  feared  and  courted  much  as  the  divinities  are. 
Various  funeral  ceremonies  can  be  explained  only 
on  the  ground  that  they  are  intended  to  prevent  the 
departed  from  infhcting  injury  on  those  they  have 
left  behind.  To  conciliate  the  spirit  a  little  house 
was  sometimes  erected  for  him  at  the  place  where 
he  was  buried,  and  the  tombstone  was  originally 
identical  with  the  sacred  stone  in  which  a  divinity 
dwelt.  Offerings  of  food  and  drink  at  the  grave 
would  nourish  the  spirit  and  secure  his  favor,  just 
as  the  sacrifices  at  the  sanctuary  secured  the  favor 
of  the  divinity.  No  clear  line  can  be  drawn  there- 
fore between  the  attitude  of  men  towards  the  spirits 
and  their  attitude  towards  the  gods. 

Among  the  spirits  however  that  of  the  father 
of  the  family  would  receive  special  attention 
because  he  had  been  honored  during  his  lifetime. 
It  was  natural  to  suppose  also  that  his  interest  in 
his  descendants  would  continue  in  the  other  world. 
Moreover  since  the  fine  between  gods  and  men 
was  not  sharply  marked  it  was  customary  to  assert 
that  the  clan-ancestor  was  in  fact  divine.     In  such 


17 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Anglo-Catholic 


cases  it,  is  impossible  to  discover  whether  a  human 
ancestor  has  been  deified  or  whether  descent 
from  an  already  existing  divinity  has  been  claimed 
by  men.  The  worship  of  the  common  father  is  one 
of  the  bonds  which  make  the  clan  a  unit.  Traces 
of  ancestor  worship  are  therefore  found  in  almost 
all  patriarchal  societies.  Among  the  nations  which 
have  made  it  a  prominent  part  of  their  rehgion  we 
may  mention  the  Romans,  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Chinese.  In  China  and  Japan  in  fact  it  may  be 
observed  at  the  present  day.  Since  the  worship 
must  be  performed  by  a  male  descendant  the 
importance  of  having  sons  is  emphasized  in  all 
societies  where  ancestor  worship  is  in  vogue. 

H.  P.  Smith 
ANCHOR. — On  accoimt  of  its  use  in  navigation, 
a   symbol    for   security,    as    in    Heb.    6:19.     See 
Symbols. 

ANCHORET  or  ANCHORITE.— (From  a  Or. 
word  meaning  to  withdraw).  The  designation 
of  a  class  of  early  ascetics  who  withdrew  from  the 
world  holding  that  through  isolation  from  its  allure- 
ments they  overcame  the  flesh  and  the  devil; 
synonymous  with  hermit  (q.v.).  The  caves  and 
tombs  of  the  deserts  of  Egypt  and  Syria  afforded 
seclusion  for  numbers  of  anchorets.  See  Asceti- 
cism. 

ANDOVER  CONTROVERSY.— A  term  in- 
dicating the  legal  action  brought  1888  ff.  to  secure 
the  dismissal  of  five  professors  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  violating  the  theological  principles  em- 
bodied in  the  charter  of  Andover  Seminary.  The 
case  was  ultimately  dismissed  without  formal 
decision.  It  is  also  used  to  indicate  a  controversy 
about  the  same  time  concerning  the  possibility 
of  a  "second  probation"  after  death  for  those 
who  in  this  hfetime  had  never  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  hear  the  gospel.  The  officials  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  (Congregational)  objected  to  this  doctrine 
of  the  "larger  hope,"  and  sought  to  prevent  the 
missionary  appointment  of  anyone  holding  it. 
Andover  seminary  championed  the  Uberal  view. 

ANDREW  AND  PHILIP,  BROTHERHOOD 

OF. — An  interdenominational  association  of  men, 
organized  in  1888  in  Reading,  Pa.,  U.S.A.,  the  sole 
object,  according  to  the  constitution,  being  the 
spreaa  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  among  men.  It 
emphasizes  personal  work,  the  two  rules  of  mem- 
bership being  prayer  and  service.  Each  chapter 
is  connected  with  a  local  church  which  the  members 
serve  in  various  rehgious  and  social  capacities. 
The  order  has  extended  to  many  countries. 

ANDREW  OF  CRETE.— Archbishop  of  Crete 
in  the  8th.  century;  famous  as  a  preacher  and 
composer  of  hymns.  He  is  honored  as  a  saint  in 
the  Greek  church. 

ANDREW  THE  APOSTLE.— One  of  the  twelve 
apostles  of  Jesus,  and  brother  of  Peter. 

ANGEL  DANCERS.— A  rehgious  sect  of  Metho- 
dist origin,  founded  in  1890  in  New  Jersey,  so  called 
from  a  dance  of  religious  frenzy  practiced  to  over- 
come the  devil. 

ANGELICO,  FRA.— Florentine  monk  and 
painter,  1387-1455;  renowned  in  the  history  of 
Christian  art. 

ANGELS.— The  term  angel  (Greek,  "mes- 
senger") is  appUed  to  a  class  of  superhuman  beings 
known  to  different  monotheistic  rehgions.     Poly- 


theistic faiths  made  no  sharp  distinction  between 
gods  and  spirits  of  varying  gradations,  but  where 
monotheistic  tendencies  became  operative  the 
supreme  deity  was  differentiated  from  his  associates, 
who  were  assigned  to  the  subordinate  position  of 
angels.  Sometimes  this  classification  of  super- 
natural powers  was  also  apphed  to  the  world  of 
demons  ( q.v.),  thus  giving  rise  to  belief  in  both  evil 
and  good  angels. 

In  Zoroastriunism  the  supreme  god,  Ahura 
Mazda,  surrounded  himself  with  seven  good  angehc 
powers  to  assist  in  his  benevolent  designs,  while 
the  prince  of  evil  powers,  Ahriman,  filled  the  world 
with  his  malevolent  agents. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  Hebrew  religion  angels 
did  not  figure  prominently,  but  during  and  subse- 
quent to  the  exile  speculation  regarding  super- 
human powers  subordinate  to  Yahweh  underwent 
a  very  pronounced  development  as  a  result  of  con- 
tact with  Babylonia  and  Persia.  Ezekiel's  por- 
trait of  the  cherubim  (1:5-14;  10:1-8)  is  typical 
of  this  tendency  within  Judaism.  Later  Jewish 
imagery,  particularly  as  it  appears  in  the  apoca- 
lyptic writings,  is  rich  in  its  display  of  angelic 
hierarchies.  Certain  of  these  beings  held  positions 
of  pre-eminence  and  received  the  name  of  archangels. 
Others  who  were  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  their 
high  estate  were  assigned  a  place  among  the  demons, 
where  they  were  punished  with  especial  severity. 
But  those  whom  this  fate  had  overtaken  were  rela- 
tively few  in  number.  The  faithful  still  constituted 
an  innumerable  heavenly  host  whose  duties  were 
to  assist  God,  particularly  in  his  deahngs  with  men. 
They  served  as  guardians  of  both  nations  and  indi- 
viduals, they  conveyed  revelations  and  visions  to 
favored  persons,  sometimes  they  were  agents  of 
punishment,  and  they  interceded  with  God  on 
behalf  of  the  righteous  or  against  the  wicked. 

The  angelology  of  Judaism  passed  over  into 
Christianity.  Angels  were  to  attend  the  Son  of 
Man  at  his  appearing  (Mark  8:38),  they  were 
guardians  of  mortals  (Matt.  18:10),  they  rejoiced 
over  the  repentance  of  the  wicked  (Luke  15:10), 
they  revealed  the  law  to  Moses  (Gal.  3:19),  and 
they  were  constant  attendants  upon  the  seer  of  the 
Book  of  Revelation.  In  later  Christianity  they  con- 
tinued to  occupy  a  position  of  even  greater  promi- 
nence for  which  Judaism  furnished  the  precedent. 

The  elaborate  angelology  of  Mohammedanism 
is  also  largely  Jewish  in  character.        S.  J.  Case 

ANGELUS.— (1)  A  R.C.  devotion  in  honor  of 
the  Annunciation  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  recited  thrice 
daily,  at  6  a.m.,  12  m.,  and  6  p.m.  (2)  The  ringing 
of  the  bell  in  R.C.  churches  for  the  recitation  of  the 
devotion  of  the  same  name.  (3)  The  name  of  a 
famous  painting  by  J.  F.  Millet. 

ANGER  OF  GOD. — Anger  is  a  primitive  emo- 
tion of  resentment  associated  with  the  instinct  of 
self-preservation.  In  the  history  of  rehgions,  anger 
is  frequently  attributed  to  God.  Primitive  peoples 
think  of  their  gods  as  subject  to  anger  and  revenge 
in  naive  anthropomorphic  fashion.  The  O.T. 
writers  freely  referred  to  the  anger  of  Yahweh, 
against  those  who  opposed  his  will.  The  N.T. 
writers  spoke  of  the  wrath  of  God  coming  on  those 
who  reject  Christ.  Christian  theology  has  regularly 
taught  that  God  experiences  anger  against  sin, 
but  that  His  anger  is  not  inconsistent  with  His  love. 


ANGLICAN 

Church  op. 


C  H  U  R  C  H.  —  See    Enqi^nd, 


ANGLO-CATHOLIC— Belonging  to  or  relating 
to  the  established  church  of  England  which  claims 
catholicity. 


Anglo-Israelism 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


18 


ANGLO-ISRAELISM.— The  theory  that  the 
Anglo-Saxon  peoples,  as  found  in  the  British  empire 
and  in  the  U.S.A.,  are  the  descendants  of  the 
"lost  ten  tribes,"  which  comprised  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  The  modern  movement  was  founded  by 
Richard  Brothers  about  the  close  of  the  18th. 
century,  and  claims  to  have  two  milhon  adherents 
in  the  two  nations.  The  hypothesis,  though 
ingenious,  has  been  shown  to  be  impossible  from 
the  standpoint  of  O.T.  exegesis  and  anthropology. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  CONVERSION  OF  THE.— 

The  Anglo-Saxons  who  came  to  England  from  the 
continent  were  devotees  of  Woden.  They  ejected 
the  Celts  who  were  Christians,  but  did  not  accept 
their  reUgion.  The  introduction  of  Christianity 
came  through  the  marriage  of  King  Ethelbert 
(560-616)  to  Bertha,  a  Frankish  Christian  princess. 
The  first  serious  effort  for  their  conversion  was  in 
596  when  Gregory  the  Great,  who  had  become 
interested  in  some  boys  on  the  slave  market,  sent 
Augustine  of  Canterbury  at  the  head  of  a  mission. 
By  Augustine's  death  Kent  had  accepted  Christi- 
anity, and  a  beginning  was  made  in  Essex.  North- 
umbria  was  brought  under  Christian  influence  by 
the  marriage  (625)  of  King  Edwin  to  a  Christian 
princess  who  took  with  her  a  missionary  bishop. 
Wessex  was  Christianized  by  missionaries  of  the 
old  Celtic  church.  Northumbria  introduced  the 
new  rehgion  to  Mercia  and  Essex,  and  Kent  took 
it  into  East  Angha.  Sussex  was  won  through  the 
labors  of  Wilfrid  of  York  between  681  and  686. 

ANGRA  MAINYU.— See  Ahbiman. 

ANICETUS.— Pope,  154-165;  bishop  of  Rome 
when  Polycarp  was  put  to  death;  also  said  to 
have  been  a  martyr. 

ANICONISM.— The  attitude  effective  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  use  of  images  in  religious  cult. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.— In  Christian^  Sci- 
ence, "Animal  magnetism  is  the  voluntary  or  invol- 
untary action  of  error  i;x  all  its  forms;  it  is  the 
human  antipode  of  divine  Science."  (Mary  Baker 
Eddy  in  Science  and  Health  With  Key  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, p.  484.) 

ANIMALS,  WORSHIP  OF.— In  what  we  call 
the  lower  stages  of  civilization  men  draw  a  very 
faint  hne  of  demarkation  between  gods,  animals, 
and  human  beings.  Since  the  animals  in  many 
cases  manifest  superior  intelligence,  strength,  or 
cunning,  they  are  reverenced  much  as  the  spirits  are. 
They  become  members  of  the  clan  in  what  is  called 
Totemisra  (q.v.)  and  the  myths  relate  that  an 
animal  is  ancestor  of  the  group.  Individual 
animals  are  provided  with  temples,  are  approached 
with  prayer  and  offerings,  have  priests  appointed 
to  wait  upon  them,  and  are  treated  with  funeral 
honors  when  dead.  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
divine  animals  was  the  bull  Apis  in  Egypt,  but 
Egypt  also  had  sacred  rams,  crocodiles,  and  various 
kinds  of  birds.  The  deification  of  serpents  has 
left  traces  in  many  mythologies  and  is  still  a  part 
of  African  religion.  At  a  more  advanced  stage 
of  thought  the  gods  receive  human  form  but 
reveal  their  original  animal  incarnation  by  having 
animal  associates — riding  animals  or  pets,  like  the 
eagle  of  Zeus  or  the  owl  of  Athene.  Mythological 
theory  accounted  for  this  association  by  relating 
that  the  divinity  took  the  animal  form  for  purposes 
of  his  own,  like  Zeus  who  became  a  bull  in  order  to 
carry  off  Europa.  This  of  course  reverses  the 
actual  historical  process. 

Eating  the  flesh  of  the  divine  animal  would  be 
one  way  of  partaking  of  the  divine  power  or  grace, 


and  it  is  probable  that  one  form  of  sacrifice  developed 
from  this  idea.  II.  P.  Smith 

ANIMATISM. — A  modified  form  of  animism  in 
which  plants,  animals  and  other  objects  of  nature 
are  personified  but  are  not  believed  to  possess 
individual  souls.  Such  beliefs  are  usually  accom- 
panied by  magical  practices,  which  may  later 
grow  into  a  cult  as  the  objects  are  deified. 

ANIMISM. — (Latin  anima,  "soul")  Behef  in 
spiritual  beings.  This  was  the  definition  formulated 
by  Tylor,  the  anthropologist.  He  found  the  beUef 
in  different  stages  from  the  lowest  tribes  to  high 
modern  culture.  "Animism  in  its  full  development, 
includes  the  belief  in  souls  and  in  a  future  state, 
ia  controUing  deities  and  subordinate  spirits." 

Two  groups  of  biological  problems  it  is  thought 
influenced  men  of  low  levels  of  culture  to  this  belief. 
One  was  the  difference  between  a  living  body  and  a 
dead  one  and  the  phenomena  of  waking,  sleep, 
trance,  disease,  death.  The  other  group  sprang 
from  questions  concerning  those  human  shapes 
which  appear  in  dreams  and  visions.  To  every 
man  was  thus  probably  attributed  a  life  and  a 
phantom.  Both  were  regarded  as  separable  from 
the  body,  the  life  at  death  and  the  phantom  as 
appearing  to  people  at  a  distance.  The  ghost- 
soul  was  the  combination  of  the  life  and  the 
phantom  and  constituted  the  soul  or  spirit  among 
primitive  people.  This  spirit  Tylor  defines  as  a '  'thin, 
unsubstantial  human  image,  in  its  nature  a  sort  of 
vapour,  film  or  shadow."  It  was  the  cause  of 
hfe  in  the  individual,  was  capable  of  leaving  the 
body  and  flashing  swiftly  from  place  to  place,  con- 
tinued to  exist  after  death,  still  bearing  the  likeness 
of  the  body  and  was  able  to  enter  and  act  in  the 
bodies  of  other  men  and  animals. 

Herbert  Spencer  held  a  similar  view  and  regarded 
animism  as  the  core  of  a  variety  of  behefs  and 
customs,  such  as  ancestor  worship,  transmigration 
of  souls,  witchcraft  and  other  superstitions. 

The  tendency  among  some  later  students  of 
primitive  rehgion  is  to  limit  the  phenomena  of 
animism  to  early  man  but  not  to  regard  it  as  the 
very  earliest  stage.  Thus  Marett  holds  to  a 
"pre-animistic"  level,  in  which  there  was  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  object  and  the  spirit  in  it. 
In  this  pre-animism  awe  is  felt  for  unusual  phe- 
nomena simply  because  they  are  unusual,  not 
because  they  are  signs  of  ghosts  or  spirits.  Thus, 
among  the  Malagasy — "Whatever  is  great,  what- 
ever exceeds  the  capacity  of  their  understandings, 
they  designate  by  the  one  convenient  and  compre- 
hensive appelation,  andriamanitra.  Whatever  is 
new  and  useful  and  extraordinary  is  called  god." 
Similarly  the  bull-roarer  excites  awe  for  the  natives 
of  AustraUa  by  its  noise  and  weirdness.  It  pos- 
sesses what  may  be  called  an  intrinsic  source  of 
awe,  while  in  animism  the  right  to  be  regarded  with 
awe  is  derivatory.  That  is,  in  the  latter  case,  it 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  spirit.  The  phenomena 
that  have  to  do  with  dream  and  trance,  disease  and 
death,  are  the  proper  source  of  animism,  according 
to  Marett. 

Other  scholars,  like  Durkheim,  regard  animism 
as  a  doctrine  which  is  now  of  historic  interest 
and  significance  only  and  is  identified  especially 
with  the  work  and  period  of  Tylor  who  first  formu- 
lated it.    See  Primitive  Peoples,  Religions  of. 

In  philosophy  animism  has  sometimes  been  used 
synonymously  with  the  ancient  doctrine  of  hylo- 
zoism  and  with  the  modern  conception  of  vitalism. 
But  the  term  tends  to  become  exclusively  employed 
to  designate  the  primitive  notion  of  spirit  possession 
of  sacred  objects  and  the  ceremonies  directed  to 
the  placation  of  such  spirits.       Edward  S.  Ames 


19 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Anthropopathism 


ANNATES  or  ANNATS.— The  first  fruits  or 
first  year's  revenue  of  a  benefice,  paid  to  the  pope, 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages  claimed  by  bishops  also. 

ANNIHILATIONISM.— The  doctrine  of  the 
complete  extinction  of  the  wicked  or  impenitent 
at  death.  It  arose  as  a  protest  against  the  teaching 
of  the  eternal  punishment  of  the  unregenerate. 
Edward  White  in  England  vigorously  defended 
the  doctrine  in  the  last  half  of  the  19th.  century. 
See  Future  Life. 

ANNUNCIATION.— (1)  The  term  used  to 
designate  the  announcement  of  the  birth  of  Jesus 
by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  (2)  The 
church  festival  celebrating  this,  occurring  on 
March  25th. 

ANNUNCIATION,  ORDERS  OF  THE.— The 
name  of  five  R.C.  orders,  three  for  women  and  two 
for  men. 

ANOINTING. — The  appUcation  of  an  unguent 
for  personal,  social,  medicinal,  or  religious  use. 
The  use  of  oil  or  fat  for  anointing  is  universal  and 
of  immemorial  antiquity;  it  was  believed  to  be 
efficacious  both  for  nullifying  personal  evils  of 
various  kinds — sickness  and  the  power  of  demons — 
and  for  conferring  mysterious  sacramental  virtue 
on  the  subjects  of  it.  It  has  been  employed  in 
consecrating  sacred  objects  as  stones  and  temples, 
persons  as  prophets,  priests,  and  kings,  as  prepara- 
tion for  death — extreme  unction,  and  in  completing 
the  efficacy  of  baptism.  The  oil  acquires  its 
potency  by  origin  from  animals  possessing  mysteri- 
ous powers,  by  contact  with  sacred  objects,  by 
magical  formulas,  by  blessing  or  later  by  prayer. 

C.  A.  Beckwith 

ANOMOIANS. — The  strict  Arian  party  in  the 
Arian  controversy,  which  adhered  to  the  essential 
difference  in  essence  between  the  Son  and  the 
Father.     See  Arianism. 

ANSELM,  SAINT  (ca.  1033-1109).— Mediaeval 
theologian  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  At 
twenty-seven,  he  entered  the  monastery  of  Bee 
in  Normandy,  three  years  later  succeeding  Lanfranc 
as  prior.  In  1078  he  was  made  abbot  and  under 
liis  rule  Bee  became  the  foremost  seat  of  learning 
in  Europe.  In  1093  he  was  consecrated  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  his  tenure  of  office  being  marked 
by  struggle  with  King  Wilham  Rufus  over  property 
and  privileges  and  with  Henry  I.  over  investiture. 
He  was  canonized  in  1494.  Anselm  was  the 
founder  of  mediaeval  scholasticism,  his  attenapt 
being  to  make  Christian  behef  consonant  with 
reason.  He  stated  the  ontological  argument  (q.v.) 
which  affirms  that  the  reaUty  of  God  is  involved  in 
the  necessity  of  the  concept  of  God.  In  his  greatest 
work,  Cur  Deus  Homo,  he  attempted  a  rational 
explanation  of  the  atonement  (q.v.)  in  terms  of  the 
prevalent  feudalistic  social  structure,  the  death  of 
Christ,  the  God-man,  being  a  satisfaction  to  the 
injured  honor  of  God.  In  return  for  this  uncom- 
pelled  satisfaction  God  granted  Christ  the  reward 
of  releasing  the  believer  from  the  penalty  of  sin. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.— The  designation  applied 
to  living  beings,  human,  lower  animal  or  plant, 
which  existed  prior  to  the  flood  ascribed  to  the  time 
of  Noah. 

ANTE-NICENE  FATHERS.— Designation  of 
the  Church  Fathers  who  antedated  the  Council  of 
Nicaea,  a.d.  325.     See  Fathers,  Church. 

ANTERUS.— Bishop  of  Rome,  from  Nov.  235 
to  Jan.  236,  honored  by  the  R.C.  church  as  Pope. 


ANTHESTERIA.— A  February  festival  of  the 
religion  of  Greece;  it  was  originally  a  social  cere- 
mony for  the  regulation  of  the  underground  souls — 
a  primitive  All-Souls'  ritual — but  later  was  obscured 
by  absorption  in  the  cult  of  Dionysius. 

ANTHONY,  SAINT.— The  first  Christian  monk 
and  father  of  monasticism;  b.  in  Egypt  about  250; 
said  to  have  lived  105  years. 

ANTHONY,  SAINT,  ORDERS  OF.— The  oldest 
of  the  CathoUc  orders  adopted  the  name  of  St. 
Anthony,  the  fomider  of  monasticism.  They 
were  founded  at  the  time  of  the  first  crusade  (1095- 
1099)  as  the  Hospitalers  of  St.  Anthony.  The 
order  was  for  a  time  subject  to  the  Benedictines. 
From  1284-1774  they  were  independent.  In  1774 
they  were  united  with  the  Knights  of  Malta. 

ANTHROPOLOGY,  THEOLOGICAL.— A  de- 
scription of  the  nature  and  characteristics  of  man. 

In  systematic  theology  anthropology  is  the 
section  containing  the  doctrines  of  man's  original 
creation  and  constitution,  the  fall  of  man  and  its 
consequences,  and  the  relationship  between  the  soul 
and  the  body.  Traditional  theology  taught  that 
man  was  created  in  the  image  of  God  and  was  thus 
endowed  with  original  righteousness.  By  the 
exercise  of  his  free  will,  man  rebelled  against  God, 
thereby  losing  his  original  righteousness,  and  in 
addition  incurring  physical  and  moral  disabiUties. 
The  sin  of  Adam  made  human  nature  sinful,  so  that 
all  his  descendants  are  born  in  a  state  of  original  sin, 
which  places  them  under  divine  condemnation  and 
brings  death  as  its  penalty.  Only  through  the 
exercise  of  divine  grace  can  man  be  saved.  Theo- 
logians have  held  divergent  views  as  to  just  what 
is  included  in  the  original  "image  of  God,"  and 
as  to  the  precise  consequences  of  Adam's  fall. 
The  origin  of  the  soul  and  its  relation  to  the  body 
have  been  variously  interpreted,  pre-existence, 
creationism,  and  traducianism  (qq.v.)  being  the 
important  theories.  Recently  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion has  been  influential  in  modifying  the  conception 
of  man's  origin  and  development,  and  the  traditional 
doctrines  of  Adam  and  of  original  sin  are  disappear- 
ing from  critical  theology.  Inductive  historical 
study  of  the  psychological  nature  of  man,  and  of  his 
religious  aptitudes  is  increasingly  supplying  the 
material  for  theology.  The  term  "anthropology"  is 
now  more  generally  applied  to  that  branch  of  histori- 
cal investigation  which  by  a  study  of  the  remains  of 
pre-historic  men,  such  as  bones,  tools,  habitations, 
etc.,  and  by  careful  observation  of  the  habits  of 
extant  primitive  and  savage  tribes,  attempts  to 
throw  light  on  the  origins  of  the  race  and  on  the 
essential  nature  of  man  before  civilization  had  con- 
ventionahzed  humanity.  See  Fall  of  Man;  Sin. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ANTHROPOMORPHISM.— The  tendency  to 
ascribe  human  characteristics  and  functions  to 
deities  or  forces  of  nature.  As  an  inevitable 
consequence  of  the  limitations  of  human  thinking, 
man  uses  analogies  drawn  from  his  own  experi- 
ence to  describe  the  gods  or  natural  forces.  In 
the  development  of  reUgions,  anthropomorphism 
appears  as  a  phase  of  nature-worship.  In  Christian 
history  the  Audians  of  the  4th.  century  furnished  a 
type  of  excessive  anthropomorphism  (q.v.)  In 
modern  theology  the  attempt  is  made_to  soften 
the  cruder  forms  of  anthropomorphism_by  the 
use  of  abstract  philosophic  terms,  often_at  the 
expense  of  rehgious  warmth  and  intimacy. 

ANTHROPOPATHISM.— The  attribution  of 
human  feelings  to  the  non-human  environment; 
considered  by  some  writers  to  be  a  factor  in  the 


Anti-Christ 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


20 


development  of  ideas  of  spirits,  demons  and  nature- 
gods. 

ANTI-CHRIST.— In  Jewish  and  Christian  reli- 
gious thought  the  chief  opponent  of  the  Christ  and, 
in  consequence,  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  The 
figure  first  appears  in  the  Jewish  Apocalypses  and 
was  appropriated  by  early  Christianity.  He  was 
not  the  same  as  Satan,  but,  though  sometimes  a 
supernatural  being,  was  often  an  historical  char- 
acter like  some  Roman  Emperor  who  persecuted  the 
church.  His  downfall  was  to  be  one  of  the  first 
results  of  the  Messianic  triumph.  Until  thus 
supernaturally  defeated  he  seemed  possessed  of 
unconquerable  power  and  capable  of  withstanding 
temporarily  the  Christ. 

ANTINOMIANISM.— A  word  coined  by  Luther 
in  his  controversy  with  Agricola,  designating  the 
doctrine  that  the  gospel  or  faith  does  entirely  away 
with  the  old  law,  so  that  the  Christian  is  in  no 
sense  subject  to  it.  It  originated  as  a  protest 
against  the  elevation  of  an  external  regulation  of  hf e 
as  superior  to  inwardly  inspired  spiritual  Uving. 
There  are  evidences  of  an  antinomian  interpretation 
of  Paulinism  in  N.T.  times  (II  Pet.  3 :  16).  Certain 
Gnostic  sects  interpreted  their  doctrine  of  the  evil 
character  of  matter  in  an  antinomian  way.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  in  England  antinomian  teaching 
developed  in  such  sects  as  the  Ranters.  The  Anti- 
nomian controversey  of  the  Reformation  was  a 
controversy  in  which  Johann  Agricola  opposed 
Melanchthon  and  Luther,  the  former  claiming  that 
the  gospel  and  not  the  law  is  what  inspires  men 
to  repentance.  In  some  of  the  more  obscure  sects 
Antinomianism  has  led  to  charges  of  immorality 
and  sensuous  indulgence,  e.g.,  Adamites,  New 
Manichaeans,  Beghards,  etc.  (qq.v.) 

ANTINOMY. — Mutually  contradictory  con- 
clusions, both  of  which  may  be  rationally  proved; 
but  which  cannot  both  be  true.  Kant  introduced 
the  term  into  philosophy,  showing  how  the  attempt 
to  apply  the  categories  of  experience  to  transcen- 
dental reality  involves  antinomis,  and  thus  pre- 
cludes absolute  demonstration. 

ANTIOCH. — City  in  Asia  Minor  on  the  Orontes, 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  about  300  B.C.,  which 
became  the  third  largest  city  in  the  Roman  empire. 
It  was  first  evangehzed,  according  to  the  N.T.  by 
fugitives  from  Jerusalem  and  was  later  led  by 
Paul  and  Barnabas.  Here  the  behevers  were  first 
called  Christians  (Acts  11 :  26).  Christianity  spread 
rapidly,  and  Chrysostom  estimated  the  Christian 
population  in  his  day  at  100,000.  It  later  was 
the  seat  of  the  so-caUed  Antiochian  school  of 
theology  (q.v.). 

ANTIOCH,  SYNOD  OF.— A  synod  which 
convened  in  341,  and  set  forth  an  orthodox  creed, 
but  deposed  Athanasius.  Most  of  the  canons 
dealt  with  ecclesiastical  matters. 

ANTIOCHIAN  SCHOOL.— A  theological  school 
or  tendency,  represented  by  prominent  teachers, 
the  center  of  whose  influence  was  at  Antioch.  The 
first  noted  scholar  was  Lucian  (see  Ltjcian  the 
Martyr)  who  advocated  an  historical  treatment 
of  scripture  as  opposed  to  Origen's  allegorical 
method.  Among  Lucian's  followers  were  Arius 
and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  the  defenders  of 
Arianism  (q.v.).  Other  representatives  of  the 
school,  Eustathius,  Diodorus,  Chrysostom  and 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  were  opponents  of  the 
Arian  doctrine.  Theodore  became  the  great 
representative   of   Antiochan   theology,    being   an 


opponent  of  Arianism,  ApoUinarianism  and  Mono- 
physitism  (qq.v.)  an  advocate  of  freewill  against 
Augustinianism,  and  a  champion  of  historical 
criticism. 

ANTIPHON. — A  song  or  chant,  sung  respon- 
sively,  one  voice  or  chorus  alternating  with  the  other 
or  the  chorus  answering  the  precentor. 

ANTIPHONARY.— A  book  or  collection  of 
antiphons  for  use  in  the  Roman  liturgy. 

ANTIPOPE. — A  claimant  of  the  papal  chair 
who  was  not  elected  canonically,  and  whose  claim 
was  not  officially  recognized.  The  Catholic  authori- 
ties enumerate  twenty-nine  antipopes. 

ANTISEMITISM.— Antipathy  to  and  persecu- 
tion of  Jewish  peoples  by  Aryans,  whether  socially 
or  economically,  so  called  since  the  appearance  of  a 
pubhcation  in  Germany  in  1880.  Opposition  to 
Jews  dates  from  pre-Christian  times,  the  beginning 
being  the  persecutions  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
When  the  Roman  empire  became  Christian  an 
attitude  of  opposition  toward  Jews  was  character- 
istic of  many  of  the  rulers  and  ecclesiastics,  and 
they  were  accused  of  various  crimes.  In  many 
civihzed  countries  they  were  deprived  of  civil 
rights,  such  disabilities  being  removed  in  France 
in  1791,  in  Great  Britain  in  1830  and  in  Germany 
in  1869.  The  modern  tendency  to  oppose  the 
Jews  has  taken  the  form  of  massacres  in  Russia 
and  of  social  and  civic  ostracism  in  Austria  and 
Germany.  The  movement  has  been  marked  by 
unjust  accusations  on  the  part  of  Anti-Semites  and 
sometimes  unreasonable  apologies  on  the  part  of 
Jewish  writers. 

ANTITRINITARIANISM.— Opposition  to,  or 
denial  of,  the  doctrine  of  the  trinity. 

The  doctrine  of  three  persons  in  the  godhead  has 
frequently  been  so  interpreted  as  to  seem  irrational. 
Against  such  irrationality,  on  the  assumption  that 
it  inheres  inevitably  in  the  doctrine  of  the  trinity, 
various  men  and  groups  have  protested.  Most 
important  among  these  are  the  Socinians,  the 
Deists,  and  the  Unitarians. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS.— Roman  emperor,  138- 
161;  under  his  pohcy  of  toleration  the  Christians 
enjoyed  a  considerable  respite  from  persecution; 
during  his  reign  the  Gnostic  controversy  became 
acute.  The  Apology  of  Justin  Martyr  (q.v.)  was 
addressed  to  him;  possibly  also  that  of  Aristides. 

ANU. — The  heaven  god  of  ancient  Babylonia 
associated  in  the  supreme  triad  with  EnUl  and 
Ea  (qq.v.). 

APATHY. — Indifference  or  insensibiUty  to  emo- 
tion or  passionate  feeUng;  a  characteristic  of 
Stoicism  (q.v.). 

APHRAATES.— A  "Persian  sage"  who  flourished 
throughout  the  4th.  century;  the  first  strong  writer 
of  the  Syrian  church  to  whom  are  attributed  ten 
homihes. 

APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE.— A  group  of 
Jewish  and  Christian  writings  which  endeavor 
to  set  forth  by  the  use  of  symbols  and  revelations 
God's  dehverance  of  his  people  from  the  oppression 
of  their  enemies,  the  certain  triumph  and  joy  of  the 
righteous,  and  the  general  conditions  of  life  after 
death. 

Elements  of  this  literature  were  probably  derived 
from  the  general  stream  of  early  Semitic  religious 


21 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


ApoUinaris  of  Laodicea 


thought.  It  seems,  however,  to  have  developed 
under  the  influence  of  Hellenistic  culture.  It  does 
not  appear  in  the  Old  Testament  except  in  such 
passages  as  Zech.,  chapters  9  to  14,  and  the  book 
of  Daniel.  This  latter  is  commonly  regarded  as 
the  parent  of  the  Uterature  and  sets  forth  God's 
certain  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  Syrian 
oppression. 

Apocalypticism  differs  from  prophetism  in  that 
it  purports  to  be  written  by  men  long  since  dead, 
and  it  therefore  (pesudonymously)  represents 
coming  events  indistinctly  in  symbols.  It  does  not 
attempt  explicit  moral  and  rehgious  interpretation 
of  current  history,  and  is  therefore  of  an  esoteric 
character.  Its  claim  to  acceptance  hes  in  its  sym- 
bolical exposition  of  history  as  seen  in  visions  by  its 
authors.  It  served  to  express  the  enmity  and 
hopes  of  persecuted  groups  without  exposing  them 
to  charges  of  disloyalty  to  the  government.  ^  In  a 
sense  it  portrayed  revolution  in  the  disguise  of 
religion.  It  was  a  favorite  medium  for  Christian 
writers  in  the  second  century.  The  Christian 
apocalypses  doubtless  embodied  material  from 
Jewish  sources.  Unlike  those  however,  they  do  not 
look  to  political  revolution. 

There  is  no  standardization  of  symbol  beyond 
the  conventional  separation  of  animals  into  those 
that  do  harm,  like  wolves,  and  those  that  are 
serviceable,  like  sheep.  The  former,  together 
with  birds  of  prey,  are  symbols  of  the  oppressors, 
and  the  latter  are  symbols  of  the  saints.  The  visions 
are  usually  attributed  to  angels  or  to  the  "unveiling" 
of  the  divine  plans  to  the  author  who  represents 
himself  as  having  been  caught  up  into  heaven,  there 
to  be  given  superhuman  knowledge  of  the  future. 
The  imagination  of  the  writers  was  quite  unre- 
strained and  the  literature  as  a  whole  is  confused 
and,  with  the  exception  of  certain  writings  hke  the 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch  and  the  canonical  Apocalypse 
of  John,  is  without  hterary  distinction.  See  Escha- 
tology;  Book  op  Enoch. 

The  chief  Apocalyptic  writings  which  have 
been  preserved  to  us  outside  the  Bible  are:  The 
Shepherd  of  Hernias  (about  125  a.d.);  the  Book  of 
Enoch  (100  B.C.-64  B.C.);  the  Slavonic  Secrets  of 
Enoch  (4  B.C.-70  a.d.);  Book  of  Jubilees  (about 
100  B.C.) ;  the  Assumption  of  Moses  (about  100  b.c.)  ; 
the  Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs  (before 
200  A.D.) ;  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah  (about  200  a.d.)  ; 
the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra  (about  70  a.d.);  the 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch  (50-100  a.d.);  the  Sibylline 
Oracles  (in  final  form  about  150  a.d.). 

Shailer  Mathews 

APOCRYPHA. — A  term  apphed  to  a  group  of 
religious  writings  of  the  Hebrews  which,  while  not 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  being  fully  inspired,  were 
yet  held  in  high  esteem. 

These  works  are  ascribed  in  many  cases  to  well 
known  characters  in  Hebrew  history.  They  were 
part  of  a  considerable  literature  written  in  the 
centuries  immediately  before  or  after  Christ,  and 
served  to  supplement  the  history  and  teaching  of 
the  Old  Testament.  They  were  incorporated  in  the 
Septuagint  and  later  in  the  Old  Latin  and  the 
Vulgate  editions  of  the  Scripture.  The  Council 
of  Trent  (1546)  recognized  as  canonical  the  follow- 
ing: I  and  II  Maccabees;  Additions  to  Esther; 
History  of  Suzanna;  Song  of  the  Three  Holy 
Children;  Bel  and  the  Dragon;  Tobit;  Judith; 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch;  the  Wisdom  of  Jesus, 
the  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus;  the  Wis- 
dom of  Solomon;  but  omitted  1st  and  2nd  Ezras 
(3rd  and  4th  in  the  Vulgate)  and  the  Prayer  of 
Manasses. 

These  eleven  are  now  included  in  the  Bible 
used  by  the  Roman  CathoUc  church.  In  the 
Protestant  editions  of  the  Bible  all  fourteen  are 


sometimes  included  as  a  separate  group  between  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  New  Testament.  They 
are,  however^  not  regarded  as  possessed  of  the 
same  authority  as  the  canonical  books.  See 
Canon.  The  Anghcan  church  uses  the  ApocrjTjha 
in  its  lessons  for  edification  but  does  not  treat  them 
as  possessed  of  the  same  authority  as  the  canonical 
books. 

Of  the  Apocrypha  the  most  important  are 
Ecclesiasticus  and  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  among 
the  religious  writings;  1st  Maccabees  among  the 
historical.  The  other  material  is  mostly  of  the 
character  of  haggadoth  or  stories  organized  for 
homiletic  purposes. 

In  the  New  Testament  church  there  grew  up  a 
very  extensive  literature  which  dealt  with  much  the 
same  subjects  as  those  treated  by  the  books  which 
gradually  were  shaped  into  the  New  Testament 
canon.  See  Canon.  These  books,  however,  never 
have  gained  anything  like  the  respect  accorded  to 
the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  term 
"  Apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament  "  is  sometimes 
applied  to  them,  but  such  use  of  the  term  is  hardly 
justifiable  and  may  serve  to  give  a  false  impression 
that  there  was  a  sort  of  second  canon  of  the  New 
Testament,  corresponding  to  the  Apocrypha  of  the 
Old.  This  apocryphal  material  of  the  New  Tes(»B- 
ment  followed  the  same  general  classes  as  the  New 
Testament.  Thus  we  have  (1)  the  various  Gospels 
(of  Pilate,  of  the  Hebrews,  Egyptians,  Peter,  James, 
Thomas,  Arabic  Gospel  of  the  Childhood,  of  Joseph 
the  Carpenter,  of  Jesus,  Philip,  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  together  with  fifteen  or  more  others  known 
to  us  only  in  fragments  and  mostly  written  to 
estabhsh  some  heretical  doctrine);  (2)  the  Acts 
(of  Paul  and  Thekla);  (3)  the  Epistles  (of  Paul  to 
the  Laodiceans  and  the  Corinthians);  (4)  Apoca- 
lypses (the  most  important  being  the  Apocalypse 
of  Peter);  (5)  Teachings  (of  Peter  and  of  Paul). 
A  vast  hterature  of  the  same  general  nature  as  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  canon  appeared  during 
the  first  four  Christian  centuries. 

Shailer     Mathews 

APOCTASTASIS.— A  term  derived  from  the 
Gr.  of  Acts  3:21,  meaning  the  final  "restitution 
of  all  things."  The  verse  is  used  as  a  basis  for 
belief  in  the  ultimate  universality  of  salvation. 
Sin  is  explained  as  ignorance  or  delinquency,  and 
punishment  as  correction.  The  doctrine  has 
found  its  chief  exponents  in  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Origen,  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
Maximus  Confessor  and  Scotus  Erigena,  some  of 
the  mystics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  certain  sections  of 
the  Anabaptists,  18th.  century  German  rationalists, 
and  in  the  modern  Universalist  denomination. 
It  has  been  opposed  by  the  R.C.  Church  and  ortho- 
dox Protestantism. 

APOLLINARIANISM.— The  Christological  doc- 
trine taught  by  ApoUinaris  the  Younger,  bishop  of 
Laodicea.  He  hved  about  310-390.  He  said 
that  it  is  impossible  to  combine  ideal  humanity 
and  perfect  deity  in  one  personahty,  and  hence 
denied  the  complete  humanity  of  Christ,  saying 
that  the  Logos  took  the  place  of  the  rational  human 
soul  in  the  historic  Jesus.  ApoUinarianism  was 
condemned  by  several  local  councils,  and  finally 
by  the  ecumenical-  council  of  Constantinople, 
381  a.d. 

APOLLINARIS  OF  LAODICEA.— The  name  of 
two  men,  father  and  son,  both  of  whom  taught 
rhetoric  in  Laodicea.  ApoUinaris  the  Younger 
who  hved  about  310-390  was  a  friend  of  Athanasius 
and  a  great  theologian  and  writer,  but  most  of 
his  writings  have  been  lost.  For  his  peculiar 
Christological  views  see  Apollinarianism. 


Apollonius  of  Tyana 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


22 


APOLLONIUS  OF  TYANA.— A  Neo-Pythago- 
rean  philosopher  and  rehgious  reformer  of  Tyana 
in  Cappadocia,  whose  hfe  approximately  spanned 
the  first  Christian  century.  In  manner  of  life  he 
was  ascetic  and  vegetarian,  wandering  through 
many  lands,  teaching  and  being  taught.  He 
studied  medicine  and  his  biographer,  Philostratus, 
credits  him  with  miraculous  heahngs.  Probably 
he  possessed  psychotherapeutic  power.  He  wor- 
shipped the  sun  and  advocated  moral  reform  in 
social  customs.  His  miracles  and  teaching  have 
been  compared  by  Hierocles  (305  a.d.)  and  Voltaire 
with  those  of  Christ  with  whom  he  was  contempora- 
neous. He  seems  to  have  been  accorded  divine 
honors  during  the  first  three  Christian  centuries. 

APOLOGETICS.— A  systematic  defense  of 
Christianity  against  all  important  objections. 

Apologetics  defends  the  content  of  faith  rather 
than  expounds  the  full  rehgious  import  of  doctrines. 
An  ideally  perfect  defense  would  estabhsh  the  abso- 
luteness of  Christianity;  but  an  apologist  usually 
is  seeking  to  give  to  Christian  behefs  a  positive 
place  in  the  culture  dominating  the  age.  By  relat- 
ing Christian  doctrines  to  accepted  philosophical  or 
scientific  theories,  apologetics  prepares  the  way  for 
the  positive  use  of  such  theories  in  the  construction 
of  theology.  The  development  of  Christian  doc- 
trine is  largely  dominated  by  apologetic  considera- 
tions. Apologetics  thus  not  only  defends  existing 
behefs,  but  also  aids  a  developing  Christianity  in 
its  task  of  leavening  and  interpreting  culture. 

1.  The  Great  Apologetics  in  Christian 
History. — 1.  The  defense  of  early  Christianity 
against  Judaism. — The  early  Christians  were  con- 
stantly compelled  to  argue  against  skeptical  mis- 
representation. The  Gospels  were  written  as  a 
historical  argument  for  the  divine  power  and  pre- 
rogative of  Jesus.  The  christology  of  the  early 
church  Was  shaped  under  the  pressure  of  apologetic 
necessity.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  a  strik- 
ing example  of  early  apologetics. 

2.  The  vindication  of  Christianity  in  the  Greco- 
Roman  Empire. — Persecution  of  Christians  by  the 
Roman  government  and  popular  prejudice  against 
them  called  forth  defensive  statements.  Justin 
Martyr  and  other  Apologists  (q.v.)  of  the  2nd. 
century  vindicated  the  purity  of  the  hves  of  Chris- 
tians, and  in  addition  undertook  to  commend 
Christianity  as  the  absolutely  true  philosophy. 
Origen  (q.v.)  in  the  3rd.  century  elaborated  a 
Christian  philosophy  consciously  superior  to  any 
non-Christian  system.  Augustine  (q.v.)  produced 
the  most  elaborate  apologetic  work  conditioned  by 
Greco-Roman  culture  in  his  City  of  God,  which 
interpreted  the  entire  course  of  history  so  as  to 
show  the  culmination  of  the  divine  purpose  in  the 
triumph  of  Cathohc  Christianity  over  paganism. 

3.  The  rational  vindication  of  Christianity. — 
After  western  civilization  became  nominally 
Christianized,  the  main  task  of  apologetics  was  to 
establish  harmonious  relations  between  Christian 
doctrines  and  rational  philosophy.  This  was 
undertaken  on  an  elaborate  scale  by  the  represen- 
tatives of  Scholasticism  (q.v.).  Revealed  doctrine 
was  shown  to  be  a  necessary  supplement  to  natural 
reason.  This  type  of  apologetic  has  been  continued 
in  both  Cathohcism  and  Protestantism  to  this  day. 
It  seeks  to  retain  unimpaired  the  appeal  to  an 
authoritative  revelation.  The  best  known  Protes- 
tant treatise  of  this  kind  is  Bishop  Butler's  famous 
Analogy  of  Religion  Natural  and  Revealed  to  the 
Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature  (1736). 

In  the  19th.  century,  Schleiermacher  (q.v.) 
and  Hegel  (q.v.),  followed  by  numerous  scholars, 
gave  a  completely  rational  interpretation  of  Chris- 
tian doctrines,  thus  virtually  ehminating  the  need 


of  an  appeal  to  supernatural  revelation  in  a  distinct 
sense.  Christianity  is  thus  adapted  to  a  monistic 
world- view.  Stress  is  laid  on  reasonableness  of 
content  rather  than  on  miraculousness  of  origin. 
Conservative  theologians  often  feel  that  this  may 
involve  a  betrayal  of  essential  Christianity  rather 
than  its  defense. 

4.  The  vindication  of  Christianity  in  the  light  of 
historical  criticism. — Modern  critical  examination  of 
the  sources  and  the  history  of  Christianity  has 
shown  that  biblical  behefs  are  historically  condi- 
tioned, and  that  Christianity  is  constantly  in  the 
process  of  development.  The  idea  of  a  static 
religion  authoritatively  organized  once  for  all 
gives  way  to  the  conception  of  a  growing  and 
changing  rehgion. 

To  meet  this  situation,  two  distinct  types  of 
modern  apologetic  exist.  The  one  seeks  to  conserve 
the  authenticity  and  supernatural  authority  of  the 
Bible  in  the  face  of  criticism,  sometimes,  however, 
distinctly  modifying  traditional  conceptions.  The 
other  type  accepts  critical  methods  and  conclusions, 
and  exhibits  the  vital  function  of  Christianity  in 
the  history  of  which  it  is  a  part,  so  as  to  show  its 
indispensable  contribution  to  the  welfare  and 
progress  of  humanity.  The  first  type  makes  more 
sweeping  claims,  but  frequently  fails  to  apprehend 
the  full  import  of  historical  criticism.  The  second 
type  is  calculated  to  win  the  approval  of  critical 
minds,  but  the  conclusions  reached  have  a  some- 
what tentative  character  not  conducive  to  dogmatic 
assurance. 

II.  The  Problems  of  Modern  Apologetics. — 
Any  defense  of  Christianity  must  give  primary 
consideration  to  the  doctrines  which  occasion 
difficulty.  Important  examples  of  such  doctrines 
are  the  Existence  of  God,  the  Problem  of  Evil,  the 
Supernatural,  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  and  the  Life 
after  Death. 

In  deahng  with  the  difficulties  which  arise  in 
connection  with  these  doctrines,  modern  apolo- 
getics must  give  especial  attention  to  certain  aspects 
of  modern  thinking  in  order  to  satisfy  inquiring 
minds.     Two  or  three  of  these  may  be  mentioned. 

1.  Justice  must  be  done  to  modern  science. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  assured  results  of  scientific 
investigation  must  be  frankly  recognized,  even 
if  such  recognition  involves  a  revision  of  doctrine. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  hmitations  of  science  must 
be  understood,  and  anti-rehgious  dogmatism 
masquerading  under  scientific  garb  must  be  exposed. - 
In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  science  is  a  foe  to 
unwarranted  pretensions  of  theology  rather  than 
to  the  verifiable  facts  of  Christianity.  The  fruit- 
ful investigations  of  recent  years  in  the  fields  of 
psychology  of  rehgion  and  history  of  religion  fur- 
nish much  material  for  a  scientifically  satisfactory 
apologetic. 

2.  A  new  interpretation  of  the  supernatural  is 
relieving  some  of  the  tension  between  theology  and 
critical  science.  Rehgious  experience  is  psycho- 
logically natural,  and  religious  behefs  are  historicaUy 
seen  to  be  natural  products  of  human  thinking. 
The  presence  of  God  is  found  in  the  natural  as 
positively  as  in  the  supernatural.  Rehgiously  an 
event  is  valuable  for  its  spiritual  content  rather 
than  for  its  metaphysical  origin.  There  is  a 
general  tendency  to  regard  miracles  as  unusual 
events  exphcable  without  any  such  violation  of 
natural  laws  as  would  arouse  scientific  protest. 
Stress  is  laid  on  spiritual  content  rather  than  on 
theories  of  origin.  The  Bible  is  vindicated  by  the 
God-reveahng  quahty  of  its  message  rather  than 
by  a  theory  of  miraculous  composition.  The 
supremacy  of  Jesus  is  based  on  the  power  of  his 
life  to  compel  worshipful  adoration  rather  than  on 
a  doctrine  of  physical  origin.     There  is  a  growing 


23 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Apostolic  Canons 


reluctance  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the  natural 
and  the  supernatural.  The  world  is  regarded  as  a 
unity. 

3.  The  primary  emphasis  in  apologetics  is 
being  laid  on  moral  questions.  Is  Christianity 
adequate  to  the  enormous  demands  of  modern 
social  and  industrial  development?  The  full 
significance  of  Christianity  in  this  respect  has  not 
yet  been  reahzed.  Christian  apologists  are  bringing 
to  light  the  resources  of  Christian  ideaUsm,  showing 
that  Christianity  is  superior  not  only  to  other 
ethical  programs,  but  also  to  the  currently  accepted 
standards  of  nominally  Christian  people.  The 
difficulty  here  is  not  so  much  to  vindicate  the  ideals 
of  Jesus  as  to  prove  that  modern  Christianity  has 
the  will  and  the  power  to  embody  them  in  life. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  said  that  while  the 
apologetic  of  our  day  with  its  critical  understanding 
of  current  scientific,  philosophical,  and  social 
ideals  is  inevitably  somewhat  disturbing  to  those 
who  wish  a  complacent  faith,  this  very  disturbance 
of  conventional  attitudes  is  stimulating  a  more 
serious  study  of  Christianity  and  is  contributing 
to  the  vitaUzing  of  its  doctrines  and  its  ethics. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

APOLOGIST.— (1)  One  who  writes  in  defense 
of  Christianity.  (2)  A  designation  of  certain  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  church  in  the  2nd.  century,  chief 
among  whom  were  Justin  Martyr,  Aristides,  Melito, 
and  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus.  See 
Apologists. 

APOLOGISTS.— This  word  is  usually  employed 
in  a  special  sense  to  designate  certain  Christian 
leaders  of  the  2nd.  century  who  wrote  various 
treatises  in  defense  of  their  religion.  The  earUest 
of  the  group  was  Quadratus,  who  addressed  an 
apology  to  the  emperor  Hadrian  at  Athens  about 
the  year  125  a.d.  Another  defensive  treatise 
from  the  pen  of  Aristides,  a  Christian  philosopher 
of  Athens,  seems  to  have  been  written  shortly 
before  150  a.d.  At  Rome  Christianity  found  a 
vigorous  champion  in  Justin,  frequently  called 
Justin  Martyr,  whose  literary  activity  may  be 
roughly  assigned  to  the  years  150  to  165  a.d. 
His  so-called  First  Apology  made  on  behalf  of 
Christianity  to  the  Roman  emperor  and  his  Dialogue 
with  Trypho  defending  the  new  religion  against 
Jewish  critics  are  especially  worthy  of  note.  His 
pupil,  Tatian,  also  addressed  an  Oration  to  the 
Greeks  alleging  the  superior  truth  and  antiquity 
of  Christianity  over  all  Greek  culture.  Athena- 
goras,  who  perhaps  was  an  Athenian,  directed  an 
appeal  to  the  emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Com- 
rnodus  probably  in  the  year  177  a.d.  During  the 
ninth  decade  of  the  2nd.  century  Theophilus  of 
Antioch  composed  a  vigorous  apolgy  on  behalf 
of  Christians  in  three  books  addressed  to  a  heathen 
called  Autolychus.  Minucius  Felix,  a  Roman  con- 
temporary of  Theophilus,  set  forth  the  superior 
merits  of  Christianity  in  a  work  modeled  after  the 
dialogue  form  of  Cicero's  De  natura  deorum.  Subse- 
quent writers  such  as  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian 
are  similarly  apologetic  in  their  interests,  but  they 
are  not  usually  classed  in  this  group.  See  Apolo- 
getics. S.  J.  Case 

APOSTASY.— (1)  In  Greek  literature,  defection 
from  a  miUtary  officer.  (2)  Hence  used  in  Chris- 
tian terminology  for  the  abandonment  of  the  faith, 
or  disobedience  to  the  recognized  authority.  Some- 
times it  took  the  form  of  heresy  (q.v.);  sometimes 
the  renunciation  of  faith  under  pressure  of  persecu- 
tion. The  R.C.  church  recognizes  two  special  sorts 
of  apostasy:  (a)  abandonment  of  the  monastic 
life  without  permission;  and  (6)  abandonment  of 
clerical    orders    in    the    same     way.     Protestant 


theology  recognizes  only  the  apostasy  of  faith. 
The  early  Christian  emperors  regarded  apostasy 
as  a  criminal  act,  involving  civil  disabilities.  In 
post-Roman  times  apostates  have  been  dealt  with 
by  ecclesiastical  law,  excommunication  being  the 
usual  punishment. 

APOSTLE.— An  official  of  the  early  church 
appointed  and  "sent  forth"  by  Christ  to  be  an 
eyewitness  to  his  resurrection,  with  power  to  work 
miracles,  make  converts,  and  organize  churches. 

The  word  was  applied  originally  to  the  Twelve 
chosen  by  Jesus  to  be  his  messengers.  Paul, 
however,  claimed  apostleship  on  the  same  basis  as 
it  was  claimed  by  the  Twelve,  although  his  position 
rested  in  appointment  by  the  risen  Christ  and 
seems  not  to  have  been  universally  acknowledged 
in  the  non-PauUne  churches.  This  more  general 
use  of  the  term  seems  to  have  been  extended  in  the 
New  Testament  period  to  such  persons  as  Matthias, 
Barnabas,  and  others  who  apparently  met  the 
requirements  of  the  title.  Paul  holds  that  apostle- 
ship was  primary  among  the  offices  of  the  church 
and  was  the  result  of  a  charism. 

The  precise  relationship  of  the  apostles  to  the 
churches  which  they  founded  can  be  best  seen 
through  the  letters  of  Paul  to  the  churches  at 
Corinth  and  Phihppi.  Their  duties  seem  to  have 
been  largely  those  of  oversight  and  general  direction, 
rather  than  that  of  authoritative  interference  in 
church  affairs.  At  the  same  time  Paul  seems  to 
have  beUeved  that  he  had  power  to  act  in  questions 
of  discipline  wherever  faith  itself  was  not  involved. 

The  fact  that  the  apostle  as  a  witnessing  ambas- 
sador was  constantly  traveling  apparently  seems  to 
have  resulted  in  the  2nd.  century  in  the  apphcation 
of  the  name  apostle  to  a  group  of  itinerant  preachers, 
the  precise  duties  of  whom  are  not  clearly  known, 
but  whose  status  is  sketched  in  The  Teachings  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles. 

The  Cathohc  churches  teach  that  there  has  been 
a  succession  of  bishops  to  whom  and  through  whom 
were  transmitted  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  the 
power  and  authority  of  the  early  apostles  which 
give  sole  vahdity  to  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments.     See  Apostolic  Succession. 

Shailer  Mathews 

APOSTLES'  CREED.— The  shortest  and  the 
best  known  of  the  creeds,  dating  in  its  official 
form  from  about  500  a.d.,  but  traceable  in  variant 
phrasing  back  to  the  so-called  Roman  Symbol 
in  the  2nd.  century.  The  tradition  of  apostolic 
origin  cannot  be  traced  back  of  the  4th.  century. 
See  Crhbds  and  Articles  op  Faith. 

APOSTOLIC  AGE.— The  designation  of  that 
period  of  the  history  of  the  Christian  religion 
beginning  with  the  death  of  Christ  and  ending  with 
the  close  of  the  1st.  century.  The  sources  of 
information  for  the  period  are  the  New  Testament 
writings  (excepting  II  Peter  and  Jude),  and  certain 
extant  non-canonical  writings  written  about  the 
close  of  the  period  but  reflecting  its  conditions,  as 
e.g.,  the  Didache,  the  epistles  of  Barnabas,  Clement 
of  Rome,  and  Ignatius.  For  the  functions  of  the 
officers  of  the  period  see  Apostle;  Prophet; 
Bishop;  Presbyter;  Pastor;  Deacon. 

APOSTOLIC  BRETHREN.— An  order  of  ascet- 
ics arising  in  northern  Italy  about  1260.  They 
purported  to  five  in  apostolic  purity,  emphasized 
poverty  and  held  to  apocalyptic  ideas.  They 
came  into  conflict  with  the  church  and  were  forcibly 
suppressed. 

APOSTOLIC  CANONS.— A  Christian  writing 
of   the  4th.  century  of  unknown  authorship.     It 


Apostolic  Church 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


24 


reproduces  the  catechetical  teaching  preserved  in 
the  Didache  (q.v.)  and  also  reproduces  the  ApostoUc 
Constitutions  (q.v.).  It  contains  also  decrees  of 
various  synods  and  councils,  notably  that  of 
Antioch  341.  The  canons  number  85.  They 
include  a  list  of  O.T.  and  N.T.  books,  but  omit 
Revelation  and  add  I  and  II  Clement  and  the 
ApostoUc  Constitutions. 

APOSTOLIC      CHURCH      DIRECTORY.— A 

work  purporting  to  be  of  apostolic  origin,  but 
coming  from  Egypt  and  dating  from  about  the 
3rd.  century.  It  contains  legal  precepts,  both 
ethical  and  ecclesiastical. 

APOSTOLIC  CONSTITUTIONS.— A  collection 
of  church  teachings  and  decrees  dating  from  the 
3rd.  century  but  attributed  to  Clement  of  Rome. 
They  are  arranged  in  eight  books  and  are  85  in 
number.  Although  not  widely  accepted  they  have 
had  a  considerable  influence  and  have  historical 
value  because  preserving  a  picture  of  the  Christian 
life  in  the  3rd.  century.  They  draw  largely  on 
the  Didache  (q.v.),  the  Didascalia  (q.v.),  and 
Hippolytus  of  Rome. 

APOSTOLIC  DELEGATE.— A  representative  of 
the  Roman  curia,  delegated  as  president  of  a  national 
or  provincial  council,  or  having  papal  jurisdiction  in 
matters  ecclesiastical.  Called  also  papal  delegate. 
See  Legate. 

APOSTOLIC  FATHERS.— Writers  of  the  early 
church  who  were  contemporaneous  with  the  apostles 
— a  term  applied  to  Clement  of  Rome,  Barnabas, 
Hermas,  Ignatius,  Polycarp  and  Papias. 

APOSTOLIC  SEE.— A  church  founded  by  an 
apostle  and  thus  claiming  apostoUc  authority; 
used  to  designate  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  formerly 
used  of  the  churches  at  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria 
and  Jerusalem. 

APOSTOLIC  SUCCESSION.— The  doctrine 
of  the  uninterrupted  line  of  succession  in  the 
episcopacy  from  the  apostles  to  the  present.  The 
doctrine  is  maintained  by  the  Roman,  Greek  and 
Anglican  churches,  the  former  two  and  the  High 
Anglican  church  counting  it  essential  to  the 
vahdity  of  the  ministry.     See  Order,  Holy. 

APOTHEOSIS.— Deification:  the  practise  of 
exalting  rulers,  heroes,  or  conquerors  to  the  rank 
of  gods,  and  offering  to  them  divine  honors,  e.g.. 
Emperor-worship  (q.v.). 

APOTROPAISM.— A  technique  of  riddance  for 
averting  or  overcoming  evil.  Among  primitive 
peoples  apotropaic  ceremonies  are  those  m  which 
the  group  unites  to  exorcize  demons  by  such  prac- 
tises as  beating,  carting  away,  boating  away,  or 
shedding  the  blood  of  a  victim,  as  in  the  case  of 
Azazel  (cf.  Lev.  16th  chapter). 

APPETITE. — The  native  sense  of  need  in  the 

physical  organism,  expressed  in  a  craving  for 
the  satisfaction  of  corporeal  wants  and  stimulat- 
ing effort  to  procure  satisfaction.  Appetites  are 
directed  either  toward  self-preservation  as  hunger, 
thirst,  etc.,  or  toward  propagation  of  the  species 
as  sexual  desire.  Appetites  are  in  themselves  non- 
moral,  but  their  connection  with  pleasure  and  pain 
gives  them  ethical  significance.  Where  the  behavior 
of  a  person  is  dominated  by  appetites  the  person 
becomes  unsocial  and  hence  immoral.  Morality 
involves  control  of  appetites  in  subordination  to  a 
rationally  approved  end.    Asceticism  (q.v.)  is  an 


exaggerated  protest  against  the  power  of  appetite. 
Antinomianism  (q.v.)  is  an  exaggerated  neglect  of 
their  influence.     See  Ethics. 

APSE. — (1)  Architecturally,  a  semicircular  or 
semioctagonal  enclosure,  with  a  domed  covering, 
which  usually  terminated  the  aisles  or  choir  of 
ancient  basilicas,  and  which  contained  the  altar 
and  the  bishop's  seat.  (2)  Ecclesiastically,  the 
eastern  end  of  the  church  containing  the  altar,  no 
matter  what  the  architectural  form  may  be. 

AQUINAS,  ST.  THOMAS  (1227-74).— Count  of 
Aquino,  educated  by  the  Benedictines  of  Monte 
Cassino,  became  a  Dominican  in  Naples  (1243), 
studied  with  Albertus  Magnus  in  Cologne  and 
Paris  and  himself  became  a  dominant  teacher 
(Cologne  1248,  Paris  1252,  Italy  1261,  Paris  1269, 
Naples  1271).  Blending  church  dogma  with  the 
AristoteUan  science  newly  brought  from  Spain, 
Aquinas  was  opposed  as  a  "modernist,"  but  his 
profound  theology  became  obhgatory  for  Domini- 
cans and  Jesuits  and  in  1879  was  made  normative  for 
the  Church.  Prolific  with  commentaries  on  Scrip- 
ture and  Aristotle,  he  furnished  encyclopedic  con- 
structions of  aU  knowledge  in  harmony  with  dogma 
in  his  Summa  Catholicae  fidei  contra  Gentiles  (after 
1261)  and  the  Summa  Theologiae  (after  1265). 
Natural  reason,  he  argues,  demonstrates  funda- 
mental truths  like  God's  existence  and  man's 
ethical  duty,  but  requires  to  complete  and  per- 
fect truth  the  revelation  of  Trinity,  Incarnation, 
Sacraments,  Eschatology.  Dealing  with  these 
higher  truths,  reason  cannot  give  demonstration 
but  can  be  persuasive  by  showing  the  absence  of 
contradiction.  Aquinas  broke  with  Augustinian 
tradition  and  restored  the  Greek  intellectualism 
which  gave  primacy  to  the  intellect.  By  his  social 
ethics  he  retains  a  modern  interest.  He  views  the 
state — which  is  due  to  a  social  instinct — as  a  neces- 
sary stage  of  Hfe  leading  to  its  own  completion  in 
the  church,  the  realm  of  grace.        F.  A.  Christie 

ARABIA,  RELIGIONS  OF.— Arabia  is  too  vast 
in  extent,  too  variegated  in  character  to  produce  a 
lasting  religious  unit. 

For  ancient  times  we  are  not  well  informed. 
Our  earliest  sources  are  South  Arabic  inscriptions. 
Of  these  a  fair  number  is  published,  many  more 
are  stiU  unpubUshed.  The  interpretation  of  those 
at  hand  has  given  rise  to  many  serious  differences- 
of  opinion.  They  exhibit  in  general  a  fairly  high 
state  of  culture  and  religion.  Most  of  them  are 
rehgious  in  character  and  name  a  number  of  gods 
in  various  capacities,  but  do  not  present  a  system 
of  reUgion.  The  features  exhibited  are  not  unlike 
those  of  other  Semitic  religions  (q.v.)  in  a  similarly 
advanced  state  of  civihzation.  The  deities  are 
largely  astral.  'Athtar  (  =  Ishtar,  the  planet 
Venus)  is  masculine,  as  is  the  moon  under  various 
names;  Shams,  the  sun,  is  a  goddess.  El  occurs 
frequently,  mostly  in  proper  names.  Incense  and 
its  use  in  the  cult  has  its  home,  probably  its  origin, 
in  South  Arabia. 

For  North  Arabic  peoples  we  have  from  Herodo- 
tus (111:8)  down  scattered  and  fragmentary 
information.  Nowhere  does  their  religion  appear 
whoUy  primitive.  At  best  only  fragmentary 
remnants  of  rudimentary  totemistic,  animistic, 
fetishistic,  etc.,  concepts  are  discernible,  but  no 
clear-cut  system  or  phase  of  totemism  or  other  ism. 
Crude  rites  are  found,  worship  of  stones,  trees; 
repugnant  forms  of  sacrifice  (human;  animal  by 
drinking  the  blood  and  consuming,  raw  and  fresh, 
every  possible  shred).  Progress  is  observable,  e.g., 
in  rites  of  affiliation  or  treaty:  contracting  parties 
actually  lick  each  other's  blood;    mingle  it  on 


25 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Aram 


stones  set  up  as  symbols,  crude  altars,  or  mementos; 
substitute  animal  blood;  dip  fingers  together,  in 
scented  water;  finally  all  such  rites  disappear.  The 
morning  star  is,  as  in  the  south,  first  a  male  deity, 
later  under  foreign  influence  a  goddess,  al-'Uzzah. 
By  600  A.D.  the  cult  of  a  number  of  gods  is  still  ahve. 
especially  in  festivals  connected  with  fairs  and  a 
"truce  of  God,"  shrewdly  developed  by  the  miUion- 
aires  of  Mecca.  The  gods  themselves  are  given 
little  thought  or  reverence;  there  is  no  theology 
worth  the  najne.  Even  for  the  more  favored 
goddesses,  AUat  ("the  goddess,"  fem.  of  Allah) 
al-'Uzzah,  and  Manat,  old  worshipers  fear  after  their 
death  desuetude.  Allah,  somewhat  shadowy,  has 
no  cult,  but  enjoys  in  many  minds  a  curious,  ill- 
defined  supremacy. 

This  means  that  the  polytheistic  stage  for 
Arabia  is  passing.  Judaism  and  Christianity  are 
penetrating  the  peninsula  from  the  north  and  from 
the  South.  Then  with  Mohammed  Arabia  creates 
a  form  of  monotheism  more  suitable  for  itself  and 
for  a  large  part  of  Asia  and  Africa  (see  Moham- 
medanism) and  thrusts  out  the  older  forms. 

Presently  Arabia  is  again  divided  against  itself. 
Kharigite  rebels  seize  and  hold  Oman.  Karmatian 
schismatics  overspread  Bahrein,  the  Yemen,  and 
for  a  space  hold  Mecca.  Now,  to  the  joy  of  expand- 
ing Christianity,  the  straightlaced  Wahhabite 
orthodoxy  of  the  Nejd,  the  Shi^te-colored  South, 
and  the  Hidjaz  and  Mecca,  Sunnite  with  cosmopoli- 
tan nondescript  admixtures,  are  fighting  each  other. 

M.  Sprenglinq 

ARABIC  PHILOSOPHY.— The  philosophical 
endeavor  of  the  mediaeval  Near  East,  Mohanunedan 
in  its  world- view  and  Arabic  in  its  language.  In  its 
narrowest  sense,  as  used  by  writers  in  Arabic  them- 
selves, the  name  philosopher  is  applied  to  those  men 
only  who  expounded  Greek  philosophy,  especially 
Aristotle  with  a  neoplatonic  varnish. 

An  even  half  dozen  names  of  outstanding  "phi- 
losophers" of  this  type  are  stressed,  in  manuals  and 
articles  under  the  heading  Arabic  or  Arabian 
Philosophy  or  Philosophy  of  Islam.  Three  of 
these  are  of  the  Eastern  half  of  the  Moslem  world: 
al-Kindt,  the  only  pure  Arab  of  the  lot  (ca.  850),  at 
or  near  Bagdad;  al-Farabt,  died  at  Aleppo  950; 
and  Ibn  Stna,  980-1037.  The  other  trio  is  of  the 
West,  Spain  and  North  Africa:  Ibn  Bajja,  died 
1138  at  Fez  in  Morocco;  Ibn  Tufail,  a  sort  of 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  of  mediaeval  Islam,  died 
1185  at  Morocco;  and  finally  Ibn  Rushd,  born 
1126  in  Cordova,  died  1198  at  Morocco.  Five  of 
these  were  well  known  in  Europe  in  late  mediaeval 
times;  the  latinized  forms  of  their  names  (Alkindius 
Alfarabius,  Avicenna,  Avempace,  Averroes),  better 
known  to  most  Occidentals  even  today  than  their 
original  forms,  give  some  hint  of  the  profound  in- 
fluence they  exerted  on  the  thought  of  the  Schoolmen . 

Had  Arabic  philosophy  done  nothing  more  than  to 
give  through  these  men  and  a  few  others  to  mediae- 
val Europe  a  much  more  complete  Aristotle  than 
it  had,  it  would  still  deserve  to  be  held  by  us  in 
grateful  memory.  The  drawbacks  of  a  threefold 
translation,  Greek  to  Syriac  to  Arabic  to  Latin, 
through  which  it  had  to  pass  before  reaching  Europe, 
are  offset  by  the  fact  that  the  selection  of  material 
and  the  manner  of  presentation  were  better  adapted 
to  mediaeval  understanding  in  the  Mediterranean 
world  than  the  original  would  have  been. 

This  latter  consideration  should  give  pause  to 
those  who  would  make  all  Arabic  philosophy  but  a 
passing  phase  in  the  history  of  AristoteUanism. 
This  view,  for  long  and  until  recently  very  generally 
held,  is  too  narrow  and  too  unfair  to  retain  a 
permanent  place  in  the  modern  world's  thought. 
It  does  not  take  into  account  the  close  relationship 
between  the  development  of  theological  and  philo- 


sophical thinking  in  the  Mohammedan  and  in  the 
mediaeval  world  generally.  The  mediaeval  world 
was  a  theological  world,  very  different  from  the 
antique  world  of  Aristotle.  The  problems  of  its 
thinkers  are  not  the  main  problems  of  Aristotle  and 
the  Greeks.  They  are  theological  problems,  the 
problem  of  creation,  the  problem  of  the  attributes 
of  God,  the  problem  of  free  will.  These  were 
scientifically  formulated  by  the  Mu'tazilites  late 
in  the  8th.  and  early  in  the  9th.  century.  These 
Mu'tazilites  introduced  the  use  of  reason  into 
Mohammedan  thinking,  instead  of  the  mere  accept- 
ance of  revelational  and  traditional  formulae; 
they  are  the  rationaUsts  (but  not  freethinkers)  of 
Islam;  with  them  begins  the  history  of  Arabic  or 
Mohammedan  philosophy.  The  problems  thus 
formulated  are  the  problems  that  engross  the 
"philosophers"  par  excellence  named  above  as  well 
as  the  theologians;  it  is  for  the  solution  of  these, 
not  for  mere  historic  or  abstract  scientific  interest, 
that  the  Arabs  go  to  Aristotle  and  handle  him, 
reverently  indeed,  but  with  sovereign  mastery;  the 
scheme  or  framework  of  the  writings  of  these  phi- 
losophers is  constructed  wholly  upon  these  problems. 
From  this  larger  point  of  view  Arabic  philosophy 
is  not  a  mere  chapter  in  the  history  of  Aristotelian- 
ism,  but  a  large  section,  perhaps  the  foremost 
section  in  that  chapter  of  human  thought,  wherein 
it  wrestles  with  the  problems  of  monotheism,  with 
the  conception  and  understanding  of  a  world  given 
to  it,  constructed  for  it  by  that  monotheistic 
revealed  religion  which  is  the  chief  characteristic 
of  mediaeval  thought  throughout  Europe  and 
Western  Asia.  Beginning  with  the  Mu'tazihtes,  it 
develops  in  the  divergent  currents  of  the  "phi- 
losophers" and  the  kaldm  theology  of  the  Ash'arites, 
and  finds  its  apex  in  the  genial  Ghazalt  (1058-1111), 
only  to  settle  back  to  the  broad  level  of  orthodox 
Ash'arite  theology.  With  all  its  limitations  it 
goes  beyond  the  Greeks  in  the  formulation  of  the 
problem  of  causation  (where  it  foreshadows  Schopen- 
hauer) and  in  Ghazalis  keen  critique  of  the  function 
of  sense  perception  and  of  the  human  brain  (which 
is  nearer  to  Hume  and  Kant  than  anything  in 
Europe  before  these  men  themselves).  Nor  would 
any  statement  of  Arabic  philosophy  be  complete 
without  mention  of  Ibn  Khaldun  (1332-1406)  and 
his  philosophy  of  history,  which  prefigures  modern 
evolutionary  thought.--Sufism,  (q.  v.)  i.e.,  Mo- 
hammedan mysticism  demands  separate  treatment. 

M.  Sphbnglikg 
ARALU. — The    dismal    under-world    abode    of 
the  dead  in  ancient  Babylonia. 

ARAM,  ARAMAEANS,  ARAMAIC  LAN- 
GUAGE.— Aram  is  the  name  of  a  people,  not  of  a 
place.  Where  applied  to  a  locality  it  is  usually 
joined  to  a  place  name,  Aram  of  Damascus — of  the 
two  rivers,  etc. 

Their  language  appears  in  written  documents 
from  the  8th.  century  b.c.  on.  It  is  their  language, 
chiefly,  which  marks  them  as  one  of  the  great  groups 
of  Semitic  peoples  which,  as  far  as  history  reaches, 
are  pressing  outward  from  desert  Arabia  toward 
the  surrounding  fertile  lands.  Of  the  great  layers 
or  groups  they  are  the  third,  being  preceded  by 
the  Assyro-Babylonians  and  the  Amorites  (Canaan- 
ites).  The  fourth  great  layer  are  the  Arabs,  who 
hold  the  field  to  the  present. 

The  home  of  the  Aramaeans  in  the  nomad  stage, 
just  before  they  appear  in  historical  notices,  is  the 
Syrian  desert.  Thenoe,  as  early  as  2000  B.C.,  per- 
haps earher,  they  trouble  merchants  and  farmers 
on  the  lower  Euphrates.  Pushed  by  difficulties 
within  and  behind  their  land  they  drift  and  press 
into  the  fertile  lands  roundabout.  With  Abraham 
and  Jacob  they  appear  in  Palestine  (Deut.   26:5). 


Aranyakas 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


26 


By  the  13th.  century  they  are  thoroughly  at  home 
in  Mesopotamia. 

Adaptability  to  new  surroundings  and  great 
ability  as  merchants  and  traders  are  outstanding 
characteristics.  Small,  detached  units  in  the 
van  of  the  great  push  are  absorbed  by  the  earlier 
settlers  and  adopt  their  language  and  letters,  as 
Abraham- Jacob-Israel  did  in  Canaan.  In  the  8th. 
century  we  find  kings  in  northern  Syria,  some  with 
non-Semitic  names,  changing  from  Canaanite  to 
Aramaic  in  their  inscriptions.  Presently,  in  Assyrian 
and  Achaemenid-Persian  times,  Aramaic  becomes 
the  lingua  franca  of  the  Levant,  and  so  remains  in 
some  measure,  until  Arabic  Islam  thrusts  it  into  the 
background. 

Religiously  they  do  not  appear  creative;  it  is 
difficult  to  name  specifically  Aramaean  gods,  beliefs, 
practices.  They  fall  in  with  and  foster  the  tendency 
toward  syncretism.  Then  they  cling,  sometimes 
with  strange  tenacity,  to  their  syncretic  formations. 
At  Harran  a  curious  form  of  paganism  survived  to 
Moslem  days,  well  into  the  8th.  century  a.d.  In 
Christian  times  Aramaean  came  to  mean  pagan, 
though  Jesus  spoke  Aramaic,  and  early  records  of 
him  were  written  in  that  tongue.  Despite  this, 
Aramaic  (or  Syriac,  its  chief  literary  dialect) 
became  for  centuries  the  chief  spoken  tongue  and 
literary  vehicle  of  eastern  Judaism  and  Christianity. 
Nestorianism,  thrust  out  of  the  Graeco-Roman  world, 
became  the  dominant  form  of  Christianity  in 
Sassanian  Persia  and  carried  its  religion  and  the 
Syriac  tongue  as  far  East  as  the  heart  of  China. 
Monophysitism  gained  one  of  its  chief  strongholds 
in  the  Syriac-speaking  churches.  Arabic  Islam 
presently  reduced  the  sphere  of  Christian  Syriac 
materially.  But  though  severely  circumscribed 
and  buffeted  a  millennium  and  more  by  adverse 
fortune,  these  people  have  clung  to  their  own  with 
the  tenacity  of  old  Harran.  And  now  Aramaic 
Christians  m  the  borders  of  Mesopotamia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Persia,  calling  themselves  by  the  unfor- 
tunate name  of  Assyrians,  are  clamoring  for  recog- 
nition with  a  voice,  which  only  adverse  political 
constellations  and  the  Armenian  massacres  and 
appeals  make  inaudible  to  Western  Christian 
powers.  M.  Speengling 

ARANYAKAS.— The  name  of  a  class  of  the 
sacred  books  of  India  later  than  the  Vedas  and 
Brahmanas,  used  by  hermits  who  have  given  up  the 
fife  of  householder  and  retired  to  the  forest  for 
meditation  and  study.     See  Sacred  Literatures. 

ARCANI  DISCIPLINA.— The  secret  instruction 
regarding  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  which  in 
the  early  centuries  of  Christianity  was  given  only 
to  those  who  were  baptized.  The  practice  dated 
from  the  later  2nd.  century. 

ARCHAEOLOGY.— The  science  which  from 
the  remains  of  human  industry  and  art  seeks  to 
reconstruct  the  life  and  thought  of  the  men  of 
former  times.  For  the  ages  prior  to  the  invention 
of  writing  it  is  the  only  source  of  information  in 
regard  to  the  religion  of  mankind. 

From  the  EoUthic  age  and  from  the  earlier 
Paleolithic  age  (500,000  b.c?)  no  evidences  of  reli- 
gious ideas  have  yet  been  discovered.  Ceremonial 
burials  are  first  found  in  the  Acheulian  epoch. 
These  suggest  belief  in  the  continued  existence  of 
the  dead  and  possibly  worship  of  their  spirits. 
Where  a  belief  in  spirits  existed  the  animistic  theory 
of  the  universe  held  by  modern  savages  probably 
also  existed.  In  the  Magdalenian  epoch  (ca.  25,000 
B.C.)  models  of  men  and  of  animals  and  drawings 
on  stone  and  ivory  appear.  These  may  have  served 
magical  or  other  religious  uses. 


In  the  Neolithic  age  archaeology  shows  that  men 
held  a  polydaemonistic  system  of  beliefs  similar 
to  the  rehgions  of  existing  savages.  Megalithic 
monuments  throughout  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
consisting  of  standing  stones  (menhirs),  stone 
tables  (dolmens)  and  stone  circles  (cromlechs), 
mark  the  sanctuaries  of  this  period. 

In  the  period  subsequent  to  the  invention  of 
writing  archaeology  furnishes  additional  material 
in  the  knowledge  derived  from  inscriptions  and 
from  documents.  In  the  Age  of  Bronze,  as  early 
as  5000  B.C.,  hieroglyphic  writing  was  invented  in 
Babylonia  and  in  Egypt,  and  from  that  time  onward 
down  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  copious 
records  were  written  in  both  scripts.  The  discovery 
of  these  documents  and  of  numerous  sacred  objects 
by  modern  excavators  has  made  possible  the  recon- 
struction of  the  Babylonian  and  of  the  Egyptian 
religions.  See  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  Religion 
of;  Egypt,  Religion  of. 

The  religion  of  Canaan  prior  to  the  Hebrew  con- 
quest has  recently  become  known  through  the 
excavation  of  a  number  of  the  mounds  of  Palestine. 
It  is  seen  to  have  been  a  primitive  form  of  poly- 
daemonism  combined  with  the  beginnings  of 
polytheism.    See  Baal;  Canaanites,  Religion  of. 

Archaeology  throws  much  light  on  the  popular 
religion  of  ancient  Israel.  It  shows  that  the  early 
histories  of  the  Old  Testament  are  correct  in  accus- 
ing the  Hebrews  of  adopting  the  high  places  of  the 
Canaanites,  serving  their  gods,  and  sacrificing 
children.  It  also  confirms  modern  criticism  of  the 
Old  Testament  by  showing  that  there  was  a  pro- 
gressive development  of  religious  ideas  during  the 
centuries  that  followed  the  conquest. 

In  the  classical  civilizations  and  in  the  Chris- 
tian civilizations  of  Europe  archaeology  is  an  impor- 
tant aid  in  the  study  of  the  history  of  religion  by 
discovering  the  artistic  expression  of  religious  ideas 
in  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  and  minor 
sacred  objects.  Lewis  B.  Paton 

ARCHBISHOP.— In  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
an  archbishop  is  a  bishop  who  has  oversight  of 
several  other  bishoprics  as  well  as  charge  of  his 
own.  His  duties  include  the  calling  and  presid- 
ing over  provincial  councils,  the  oversight,  with 
the  assent  of  the  council,  of  his  suffragans,  and  the 
hearing  of  appeals  from  episcopal  courts.  In  the 
Eastern  church  the  archbishop  has  not  always 
metropolitan  rank,  and  the  title  is  more  common. , 
In  the  Lutheran  church  the  metropoUtans  of 
Sweden  and  Finland  bear  the  title.  In  the  Anglican 
church  there  are  the  archbishoprics  of  Canterbury 
and  of  York,  and  the  jurisdiction  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  R.C.  dignitaries.     See  Bishop. 

ARCHDEACON,  ARCHPRESBYTER,  ARCH- 
PRIEST. — Officials  in  the  early  and  mediaeval 
church,  so  called  because  of  their  superior  positions 
among  the  groups  to  which  they  belonged.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  archdeacons  came  to  exercise  con- 
siderable power,  but  since  the  16th.  century  the 
office  has  declined  in  importance,  giving  way  usually 
to  the  office  of  vicar-general.  In  modern  times  an 
archdeacon  in  the  Anglican  and  Protestant 
Episcopal  churches  is  an  official  charged  with  part 
of  the  bishop's  administration  of  a  diocese.  See 
Deacon;  Presbyter;  Priest. 

ARCHDIOCESE.— The  territory  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  an  archbishop. 

ARCHIMANDRITE.— The  head  of  several 
monasteries  of  the  same  congregation,  or  some- 
times of  one  large  community  in  the  Greek  church. 
The  office  dates  from  the  5th.  century. 


27 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Arius 


ARCHIVES,  ECCLESIASTICAL.— A  deposi- 
tory of  records  and  documents  of  historical  value 
relative  to  any  church  or  religious  community; 
also  apphed  to  the  documents  themselves,  e.g.,  the 
Vatican  archives. 

ARCOSOLIUM. — An  arched  recess,  being  one 
form  of  the  tombs  in  the  Roman  catacombs  used  by 
early  Christians. 

ARHAT  (ARAHAT).— The  highest  rank  of 
sainthood  in  early  Buddhism,  ascribed  to  one  who 
has  gained  enlightenment  and  become  perfect  in 
the  eight-fold  path. 

ARIANISM. — A  heresy,  chiefly  associated  with 
Christology,  so  designated  from  its  chief  exponent, 
Arius  (q.v.),  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria.  The  origin 
of  the  teaching  reverts  to  the  tendency,  appearing 
in  Justin  Martyr  and  Origen,  to  call  the  Logos  "a 
second  God,"  subordinate  to  the  divine  Father,  in 
the  interests  of  monotheism.  At  the  council  of 
Nicaea,  325,  the  orthodox  party  defended  the  con- 
substantiability  {homoousios)  of  the  Son  with  the 
Father  in  opposition  to  the  Arian  position  that  the 
Son  was  created  by  and  essentially  different  from 
the  Father  (heteroousios  or  anomoios)  though 
pre-existent.  Though  the  orthodox  party  tri- 
umphed, the  struggle  was  still  more  bitter  in  the 
period  between  the  councils  of  Nicaea  and  Con- 
stantinople. In  the  post-Nicene  period  the  watch- 
word of  the  Arian  party  was  homoios,  meaning 
"similar,"  Christ  being  given  a  representative 
function,  and  deprived  at  once  of  both  genuine 
deity  and  humanity.  A  mediating  party  also 
appeared,  called  Semi-Arians  (q.v.),  whose  watch 
word  was  homoiousios,  meaning  of  "similar  essence." 
During  this  period  about  eighteen  councils  were 
convened,  the  various  parties  anathematizing  one 
another  over  their  metaphysical  differences,  but 
orthodoxy  eventually  triumphed  at  the  council  of 
Constantinople,  381,  and  Arianism  gradually  dis- 
appeared from  the  East.  It  was  that  form  of 
Christianity  to  which  the  Teutonic  barbarians 
were  converted  and  it  persisted  among  them  until 
the  7th.  century.     See  Christology. 

ARISTOTLE    AND     ARISTOTELIANISM.— 

Aristotle,  Greek  philosopher,  384-322  B.C.,  born 
at  Stagira,  hence  called  "the  Stagirite."  He  was  in 
Athens  367-347  as  the  pupil  of  Plato,  in  Mitylene 
343-335  as  tutor  to  Alexander  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  reign  of  Phihp,  and  again  in  Athens  for  12  years 
teaching  in  the  Lyceum.  The  most  significant 
facts  were  his  relationship  with  Plato,  which  made 
possible  his  philosophical  labor,  and  with  Alexander 
which  enabled  him  to  collect  materials  for  his 
library  and  data  for  his  scientific  work. 

From  the  standpoint  of  literary  form  Aristotle's 
works  may  be  classified  as  dialogues,  didactic,  and 
rhetorical  works;  from  that  of  subject-matter  as 
logic,  natural  science,  primary  philosophy  or  the- 
ology, ethics,  history,  and  miscellaneous.  His  erudi- 
tion and  literary  production  were  encyclopaedic. 

Aristotelianism  is  a  philosophy  of  individual 
substances  as  opposed  to  the  Platonic  philosophy 
of  universal  forms,  the  former  emphasizing  the 
natural  and  substantial  as  against  the  tendency  of 
the  latter  to  the  supernatural  and  abstract.  These 
concrete  substances  comprise  reahty,  possessing 
attributes  distributable  into  categories.  Universals 
are  really  predicates  of  the  particulars.  The  gen- 
erative causes  of  real  being  are  four:  a  material 
cause  which  is  passive,  a  formal  cause  which  is  idea- 
tional, an  efficient  cause  which  is  active,  and  a 
final  cause  which  is  purposive.  These  four  are 
reduced  to  two  by  combining  the  last  three  into 


one.  Thus  there  are  two  ultimate  principles  in 
substances,  the  material  substratum  and  the  differ- 
entiating essence  or  form-giving  idea,  matter 
being  the  potentiality  and  idea  the  dynamic,  while 
the  combination  is  actuaUty.  Substances  are  of 
three  kinds,  nature,  man,  and  God.  In  man  the 
differentiating  essence  is  soul  and  the  body  is  the 
material  element.  The  Supreme  Being  is  an 
exception  to  the  rule,  and  is  supernatural  substance, 
consisting  of  pure  form  without  matter.  He  is  the 
prime  Mover,  himself  unmovable,  the  necessary 
result  of  the  principle  of  causahty.  He  is  pure 
thought,  and  is  Himself  the  subject  of  his  con- 
templation. The  special  sciences  deal  with  groups 
of  specific  facts,  deduced  from  primary  principles. 
Philosophy  is  a  science  of  universals,  or  first  science, 
the  subject-matter  of  which  is  God,  and  thus 
embraces  all  other  principles  and  first  cause. 

Aristotle's  psychology  was  a  theoretical  duahsm 
of  body  (matter)  and  soul  (essence),  the  former 
being  capacity  or  potentiaUty,  and  the  latter  func- 
tion or  actuality.  His  epistemology  represented 
the  human  mind  as  a  recipient  but  not  a  creator  of 
ideas.  It  is  a  blank  page,  possessing  the  faculty 
for  shaping  ideas.  Knowledge  is  therefore  con- 
ceptual. The  human  soul  stands  between  the 
animal  and  God,  partaking  in  the  sensibility, 
perception  and  memory  of  the  animal,  and  in  the 
reason  of  God.  Hence  morality  is  a  characteristic 
of  humanity,  and  virtue  consists  in  an  equiUbrium 
between  reason  and  the  animal  elements,  a  mean 
between  two  extremes.  In  poHtical  theory  Aris- 
totle argued  that  monarchical  government  tends 
toward  the  maximum  of  virtue  and  happiness. 

In  the  Patristic  period,  Aristotle  was  attacked 
by  some,  as  Irenaeus  and  TertulUan,  while  others 
ignored  his  works.  But  the  Alexandrians,  especially 
Clement,  hailed  him  as  a  forerunner  of  Christ  to 
the  Hellenic  world.  Boethius,  through  his  Latin 
version  of  a  part  of  the  Organon,  introduced  Aristotle 
to  the  western  church.  The  Arabians  notably 
Avicenna  and  Averroes  revived  Aristotle  in  the 
11th.  and  12th.  centuries.  Through  their  influence 
Latin  translations  of  and  commentaries  on  Aris- 
totle's works  were  introduced  to  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian thinkers.  Moses  Maimonides,  the  Jewish 
writer,  continued  the  movement.  At  first  the 
church  condemned  Aristotle's  physics  (1209)  and 
his  metaphysics  (1215),  but  his  system  was  too  well 
fitted  to  Catholicism  for  that  attitude  to  persist. 
By  1300  he  was  declared  "precursor  of  Christ  in 
things  natural  as  John  the  Baptist  was  in  matters 
of  grace." 

Albertus  Magnus  (q.v.)  followed  Avicenna  whom 
he  regarded  as  the  best  interpreter  of  Aristotle. 
Albertus  was  the  teacher  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.v.), 
the  greatest  of  the  Catholic  theologians.  In  him 
we  have  Aristotehanism  ecclesiasticized.  The 
dualism  of  Aristotle  was  carried  over  as  a  dualism 
between  supernaturalism  and  rationalism,  the 
church  and  the  world.  The  hierarchical  system 
of  his  concepts  from  universals  through  class- 
concepts  to  particulars  provided  Aquinas  with 
the  tools  for  vindicating  the  divine  authority  of  the 
Church's  knowledge.  The  deductive  method  of  his 
logic  is  the  method  of  Catholicism  in  its  theological 
and  ecclesiastical  pronouncements. 

A.   S.  WoODBtrRNB 

ARIUS  (256-336).— Presbyter  of  Alexandria 
who  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  because  of  his 
views  concerning  the  substance  of  the  Son. 

As  a  man  he  was  of  good  character  and  earnest- 
ness. After  having  preached  and  taught  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  Son  to  the  Father  and  maintaining 
that  he  was  of  similar  rather  than  the  same  sub- 
stance he  was  condemned  by  the  Synod  of  Alex- 
andria (320-321),  and  subsequently  condemned  at 


Ark 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


28 


the  Council  of  Nicaea  and  banished.  None  the 
less  his  view  found  many  followers  and  at  times 
gained  control  of  the  imperial  court.  (See  Arian- 
ISM.)  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Arius  was  recalled 
from  banishment  and  would  have  been  received 
back  with  honor  into  the  church  had  he  not  died  the 
day  preceding  that  set  for  the  service. 

ARK. — (1)  According  to  Hebrew  literature,  the 
large  floating  vessel  built  by  Noah  by  command  of 
Yahweh,  as  a  refuge  from  the  deluge  (Gen.  6:5 — 
9:17).  Comparative  mythology  furnishes  parallel 
traditions  in  Indian  Hterature  where  Manu  plays 
the  role  assigned  to  Noah  (Catapatha  Brahmana, 
Mahabharata  and  Bhagavata  Purana),  and  in 
Babylonian  hterature  where  the  part  of  Noah  is 
assigned  to  Xisuthrus  {Gilgamesh).  (2)  _  The 
basket  in  the  bulrushes  in  which  Moses  was  hidden 
until  found  by  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  (Exod. 
3:12).  (3)  The  ark  of  the  covenant  (Deut.  10:8), 
ark  of  the  testimony  (Exod.  25:16),  or  ark  of  the 
revelation;  a  sacred  chest  made  of  acacia  wood, 
overlaid  and  lined  with  gold,  and  surmounted  with 
two  cherubim.  The  Hebrews  took  the  ark  with 
them  in  their  travels,  since  it  symboUzed  for  them 
in  the  presence  of  Yahweh.  (4)  The  ark  of  the  law 
is  a  chest  used  in  Jewish  synagogues  as  a  repository 
for  the  scrolls  of  the  Torah.  (5)  In  the  Ethiopian 
church,  a  chest  which  has  been  dedicated  to  serve 
as  an  altar.  (6)  Metaphorically  used  for  the 
church  as  the  divinely  authorized  institution  of 
salvation. 

ARLES,  SYNOD  OF.— A  Synod  caUed  at  Aries, 
in  S.E.  France  in  314  by  Emperor  Constantino 
to  settle  the  dispute  between  the  Catholics  and 
Donatists.  It  was  thoroughly  representative  of  the 
Western  provinces,  33  bishops  being  present.  The 
prohibition  of  the  rebaptisra  of  apostates  with 
the  Trinitarian  formula  was  a  decision  against  the 
Donatists.  Three  bishops  must  be  present  for  an 
episcopal  ordination.  The  majority  of  the  22 
canons  concerned  the  discipUne  of  clergy  and  laity, 
and  were  called  forth  by  the  necessity  felt  by  the 
church  to  define  its  position  since  its  imperial 
recognition.     See  Donatism. 

ARMENIA,  CHURCH  OF.— A  church  kindred 
to  the  Greek  church  in  form,  but  independent  in 
organization,  and  differing  from  the  "orthodoxy" 
of  the  main  bodies  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches  in  rejecting  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon. 

Tradition  traces  back  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  Armenia  to  a  legendary  mission  of  the 
Apostle  Thaddaeus  to  King  Abgar,  together  with 
supposed  visits  of  Bartholomew,  Simon,  and 
Jude.  There  is  no  historical  authority  for  this. 
The  real  origin  of  the  Armenian  church  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  mission  of  Gregory  the  Illuminator 
ea,rly  in  the  4th.  century,  which  has  been  decorated 
with  much  later  legendary  matter.  Under  his 
influence  Christianity  even  came  to  be  formally 
adopted  as  the  national  religion  of  Armenia. 

The  breach  with  the  Greek  church  was  brought 
about  by  the  opposition  of  the  Armenians  to  the 
decision  of  Chalcedon  (a.d.  451),  which  they  held 
to  favour  Nestorianism.  In  the  year  535  the  sepa- 
ration was  made  final  by  the  Council  of  Tiben, 
which  anathematised  the  Orthodox  church  and 
added  a  monosophysite  clause— "who  was  crucified 
for  us" — to  the  Trisagion,  i.e.,  to  the  doxology 
"Holy,  Holy,  Holy,"  etc.  Frota  the  times  of  the 
earUest  Turkish  invasions  the  Armenian  Christians 
have  suffered  cruel  persecution,  culminating  in  the 
massacres  of  recent  times.  See  also  Monophysites. 
Walter  F.  Adeney 


ARMINIANISM  AND  ARMINIUS.— The  type 
of  doctrine  taught  by  James  Arminius — who 
studied  at  Geneva,  Basle,  and  Leyden,  and  finally 
in  1603  was  called  to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Leyden — very  soon  after  his  day 
began  to  be  termed  Arminianism.  Frequently, 
however,  the  term  has  been  made  to  connote, 
besides  the  formally  expressed  tenets  of  Arminius, 
doctrinal  conceptions  logically  deducible  from 
them.  His  departures  from  the  Reformed  teaching 
,in  which  he  had  been  reared  scarcely  went  beyond 
the  rejection  of  unconditional  election  and  irresist- 
ible grace.  In  place  of  these  features  of  the  reigning 
Calvinism  he  affirmed  conditional  election  and 
man's  freedom  to  accept  or  to  reject  divine  over- 
tures. 

The  immediate  followers  of  Arminius  in  the 
Netherlands — among  whom  Uytenbogaert,  Grotius, 
Episcopius,  and  Limborch  were  prominent — 
acquired  the  name  of  Remonstrants  from  the  title  of 
the  document  which  they  put  forth  in  1610,  the 
year  after  the  death  of  Arminius.  In  the  five 
articles  of  this  manifesto,  while  giving  not  a  little 
emphasis  to  man's  spiritual  dependence,  they 
rule  out  unconditional  predestination,  limited  atone- 
ment, and  irresistible  grace,  and  speak  of  the 
doctrine  of  certain  perseverance  as  open  to  inquiry. 
Later  the  positive  affirmation  of  the  possibility  of 
falUng  from  grace  became  characteristic  of  Remon- 
strant or  Arminian  teaching,  as  did  also  the  repudia- 
tion of  the  notion  of  imputed  or  hereditary  guilt. 

So  far  as  the  Netherlands  are  concerned, 
Arminianism  came  to  its  best  very  soon  after  the 
death  of  the  founder.  It  was  indeed  granted  tolera- 
tion after  the  brief  period  of  proscription  which 
followed  its  condemnation  by  the  Synod  of  Dort 
(1618-19  q.v.);  but  it  was  to  find  its  most  fruitful 
fields  in  other  regions.  Anglican  high  churchism 
gave  it  patronage  in  the  time  of  Laud  and  again 
after  the  Stuart  restoration.  Through  the  Metho- 
dist movement,  wherein  it  made  alliance  with 
a  warm  evangehcal  faith,  it  acquired  specially 
effective  means  of  dissemination.  Support  is  ren- 
dered it,  furthermore,  by  a  consideration  of  the 
extent  to  which  its  essential  points  of  view  char- 
acterized the  teaching  of  the  early  church  and 
later  found  lodgment  in  Lutheranism. 

Henry  C.  Sheldon 

ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA.— Ascetic  and  reformer, 
b.  at  Brescia  in  Italy,  date  unknown.  He  was 
educated  for  the  priesthood,  and  became  a  pupil 
of  Abelard.  He  was  a  vigorous  opponent  of  worldly 
corruption  in  the  clergy  and  of  temporal  power  of 
the  Curia.  His  maxims  were:  "Clerks  who  have 
estates,  bishops  who  hold  fiefs,  monks  who  possess 
property,  cannot  be  saved."  He  came  into  conflict 
with  Pope  Eugenius  III,  Emperor  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  and  Pope  Adrian  IV.  As  a  result  of  the 
combined  opposition  of  Frederick  and  Adrian, 
Arnold  was  put  to  death  at  Rome  in  1155. 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW  (1822-1888).— English 
educator,  literary  critic,  poet  and  author;  his 
works  on  religion  were  of  a  critical,  liberal  and 
ethical  character,  and  exercised  a  considerable 
influence.  Literature  and  Dogma,  and  God  and  the 
Bible  are  two  well-known  books  of  his  deaUng  with 
religion. 

ARTICLES,  THE  ORGANIC— A  law  regulating 
pubhc  worship  in  France,  introduced  by  Napoleon, 
comprising  44  articles  relating  to  Protestantism  and 
77  relative  to  Catholicism.  The  law  stood  until 
the  separation  of  church  and  state  in  1905. 

ARTICLES,  FORTY-TWO.— A  confession  of 
faith  adopted  by  the  AngUcan  Church   in    1552, 


29 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Aryan  Religion 


subsequently   revised   into   the    so-called    Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  (q.v.). 

ARTICLES,  THIRTY-NINE.— The  official  con- 
fession of  faith  of  the  Anglican  Church,  adopted  in 
1571.    See  Church  of  England. 

ARTICLES,  THIRTY-SEVEN.— A  form  of  the 
Belgic  Confession  (q.v.)  arranged  ia  37  articles  in 
1531. 

ARUNDEL,  THOMAS  (1353-1414).— Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury;  also  filled  the  offices  of 
archbishop  of  York  and  lord  chancellor;  remem- 
bered for  his  severe  persecution  of  the  Lollards, 
and  prohibition  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
EngUsh. 

ARVAL  BROTHERS.— An  ancient  Roman 
priesthood  limited  to  twelve  members  charged  with 
certain  ceremonies  for  the  protection  and  blessing 
of  fields  and  crops.  In  the  religious  revival  under 
Augustus,  the  emperor  secured  election  to  the  college 
and  the  functions  of  the  Fratrea  Arvales  were  en- 
larged to  include  sacrificial  ceremonies  on  important 
occasions  connected  with  the  Imperial  household. 
While  performing  important  rehgious  duties  in  the 
state,  the  presence  of  the  emperors  gave  the  priest- 
hood the  nature  of  a  select  social  club. 

ARYA  SAMAJ. — An  Indian  religious  reforma- 
tion movement  established  by  Dayanand  Sarasvati 
in  1875.  It  is  an  attempt  to  establish  a  purely 
monotheistic  cult  founded  on  the  Vedas,  which  are 
interpreted  as  the  source  of  the  revelation  of  God 
and  of  all  science.  The  ethical  teaching  is  of  a 
high  type.  The  Samaj  is  distinctly  Indian  and 
bitterly  opposed  to  Christianity.  It  has  been 
numerically  more  successful,  but  less  significant 
than  the  Brahma  Samaj  (q.v.). 

ARYAN  RELIGION.— The  word  Aryan  is  here 
used  to  refer  to  the  Indo-European  race  which 
formed  the  parent  stock  of  the  peoples  known  in 
later  history  as  Teuton,  Scandinavian,  Slav,  Greek, 
Roman,  Celt,  Iranian  and  Indian.  Emerging 
from  the  stone  age  in  territory  near  the  Baltic  as  a 
fairly  homogeneous  people  of  cattle-raising  type 
they  spread  to  form  the  cultural  groups  we  know  in 
history.  To  write  the  story  of  their  religious  life 
in  that  prehistoric  period  when  they  dwelt  together 
as  neighbors  on  a  far-flung  tract  of  woods  and 
pasture  land  is  necessarily  a  precarious  task.  Using 
the  knowledge  of  the  elements  common  to  all  the 
branches  of  the  old  family,  with  special  attention 
to  those  groups  which  have  become  stabilized 
nearest  to  the  pointy  of  origin  and  remembering 
that  everywhere  religion  is  man's  way  of  securing 
life-values  and  life-security  in  relation  to  the 
natural  environment  we  may  attempt  to  picture  this 
prehistoric  primitive  religion. 

The  early  history  of  the  various  groups  shows 
them  as  a  vigorous,  life-loving,  fearless  people, 
deUghting  in  fighting,  feasting,  drinking  and  games 
of  chance.  Their  religious  cult  centers  about  the 
heavenly  nature  powers,  the  home  fire  and  the 
family.  There  is  little  evidence  of  a  cult  of  mother- 
earth  common  to  agricultural  peoples.  The  sky 
with  its  warmth  of  sun,  its  rain,  its  light  are  the 
important  things.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how 
eagerly  the  herders  of  cattle  in  a  land  where  known 
and  unknown  enemies  prowled  in  darkness  would 
welcome  the  dawning  hght  of  heaven.  The  rain 
meant  life  to  cattle  and  to  men.  The  boisterous 
thunder-storm  cleaving  the  oak  with  its  lightning 
bolt  is  another  power  before  which  they  must  stand 
in  awe,  and  the  oak,  perhaps,  was  the  sacred  tree. 


These  powers,  gathered  under  the  general  title  of* 
the  sky  or  sky-father,  are  the  only  gods  and  they 
are   not   anthropomorphic   but  vaguely  conceived 
nature  forces.     The  Aryans  could  still  be  called 
atheists  in  historic  times  by  visitors  who  had  a 
pantheon  of  personal  gods  with  human  characteristics. 
There   seem   to   have   been   two   great   public 
ceremonies:  one,  a  means  of  securing  rain  in  summer 
by  mimetic  magic  when  a  procession  with  vessels 
of  mead  or  water  moved  around  a  great  fire  with 
spoken  spells  and  finally  extinguished  the  fire  by 
emptying  their  vessels  into  it,  the  other,  common 
to  many  peoples,  an  attempt  to  assist  the  powers 
of  light  and  warmth  in  their  struggle  with  cold  and 
darkness  at  the  autumn  time.     Then  the  fives  of 
cattle  and,  still  more  potent,  the  lives  of  men  were 
given  to  revivify  ana  strengthen  the  sky  powers. 
That  a  dawning  sense  of  cosmic  order,  of  a  fate 
which  was  more  inevitable  than  the  powers  of 
nature,  was  an  element  of  their  early  world-view 
has  been  suggested  by  Schrader  and  seems  plausible 
in  view  of  the  development  of  several  Aryan  groups. 
There  are  no  temples,  and  no  organized  priesthood, 
though  men  who  know  magic  spells  and  incantations 
form  the  beginning  of  the  later  families  of  priests. 
About  the  hearth  grow  up  affections  and  customs 
which  raise  it  into  divine  status  in  almost  all  the 
Aryan  groups.     To  feed  it,  to  keep  it  burning  when 
fire  is  difficult  to  make,  to  guard  it  from  pollution 
becomes  a  reUgious  duty.     The  early  loyalties  are 
to  kin  and  to  chief.     Blood  revenge  is  essential. 
Hospitality  was  freely  given,  though,  here  as  else- 
where,  the  stranger  and  the   beggar   were   more 
feared  than  welcomed.     The  dead  were  buried  in 
rough-hewn  coffins  at  a  "crossroads"   or  at  the 
border  of  the  common  land.     With  the  dead  man 
were  placed  his  tools,  weapons,  favorite  possessions, 
meat,  drink  and  in  earliest  times  his  wives  and 
slaves.  The  practice  of  giving  human  victims  to  the 
dead  was  early  given  up,  but  the  burial  ceremonies 
of  the  historic  Aryans  show  clearly  that  it  was  once 
the  rule.     After  the  burial  came  purification  rites 
in  water  and  a  solemn  feast.     The  dead  were  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  the  earth  but  at  stated  times,  at 
the  home,  at  the  grave,  on  the  anniversary  of  death, 
on  the  birthday  and  in  the  family  ceremonies,  food 
was  offered  to  them  under  the  name  of  "fathers" 
or  "grand-fathers."     Such  family  rites  were  very 
important  not  only  to  prevent  the  ghost  from  becom- 
ing a  danger  to  the  family  but  to  save  it  from  a 
wretched  existence.     There  is  sufficient  evidence  to 
suggest  that  a  great  public  ceremony  was  held  at 
which  all  the  dead  came  from  the  earth,  were 
placated,  fed  and  dismissed  by  public  rites.    Such 
forms  as  the  Celtic  Samhain  eve  and  the  Greek 
Anthesteria  may  be  its  continuation  and  develop- 
ment.    There  is  no  indication  of  a  heavenly  abode 
of  the   dead.    They   belong  to   the   underworld; 
and     the     crossroads,    the    place   of    burial,  was 
especially  dangerous.     The  representation  of  the 
underworld  powers  in  the  form  of  a  snake  and  the 
idea  of  the  return  of  an  ancestor  in  the  form  of 
the  "house-snake"  which  coils  by  the  hearth  fire  is 
so  common  among  Aryan  peoples  that  it  probably 
belongs  to  the  primitive  period. 

On  the  whole  the  religion  of  the  Aryans  was  that 
of  a  confident,  happy  and  successful  people.  The 
gods  are  generous,  placable  powers  of  light  and 
fife.  There  is  no  divine  sanction  for  morality. 
The  Aryan  took  that  into  his  own  hands.  There 
is  no  abject  fear  of  dread  powers  and  no  quest  for  a 
heaven  to  compensate  for  a  frustrated  life  on  earth. 
Well-knit  family  and  clan  loyalties,  a  life  of  vigor  and 
plentv  under  a  Sky-God  giving  light,  warmth, 
and  fertility  to  land  and  herds  developed  the  race 
which  was  to  become  the  dominant  factor  in  the 
history  of  human  culture.     A.  Eustace  Haydon 


Ascension 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


30 


ASCENSION.— The  passage  of  the  body  of  the 
risen  Christ  into  heaven. 

This  ascension  differs  from  assumption  (q.v.) 
in  that  it  was  of  the  body  of  the  resurrection,  rather 
than  a  body  untouched  by  that  experience.  This 
experience  is  referred  to  only  in  Acts  1:9,  other 
references  being  to  his  resurrection. 

Shailer  Mathews 

ASCETICISM.— (1)  A  methodical  treatment 
of  the  body  as  evil  and  opposed  to  spiritual  welfare, 
involving  the  practice  of  fasting,  flogging,  ceUbacy 
and  other  more  or  less  disciplinary  means.  (2)  Less 
specifically,  self-discipline  for  the  purpose  of  self- 
control  and  the  cultivation  of  spiritual  quahties  of 
the  personality. 

Asceticism  is  found  in  developed  rather  than 
primitive  religions.  It  pre-supposes  a  more  or  less 
organized  philosophical  dualism  recognizing  a 
struggle  between  body  and  spirit.  It  is  therefore 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  painful  practices  which 
accompany  initiation  and  ritual  methods  adopted 
by  primitive  peoples  to  secure  success.  So  far  as 
can  be  traced,  asceticism  seems  to  have  come  from 
oriental  religions,  particularly  those  of  India.  It 
passed  westward,  assimilating  local  practices  in 
Persia,  Greece,  and  above  all  Egypt.  Alone  among 
the  great  reKgions  of  the  ancient  world,  the  Hebrew 
system  never  became  ascetic,  unless  exception  be 
made  of  groups  Uke  the  Nazarites  who  continued 
to  maintain  simpler  nomadic  customs  in  more 
highly  developed  civih'zations.  The  most  outstand- 
ing ascetic  religion  is  probably  Hinduism  (q.v.),  the 
devotees  of  which  have  from  earHest  days_  sought 
release  from  the  cycle  of  successive  existences 
through  the  purification  of  the  body  by  means  of  the 
voluntary  infliction  of  pain,  or  the  practice  of  some 
form  of  self-discipline. 

The  methods  of  asceticism  include  the  limitation 
of  food,  poverty,  celibacy  and  austerities  of  various 
sorts.  By  such  means  it  is  hoped  to  reduce  the 
body  to  subservience  to  the  spirit  and  to  acquire 
merit  in  heaven.  Such  methods  are  not  always 
successful,  as  they  often  tend  to  the  suppression 
rather  than  to  the  discipline  of  natural  impulses. 
In  consequence,  the  ascetic  of  the  extreme  type  is 
liable  to  abnormal  psychical  conditions,  which 
sometimes  express  themselves  in  hysteria,  visions, 
or  other  neurasthenic  experiences. 

A  development  of  the  ascetic  practices  in 
Christianity,  while  due  in  large  measure  to  pagan 
influences  and  survivals,  was  furthered  by  the  honor 
given  by  the  church  to  ceHbacy  on  the  part  of  its 
priests  and  nuns,  as  well  as  to  its  introduction  of 
fasts  for  all  members  of  the  church.  The  monas- 
tery of  Cluny  (q.v.),  was  particularly  influential 
in  spreading  ascetic  practices,  while  the  Irish  peni- 
tential system,  when  introduced  upon  the  Continent, 
gave  it  a  new  impulse. 

The  discipline  of  one's  self  through  the  subjection 
of  physical  impulses  to  moral  control  is  the  perma- 
nent value  of  ascetic  practices.  As  such  self-control, 
however,  does  not  involve  the  premises  of  asceticism, 
it  cannot  properly  be  so  termed.  See  Hinduism, 
Buddhism,  Monasticism.       Shailek  Mathews 

ASGARD. — The  dwelling-place  of  the  gods  in 
Teutonic  rehgion. 

ASHKENAZIM.— (From  the  Hebrew  name  in 
Gen.  10:3.)  A  term  used  by  the  Jews  to  designate 
the  Jews  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  and  their 
descendants.  They  differ  in  ritual  and  in  customs 
from  the  Sephardim.  (qv.). 

ASHTORETH.— Hebrew  name  of  goddess  of 
Sumerian  origin,  appearing  in  Babylonian  as 
Ishtar,  in  Greek  as  Astarte,  and  in  Phoenician 


as  'Ashtart.  As  an  astral  deity  Ishtar  appeared  as 
a  war-goddess,  being  identified  with  the  planet 
Venus,  the  leader  of  the  stars,  in  Semitic  and  Greek 
cults.  She  was  also  the  goddess  of  fruitfulness  and 
her  cult  meant  a  deification  of  sensuousness,  although 
this  was  spiritualized  as  the  mainspring  of  the 
tender  human  emotions.  In  the  O.T.  she  appears 
as  the  feminine  counterpart  of  the  Canaanitic 
baals  in  which  the  sexual  aspect  predominated. 
See  Mother  Goddesses. 

ASHUR. — The  supreme  god  of  the  Assyrian 
pantheon  represented  by  a  solar  disc  with  wings. 

ASHVAGHOSHA.— A  Buddhist  writer  of  the 
1st.  century  a.d.,  the  author  of  a  life  of  Buddha, 
the  Buddha-chanla. 

ASH  WEDNESDAY.— The  first  day  of  the 
Lenten  period,  forty  days  before  Easter,  so  called 
from  the  ritual  use  of  ashes  as  a  symbol  of  repent- 
ance. The  ashes  are  secured  by  burning  the 
palms  used  the  previous  year  on  Palm  Sunday. 
The  day  is  observed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Anglican  churches. 

ASINARII. — An  epithet  applied  first  to  the 
Jews,  and  afterwards  to  the  Christians,  as  e.g.,  by 
Tacitus  because  they  were  said  to  worship  an  ass. 
(See  Tertullian:  Ad  Nationes  1,  14;  Apologia 
XVI).  In  1856  a  discovery  was  made  on  the 
Palatine  of  a  sketch  scratched  in  stone  representing 
a  crucifixion,  the  victim  having  a  man's  body  and  an 
ass's  head,  probably  a  3rd.  century  travesty  of  the 
crucifixion  of  Jesus,  although  it  may  be  of  Mithraic 
origin. 

ASOKA.— Emperor  of  India  (273-231  b.c.).— 
He  is  chiefly  known  because  of  his  use  of  the  royal 
resources  for  the  spread  of  Buddhism  by  missionary 
teaching  to  Ceylon,  China,  Thibet,  Syria  and  the 
West.  Merciful,  tolerant,  devoted  to  human  service, 
he  estabhshed  his  own  empire  on  the  ethical  basis 
of  kindly  respect  for  the  sanctity  of  all  Uving  things 
— the  right  of  the  meanest  thing  to  a  full  life.  For 
the  spread  of  Buddhism  as  a  religion  he  is  perhaps 
the  most  important  figure  in  history. 

ASPERGES. — The  rite  of  sprinkling  the  congre- 
gation with  holy  water  before  the  celebration  of  the 
High  Mass  in  the  R.C.  church,  so  called  from  the 
first  word  of  the  verse,  Ps.  51:7. 

ASPIRATION.— An  ardent  longing  for  the 
realization  of  a  kind  of  life  much  purer  and  higher 
than  one's  ordinary  attainments. 

Rehgious  aspiration  is  the  earnest  desire  to 
experience  God's  presence  or  favor,  or  to  possess 
inwardly  the  spiritual  realities  of  the  divine  world. 
It  expresses  itself  in  worship,  prayer,  consecration, 
and  often  in  specific  religious  discipUne,  such  as 
asceticism.  Moral  aspiration  consists  in  the  desire 
to  realize  ethical  ideals,  and  is  the  motive  power 
to  genuine  moral  living.  Both  religiously  and 
morally  aspiration  is  an  intensely  personal  valuation 
of  spiritual  ideals,  as  contrasted  with  more  disinter- 
ested ways  of  contemplating  the  good. 

ASS,  FEAST  OF  THE.— A  mediaeval  dramatic 
presentation  to  impress  events  of  BibUcal  history, 
such  as  the  story  of  Balaam's  ass,  the  flight  of  the 
holy  family  into  Egypt.  Generally  of  a  burlesque 
character. 

ASSAM. — Part  of  the  province  of  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam  in  British  India  since  1895; 
from  1826-1895  a  separate  province,  N.E.  of  Bengal. 


31 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Assyria,  Religion  of 


About  Sh  millions  are  Hindus,  1^  millions  Muslims 
and  1  million  inhabitants  animists.  The  Hindus  of 
Assam  are  such  by  conversion  though  we  know 
very  little  of  the  process  by  which  they  were  brought 
in.  The  cult  of  Vishnu  and  Sakti  have  been  the 
predominant  elements  of  Assamese  Hinduisrn. 
Missionary  work  has  been  carried  on  by  the  Ameri- 
can Baptists  since  1841  and  the  Assam  Frontier 
Pioneer  Mission  since  1891. 

ASSASSIN. — A  member  of  a  sect  of  secret 
murderers  which  originated  in  Persia  at  the  close 
of  the  11th.  century  as  a  branch  of  the  Shi'ites. 
The  sect  was  operative  in  Persia  and  Syria  for 
nearly  two  hundred  years,  and  its  power  was  felt 
during  the  Crusades.  In  principle  their  beliefs 
corresponded  with  the  Isma'ilites.  The  name  is 
derived  from  hashish,  an  intoxicant  made  from  the 
juice  of  hemp  leaves  which  was  given  to  the  Assassins 
when  they  were  about  to  be  sent  on  their  mission 
of  death.  The  leader  was  known  as  Sheikh-al-Jabal, 
or  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains. 

ASSEMBLIES  OF  THE  FRENCH  CLERGY.— 

The  quinquennial  gatherings  of  the  French  clergy 
from  the  16th.  century  to  the  Revolution  for  the 
appointment  of  the  taxes  exacted  by  the  kings  of 
France  from  the  church,  and  for  the  transaction  of 
other  ecclesiastical  business. 

ASSEMBLY,  GENERAL.— See  General  As- 
sembly. 

ASSEMBLY,  WESTMINSTER.— See  West- 
minster Assembly. 

ASSIZE  OF  CLARENDON.— A  council  con- 
vened at  Clarendon,  England  in  1164  by  Henry  II, 
who  compelled  Thomas  and  the  English  bishops 
to  subscribe  to  16  articles,  called  the  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon  (q.v.),  designed  to  transfer  the  control 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs  from  Rome  to  England. 
The  clergy  refused  to  conform,  and  Henry  had  to 
renounce  the  articles  in  1172. 

ASSUMPTION.— The  transference  of  the  cor- 
poreal body  of  some  individual  into  heaven. 

Such  translations  are  both  without  death  (as 
according  to  Jewish  Apocalyptic  literature  was  true 
of  Abraham,  Isaiah,  Moses)'  instead  of  death  (as 
in  the  case  of  Enoch  and  Elijah);  or  after  death. 

In  Christianity  the  only  assumption  that  has 
grown  into  doctrine  is  that  of  Mary  who  after  her 
death  was  taken  up  into  heaven  bodily,  according  to 
both  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches.^  This  doc- 
trine although  never  formally  made  into  dogma 
is  universally  preached. 

ASSUMPTION,  AUGUSTINIANS  OF  THE.— 
A  R.C.  congregation,  originating  in  France  in  1845, 
and  having  at  present  about  1000  members  in 
various  countries. 

ASSUMPTION,  FEAST  OF  THE.— A  festival 
celebrating  the  bodily  ascension  to  heaven  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  subsequent  to  her  death.  It  is 
observed  in  the  Roman  Church  on  Aug.  15th,  and 
in  the  Greek  church  from  Aug.  15th  to  23rd  inclusive. 

ASSURANCE. — The  inner  conviction  that  one 
enjoys  God's  favor  and  has  been  forgiven  and  saved 
through  faith  in  Christ. 

In  emancipating  men  from  dependence  on  the 
Catholic  church,  Luther  insisted  strongly  on  the 
doctrine  of  inner  assurance  of  salvation,  whereby  a 
believing  Christian  might  know  himself  to  be  saved 
without  needing  to  consult  a  priest.  Justification 
by  faith,  he  contended,  included  the  creation  of  a 


state  of  certainty  as  to  God's  favor.  Sure  of  accept- 
ance by  God,  the  Christian  could  cease  to  concern 
himself  about  petty  details  of  merit  or  about 
ecclesiastical  penance.  The  doctrine  of  personal 
assurance  was  emphasized  in  opposition  to  rehgious 
formahsm  by  the  leaders  of  Pietism  (q.v.)  and  by 
John  Wesley  (q.v.).  The  basis  of  assurance  has 
been  variously  defined,  emphasis  being  laid  some- 
times on  the  promise  of  the  Word  of  God  (Luther), 
sometimes  on  the  direct  inner  testimony  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  (Wesley),  and  sometimes  on  the  divine 
election  (Calvin).  At  times  the  emotional  experi- 
ence of  assurance  has  been  so  overemphasized 
as  to  lead  to  the  danger  of  fanaticism.  The  real 
significance  of  the  doctrine  is  in  its  affirmation  of  a 
genuine  personal  experience  of  communion  with 
God  in  contrast  to  a  mere  formal  profession  of 
religion.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA,  RELIGION  OF. 

— Strictly  speaking,  this  was  the  religion  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
fall  of  the  neo-Babylonian  empire  in  538  B.C., 
though  in  Babylonia  it  survived  until  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  Such  writers  as  Herodotus 
and  Berosus  tell  us  a  httle  about  it,  but  the  principal 
sources  of  information  concerning  it  are  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  which  have  been  found  in  such 
large  numbers  in  Mesopotamia.  Babylonia,  the 
mother  country,  was  the  land  of  rehgious  origins; 
Assyria,  developing  later,  borrowed  largely  from 
Babylonia. 

1.  The  people  and  their  gods. — In  Babylonia 
two  races  mingled,  the  Semites  from  Arabia,  called 
Akkadians,  and  a  race  of  unknown  affinities,  called 
Sumerians.  The  Akkadians  wore  hair  and  long 
beards;  the  Sumerians  shaved  both  head  and  face. 
The  Akkadians  were  first  in  the  land  and  estab- 
lished their  Semitic  gods  at  various  centers.  The 
beardless  Sumerians  coming  later  worshiped  these 
bearded  gods,  mingling,  of  course,  in  their  worship 
some  Sumerian  elements.  Babylonia  was  a  land 
of  city-states.  From  long  before  the  dawn  of  his- 
tory to  the  rise  of  Babylon,  about  2100  B.C.,  one  city- 
state  often  succeeded  another.  During  the  domina- 
tion of  each,  its  deity  secured  a  degree  of  worship 
from  subject  cities.  To  the  Babylonians  the  world 
was  full  of  spirits  with  which  men  must  come  to 
terms.  Fundamentally  their  rehgion  was  a  kind 
of  polydemonism,  but  through  the  power  of  the  city- 
states  the  gods  of  a  few  places  emerged  from  the 
great  mass  of  spirits  and  became  the  chief  deities  of 
the  country.  These  gods  were  Enlil  of  Nippur 
(called  in  Akkadian  Bel),  Anu  of  Erech,  Enki  of 
Eridu  (in  Akkadian  Ea),  Nannar  of  Ur  (in  Akkadian 
Sin),  and  the  Akkadian  sun-god,  Shamash  (in 
Sumerian  Utu).  In  all  the  cities  a  mother  goddess 
was  also  worshiped.  By  the  Sumerians  she  was 
given  many  names;  the  Akkadians  generally  called 
her  Ishtar.  During  the  pre-Babylonian  period  the 
worship  of  a  weather  god,  Adad,  and  of  a  corn  god, 
Dagan,  were  also  introduced,  apparently  from  the 
West.  The  worship  of  these  along  with  that  of 
Nergal  of  Kutha  became  so  fixed  that  it  persisted 
through  the  whole  course  of  Babylonian  history. 
Some  other  deities,  such  as  Ningirsu  of  Lagash  and 
Zamama  of  Kish  were  widely  worshiped  tiU  the 
rise  of  Babylon.  Each  smaller  town  (and  there 
were  many  in  Babylonia)  had  its  deity.  The  larger 
towns  had  also  many  subordinate  deities.  These 
were  often  made  by  differentiating  the  principal 
gods  by  means  of  epithets.  They  varied  from 
period  to  period.  A  very  popular  vegetation  deity 
was  known  by  various  names — ^Ashnan,  Ningishzida, 
Dumuzi.  The  last  of  these  names  persisted  and 
was  Hebraized  as  Tammuz  (Ezek.  8:14).  During 
the  dynasty  of  Agade   (2800-2600  b.c.)   certain 


Assyria,  Religion  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


32 


kings  were  deified  during  their  lifetime.  Naram- 
Sin  is  the  best  known  instance  of  this.  The  custom 
was,  however,  sporadically  continued  by  later 
dynasties.  Most  of  the  kings  of  the  dynasty  of  Ur 
(2458-2341)  were  deified  in  their  hfetime  and  elabo- 
rate hymns  were  addressed  to  them.  Several  of  the 
kings  of  Nisin  and  Larsa  were  deified;  the  name  of 
the  great  Hammurapi  of  Babylon  is  sometimes  pre- 
ceded by  the  determinative  for  deity,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  a  few  kings  of  the  Kassite  dynasty  (1750- 
1175  B.C.;.  While  all  these  spirits  were  worshiped 
as  gods,  three  were  especially  honored:  Anu,  now 
regarded  as  god  of  heaven,  Enlil  (Bel),  regarded  as 
god  of  the  land,  and  Enki  (Ea),  regarded  as  god  of 
the  deep.  About  2500  b.c,  they  were  formed  into 
a  triad  representing  air,  earth,  and  water,  which 
continued  to  be  reverenced  as  long  as  the  religion 
lasted.  Enki  (Ea)  had  also  been  regarded  as  the 
god  of  wisdom  from  time  immemorial.  When  the 
city  of  Babylon  became  supreme,  about  2100  B.C., 
its  god,  Marduk,  began  to  be  worshiped  over  the 
whole  of  Babylonia,  and,  with  his  somewhat  less 
prominent  consort,  Zarpanit,  an  offshoot  of  the 
old  mother  goddess  Ishtar,  he  continued  to  be 
worshiped  throughout  the  history.  In  time  he 
absorbed  qualities  of  both  Bel  (EnMl)  and  Ea,  and 
myths  in  which  they  had  been  prominent  were 
reshaped  in  order  to  put  Marduk  in  their  places. 
Nabu,  god  of  Borsippa,  who  later  became  the 
patron  of  learning  and  eloquence,  also  came  into 
prominence  after  the  rise  of  Babylon.  During 
the  Kassite  period  a  second  triad  consisting  of  Sin, 
Shamash,  and  Ishtar,  representing  the  moon,  sun, 
and  Venus,  was  formed.  In  later  times  Adad,  the 
weather  god,  was  sometimes  put  in  place  of  Ishtar. 

Assyria  emerged  as  a  dependent  state  about 
2100  B.C.  and  became  independent  about  1600  b.c. 
Its  principal  deity  was  Ashur  who  was  the  head  of 
the  Assyrian  pantheon  throughout  the  history. 
He  embodied  the  characteristics  of  the  Assyrian 
nation,  which  was  warlike,  ruthless,  and  cruel. 
Ishtar  of  Nineveh  was,  at  least  in  the  later  periods, 
his  consort.  Anu  and  Adad  were  also  reverenced, 
as  were  Bel  and  Ea,  the  other  members  of  the  first 
triad.  In  later  periods  of  the  history  Babylonian 
gods  were  introduced,  especially  Nabu  and  Nergal. 

2.  Relation  of  gods  to  men. — The  myths  concern- 
ing these  gods  reveal  something  of  their  worshipers' 
ideas  of  them  and  their  relation  to  the  world  and 
to  men.  According  to  one  cycle  of  myths,  both 
men  and  irrigating  water  were  begotten  by  natural 
generation  from  gods  and  goddesses.  The  Baby- 
lonians were  especially  fond  of  cosmogonic  myths,  or 
myths  that  explained  the  origins  of  the  world  and 
its  institutions.  In  addition  to  those  just  alluded 
to,  which  explain  the  origin  of  man  and  of  agri- 
culture, myths  of  the  creation  and  the  flood  were 
also  in  circulation  before  2000  b.c.  As  time 
advanced  a  myth  of  creation  was  elaborated 
into  an  epic  of  seven  cantos.  It  accounted  for  the 
origin  of  the  gods  themselves  and  for  the  earth 
and  heavens  by  the  conquest  of  a  watery  chaos  by 
Marduk,  god  of  Babylon.  The  kinship  of  gods  and 
men,  indicated  in  the  myth  of  the  begetting  of 
men  by  a  god  and  goddess,  and  emphasized  by 
the  deification  of  certain  kings,  as  already  noted,  is 
further  emphasized  in  the  Gilgamesh  Epic,  in 
which  Gilgamesh  and  Engidu  are  defied,  and  in 
which  the  goddess  Ishtar  offers  herself  in  marriage 
to  Gilgamesh. 

While  the  line  between  gods  and  men  was  not 
one  men  could  not  cross,  and  while  the  deities 
sometimes  consorted  with  men,  nevertheless  they 
were  jealous  lest  men  should  become  as  wise  and 
as  immortal  as  themselves.  In  the  Adapa  myth 
Ea  is  said  to  have  hed  to  Adapa  lest  he  should  eat 
the   food   that   would   make   him   immortal,   and 


another  myth  represents  the  mother  goddess,  Nintu, 
jealous  because  man  has  learned  the  secrets  of 
agriculture,  vowing  that  he  shall  not  five  forever. 

3.  Temples  and  priesthoods. — With  such  deities, 
friendly  yet  capricious,  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  sought  to  come  into  relations.  From 
before  the  dawn  of  history  temples  of  brick  were 
erected  to  them,  usually  upon  artificial  brick 
terraces.  Each  temple,  in  addition  to  the  shrine 
of  the  deity  for  whom  it  was  built,  contained  minor 
sanctuaries  for  other  deities.  To  each  temple  was 
attached  a  ziggurat,  or  staged  tower,  to  represent  a 
mountain  peak,  and  at  Lagash  Gudea  built  a 
brazen  sea,  to  represent  the  ocean.  The  temple  was 
thus  a  kind  of  epitome  of  the  world.  In  the  temples 
the  gods  were  served  by  elaborate  priesthoods,  the 
organization  of  which  increased  in  complexity  as 
time  advanced,  _  Schools  for  the  training  of  the 
priests  existed  in  many  temples.  Here  the  art 
of  writing  was  taught,  and  the  Uturgies  and  hymns 
employed  in  the  services  copied.  The  temples 
owned  large  estates,  and  their  archives  have  in 
some  cases  yielded  thousands  of  account-tablets 
which  reveal  many  of  the  features  of  the  economic 
life  of  Babylonia. 

4.  Liturgies  and  hymns. — The  Uturgies  and 
hymns  are  of  great  interest  since  they  reveal  the 
thoughts  and  conceptions  of  the  worshipers.  In 
these  compositions  the  gods  are  depicted  in  all  their 
power.  Their  might  and  greatness  are  especially 
praised.  The  worshipers  believed  that  the  gods 
enjoyed  being  thus  flattered,  and  were  accordingly 
disposed  to  be  more  lenient  to  men.  The  hymns 
to  Enhl  (Bel)  connect  him  especially  with  the 
thunderbolt  and  the  violent  storms  of  Babylonia. 
One  of  them  speaks  of  the  thunder  as  his  word,  just 
as  the  Hebrews  regarded  thunder  as  the  voice  of 
Yahweh.  In  the  hymns  Nannar  (Sin)  appears  to 
be  very  popular,  and  the  appearance  and  move- 
ments of  the  moon  are  dwelt  upon  in  describing 
him.  The  so-called  penitential  psalms  were  em- 
ployed in  times  of  trouble,  national  or  personal. 
In  them  we  find  the  Babylonian  conception  of  sin 
to  have  been  in  the  main  simply  misfortune  or 
misery.  Because  the  worshiper  is  wretched,  he 
infers  that  he  must  have  offended  some  deity. 
He  assumes  that,  if  the  deity  can  be  made  to 
appreciate  how  wretched  he  is,  the  divine  heart 
will  relent,  and  the  anger  that  has  caused  his  mis- 
fortune will  pass  away.  No  deep  sense  of  sin  or 
conception  of  its  inwardness  is  revealed.  It  is 
assumed  that  suffering  atones  for  sin.  The  belief 
in  the  efficacy  of  intercession  prevailed,  and  one 
god  is  often  asked  to  intercede  with  another.  From 
time  immemorial  sacrifices  were  offered.  About 
2500  B.C.  they  consisted  of  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  lambs, 
fish,  eagles,  cranes,  and  the  viands  eaten  by  men. 
They  appear  to  have  been  regarded  as  food  for  the 
gods  rather  than  as  having  atoning  efficacy  for  sin. 

5.  Ishtar  and  Tammuz. — The  universal  char- 
acteristic of  Semitic  religion  was  the  worship  of  the 
mother  goddess  Ishtar.  The  Semitic  background 
of  Babylonian  religion  enabled  her  influence  to 
permeate  it,  although,  blended  with  Sumerian 
goddesses,  she  was  often  called  by  Sumerian  names. 
Connected  with  her  cult  were  primitive  sexual  rites, 
which  were  perpetuated  until  the  time  of  Herodotus 
(cf.  Bk.  I.  199).  Such  rites  were  designed  to  secure 
an  abundant  offspring.  Connected  with  the 
temples  there  were  male  and  female  ministers  of 
the  goddess  whose  function  appears  to  have  been  to 
represent  the  divine  powers  in  the  cure  of  sterility. 
They  are  recognized  in  the  Code  of  Hammurapi, 
where  they  are  called  by  various  names.  The 
service  of  this  goddess  must  have  had  a  deleterious 
influence  upon  Babylonian  social  fife.  Closely 
connected  wiljh  the  worship  of  the  mother  goddess 


33 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Astrology 


L 


was  that  of  her  son  (later  husband)  Dumuzi  (Tam- 
muz),  a  god  of  vegetation.  As  vegetation  dies 
down  each  year,  Tammuz  was  beheved  to  die.  The 
mother  goddess  was  thought  to  be  in  great  sorrow 
on  account  of  the  loss  of  her  son.  An  ancient  myth 
recounted  how  on  one  such  occasion  she  had  forsaken 
the  upper  world  and  gone  down  to  Arallu,  the  under- 
world, to  bring  him  up  to  hfe  again.  At  that  time 
all  procreative  action  on  the  earth  had  ceased. 
During  the  time  of  the  death  of  Tammuz  the  whole 
land  was  filled  with  wailing,  especially  by  the  women. 
Elaborate  rituals  for  a  worship  of  wailing  in  the 
temples  has  been  preserved  to  us.  It  contains 
such  doleful  repetitions  as  the  following: 

The  lord  of  vegetation  no  longer  lives; 
The  lord  of  vegetation  no  longer  hves; 

[repeated  six  times] 
....  my  husband  no  longer  lives; 

The  lord  Tammuz  no  longer  lives; 
The  lord  of  the  dweUing  no  longer  lives; 
The  spouse  of  the  lady  of  heaven  no  longer  lives; 
The  lord  of  Eturra  no  longer  lives; 
The  brother  of  the  mother  of  the  vine  no  longer 
lives. 

With  such  iteration  the  whole  land  was  plunged 
into  mourning.  When  it  was  beUeved  that  Tammuz 
had  risen  again,  in  accordance  with  psychological 
law,  the  ecstatic  joy  was  correspondingly  great. 
The  event  was  celebrated  in  festivals  to  these 
deities  of  fertility — festivals  that  were  not  always 
chaste, 

6.  Life  after  death. — ^Although  it  was  believed 
that  the  god  Tammuz  rose  annually  from  the 
dead,  the  Babylonians  had  no  faith  that  men 
could  share  his  fortunate  fate.  Their  conception  of 
the  under-world  is  graphically  set  forth  in  the  poem 
on  Ishtar's  descent  to  the  underworld.  The 
goddess  is  said  to  have  determined  to  go 

Unto  the  house  of  darkness,  the  dwelling  of  Irkalla 
Unto  the  house  whose  enterer  never  comes  out 
Along  the  way  whose  going  has  no  return, 
Unto  the  house  whose  enterer  is  deprived  of  light. 
Where  dust  is  their  food,  their  sustenance  clay. 
Light  they  do  not  see,  in  darkness  they  dwell; 
They  are  'lothed  like  birds  with  a  covering  of  wings. 
Over  the  door  and  bolt  the  dust  is  spread. 

Into  this  cheerless  world  the  dead  departed  with 
no  hope  of  a  happy  resurrection.  The  tweKth 
tablet  of  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  tells  how  wistfully 
the  Babylonians  longed  for  a  more  cheerful  here- 
after and  for  reunion  with  loved  ones,  but  that 
no  such  hope  was  granted  them.  The  epic  in 
two  lines  sums  up  their  attitude  as  they  con- 
templated this  prospect : 

I  will  sit  all  day  and  weep! 
I  will  sit  all  day  and  weep! 

The  Babylonians  believed  in  the  existence  of 
many  spirits  beside  the  gods — spirits  that  were 
hostile  to  men.  These  demons  haunted  every 
cranny;  they  brought  diseases;  they  were  ever 
ready  to  leap  upon  men.  It  was  believed  that 
they  could  be  controlled  by  certain  formulae,  espe- 
cially if  these  were  uttered  in  connection  with  cer- 
tain ceremonies.  To  fulfil  these  functions  long 
incantation  texts  were  compiled,  and,  no  doubt 
often  employed.  It  thus  happens  that  Babylonian 
religious  ceremonies  merge  off  insensibly  into  magic. 

7.  Ethics.  In  spite  of  the  limitations  of  their 
religious  conceptions  the  Babylonians,  for  such  an 
early  folk,  developed  a  comparatively  high  ethical 
standard.  The  code  of  Hammurapi,  as  well  as 
fragments  of  earlier  codes,  shows  that  they  had  solved 
with  a  fair  degree  of  success  many  of  the  initial 


problems  of  social  organization  and  of  social  justice. 
This  was  in  part  due  to  their  conviction  that  the 
gods  demanded  righteousness  on  the  part  of  men. 
In  the  myths  the  gods  might  lie  to  men  and  to  one 
another,  but  nevertheless  they  punished  human 
liars.  It  thus  happens  that  in  the  Code  of  Ham- 
murapi provision  is  made  that,  if  a  man  has  taken 
an  oath  in  the  presence  of  a  god,  his  unsupported 
word  shall  be  regarded  as  truth.  In  general  ethics 
the  Babylonians  were  fully  abreast  of  other  nations 
of  the  period.  The  less  civilized  Assyrians  were 
more  backward,  though  in  private  ethics  they  may 
not  have  fallen  behind  the  Babylonians. 

George  A.  Barton 
ASTERISK. — A  utensil  consisting  of  two  crossed 
arches,  either  silver  or  golden,  used  in  the  Greek 
church  to  protect  the  eucharistic  bread  from  the 
covering  veil. 

ASTROLOGY. — A  science  which  pretended  to 
foretell  events  in  the  affairs  of  earth  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  It  was  based  upon  the  idea  of  an  inevitable 
relationship  between  the  movements  of  the  stars  and 
the  hfe  of  man.  Two  main  phases  are  to  be  distin- 
guished, the  Babylonian  and  the  Roman. 

The  supposed  science  had  its  origin  in  Babylon 
about  2400  B.C.  The  observed  places  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  in  relation  to  the  observed  happen- 
ings on  earth  were  organized  into  a  system  of  prog- 
nostication of  the  good  or  evil  chances  in  any 
projected  undertaking.  On  the  other  hand,  unusual 
happenings  or  arrangements  in  the  heavens  were 
interpreted  to  mean  certain  favorable  or  unfavorable 
events  for  the  governments  of  the  various  divisions 
of  the  known  world.  The  chief  gods,  Anu,  EnUl, 
and  Ea,  were  assigned  divisions  of  the  heavens ;  the 
ruling  gods.  Sin,  Shamash,  Marduk,  Isthar,  Ninib, 
Nergal,  and  Nebo,  were  identified  with  the  moon, 
sun  and  planets.  Their  changes  in  relationship 
were  taken  to  be  the  result  of  a  divine  plan  and  the 
inference  followed  that  one  who  could  understand 
the  will  of  these  divine  rulers  whose  action  produced 
good  or  ill  on  earth  would  be  able  to  foretell  and  to 
prepare  for  the  event.  The  religion  of  Persia  and 
the  science  of  Greece  revealed  to  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria the  futility  of  this  childish  science  and  de- 
stroyed astrology  in  its  home  land. 

It  was  destined,  however,  to  have  a  new  life  in 
the  Roman  Empire  to  which  it  came  with  all  the 
glamor  of  an  oriental  wisdom.  But  it  was  radically 
changed.  The  new  idea  was  added  that  the  uni- 
verse is  a  vast  organism  in  which  every  particle  is 
involved  with  every  other  in  a  constant  interplay 
of  influences  under  a  fixed  law.  To  read  this 
cosmic  mechanism  the  characteristics  of  the  old 
gods  and  of  mythical  personages  were  assigned  to  the 
stars  and  constellations  bearing  their  names,  the 
divisions  of  the  zodiac  allotted  to  various  sections  of 
the  earth  and  intricate  interpretations  made  of  the 
arrangements  of  the  heavenly  bodies  according  to 
time.  The  significance  of  the  system  was  that  in 
such  a  universe  of  ordered  movement  it  seemed 
possible  to  forecast  the  fate  and  future  of  any  indi- 
vidual. Astrology  was  the  science  of  casting  a 
horoscope  and  the  astrologer  was  consulted  for 
infalUble  guidance  regarding  any  future  event  or 
ambition.  By  the  attractiveness  of  its  rehgious 
philosophy  of  Fatalism,  by  its  emphasis  on  order 
and  destiny,  the  pseudo-science  completely  con- 
quered the  Roman  world  and  maintained  its  sway 
side  by  side  with  the  real  science  of  astronomy  into 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Probably  its  greatest  service  was  to  prepare  the 
way,  by  knowledge  of  the  movements  of  the  stars, 
for  the  genuine  physical  and  astronomical  sciences. 
A.  Eustace  Haydon 


Astruc,  Jean 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


34 


ASTRUC,  JEAN.— French  R.C.  scholar,  1684- 
1766;  an  eminent  physician  whose  studies  in  dis- 
eases of  the  skin  led  him  to  an  examination  of  the 
Levitical  legislation  regarding  the  clean  and  the 
unclean.  This  study  led  him  to  a  critical  investiga- 
tion which  resulted  in  an  analysis  of  the  Pentateuch 
into  two  documents  on  the  basis  of  the  two  divine 
names,  Yahweh  and  Elohim. 

ASURA. — An  early  Aryan  name  for  god  used 
originally  by  the  Indian  and  Iranian  branches  of 
this  race.  In  Iran  it  retained  its  meaning,  forming 
part  of  the  title  of  the  great  God,  Ahura  Mazda 
(Ormazd)  while  in  India  the  word  came  to  mean 
demon  in  the  later  rehgion. 

ASVINS. — Two  divine  figures  in  early  Vedic 
religion  called  "lords  of  the  horses"  and  identified 
with  the  morning  and  evening  stars. 

ASYLUM. — ^An  inviolable  place  of  refuge  for 
persons  fleeing  from  pursuit,  such  as  run-away 
slaves,  criminals  or  defeated  soldiers.  Among 
primitive  peoples  totem  centers,  specific  places 
(O.T.  cities  of  refuge,  and  sometimes  whole  villages 
serve  as  asylums.  In  Muhammadan  lands  tombs 
of  saints  and  mosques  are  so  regarded.  Among 
some  primitive  religions,  such  as  the  Slavonic  and 
Teutonic,  as  well  as  among  such  developed  reUgions 
as  those  of  the  Greeks,  Hebrews,  Hindus  and 
Romans,  the  sanctuary  or  temple  was  regarded  as 
an  asylum.  On  the  conversion  of  some  of  these 
people  to  Christianity,  the  right  of  asylum  con- 
tinued in  connection  with  the  church.  It  thus 
continued  in  England  and  France  till  the  16th. 
century  and  in  Spain  until  the  19th.  century.  As 
to  the  genesis  of  the  idea,  Westermarck  suggests 
the  hypothesis  that  the  deity  like  the  man  was 
under  obhgation  to  shelter  the  one  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  his  home  to  avert  the  curse  from  being 
transferred  to  him. 

ATAR. — The  fire  god  of  early  Iranian  religion: 
symbol  of  the  purity  of  Ormazd  in  developed  Zoroas- 
trianism. 

ATARGATIS.— A  Syrian  goddess  of  fertihty. 
See  Mother  Goddesses. 

ATAVISM. — A  biological  term,  derived  from  the 
Lat.  meaning  great-great-great-grandfather,  or 
ancestor,  used  to  signify  reversion  to  traits  or 
characteristics  of  a  grandparent  or  more  remote 
ancestor  which  have  not  appeared  in  the  parent. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED.— One  of  the  three 
eccumenical  creeds  emphasizing  details  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  trinity,  officially  used  in  the  Roman, 
Greek  and  Anglican  churches.  It  is  of  Latin  origin, 
probably  in  the  6th.  century,  although  it  bears 
(wrongly)  the  name  of  Athanasius.  See  Creeds 
AND  Articles  op  Faith. 

ATHANASIUS,  SAINT  (293-373).— Bishop  of 
Alexandria  and  theologian;  took  orders  when  very 
young.  He  was  archdeacon  under  Alexander  of 
Alexandria,  and  in  326  succeeded  him  as  bishop. 
His  tenure  of  office  was  one  of  storm  and  stress  owing 
to  the  Arian  controversy.  Athanasius  succeeded 
Alexander  as  the  defender  of  orthodoxy  against 
Arianism  and  SabeUianism,  declaring  that  Arianism 
would  lead  to  polytheism  and  that  SabeUianism 
made  impossible  the  unity  of  the  Father  and  his 
own  Son.  His  interest  in  the  reahty  of  salvation 
led  him  to  insist  on  the  divinity  of  Christ.  Thus 
he  defended  the  use  of  homoousios  (q.v.)  against 
homoiousios    or    homoios    (qq.v.).     Owing  to  the 


influence  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and  other 
Arians,  Athanasius  was  exposed  to  the  vascillations 
of  the  emperors'  opinions,  and  was  five  times 
expelled  from  his  office,  though  always  permitted  to 
return.  His  zeal  and  persuasive  exposition  of  the 
Nicene  Christology  led  to  his  being  honored  as  the 
"father  of  orthodoxy." 

ATHARVAVEDA.— One  of  the  four  divisions 
of  the  Vedic  scriptures,  consisting  largely  of  charm, 
incantation  and  magic  formulae.  See  Sacred 
Scriptures. 

ATHEISM. — A  disbelief  in  the  existence  of  a 
personal  God  in  control  of  the  universe. 

The  word  is  often  loosely  employed  as  a  term  of 
opprobrium  to  designate  any  one  who  adversely 
criticizes  current  theological  doctrines.  Thus  Soc- 
rates was  charged  with  atheism;  and  some  modern 
thinkers  who  have  repudiated  the  conceptions  of 
theological  anthropomorphism  have  been  called 
atheists.  Since  atheism  denotes  a  negative  attitude, 
it  may  be  associated  with  agnosticism  (q.v.);  or  it 
may  find  expression  in  some  antitheistic  philosophy, 
such  as  materialism  or  pancosmism. 

Atheism  arises  out  of  an  adverse  criticism  of 
crude  or  anthropomorphic  ideas  in  theology,  and 
hence  is  a  secondary  rather  than  a  primary  religious 
attitude.  The  most  important  organized  develop- 
ment of  atheism  occurred  in  India,  where  in  the 
Sankya  system  in  Buddhism,  and  in  Jainism 
(qq.v.)  religion  was  interpreted  in  terms  of  self- 
discipline  rather  than  of  dependence  on  salvation 
from  the  gods.  In  modern  times  the  development 
of  modern  science  has  led  to  attempts  to  explain 
the  entire  universe  without  reference  to  any  divine 
Being.  But  Agnosticism  is  more  in  harmony  with 
the  spirit  of  science  than  is  a  developed  atheism. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ATHENAGORAS.— Christian  writer  of  the 
last  quarter  of  the  2nd.  century;  wrote  two  Greek 
treatises,  one  of  an  apologetic  nature  and  the 
other  on  the  resurrection. 

ATHOS. — Peninsula  and  mountain  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Chalcidian  peninsula  on  the 
Aegean  Sea;  designated  "the  Holy  Mount"  by 
orthodox  Greeks;  a  great  center  of  Greek  monasti- 
cism.  The  hbraries  of  its  monasteries  contain 
many  valuable  manuscripts. 

ATMAN. — A  term  occurring  frequently  in  the 
hterature  of  the  religions  of  India,  derived  from 
the  Skt.,  an,  found  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  tmdn,  mean- 
ing "breath."  The  word  acquired  the  meaning  of 
"the  individual  soul."  One  of  the  elements  of 
the  teaching  of  the  Upanishads  is  the  Advaita  doc- 
trine that  atman  =  brahman  (q.v.),  i.e.,  the  indi- 
vidual soul  is  identified  with  the  world  soul. 

ATONEMENT.— The  act  or  means  of  estab- 
lishing reconciliation  between  God  and  man.  In 
Christian  theology  it  has  reference  chiefly  to  the 
work  of  Christ  as  accomplishing  this  reconciUation. 

1.  In  'pre-Christian  religion  the  reconciliation 
between  gods  and  man  was  conditioned  largely 
upon  an  estimate  of  the  cause  of  the  estrangement 
between  the  two  and  the  hability  of  man  to  the 
effects  of  divine  displeasure.  In  the  more  primitive 
types  of  religion  this  estrangement  is  due  to  some 
neglect  or  insult  which  has  been  offered  by  some 
member  of  the  tribe  to  its  deity.  This  might  be  a 
breaking  of  the  taboo,  the  neglect  of  some  ritual 
performance,  disobedience  of  the  god's  representa- 
tive, etc.  In  such  cases  the  usual  method  of 
reconciUation  would  be  a  gift  to  the  god  as  sacri- 
fice.    While   not   all   sacrifices   were   intended  to 


35 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Atonement 


expiate  the  fault,  the  number  of  those  of  this 
character  were  very  numerous  and  varied  from  the 
offering  of  material  for  a  feast  in  which  the  god 
might  participate,  to  the  sacrifice  of  a  human  being. 

As  the  religious  life  in  the  different  communities 
varied,  the  requirements  of  the  gods  became  increas- 
ingly standardized  with  a  subsequent  Uability  to 
increase  in  violations  of  the  ritual.  In  the  peni- 
tential prayers  of  Babylon  particular  weight  is 
given  to  neglects  of  this  character. 

The  gods  were  regarded  as  reconciled  by  present- 
ing a  gift  which  the  priest  accepted  in  behalf  of  the 
deity.  The  acceptance  of  this  gift  would  mark 
the  completion  of  the  reconciliation  between  the 
worehiper  and  the  God.  These  gifts  were  of  dif- 
ferent sorts,  and  to  some  extent  were  adapted  to 
the  economic  capacity  of  the  worshiper,  as  well 
as  to  the  nature  of  that  which  caused  the  break  in 
the  friendly  relation  between  the  worshiper  and 
his  god. 

In  the  Hebrew  religion  many  of  the  sacrifices 
partook  of  the  nature  of  confession  of  ritual  sin  both 
individual  and  national.  The  elaborate  codes  of 
sacrifice  which  developed  in  the  Hebrew  rehgion  were 
concerned  in  the  removal  of  hindrances  to  the 
reconciliation  of  Yahweh  to  his  people.  In  most 
cases  these  infractions  of  divine  law  were  ritual 
and  ceremonial,  and  the  sacrifices  were  correspond- 
ingly of  ritual  character.  In  the  great  Day  of  the 
Atonement,  however,  the  sacrifices  were  established 
in  expiation  of  the  national  sin  for  the  purpose  of 
re-establishing  friendly  relations  between  Yahweh 
and  the  nation.  The  sins  of  the  nation  were  sup- 
posedly placed  on  a  scapegoat,  which  instead  of 
being  killed  was  driven  into  the  wilderness. 

2.  Atonement  in  Christian  religion. — The  world 
in  which  Christianity  took  its  rise  was  everywhere 
marked  by  the  practice  of  sacrifice  as  a  part  of  the 
process  of  establishing  reconciliation  between 
God  and  man.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that 
some  form  of  sacrificial  value  should  be  given  to  the 
death  of  Christ,  since  aU  Christians  believed  that 
reconciliation  had  been  accomplished  by  faith  in 
him.  The  absence  of  sacrifice  in  the  new  religion 
after  its  separation  from  the  temple  worship  at 
Jerusalem  led  to  the  rise  of  sacrificial  terms  as 
means  of  evaluating  the  death  of  Jesus.  Thus  he 
is  represented  by  Paul  as  the  sacrificial  gift  (Rom. 
3:21),  presented,  by  God  himself,  and  not  by  man. 
This  analogy  of  sacrifice  became  frequently  used 
in  the  Bible,  and  the  reconciliation  which  was 
already  a  matter  of  experience  because  men  had 
cried  "Abba,  Father,"  was  declared  to  have  been 
made  possible  because  of  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  i 
Strictly  speaking,  the  death  of  Jesus  does  not 
meet  the  requirements  of  actual  sacrifice,  as  he 
was  not  offered  on  the  altar  and  there  was  no  priest 
to  receive  the  gift,  nor  was  there  an  offering  of  his 
life  by  any  worshiper  since  his  death  was  the 
outgrowth  of  enmity  rather  than  faith.  The  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  undertakes  to  meet  these  difficulties 
by  showing  that  Jesus  offered  himself,  and  was  a 
high  priest  superior  in  importance  to  those  of  the 
Aaronic  order. 

The  New  Testament  writers  do  not  elaborate 
the  sacrificial  analogy  in  their  exposition  of  the 
effect  of  the  death  of  Christ  on  God,  and  this 
fact  has  given  rise  to  a  very  considerable  Kterature 
in  which  effort  is  made  to  find  a  unifying  conception. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  church  of  the  first  millennium 
made  httle  systematic  use  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
and  its  doctrine  of  forgiveness  and  salvation 
included  no  effort  to  expand  the  thought  of  the  New 
Testament  beyond  the  simple  analogy  of  sacrifice. 
The  prevailing  theory  was  that  Christ's  life  was 
a  ransom  given  to  Satan  in  return  for  the  souls  of 
the  patriarchs  and  other  religious  persons  whom  he 


held  in  bondage  in  Sheol.  This  involved  an 
elaborate  exposition  of  the  descent  of  Christ  into 
the  abode  of  the  departed  spirits,  as  well  as  the 
participation  of  both  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the 
deception  of  Satan  regarding  the  Divinity  of  Christ. 
The  theory,  however,  was  easily  understood  because 
of  the  practice  of  the  time.  The  aspersion  which 
it  cast  upon  the  morality  of  God  does  not  seem  to 
have  occurred  even  to  such  outstanding  leaders  as 
Origen,  Augustine,  Gregory,  and  Epiphanius,  by 
whom  the  theory  was  held. 

The  first  attempt  at  systematizing  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  death  of  Christ  with  other  Christian 
doctrines,  was  made  by  Anselm  (1033-1099)  in 
his  famous  treatise  Cur  Deus  Homo.  In  this  work 
Anselm  utilized  the  practices  of  a  feudal  state  as 
well  as  the  concepts  of  the  growing  penitential  sys- 
tem. The  death  of  Christ  he  held  made  satisfaction 
to  the  divine  honor  for  the  debt  which  humanity 
otherwise  could  never  have  paid.  Anselm  educes 
no  scriptural  authority  for  this  satisfaction,  but 
simply  refers  to  what  were  evidently  current  ideas 
in  his  social  order.  The  reconciliation  accomplished 
by  the  death  of  Christ  is  within  the  divine  nature 
itself  as  a  prequisite  of  reconciliation  between  God 
and  man.  Humanity  as  represented  in  Jesus  was 
enabled  by  the  incarnate  Son  to  pay  not  only 
the  debt  which  humanity  owed  God,  but  since 
Jesus  himself  was  not  guilty  of  any  sin  and  so  was 
not  under  obUgation  to  die,  to  make  satisfaction 
to  the  divine  honor.  In  return  for  this  uncalled 
for  service  on  the  part  of  Christ  he  was  entitled 
to  ask  a  boon  from  the  Father — the  right  to  ex- 
tend forgiveness  to  certain  persons  who  beUeved 
upon  him. 

The  Aijselmic  theory  was  not  universally  adopted 
by  the  Schoolmen,  although  it  gradually  found  favor. 
A  more  pressing  question  was  whether  the  death  of 
Christ  was  in  itself  possessed  of  such  worth  as  to 
make  it  the  only  conceivable  grounds  for  God's  for- 
giveness of  men,  or  whether  (Duns  Scotus)  God 
chose  to  regard  it  among  several  conceivable  alterna- 
tives  as  possessed  of  such  worth.    See  Accepti- 

lATION. 

The  extra-scriptural  conception  of  satisfaction 
fitted  in  so  admirably  with  the  contemporary  prac- 
tices of  the  European  civilization  that  it  continued 
to  hold  increasing  sway  for  a  very  long  period.  In 
the  case  of  the  Reformers  the  death  of  Christ  came 
to  be  regarded  as  a  satisfaction  to  the  justice  of 
God  as  well  as  to  his  dignity.  A  substitutionary 
penal  value  was  also  discovered  by  which  Christ 
was  beUeved  to  endure  the  punishment  due  to 
believers  individually.  From  this  point  of  view 
Jesus  actually  bore  the  punishment  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  borne  by  the  elect  and  thus 
opened  the  way  for  God  to  forgive  them.  The 
conception  of  debt  was  also  increasingly  developed 
and  Jesus  was  regarded  as  having  actually  paid 
the  debt  which  otherwise  humanity  must  have  paid. 

An  interesting  variant  from  this  general  fine 
of  development  is  to  be  seen  in  the  theory  of 
GxQl-ius,  to  the  effect  that  the  death  of  Christ  did 
not  change  the  attitude  of  God,  but  served  to 
indicate  that  law  could  not  be  violated  without  some 
form  of  suffering.  By  this  view  the  death  of  Christ 
testified  to  the  supremacy  and  majesty  of  divine 
law  without  emphasizing  the  thought  of  satisfaction 
to  either  the  honor  or  the  justice  of  God.  This 
theory  was  subsequently  developed  in  the  New 
England  theology. 

Although  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  has 
never  been  organized  into  a  dogma  comparable 
with  that  of  the  Trinity  and  the  person  of  Christ, 
yet  within  orthodoxy  the  satisfaction  theory  in  one 
from  or  another  and  the  imputation  of  Christ's  right- 
eousness have  remained  dominant.   At  the  same  time 


Atonement,  Day  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


36 


there  have  been  other  theories  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  how  the  roconcihation  or  the  at-one-ment 
has  been  accomphshed.  It  is  necessary  to  speak 
especially  of  the  moral  influence  theory,  which  first 
gained  position  by  its  formulation  by  Abelard. 
The  various  views  of  this  type  have  in  common  the 
belief  that  the  reconcihation  between  man  and  God 
does  not  involve  any  propitiation  of  God  or  expia- 
tion of  sin  on  the  part  of  Christ.  His  hfe  and  death 
are  examples  calculated  to  stimulate  and  guide  the 
beUever  to  the  love  of  God  and  he  died  vicariously 
but  not  as  a  substitute. 

According  to  McLeod  Campbell  and  other 
Scotch  theologians,  Christ  sympathetically  gathered 
an  erring  race  to  his  heart  and  died  because  of  the 
repentance  which  he  made  for  that  race  on^e 
cross.  Bushnell  taught  that  the  death  of  Christ 
was  vicarious  but  not  substitutionary  and'  was  a 
revelation  of  the  divine  love  calculated  to  deepen 
faith  and  repentance. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  all  these  theories  of  the 
Atonement  are,  so  to  speak,  ex  'post  facto.  Their 
champions  have  always  started  with  the  convic- 
tion of  the  reconciliation  as  a  matter  of  experience. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  has  been  organized 
for  the  purpose  of  making  it  appear  that  such 
reconciliation  is  consonant  with  what  seems  to  a 
given  period  fundamental  justice  both  in  theory  and 
practice.  The  consequent  crudities  in  some  of  these 
explanations  are  not  their  essential  quaUty:  viz., 
the  unconquerable  conviction  that  the  God  of  law 
is  also  the  God  of  love,  and  that  in  the  act  of  forgive- 
ness he  does  not  violate  the  moral  order  which  he 
has  established.  Shailer  Mathews 

ATONEMENT,  DAY  OF.— A  Jewish  hohday, 
observed  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  of  Tishri 
(corresponding  approximately  to  October)  com- 
manded in  the  Bible  (Lev.  23:26-32).  Marking 
the .  conclusion  of  "the  ten  penitential  days"  of 
earnest  self-examination,  it  is  the  most  solenan  day 
of  the  Jewish  calendar,  calUng  for  fasting  and 
prayer  "from  sunset  to  sunset."  Its  Uturgy  is  a 
deep  and  soul-stirring  confession  before  God, 
repentance,  and  pleading  for  forgiveness  and 
Divine  aid  in  striving  for  better  things. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 

ATRIUM. — An  open  court  before  the  entrance 
to  early  churches,  where  penitents  who  were 
denied  admission  gathered  to  invoke  the  prayers 
of  the  faithful. 

ATROPHY. — In  biology,  the  cessation  of  the 
development  and  wasting  away  of  an  organ  or  parts 
analogously,  spiritual  stagnation. 

ATTIS. — ^A  male  Asiatic  deity  and  counterpart 
of  Cybele,  the  great  mother.  The  Cybele-Atti: 
cult  belongs  to  the  group  of  Mystery  Rehgions  (q.v.). 

ATTRITION.— In  R.C.  theology,  imperfect  con- 
trition or  repentance  springing  from  imperfect 
motives.  The  highest  motive  is  the  love  of  God, 
and  repentance  springing  therefrom  is  contrition. 
See  Penance,  Contrition. 

AUBURN  DECLARATION.— A  declaration  of 
faith  made  at  Auburn,  N.Y.  by  representatives  of 
the  New  School  party  in  the  controversy  between 
the  Old  and  New  Schools  of  the  Presbyterian 
church.  The  declaration  included  the  funda- 
mentals of  Calvinism  and  received  the  endorse- 
ment of  the  General  Assembly  in  1868.  See 
Presbyterianism. 

AUDITOR. — The  name  appUed  to  certain  digni- 
taries of  the  Vatican  court  who  hear  and  investigate 


juridical  cases  submitted  to  the  Pope,  such  as  the 
Auditor  Papae,  Auditor  Carrier ae,  and  the  Auditor 
of  the  Rota. 

AUFKLAERUNG,  THE.— See  Enlightenmbnt. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION.— A  statement  of 
behef  drawn  up  by  Melanchthon,  and  presented  to 
the  Imperial  diet  at  Augsburg  in  1530  by  a  number 
of  Protestant  princes.  The  references  to  the 
Lord's  Supper  were  subsequently  modified  by 
Melanchthon  so  as  to  be  less  opposed  to  Calvin- 
ism. The  two  forms  have  been  a  source  of  division 
among  Lutherans,  See  Creeds  and  Confessions 
OF  Faith. 

AUGSBURG,  RELIGIOUS  PEACE  OF.— The 
outcome  of  a  council  held  in  Augsburg,  1555  to 
settle  a  religious  controversy  in  Germany.  The 
council  decreed  that  all  who  adhered  to  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  whatever  be  the  edition,  were  to 
be  included  as  Protestants.  It  left  to  secular  rulers 
the  matter  of  control  over  rehgion  in  their  own 
territory. 

AUGSBURG,  INTERIM  OF.— See  Interim. 

AUGURY.— See  Divination. 

AUGUSTINE  (354-430).— Aurelius  Augustinus, 
one  of  the  most  influential  men  in  Christian  history 
born  in  Tagaste,  Numidia,  a  student  in  the  higher 
schools  of  Carthage,  early  found  in  himself  the 
conflict  between  his  philosophic  ideals  and  the 
passion  of  his  sensual  nature.  For  nine  years  he 
adhered  to  the  Manichaean  sect,  attracted  by  their 
intellectual  freedom  and  the  simphcity  of  their 
explanation  of  evil  from  a  warfare  of  two  principles. 
He  was  repelled  at  last  by  their  capricious  specula- 
tions and  reduced  to  a  skepticism  which  baffled 
his  mind  as  sensuaUty  divided  his  wiU.  Made  a 
teacher  of  literature  in  Milan  in  384,  his  wavering 
nature  felt  the  spell  of  the  authoritative  church 
as  administered  by  the  great  Ambrose.  At  this 
time,  too,  Neo-platonism  known  through  the  trans- 
lations of  Victorinus  aided  the  solution  of  his 
spiritual  problem,  emancipating  him  from  the 
materiaUstic  theology  of  the  Manichaeans.  Neo- 
platonism  and  Christian  truth  were  for  him  blended 
in  one.  Subdued  also  by  the  new  ideal  of  monasti- 
cism  he  resolved  to  end  his  irregular  marital  ties  and 
hve  a  cehbate  life,  a  resolution  which  later  in  his  ^ 
Confessions  was  idealized  as  a  conversion.  Baptized 
(387)  in  Milan  he  returned  to  Africa,  was  ordained 
presbyter  (390)  and  from  395  to  his  death  was 
Bishop  of  Hippo,  he  and  his  clergy  living  a  common 
life  of  voluntary  poverty  after  the  monastic  ideal. 
In  this  period  under  the  influence  of  Paul's  Epistles 
rehgion  became  for  him  the  problem  of  reconciliation 
of  the  sinful  heart  and  a  merciful  God.  Augustine 
is  in  fact  the  first  theologian  to  develop  Paul's 
conception  of  ethical  redemption  as  the  work  of 
an  irresistible  grace  transforming  the  will.  The 
controversy  with  Pelagius  (412  ff.)  sharpened  his 
formulation  of  this  and  the  conflict  with  schismatic 
Donatists  intensified  his  conception  of  the  authori- 
tative church.  F.  A.  Christie 

Augustine's  theology. — The  influence  of  Neo- 
platonism  in  Augustine's  religious  development 
was  strong,  and  was  carried  over  into  his  Christian 
experience  as  a  profound  mysticism.  God  is  the 
only  Being  with  independent  existence.  AU  other 
beings  derive  whatever  reahty  they  have  from  God. 
To  be  deprived  of  this  divine  source  of  existence  is 
evil.    Evil  is  thus  defined  as  privation  of  good. 

Translated  into  Christian  doctrine,  this  mysti-^ 
cism  emphasized  the  inherent  inability  of  sinful 


37 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Australia,  Religions  of 


man  to  do  any  good.  Goodness  must  be  created  in 
man  by  God,  and  must  be  maintained  by  God's 
sustaining  power  in  man.  This  creative  divine 
activity  is  grrace,which  is  prevenient  (i.e.,  it  acts 
to  create  in  man  a  desire  for  salvation)  and  co- 
operating (i.e.,  it  strengthens  the  good  purposes 
created  by  prevenient  grace).  Since  the  work  of 
grace  must  be  initiated  by  God,  divine  election  is 
the  real  ground  of  individual  salvation. 

Augustine  vigorously  opposed  all  conceptions 
of  salvation  by  human  merit  (see  Pelagianism), 
and  thus  gave  inspiration  to  Luther,  But  in 
identifying  tlie  channels  of  grace  with  the  sacra- 
ments and  ministrations  of  the  Cathohc  Church, 
he  gave  a  jjowerful  rehgious  reinforcement  to 
Catholicism.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

AUGUSTINE  OF  CANTERBURY.— Missionary 

to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  sent  by  Gregory  the  Great  in 
596.  He  became  the  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
where  he  died,  604  or  605.  His  work,  organized 
so  as  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  a  large  number 
of  missionary  monks,  was  very  successful  in  making 
converts,  and  many  pagan  temples  were  trans- 
formed into  Christian  churches.  From  him  dates 
the  estabhshment  of  Roman  CathoUcism  in  England 
and  the  supplanting  of  the  old  British  church. 

AUGUSTINIAN.— (1)  Pertaining  to  the  life 
or  the  theology  of  Augustine  (q.v.).  (2)  An 
exponent  of  the  doctrines  of  Augustine.  (3)  Any 
one  of  the  monastic  orders  and  congregations  living 
according  to  the  so-called  Augustinian  rule.  The 
principle  Augustinian  order  is  the  "hermits  of 
St.  Augustine"  or  "Austin  friars,"  founded  in  1256, 
to  which  Luther  belonged.  The  barefooted  Augus- 
tinians  are  a  reformed  congregation  of  the  same 
order. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.— A  private 
acknowledgement  of  sin  into  the  ear  of  a  priest, 
prescribed  by  the  R.C.  church,  on  pain  of  the  loss 
of  the  privileges  of  membership  in  the  church  and 
Christian  burial.  Auricular  confession  was  first 
proposed  in  lieu  of  public  confession  by  Leo  I. 
(440-461).  The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  under 
Innocent  III.  in  1215  decreed  that  every  Catholic 
confess  at  least  once  annually.  The  canonical  age 
of  confession  is  seven  years. 

AUSTERITIES.— Acts  of  rigorous  self-discipline 
in  the  interests  of  rehgious  or  moral  purity  such  as 
to  involve  serious  hardships.     See  Asceticism. 

AUSTRALIA,  MISSIONS  TO.— The  popula- 
tion consists  of  from  50,000  to  74,000  aborigines, 
ca.  5,000,000  whites,  and  ca.  32,500  orientals.  The 
London  Missionary  Society's  efforts  near  Sydney 
ended  with  the  extinction  of  the  tribes  served, 
ca.  1861.  AngUcans,  Moravians,  Presbyterians 
and  Lutherans  have  work  in  Queensland;  Angli- 
cans, in  Northern  Territorj^  and  North-West 
Australia;  Presbyterians  in  Victoria;  two  German 
Societies  in  South  Australia,  the  New  South  Wales 
Aboriginal  Mission  (interdenominational)  in  New 
South  Wales;  the  Anglicans  in  the  Torres  Straits 
(Moalsland  Mission,  1907)  among  a  population  made 
up  of  aborigines  and  South  Sea  Islanders,  the  latter 
transplanted  thither  from  Austraha.  Anghcans, 
Presbyterians  and  Wesleyans  carry  on  work  among 
the  Chinese  immigrants.  The  Roman  Cathohcs 
have  missions  in  West  and  North-West  Austraha. 

Austrahan  Missions  combine  evangelism  with 
industrial  training.  The  government  has  aided 
in  the  support  of  schools  and  the  estabhshment  of 
reservations.  Natives  are  encouraged  to  own  their 
own  land,  and  are  instructed  as  to  its  use.     All 


told  some  6,000  aborigines  have  thus  far  been  won 
by  combined  Catholic  and  Protestant  effort. 
These  aboriginal  peoples  are  rapidly  disappearing 
as  a  result  of  the  impact  of  civihzation.  A  century 
ago  there  were  some  200,000  aborigines  in  Queens- 
land alone.  Henry  H.  Walker 

AUSTRALIA,   RELIGIONS    OF.— Of    all    the 

primitive  peoples  the  hunting  tribes  of  Australia 
form  the  most  considerable  illustration  of  an  iso- 
lated homogeneous  group.  They  were  formerly  hela 
to  be  the  most  primitive  of  peoples  and  to  have  a 
mental  capacity  intermediate  between  the  highest 
apes  and  civihzed  man,  but  a  closer  acquaintance 
with  them  has  led  to  a  revision  of  this  opinion. 
Living  in  a  dry  country,  dependent  on  game,  needing 
to  hold  together,  they  have  met  their  problems  far 
more  skillfully  than  was  at  first  supposed. 

Writers  on  the  mythology  of  the  Australians 
are  constantly  referring  to  the  unsystematic  char- 
acter of  their  legends.  They  have  no  fixed  genealogy 
of  the  heavens,  no  recognized  history,  no  cycle  of 
divine  legends.  But  all  this  is  as  we  should  now 
expect  from  the  condition  under  which  they  have 
developed.  They  could  not  produce  a  theology  any 
more  than  the  Africans.  The  earlier  attempts  to 
set  down  what  the  people  believed  about  the  future 
life,  gods,  spirits,  and  the  creation  of  the  world 
resulted,  indeed,  in  teasing  statements  out  of  the 
natives  but  the  statements  were  for  the  most  part 
misleading.  As  in  all  primitive  religions,  it  is  to 
customs  and  ceremonies  and  not  to  intellectual 
formulations  that  we  must  turn  for  an  explanation  of 
their  rehgious  life.  Each  man  has  his  own  behef 
about  any  specific  problem  that  is  presented,  but 
many  of  our  problems  have  not  come  to  their 
attention  and  hence  they  lack  our  doctrinal  systems. 
It  has  been  said  that  they  do  not  beheve  in  immor- 
tality, for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  have  any 
idea  of  mortality.  In  a  world  where  every  object 
in  nature  seems  to  respond  with  a  definite  attitude 
toward  the  people  in  it,  there  is  no  rrieaning  to  a 
belief  in  immortality  for  there  is  nofdeath.  Some- 
times an  Austrahan  mother  is  said  to  carry  the 
dead  baby  on  her  back  till  it  decomposes  and  then 
to  carry  the  bones  in  her  sleeping  bag. 

Most  of  the  features  which  characterize  primitive 
rehgions  in  general  are  to  be  found  among  the 
Australians,  but  the  most  remarkable  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  their  culture  are  in  the 
initiation  ceremonies  which,  indeed,  occur  ever}'- 
where  but  are  developed  more  highly  here  than  else- 
where. The  key  to  the  ceremonies  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  control  of  the  life  of  the  tribe 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  old  men.  Into  the  company 
of  the  old  men  the  boys  are  brought  with  great 
secrecy  and  mystery,  and  ceremonies  lasting  for 
weeks  or  months,  and  even  years,  are  carefully 
gone  through  with,  the  net  result  of  which  is  to 
perpetuate  the  exact  system  then  prevailing.  Into 
this  ceremony  no  woman  is  ever  initiated  and 
death  is  or  was  the  penalty  for  an  accidental 
entrance  by  a  woman  into  the  company.  It  was 
even  puni-shable  by  death  to  look  upon  the  sacred 
bull-roarer,  a  wooden  paddle  which  was  made  to 
sound  by  being  swung  at  the  end  of  a  string.  The 
ceremonies  among  the  different  Austrahan  tribes 
are  not  uniform  but  in  all  of  them  the  initiate  is  given 
very  solemn  lessons  and  is  treated  to  very  strenu- 
ous rites.  Sometimes  a  tooth  is  knocked  out,  some- 
times there  is  circumcision  or  other  ceremonial 
surgical  operations. 

The  result  of  such  a  system  is  not  difficult  to  see. 
With  the  power  entirely  in  the  hands  of  one  group 
and  with  an  elaborate  and  effective  method  of  public 
education  it  is  possible  to  have  a  society  that  is 
almost   static.     No  society   can   ever  be   entirely 


Authority 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


38 


stable,  but  the  Australian  approached  very  closely 
to  it. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  life  has  been  pointed 
out  by  Dewey.  A  hunting  people  lives  by  means 
of  stimulations  and  excitements  and  has  not 
learned  to  endure  the  monotony  of  drudgery.  Thus 
it  arises  that  the  people  who  have  best  succeeded 
in  stabiUzing  their  social  structure  are  most  tolerant 
of  new  inventions  in  the  form  of  the  ritual  of  con- 
trol. Novelty  in  the  initiation  is  at  a  premium  and 
nmch  ingenuity  is  expended  in  the  embellishment 
of  the  ceremonies. 

Besides  the  initiation  ceremony,  there  is  another 
feature  of  Australian  religion  that  is  noteworthy, 
namely  the  development  of  totemism.  Some  authori- 
ties consider  that  Austraha  is  the  original  home  of 
totemism,  but  whether  this  be  true  or  not,  the 
ceremonies  which  are  engaged  in  for  the  multiplica- 
tion of  the  totem  are  more  elaborate  than  elsewhere. 
These  ceremonies  include  dances  and,  unhke  the 
initiations,  they  are  participated  in  by  the  women. 
Where  the  totem  is  an  animal  the  magical  increase 
in  the  supply  of  the  animals  is  obtained  by  moulding 
a  heap  of  sand  into  the  form  of  the  animal  and 
various  parts  are  thrown  into  the  air  by  the  partici- 
pants. The  celebration  of  the  fish  totem  is  more 
compUcated.  The  arms  and  other  parts  of  the 
body  of  one  of  the  members  of  the  clan  are  pierced 
with  bone  daggers  after  which  he  descends  into  the 
water,  his  blood  mingling  with  the  fish  and  causing 
an  abundant  supply.  Grass  seeds  scattered  into 
the  air  serve  the  same  purpose  for  the  grass  totem. 

Besides  the  usual  dances  which  are  common  to 
primitive  people  in  general,  the  Australians  have  an 
institutional  dance  called  Corroboree,  which  may 
be  a  very  solemn  and  serious  ceremony,  connected 
with  propitiatory  rites  or  for  commemorative 
purposes.  At  times  the  women  join  in  these  dances 
and  occasionally  they  are  characterized  by  license. 

Ellsworth  Faris 

AUTHORITY.— The  right  to  declare  what  is 
obUgatory  in  beUef  and  practice  and  to  enforce 
obedience  to  such  declarations.  In  a  looser  sense, 
the  abihty  of  a  person  to  give  expert  judgment: 
as  the  authority  of  a  historian  or  a  scientist  in  a 
field  where  he  has  special  knowledge. 

In  the  realm  of  rehgion,  God,  as  creator  of  the 
world  and  of  men  has  authority  to  declare  what  is 
right  and  to  enforce  obedience  to  his  decrees.  Any 
law  or  utterance  which  can  be  proved  to  come  from 
God  is  therefore  authoritative.  Different  theories 
of  authority  arise  from  different  conceptions  of  the 
agencies  through  which  God  speaks. 

1.  The  authority  of  inspired  scriptures. — Oracles 
and  words  of  inspired  prophets  are  regarded  as 
utterances  of  divine  origin.  In  the  more  highly 
organized  rehgions  such  utterances  are  collected  in 
the  form  of  sacred  scriptures  which  are  the  final 
court  of  appeal.  This  is  pre-eminently  true  of 
Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism,  where 
the  authority  of  scripture  is  based  on  a  doctrine  of 
specific  inspiration. 

The  Roman  Catholic  church  adds  to  the  authori- 
tative scriptures  the  dogma  of  the  authoritative 
church.  According  to  this  doctrine  Christ  officially 
organized  his  church,  estabhshing  the  apostles  as 
authoritative  interpreters  of  Christian  truth. 
The  bishops,  as  successors  of  the  apostles,  continue 
their  authority,  and  according  to  the  decision  of 
the  Vatican  Council  (1870)  the  pope  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Peter  has  authority  to  speak  ex  cathedra 
as  the  mouthpiece  of  the  church.  Cathohcism 
insists  that  an  authoritative  scripture  requires 
an  authoritative  interpreter  in  order  to  avoid  error, 
and  the  church  provides  this.  Protestantism 
rejected  the  authority  of  the  church,  asserting  the 
abihty  of  every  individual  under  the  guidance  of 


the  Holy  Spirit  to  interpret  scripture  aright.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  the  creeds  and  confessions  of  the 
various  branches  of  Protestantism  guide  the  inter- 
pretation of  scripture  to  a  large  extent,  and  in 
cases  of  church  discipHne  these  are  authoritative. 

Historical  critical  study  of  the  biblical  writings 
introduces  radical  modifications  in  the  traditional 
theories  of  inspiration  and  inevitably  affects  the 
notion  of  authority.    See  Biblical  Criticism. 

2.  The  authority  of  a  priori  rational  principles. — 
There  are  certain  fundamental  principles  or  axioms 
to  which  all  thinking  must  conform.  Mathematical 
relations  and  logical  principles  are  not  to  be  evaded. 
The  authority  of  such  fundamental  ideas  has  been 
supported  by  appeal  to  a  doctrine  of  innate  ideas, 
divinely  implanted  in  the  human  mind.  Kant's 
critical  philosophy  made  certain  a  priori  principles 
regulative,  and  he  attempted  to  expound  ethics 
and  religion  in  terms  of  conformity  to  the  dictates 
of  these  a  priori  categories. 

A  rehgious  philosophy  may  be  organized  on 
the  basis  of  such  rational  principles.  Confucius 
(q.v.)  emphasized  the  necessity  of  living  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rational  order  of  "heaven."  Stoi- 
cism (q.v.)  urged  a  life  of  rational  unity  with  the 
divine  order  in  the  cosmos.  Deism  (q.v.)  attempted 
to  reduce  rehgion  to  certain  universal  rational 
doctrines  which  all  men  must  accept  just  because 
they  are  rational. 

A  critical  examination  of  the  processes  of  reason- 
ing reveals  the  weakness  of  too  extensive  an  appeal 
to  a  priori  principles.  Our  convictions  are  formed 
by  the  circumstances  of  experience  to  so  great  an 
extent,  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  test 
ideas  by  critical  examination  rather  than  by  refer- 
ence to  an  underived  a  priori  authority.  Modern 
thinking  is  thus  more  and  more  appealing  to  experi- 
mental testing  rather  than  to  "authoritative" 
dogmas. 

3.  Authority  in  political  government. — Corre- 
sponding to  the  religious  doctrine  of  authority  com- 
ing from  divine  pronouncements  is  the  theory  of 
the  "divine  right"  of  kings.  Hammurabi  (q.v.) 
is  pictured  as  receiving  his  code  of  laws  directly 
from  the  hands  of  the  god  Shamash.  The  emperor 
of  Japan  is  the  "Son  of  Heaven."  Mediaeval 
political  theory  generally  assumed  that  rulers 
were  divinely  commissioned.  Protests  against 
poUtical  arbitrariness  appealed  to  certain  divinely 
willed  functions  which  the  ruler  was  to  fulfil.  If 
he  failed  to  fulfil  them,  he  forfeited  the  authoritj^ 
which  belonged  to  these  functions.  The  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  vindicates  the  revolt  of  the 
American  colonies  against  England  by  an  appeal 
to  "the  laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nature's  God"  (see 
Law  of  Nature).  In  modern  democracy  poUtical 
authority  is  regarded  as  power  delegated  by  the 
people  to  elected  agents  to  be  exercised  for  the 
common  good;  but  the  constant  appeal  to  prin- 
ciples of  justice  indicates  that  real  authority  is  con- 
ceived as  consisting  in  something  more  stable  than 
the  will  of  an  accidental  majority.  See  Law  Politi- 
cal; Justice.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

AUTOCEPHALI.— Of  self-headship;  a  name 
apphed  to  bishops  in  early  Christian  times  who 
recognized  no  ecclesiastical  superior. 

AUTO  DA  FE.— Portuguese  for  "Act  of  the 
Faith."  The  name  of  the  ceremony  in  which 
the  sentences  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain  against 
heretics  were  pubhcly  announced,  and  the  con- 
demned persons  were  executed  by  secular  authority. 

AUTOMATISM.— (1)  In  ethics,  the  theory 
that  man  acts  involuntarily,  and  that  therefore 
his    behavior    is    non-moral.     (2)    In    psychology, 


39 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Aztecs,  Religion  of 


action  that  is  mentally  determined  where  the  sub- 
ject is  not  conscious  of  the  mental  process. 

AUTONOMY. — Freedom  of  action  from  external 
control;  a  term  employed  by  early  writers  for  politi- 
cal liberty,  but  from  the  17th.  century  applied  also 
to  morals  and  reUgion.  Kant  used  the  word  to 
mean  the  faculty  of  the  will  to  determine  its  own 
moral  laws,  uninfluenced  by  the  objects  willed. 
The  term  is  commonly  employed  in  opposition  to 
heteronomy  or  subjection  to  external  authority. 

AUXILIARY  BISHOP.— A  R.C.  bishop  who 
is  appointed  as  auxiliary  to  the  diocesan  in  cases 
where  more  than  one  bishop  is  required. 

AVALOKITESVARA.— An  important  divine 
figure  of  Buddhism.  As  the  merciful  savior  of  the 
present  age  he  is  closely  associated  with  Amitabha 
(q.v.).  Among  bodhisattvas  he  is  generally  given 
supreme  rank  as  the  active  presence  of  the  Buddha  in 
this  world  while  Amitabha  is  the  ruler  of  the  western 
Paradise. 

AVARICE. — Immoderate  passion  for  the  acquisi- 
tion and  hoarding  of  wealth.  See  Virtues  and 
Vices. 

AVATAR. — A  Hindu  word  for  divine  incarna- 
tion: usually  used  to  describe  the  coming  of  the 
supreme  God  in  animal  or  human  form  in  each  age 
of  the  world  and  for  the  world's  salvation. 

AVE  MARIA.— Lat.  Hail  Mary;  (1)  A  saluta- 
tion to  the  Virgin  Mary  founded  on  Luke  1:28, 
expanded  into  a  formal  prayer  officially  authorized 
by  Pius  v.,  1568.  (2)  The  appointed  time  for  the 
use  of  the  Ave  Maria  when  the  Ave  bell  is  rung, 
(3)  The  rosary  beads  used  to  enumerate  the  Aves 
as  recited. 

AVERROES.— The  last  of  the  great  Arabic 
philosophers,  1126-1198,  was  learned  in  mathe- 
matics, law,  medicine,  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  was  eminent  as  an  advocate  of  Greek  science,  and 
as  a  commentator  on  Aristotle.  Through  Moses 
Maimonides  his  influence  was  exerted  on  Christian 
thought  and  he  may  be  said  to  h  ave  introduced  the 
Christian  schoolmen  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
AristoteUanism  which  so  characterized  the  theology 
of  the  period.     See  Arabic  Philosophy. 

AVESTA. — A  collection  of  texts  containing 
the  preserved  sacred  Uterature  of  the  Zoroastrians. 
It  is  the  oldest  memorial  of  the  language  and  religion 
of  the  Iranian  branch  of  the  Indo-Europeans. 
Only  a  fragment  has  been  preserved.  The  rest 
perished  during  the  Greek,  Mohammedan,  and 
Mongol  invasions  of  Persia.  Zoroastrianism  is 
best  preserved  today  among  the  Parsis  of  India. 
The  most  important  texts  are  the  Yasna  (with 
its  appendix  the  Vispered),  liturgical  texts  grouped 
around  the  Gathas  "hymns"  (the  oldest  and  most 
sacred  texts) ;  the  Vendidad,  a  priestly  ceremonial 
code  like  Leviticus;  the  Yashts,  hymns  of  praise 
to  the  good  spirits  (in  a  later  dialect).  See  Zoro- 
astrianism. 

AVICENNA  (980-1037).— An  Arabian  physician 
and  philosopher,  versed  in  sciences,  the  author  of 
many  works,  foremost  among  which  were  a  Canon 
on  medical  science,  two  commentaries  on  Aristotle, 
and  a  couple  of  encyclopedias.  In  his  physical 
and  psychological  ideas,  there  are  evidences  of 
Aristotehan  and  Neoplatonic  influence.  He  be- 
lieved that  through  the  contact  of  the  active  and 
passive  inteUect  the  mind  acquired  ideas;    that  it 


is  endowed  with  personal  immortaUty;  that  a  few 
choice  souls  enjoy  fellowship  with  the  Universal 
and,  in  consequence,  the  gift  of  prophecy;  and  that 
the  world  of  ideas,  souls,  physical  force,  and  cor- 
poreal matter  are  emanations  from  God. 

AVIGNON.— City  in  the  department  of  Vau- 
cluse,  France,  the  residence  of  seven  popes,  1309- 
1377,  and  of  two  anti-popes,  1378-1408;  remained 
as  papal  property  until  the  French  Revolution, 
1791. 

AXIOM. — (1)  In  logic  and  mathematics,  a 
proposition  accepted  as  self-evident  without  the 
necessity  of  demonstration,  and  hence  available 
for  further  deductions.  (2)  In  epistemology,  a 
proposition  or  principle  that  is  regarded  as  neces- 
sary truth,  immediately  known.  The  thorough- 
going empiricist  in  epistemology  is  opposed  to 
regarding  any  truth  as  axiomatic. 

AWAKENING,  THE  GREAT.— An  American 
revival  developing  in  the  third  and  fourth  decades 
of  the  18th.  century,  promoted  by  Jonathan 
Edwards,  the  Tennent  brothers,  Whitefield,  and 
others,  in  which  thousands  professed  conversion, 
much  emotionalism  was  manifested,  the  national 
consciousness  stimulated,  the  moral  tone  of  the 
nation  uplifted,  and  theological  controversy  pro- 
voked. 

AWE. — A  feeling  of  reverence  involving  actual 
or    potential   dread   induced   by   some   object    or 
event    suggesting    sublime    mystery.     Awe    is    an 
aspect  of  religious  experience  due  to  the  conscious- 
ness of  contact  with  the  divine. 

AZTECS,  RELIGION  OF.— At  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico  the  ruling  people  of 
the  country  were  the  Aztec,  whose  capital,  Tenoch- 
titlan,  was  on  the  site  of  the  present  Mexico  City. 
The  Aztec  were  an  imperial  people,  holding  under 
their  sway  the  greater  portion  of  the  population  of 
central  Mexico.  They  had  occupied  this  position 
but  a  relatively  brief  time,  having  emerged  from 
savagery,  under  the  tutelage  of  the  more  advanced 
peoples  whom  they  superseded,  not  more  than  two 
or  three  centuries  before  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards. 

It  is  this  fact  of  a  relatively  recent  acculturation 
which  alone  can  account  for  the  paradoxical  Aztec 
religion,  in  its  combination  of  savagery  and  refine- 
ment. Externally  it  is  one  of  the  most  hideous 
religious  developments  of  mankind,  having  been 
attended  by  human  sacrifice  upon  a  scale  probably 
never  elsewhere  equalled  and  in  forms  horribly 
cruel  by  ceremonial  cannibalism,  and  by  a  mons- 
trousness  of  imagery  perhaps  surpassing  all  others. 
Internally,  in  its  prayers  and  rituals  as  preserved 
to  us,  in  not  a  few  of  its  ceremonies,  which  included 
baptism,  confession  and  penance,  and  a  conception 
of  the  devotional  life,  Aztec  religion  compares 
favorably  with  most  other  forms  of  paganism 
and  far  surpasses  many.  The  only  explanation  of 
this  situation  is  that  the  more  refined  phases  of 
the  religion  were  derived  from  peoples  of  a  finer 
and  more  mature  culture,  and  such  peoples,  already 
decadent,  dwelt  in  Yucatan  and  neighboring 
regions  at  the  time  of  the  discovery. 

The  Aztec  pantheon  was  a  polytheistic  motley, 
organized,  however,  according  to  a  truly  remarkable 
calendric  scheme  which  in  many  ways  resembles  the 
astrology  of  the  Old  World  and  Uke  this  was  em- 
ployed for  purposes  of  divination.  Aztec  deities 
are  most  of  them  oriented  and  grouped  with 
reference  to  this  cosmico-temporal  cycle  of  stations: 
the  maize-god,  or  lord  of  food  and  life,  presiding  over 
the  noon  hour,  the  death  god  over  the  midnight, 


Ba 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


40 


and  the  hours  of  dawn  and  eve  under  Xiuhtecutli, 
lord  of  fire,  symbolizing  the  hearth  of  the  world. 
Various  other  deities  hold  the  intermediate  positions, 
the  exact  number  of  which  is  uncertain,  although 
there  appear  to  have  been  in  the  dominant  system 
twelve  lords  of  the  day  and  of  the  upper  world, 
and  nine  of  the  night  and  of  the  lower  world. 

The  great  gods  of  Aztec  cult  include  a  triad  of 
high  deities  along  with  a  secondary  group  of  only 
less  importance.  The  tribal  deity  was  Huitzilo- 
pochtli,  probably  brought  from  the  savage  state, 
and  known  primarily  as  a  war-god.  It  was  to  this 
deity  that  the  most  numerous  human  sacrifices 
of  war-captives  were  made.  Tezcatlipoca,  "Smok- 
ing Mirror"  (probably  the  sky),  was  the  supreme 
deity  in  a  cosmic  sense:  he  is  identified  with 
phases  of  sun  and  moon,  with  the  night-winds,  and 
the  quarter^  of  heaven.    The  greater  portion  of 


the  finer  Aztec  prayers  are  addressed  to  this  god, 
"invisible,  impalpable  ....  Lord  very  good,  very 
compassionate,  very  noble,  very  precious." 
Quetzalcoatl  is  the  third  great  deity,  certainly  a 
pre-Aztec  divinity,  and  also  cosmical  in  character. 
It  is  this  deity  who  was  the  center  of  the  remark- 
able tales  of  a  bearded  white  man  come  to  teach 
the  law  of  life,  persecuted,  departing  over  the 
waters,  but  promising  to  return  with  a  new  reign 
of  peace  and  purity.  Tlaloc  the  rain-god  and 
Chalchiuhtlicue  the  goddess  of  flowing  waters  are 
also  of  great  cult  importance;  Xipe  Totec,  god  of 
vegetation  was  worshiped  with  frightful  rites,  his 
victims  being  flayed  alive;  but  the  most  horrible 
figure  of  all  was  Mictlantecutli,  the  skeleton  god 
of  death,  whose  grim  visage  seems  everywhere  to 
have  haunted  the  imaginations  of  the  Aztec  race. 
See  Mexico,  Religions  of.     H.  B.  Alexander 


B 


BA. — ^The  bird-like  figure  with  human  head  and 
arms  which  symbolized  for  ancient  Egypt  the 
revivified  soul  or  intelligence  of  the  dead  person. 

BAAL,  BEEL,  BEL. — Different  spellings  of  a 
word  common  to  all  of  the  Semitic  dialects  and 
having  the  general  meaning  of  "possessor"  or 
"lord."  The  usage  of  the  word  as  epithet  or  title 
of  the  deity  was  very  general. 

In  Canaan  there  seem  to  have  been  innumer- 
able Baalim  (pi.),  gods  of  fertiUty,  whose  worship, 
like  that  of  their  female  counterparts,  the  Ashta- 
roth  (Ishtars),  was  characterized  by  the  grossest 
sensuality  and  licentiousness.  The  Hebrew  proph- 
ets were  unsparing  in  their  denunciation  of  these 
cults  which  flourished  on  the  "high  places"  and 
"under  every  green  tree."  Such  practices,  common 
to  primitive  religion  the  world  over,  were  meant  to 
secure  abundant  increase  of  field  and  garden  as 
well  as  of  flock  and  herd.  How  many  of  the  local 
baals  attained  to  the  dignity  of  personal  names  we 
cannot  tell,  but  even  after  they  became  tribal  or 
city  gods  they  continued  to  be  addressed  as  Baal. 
So  Melkart  of  Tyre  remained  the  Tyrian  Baal;  the 
goddess  of  Byblos  is  known  to  us  only  as  the 
baalat  (fem.)  Gubla  and  the  Old  Testament  proph- 
ets found  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  keep  the  Israel- 
ites from  applying  this  epithet  to  Yahweh. 

Both  the  Hittites  and  the  Phoenicians  worshiped 
a  baal  or  baals  of  the  skies.  In  Babylonia  and 
AssjTia  all  of  the  gods  were  addressed  as  bel,  but 
very  early  Enlil  of  Nippur  became  the  bel  par 
excellence.  Later  Marduk  of  Babylon  attained 
to  this  dignity  and  Enlil  was  known  as  the  "elder 
bel."  D.  D.  Luckenbill 

BAALZEBUB.— -See  Beelzebub. 

BAB,  BABI,  BABISM.— See  Behaism. 

BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  RELIGION. 

— See  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Religion. 

BACKSLIDING.— The  reversion  to  wrong  or 
sinful  habits  and  practises  after  reformation,  con- 
version, or  profession  of  reUgion.  See  Apostasy. 
The  Calvinistic-Arminian  controversy  was  con- 
cerned with  the  possibihty  of  a  permanent  apostasy 
after  conversion,  the  Calvinists  on  the  ground  of 
predestination  supporting  the  negative  view,  while 
the  Arminians  declared  that  the  freedom  of  the 
human  will  was  impaired  by  such  a  denial.  Back- 
sliding as  a  temporary  return  to  evil  ways  has  led 
many  Protestants  to  preach  the  need  of  renewal  and 
sanctitication.      Modern  psychologists  find  an  ex- 


planation in  the  temperaments  of  certain  people 
and  the  reactions  following  experiences  of  doubt, 
distress,  and  temptation. 

BAETYLS. — Sacred  stones  or  pillars. 

BAHAISM.— See  Behaism. 

BAHYA  BEN  JOSEPH.— A  Jewish  philosopher 
who  flourished  in  Spain  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh 
century.  He  was  the  author  of  "Hobot  Halebabot" 
(Duties  of  the  Heart)  a  system  of  Jewish  ethics,  in 
which  he  emphasized  the  spiritual  and  moral 
aspects  of  religion  over  the  legal  and  formal.  Sin- 
cerity, humility;  and  repentance  are  presented  as 
the  most  essential  virtues;  and  the  love  of  God  as 
the  highest  aim  in  life.         Harold  F.  Reinhart 

BAIUS  (OR  DE  BAY),  MICHAEL  (1513-1589). 
— Belgian  R.C.  theologian;  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  and  leader  of  the  anti-scholastic 
reaction  of  the  16th.  century.  Baius  is  regarded  as 
a  precursor  of  Jansen,  and  was  condemned  by 
Pius  V.  and  Gregory  XIII.  for  his  ultra-Augustinian 
tendencies. 

BALDACHIN  OR  BALDAQUIN.— (1)  A  stone, 
wooden,  or  metal  canopy,  elevated  over  the  high 
altar  in  larger  R.C.  churches,  and  usually  supported 
by  pillars,  but  sometimes  supported  by  chains.  The 
name  is  from  the  Itahan  baldacchino,  the  ItaUan 
name  for  Bagdad  where  the  cloth  of  the  canopy  was 
made.  See  Ciborium.  (2)  Also  the  canopy  of 
precious  cloth  carried  in  procession  over  the  eucha- 
rist  or  a  dignitary. 

BALDER. — A  god  of  light  and  moral  purity  in 
Norse  mythology.  His  death  through  the  trickery 
of  Loki  IS  at  once  a  symbol  of  the  fading  sumrner 
beauty  and  light  and  an  omen  of  the  approaching 
doom  of  the  world  and  the  gods. 

BALLOU,  HOSEA  (1771-1852).— One  of  the 
founders  of  UniversaUsm  (q.v.)  in  America,  and  the 
most  lucid  advocate  of  its  tenets;  founded  several 
UniversaMst  magazines,  and  wrote  extensively  in 
defense  of  its  doctrines;  opposed  Calvinistic  and 
legalistic  views. 

BALTIMORE,  COUNCILS  OF.— Councils  of 
the  R.C.  church  in  the  U.S.A.,  which  have  dealt  with 
matters  of  doctrine,  education,  property,  law, 
sacraments,  books  and  journals,  discipline,  and 
secret  societies.  Plenary  councils  have  convened 
in  1852,  1866,  and  1884.  There  have  also  been  ten 
provincial  councils  from  1829-1869. 


41 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Baptism,  Ethnic 


BAMBINO. — (Italian,  male  infant.)  An  artis- 
tic figure  representing  the  infant  Jesus;  especially 
the  doll-like  image  used  in  certain  R.C.  churches  in 
connection  with  the  liturgy  and  symboUsm  of  the 
Christmas  feast,  and  exposed  from  Christmas  to 
Epiphany  in  a  crib  or  manger.  The  best  known  is 
the  Santissimo  Bambino  of  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Ara  Coeli,  Rome,  to  which  miraculous 
powers  are  ascribed. 

BAN. — (1)  A  curse  or  denunciation  supposed  to 
have  superhuman  power  to  harm.  See  Blessing 
AND  _  Cursing.  (2)  An  official  edict  imposing 
certain  duties,  such  as  military  service,  on  a  re- 
gion. (3)  An  official  declaration  by  the  R.C. 
church  excluding  offenders  from  the  privileges  of 
the  sacrament. 

V  BANNERJEA,  KRISHNA  MOHUN  (1813- 
ISSS). — Indian  Christian  leader  and  scholar,  born 
a  Hindu,  a  Brahmin  by  caste;  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, 1832;  ordained  as  an  AngHcan  clergyman, 
1839;  became  a  recognized  authority  in  Sanskrit  and 
Hindu  philosophy;  president  of  the  faculty  of  Arts, 
University  of  Calcutta,  1867-9. 

BANNS  OR  BANS.— A  publication  of  inten- 
tion to  marry,  especially  when  made  ecclesiastically. 
The  R.C.  church  still  demands  such  an  announce- 
ment and  it  is  customary  in  the  evangelical  churches 
of  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  but  is  not  a  require- 
ment for  a  legal  marriage  in  Great  Britain. 

BANTU. — See  Africa,  Religions  of;  Primi- 
tive Religions. 

BAPTISM,  CHRISTIAN.— A  sacramental  appli- 
cation of  water  to  a  person,  whether  by  immersion, 
affusion,  or  sprinkhng. 

1.  In  primitive  Christianity. — Baptism,  by  immer- 
sion, in  the  name  of  Christ,  was  at  first,  in  accord- 
ance with  earUer  Jewish  rites  and  the  baptism  of 
John,  a  symbol  of  purification.  Later,  for  Paul 
and  others  it  took  on  a  sacramental  or  mystical 
character,  so  that  whereas  it  had  been  simply  a 
symbol  of  changed  inward  disposition,  it  was  now 
regarded  as  expressing  the  believer's  union  with 
Christ  in  his  burial  and  resurrection. 

2.  Patristic  theory. — TertuUian  attributed  to 
the  water  of  baptism  a  magical  virtue  derived  from 
the  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Except  for  martyrs, 
baptism  became  an  indispensable  condition  of  sal- 
vation; if  its  benefits  were  lost,  it  could  not  be 
repeated,  hence  arose  a  tendency  to  postpone  the 
ceremony.  The  rite  of  infant  baptism,  which  had 
been  advocated  by  Irenaeus  but  contested  by  Ter- 
tulUan,  was  referred  by  Origen  to  apostoHc  usage. 
Augustine  prescribed  infant  baptism  on  the  ground 
that  it  removed  original  sin,  the  condition  without 
which  infants  could  not  be  saved,  and  this  theory 
determined  the  practise  of  the  church. 

3.  Scholastic  and  later  teaching. — Thomas  Aquinas 
i  aught  that  baptism  removes  from  adults  original 
and  actual  sin,  from  infants  only  original  sin,  that 
is,  guilt  but  not  concupiscence.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  relying  upon  Augustine  and  Aquinas, 
affirmed  that  the  effects  of  baptism  are  (1)  release 
frorn  actual  and  original  sin  together  with  temporal 
punishment  due  to  sin;  (2)  impressing  an  indeUble 
mark;  (3)  adoption  as  sons  of  God  and  member- 
ship in  the  church. 

4.  The  Eastern  church. — This  church,  requiring 
a  threefold  immersion,  holds  that  hy  baptism  all 
sin  is  removed;  without  baptism  children  are  not 
saved. 

5.  Lutheran  doctrine. — The  efficacy  of  baptism, 
which  confers  forgiveness  and  grace,  is  not  from  the 


water  but  from  the  Spirit  in  the  word  of  institution, 
in  the  adult  conditioned  by  faith.  In  infants  the 
Holy  Spirit,  by  a  mysterious  working,  excites  faith 
so  that  they  truly  beheve.  All  infants  within  the 
church  are  saved,  even  if  unbaptized;  concerning 
those  outside  of  the  church  one  is  permitted  to 
cherish  hope. 

6.  Reformed  doctrine. — Baptism,  conditioned  on 
faith,  is  a  sign  and  seal  of  the  covenant  of  grace, 
that  is,  of  regeneration,  forgiveness,  and  newness 
of  fife.  The  mode,  whether  immersion,  affusion, 
or  sprinkhng,  is  indifferent.  Baptism  is  not,  how- 
ever, necessary  to  salvation;  for  the  non-elect  it  has 
no  significance,  yet  the  more  recent  view  disregards 
the  question  of  election.  Infant  children  of  parents, 
one  or  both  of  which  are  professing  Christians,  on  the 
ground  of  the  Abrahamic  covenant  of  grace  and  of 
the  family  as  a  rehgious  unit,  have  a  right  to  bap- 
tism. It  is  an  initiatory  rite  to  church  membership. 
Consecration  of  infants  by  baptism  receives  special 
emphasis  in  relation  to  religious  education.  No 
claim  is  advanced  that  an  inner  change  is  produced 
by  this  ceremony;  in  any  case  it  is  not  to  be 
repeated. 

7.  Anglican  doctrine. — ^Through  baptism  the 
soul  is  regenerated,  the  guilt  of  original  sin  removed, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  bestowed.  A  germ  of  eternal 
fife  is  implanted  in  infants  which  they  may  later 
by  their  free  will  either  develop  or  neglect. 

8.  Doctrine  of  Baptist  churches. — This  embraces 
three  points:  (1)  personal  Christian  experience  as 
an  essential  prerequisite  of  baptism;  (2)  immersion; 
(3)  rejection  of  infant  baptism  on  the  ground  that  it 
lacks  a  sure  apostolic  sanction,  that  the  rite  is 
meaningless  except  as  a  sign  of  personal  faith,  that 
to  baptize  in  hope  of  later  faith  issues  in  frequent 
disappointment,  and  that  it  introduces  into  the 
church  an  incongruous,  unregenerate  element. 
Others  who  hold  this  position  are  Disciples  of  Christ, 
Dunkards,  and  Mennonites  (qq.v.).  This  was  a 
characteristic  position  of  the  Anabaptists. 

9.  Doctrine  of  the  Society  of  Friends  {Quakers). — 
Baptism  of  which  that  of  John,  appointed  only  for  a 
time,  was  a  figure,  is  wholly  spiritual,  wherein  by  a 
vital  union  with  Christ  one  puts  away  sin  and  rises 
to  newness  of  life.  Infant  baptism  is  in  no  sense 
binding,  since  it  is  to  be  referred  to  neither  precept 
nor  practice  of  the  scriptures  but  only  to  human 
tradition.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

BAPTISM,  ETHNIC— There  are  two  phases  of 
the  rite — baptism  in  infancy  and  the  baptisni  of 
adults  which  admitted  to  full  social  and  religious 
privileges.  In  both  cases  the  usual  fluid  is  water; 
though  blood,  wine,  oil,  and  honey  are  sometimes 
used.  The  form  varies.  Sprinkling,  washing, 
pouring,  immersion  or  thrice  immersion  (Thibet) 
may  all  be  found.  The  ceremony  is  usually  public 
and  is  performed  by  the  father  or  one  near  of  kin 
as  among  the  Teutons  or,  more  commonly,  by  a 
priest  (India,  Iran,  America,  China,  Japan,  Celts, 
Thibet,  etc.).  In  the  case  of  infant  baptism  the 
name  is  usually  given  at  this  time.  In  its  earliest 
use  the  rite  was  probably  intended  to  remove  the 
contagion  of  the  strange  potencies  connected  with 
birth  and  to  guard  the  child  from  dangers  of  the 
demon  world  which  threatened  its  life.  It  came 
also,  by  the  addition  of  the  naming  ceremony,  to 
include  the  recognition  of  the  legitimacy  of  the  child, 
its  reception  into  the  clan,  its  relation  to  the  ances- 
tral line  and  admission  to  the  protection  of  the 
group  life.  The  child  became  a  member  of  the 
kinship  group. 

The  adult  ceremonies  are  twofold,  either  forms 
of  admission  into  the  responsibilities  of  society  or, 
in  the  case  of  special  religious  societies,  to  peculiar 
rehgious  status  or  privileges.     To  the  first  class 


Baptism  for  the  Dead 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


42 


belong  the  worldwide  ceremonies  of  initiation  at 
adolescence  when  by  social  rites  the  youth  is  said 
to  be  "born  anew,"  "reborn,"  or  "twice-born,"  as 
in  Australia,  Mexico,  India,  Iran.  To  the  second 
class  belong  the  group  of  religious  ceremonies  known 
as  the  Mysteries  (Eleusinian,  Orphic,  Great  Mother, 
Mithraic)  where  the  idea  of  release  from  moral 
evil  was  involved  and  the  candidate  secured  a  new 
life  and  such  union  with  the  Savior  God  as  gave 
assurance  of  immortal  life.  Water  was  the  usual 
medium,  though  the  cult  of  the  Great  Mother, 
Cybele,  made  use  of  blood  in  the  taurobohum 
(q.v.).  In  both  the  initiatory  rites  and  in  these 
higher  religious  ceremonies  it  was  customary  to  give 
the  candidate  a  new  name. 

Common  elements  run  through  the  whole  devel- 
opment, (1)  the  removal  of  a  dangerous  contagion 
(tabu,  uncleanness,  evil);  (2)  the  admission  to 
social  status;  (3)  the  acquiring  of  new  powers. 
Magical  elements  maintain  themselves  side  by 
side  with  the  evolving  social  values. 

A.  Eustace  Hatdon 

BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DEAD.— An  early  Chris- 
tian custom  of  baptizing  another  as  the  representa- 
tive of  a  candidate  for  baptism  who  had  died  before 
receiving  the  ordinance.  Among  the  orthodox 
it  was  early  discontinued,  but  heretical  Christians 
such  as  the  Marcionites  and  Montanists  main- 
tained it. 

BAPTISMAL  VOW.— A  promise  made  by  a 
candidate  about  to  receive  baptism.  The  practise 
dates  back  to  the  2d.  century,  reference  being 
found  in  TertuUian,  De  Corona,  chap.  Ill;  It  is 
still  a  part  of  the  R.C.  ritual.  The  form  is  a  renvmci- 
ation  of  Satan,  his  works  and  his  pomps. 

BAPTISTERY.— A  building  or  portion  of  a 
church,  or  a  reservoir  in  the  church  set  apart  for  the 
administration  of  baptism.  In  the  early  church 
immersion  was  customary  and  the  baptistery 
included  the  basin  and  a  room  for  the  neophytes. 
Baptisteries,  as  separate  buildings,  ^  are  usually 
of  circular  or  polygonal  form,  containing  the  addi- 
tions of  dressing  rooms  and  a  catechumen's  room, 
and  sometimes  a  choir.  Where  immersion  is  prac- 
tised to-day  the  baptistery  is  a  reservoir  within  the 
church;  where  baptism  is  by  sprinkling  the  place 
of  the  baptistery  is  taken  by  the  baptismal  font. 

BAPTISTS. — A  denomination  characterized  by 
insistence  on  behevers'  baptism,  democracy,  liberty 
of  conscience,  rejection  of  infant  baptism  and  all 
sacramentaUsm,  and  an  effort  to  reproduce  apostoUc 
Christianity. 

In  their  main  features  they  have  ancient,  medi- 
eval and  ^teenth  century  antecedents.  John 
Smyth,  Cambridge  Fellow,  gathered  a  Separatist 
congregation  at  Gainsborough  (1606).  Persecution 
drove  them  to  Amsterdam  (1608).  In  1609,  after 
controversy  with  the  ministers  of  the  older  English 
church  there,  Smyth  and  his  associates  disowned 
their  previous  church  estate,  baptism  and  ordina- 
tion, and  as  behevers  introduced  baptism  anew 
and  reorganized  with  Smyth  as  pastor.  Smyth 
soon  afterward  repudiated  the  transaction  and  was 
excommimicated  with  the  majority  by  Helwys, 
Murton  and  others.  Those  who  adhered  to 
Helwys  returned  to  England  (1612)  and  founded 
churches  in  London,  Tiverton,  Sahsbury  and  Cov- 
entry. Smyth  and  his  associates  sought  fellowship 
with  the  Mennonites.  Both  parties  had  become 
Arminian  and  some  of  the  former,  became  Uni- 
tarian. They  were  the  first  EngUsh  advocates 
of  liberty  of  conscience.  Along  with  the  Cal- 
vinistic  anti-pedobaptists  they  became  convinced 


(1640-41)  that  immersion  alone  is  baptism.  They 
multiphed  during  the  civil  war  and  CromwelHan 
time  (1641-59).  A  strong  connectional  organi- 
zation was  established  with  associations,  general 
assembly,  and  general  superintendency.  After 
the  persecutions  under  Charles  II.  their  churches 
were  wrecked  by  controversy  and  excessive  disciphne 
and  most  of  the  survivors  became  Unitarian. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  evangeUcal  revival  a 
remnant,  reinforced  by  new  converts,  formed  the 
New  Connection  of  General  Baptists  (1770)  which 
engaged  successfully  in  all  kinds  of  evangelical 
work  until  the  amalgamation  with  Particular  Bap- 
tists (1891). 

From  a  Puritan  congregation  that  returned  from 
Zeland  (1616)  several  groups  of  convinced  anti-pedo- 
baptists peaceably  withdrew  (1633  onward)  until 
by  1644  seven  Calvinistic  Baptist  churches  had  been 
formed  in  London.  These  Particular  Baptists  also 
prospered  during  the  revolutionary  period  (1641- 
60).  A  considerable  number  of  educated  ministers 
adopted  their  views  and  many  members  held  high 
positions  in  the  army.  Like  the  General  Baptists 
they  suffered  severely  under  Charles  I.  Reacting 
against  Arminianism  and  Socianism  many  of  them 
became  hyper-Calvinistic  and  averse  to  evangeUsm. 
Though  they  did  not  co-operate  in  the  evangehcal 
revival  of  the  eighteenth  century,  men  like  Ryland, 
Fuller,  Carey  and  HaU  became  imbued  with  its 
spirit  and  were  able  to  lift  the  denomination  to  a 
high  plane  of  missionary  endeavor.  After  years  of 
partial  co-operation  Particular  and  General  Bap- 
tists united  in  1891.  Enghsh  Baptists  now  have  a 
membership  of  about  500,000  and  well  equipped 
with  ministers  and  institutions  are  contending 
nobly  for  civil  and  religious  hberty  and  world  wide 
evangelization. 

The  first  Baptist  church  in  America  was  founded 
by  Roger  Wilhams,  an  educated  Enghsh  Separatist, 
who,  after  a  stormy  career  in  Massachusetts  (1631- 
36),  was  banished.  Having  established  a  settle- 
ment on  Narragansett  Bay  on  the  basis  of  liberty 
of  conscience  he  introduced  behevers'  baptism 
independently  (1638)  and  organized  a  church. 
He  soon  became  convinced  that  the  ordinances 
had  been  lost  in  the  great  apostasy  and  could  be 
restored  only  by  special  divine  intervention.  Not- 
withstanding the  defection  of  their  leader  the 
church  persisted  in  a  feeble  way,  but  divided  on  the 
question  of  the  laying  on  of  hands,  those  insisting 
upon  it  holding  also  to  general  redemption.  An- 
other church  was  founded  at  Newport  (1641—44) 
under  John  Clarke,  an  educated  Enghshman,  as 
muiister.  Calvinistic  Baptist  churches  were  formed 
in  Massachusetts,  Maine,  Pennsylvania  and  South 
Carolina  (1662-83)  with  much  opposition  from 
the  authorities;  but  by  1741  most  of  these  had 
become  divided  and  feeble.  The  churches  of  the 
Philadelphia  Association  (1707  onward)  were  the 
exception.  ^  Drawing  recruits  from  New  England 
and  Wales  its  churches  increased,  and  by  missionary 
effort  exerted  an  influence  in  the  middle  and  south- 
ern colonies.  Rhode  Island  College  was  founded 
and  fostered  by  this  body.  The  General  Baptists 
prospered  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut. 

Baptists  held  aloof  from  the  Great  Awakening, 
but  thousands  of  converted  Congregationahsts 
turned  Baptist  and  these  Separate  Baptists  won  the 
South.  In  Virginia,  Regular  and  Separate  Baptists, 
having  co-operated  in  a  successful  struggle  for 
rehgious  liberty,  united  in  1785.  Widespread 
revivals  after  the  Revolution  brought  multitudes 
into  their  ranks.  Rehgious  enthusiasm  and  dearth 
of  educated  ministers  caused  hundreds  of  illiterates 
to  enter  the  ministry  and  a  widespread  aversion  to 
educated  ministers  and  to  every  form  of  organ- 
ized denominational  work  resulted.     A  few  min- 


43 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Banutbite 


isters  and  churches  in  northern  and  southern 
cities  had  supported  Carey's  work  in  India  and 
when  they  learned  that  Judson  and  Rice  on  their 
way  to  India  as  Congregational  missionaries  had 
become  Baptists  (1812)  were  willing  to  undertake 
their  support.  Rice  returned  and  was  successful 
in  organizing  a  number  of  local  missionary  societies 
and  at  last  in  securing  a  national  Baptist  convention 
(1814)  which  decided  to  meet  trienniaUy  and 
appointed  a  Board.  State  Conventions  were 
formed  by  friends  of  missions  and  education. 
Educational  institutions  were  founded  in  the 
various  states.  Home  Mission  and  Publication 
Societies  grew  out  of  the  Triennial  Convention. 
Theological  Seminaries  were  estabhshed  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country  as  the  need  became  felt. 
Missionarjr  Baptists  have  rapidly  increased  in 
numbers,  intelhgence,  and  equipment.  They  are 
becoming  more  harmonious  among  themselves  and 
less  polemical  in  relation  to  other  evangelical 
Christians.  There  are  now  about  6,000,000  Bap- 
tists in  America  and  about  7,000,000  in  the  world 
who  manifest  their  fellowship  by  co-operating  in 
the  Baptist  World  Alliance. 

In  the  United  States,  all  but  about  350,000  of 
the  more  than  7,500,000  Baptists  are  in  the  organi- 
zations known  as  the  Northern  Baptist  Convention 
(1,285,416),  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention 
(3,113,355),  and  the  Colored  Baptist  organiza- 
tions (2,735,007).  Other  distinct  bodies  with 
statistics  of  1919  are:  the  Free  Baptists  (ca.  65,000, 
Arminian,  united  with  the  Northern  Baptist  Con- 
vention in  the  2d.  decade  of  the  20th.  century); 
Free-Will  Baptists  (54,833,  Arminian,  practicing 
feet-washing  and  anointing  of  the  sick  with  oil); 
General  Baptists  (33,466  Arminian);  Old  Two-Seed- 
in-the-Spirit- Predesiinarian  Baptists  (387,  holding 
to  the  specific  election  of  the  seed  of  God  to 
salvation  and  the  seed  of  Satan  to  reprobation); 
Primitive  (or  "Hardshell")  Baptists  (80,311  Hyper- 
calvinistic) ;  Regular  Baptists  {21,521)]  Separate  Bap- 
tists (4,254)  an  organization  formed  as  a  result  of 
the  Whitefield  revival) ;  Seventh  Day  Baptists  (8,475, 
observing  Saturday  as  the  Sabbath) ;  Six  Principle 
Baptists  (ca.  400),  holding  as  fundamentals  repent- 
ance, faith,  baptism,  laying  on  of  hands,  resurrection 
of  the  body,  eternal  life),  and  United  Baptists 
(22,097,  a  union  in  the  South  of  "Old  Lights"  and 
"New  Lights").  A.  H.  Newman 

BAR-COCHBA  (BAR-KOKHBA).— The  name 
given  to  Simon  bar  Coleba  who  as  a  Messiah 
acknowledged  by  many  Jews,  including  Akiba  ben 
Joseph,  led  the  Jewish  revolt  against  the  Romans 
in  132  A.D.  and  for  three  years  defied  the  power  of 
Rome.  His  defeat  was  the  occasion  for  the  final 
and  ruthless  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

BAR  MITZVAH.— (Hebrew,  "son  of  the  com- 
mandment," i.e.,  one  to  whom  the  commandment 
applies)  the  term  apphed  to  the  Jewish  boy  of 
thirteen  years  of  age,  designating  him  as  having 
reached  the  age  of  moral  responsibility.  On  the 
first  Sabbath  after  the  thirteenth  birthday,  the 
bar  mitzvah  is  called  up  to  the  Law,  by  which  act, 
he  formally  accepts  responsibility  for  his  own  acts. 
This  occasion  is  observed  as  one  of  festivity  by  the  • 
family  and  the  community. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 

BARACA-PHILATHEA  BIBLE  CLASSES.— 
"Baraca"  is  a  modification  of  the  word  "Beracah," 
meaning  "blessing"  in  II  Chron.  20:26,  It  was 
first  given  as  a  name  to  a  Bible  class  of  men,  Oct.  20, 
1890,  in  Syracuse,  N.Y.  Efficient  class  organiza- 
tion, adaptation  of  business  principles  to  the 
Christian  life  and  the  study  of  the  Bible  at  the 


regular  sessions  of  the  Sunday  school  have  been  its 
chief  features.  The  "Philathea"  movement  (for 
women)  was  organized  1895  in  the  same  church. 
"Philathea"  is  a  Greek  word,  meaning  "lovers  of 
truth."  Its  general  aim  and  methods  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Baraca  classes.  Classes 
organized  on  these  principles  are  now  found  in  all 
Christianized  countries,  and  are  knit  together  in 
an  enthusiastic  world  wide  Baraca-Philathea  Union 
of  nearly  one  million  members.        Ira  M.  Price 

BARAITA  (aramaic:  outside;  plural:  Baraitot). 
— A  teaching  of  the  Tannaim  (see  Tanna)  not  incor- 
porated in  the  collection  of  the  Mishna  (q.v.). 

BARAKA.— See  Mana. 

BARD. — A  class  of  poet-minstrel  in  the  early 
Celtic  world  who  combined  the  offices  of  singer, 
genealogist,  historian,  and  custodian  of  legal 
knowledge.  They  may  have  been  closely  allied  to 
the  druids.  Their  satires  were  greatly  feared  since 
they  were  accredited  with  the  power  of  killing  by 
means  of  such  chanted  spells. 

BARDESANES  (154-222).— Gnostic  preacher 
and  writer;  Persian  by  birth ;  Edessa  was  the  center 
of  his  labors.  He  taught  a  mixture  of  Chaldean 
mythology,  docetic  Christology  and  other  elements. 
He  has  the  credit  of  winning  Edessa  to  Christianity. 

BARLAAM  and  jo  ASAPH  (OR  JOSAPHAT). 

— A  Greek  reUgious  romance  of  the  seventh  or 
eighth  century,  based  on  the  story  of  Buddah.  An 
Indian  prince  named  Joasaph  is  brought  up  in 
ignorance  of  all  human  suffering.  When  at  length  ' 
he  perceives  it,  he  despairs,  but  is  converted  by  an 
old  monk  named  Barlaam.  A  court  debate  on 
Christianity  follows,  in  which  the  representative 
of  Christianity  triumphs,  appropriating  for  his 
argument  the  substance  of  the  second-century 
Apology  of  Aristides.  This  romance  was  very 
popular  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  translated  into 
all  the  languages  of  the  west. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 
BARNABAS. — The  surname  which  the  apostles 
gave  to  Joses,  the  Levite  from  Cyprus  (Acts  4:23) 
who  occupied  a  prominent  place  as  a  co-worker  with 
Paul  in  the  New  Testament  era.  He  was  referred 
to  as  the  prophet,  teacher  (Acts  13:1)  and  apostle 
(Acts  14:14).  He  is  traditionally  reported  to  have 
founded  the  churches  in  Cyprus  and  in  Milan.  His 
authorship  of  Hebrews  (Tertullian)  and  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas  is  no  longer  accepted.  He  is  said  to 
have  suffered  martyrdom  in  Cyprus. 

BARNABAS,  EPISTLE  OF.— An  epistle  in 
21  chapters,  written  in  the  first  quarter  of  the 
2nd.  century  by  an  Alexandrian.  In  Alexandria  it 
was  accepted  as  from  the  famous  Barnabas,  but 
it  is  at  present  thought  to  be  anonymous.  Its 
place  in  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  shows  that  it  was 
received  as  a  sacred  book  by  the  ancient  church  in 
the  East,  but  it  was  never  so  regarded  in  the  West. 
It  is  counted  among  the  Apostolic  Fathers. 

BARNABAS,    GOSPEL    OF.— An    apocryphal 

work  of  the  Middle  Ages  (13th.-16th.  century),  writ- 
ten in  Itahan  from  a  Mohammedan  point  of  view, 
quite  lacking  in  historic  sense. 

BARNABITE.— A  R.C.  minor  rehgious  order 
founded  in  Milan  in  1530  originally  called  Clerks 
Regular  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Paul,  but  named 
Barbarites  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Barnabas 
given  to  them  in  1538. 


Barnes,  Albert 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


44 


BARNES,  ALBERT  (1798-1870).— American 
Presbyterian  minister  and  author,  especially  noted 
for  his  commentaries  which  were  of  a  popular  type 
and  had  an  extensive  sale. 

BARONIUS,  CAESAR  (1538-1607).— Italian 
cardinal,  noted  for  the  ecclesiastical  history  which 
he  produced  in  12  volumes  which  was  a  sincere 
attempt  to  write  history  scientifically  from  the 
R.C.  point  of  view. 

BARROW,  GEORGE  (1803-1881).— English 
traveller  and  author.  He  served  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  in  Russia  and  in  Spain,  and 
was  noted  for  his  facility  in  acquiring  languages 
and  his  knowledge  of  the  gypsies. 

BARROWS,  JOHN  HENRY  (1847-1902).— 
American  Congregationalist;  organized  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions  in  Chicago,  1893;  president  of 
Oberlin  College,  1899-1902;  first  lecturer  in  the 
Orient  in  the  Barrows  Lectureship  of  the  University 
of  Chicago. 

BARSOM. — The  small  bundle  of  rods  used  in 
connection  with  sacred  ceremonies  of  the  Parsee 
reUgion.  These  rods  may  represent  the  twigs  of 
the  sacred  plant  which  were  spread  as  an  altar 
for  the  sacrificial  offerings  in  ancient  times. 

BARTHOLOMEW.— One  of  the  twelve  apostles 
of  Jesus,  according  to  the  Synoptic  Usts.  It  is 
commonly  supposed  that  he  is  to  be  identified  with 
Nathaniel,  the  name  Bartholomew  being  a  patro- 
nymic, so  that  his  name  would  be  Nathaniel,  son 
.of  Tholomew. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY,  MASSACRE  OF  ST. 

— On  Aug.  24,  1572,  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  was 
begun  the  great  massacre  of  Huguenots  in  France 
at  the  instigation  of  Catherine  de  Medici,  queen 
Mother  of  Charles  IX.  First  Coligny  (q.v.)  was 
slain  at  his  home,  and  then  the  massacre  spread, 
the  estimated  number  of  the  slain  being  from  10,000 
to  100,000. 

BARUCH. — (1)  A  Hebrew  name,  meaning 
"blessed,"  the  name  of  an  associate  of  Jeremiah. 
(2)  The  name  of  an  apocrjrphal  book,  found  in  the 
LXX,  Vulgate,  and  Douai  versions,  the  canonicity 
of  which  is  not  accepted  by  Protestants.  It  is 
variously  dated  from  the  3rd.  to  the  1st.  centuries, 
B.C.  It  is  composed  of  poorly  integrated  parts  and 
shows  evidence  of  plurality  of  authorship.  See 
Apoceypha. 

BASEL,  COUNCIL  OF  (1431-1449).— The 
Council  held  in  Basel  which  attempted  to  reform 
the  Church  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  (q.v.),  to  hold  general 
councils  regularly  at  the  expiration  of  certain  defi- 
nite periods. 

The  Council  was  called  in  Basel  in  order  to  meet 
the  problem  of  the  Hussites,  but  hostility  between 
it  and  the  Pope  immediately  developed.  It  com- 
pelled Eugenius  IV.  to  admit  its  authority,  made 
compromises  with  the  Hussite  leaders,  abolished  the 
annates  and  other  papal  taxes.  The  Council  spUt 
over  helping  the  Greek  Empire  against  the  Turks,  and 
the  anti-papal  section  remaining  in  Basel  suspended 
the  Pope.  In  turn  the  Pope  excommunicated  the 
Council  and  summoned  another  at  Ferrara  (later 
removed  to  Florence).  The  Council  at  Basel 
elected  an  anti-Pope  (Felix  V.)  who,  however, 
was  not  recognized  by  the  European  powers,  and 
subsequently  resigned.  The  Council  at  Basel 
thereupon  elected  Nicholas  V.  whom  the  cardinals 


had  already  elected.     The  ultimate  effect  of  the 
struggle  was  favorable  to  the  papacy. 

Shailer  Mathews 
BASIL  THE  GREAT  (ca.  330-379)  .—Bishop  of 
Caesarea  and  one  of  "the  Three  Cappadocians," 
elder  brother  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  He  collaborated 
with  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  in  preparing  a  compila- 
tion of  Origen's  works,  the  Philocalia.  Basil  was 
a  zealous  defender  of  orthodoxy  against  Arianism. 
He  advocated  the  ascetic  ideal,  and  attained  renown 
as  a  preacher  and  author.  See  Cappadocian 
Theology. 

BASILIANS. — Monks  or  nuns  observing  the 
rule  of  Basil  the  Great.  His  rule  became  exclusive 
in  the  East  so  "Basilian"  is  virtually  equivalent  to  a 
Greek  Catholic  monk,  though  a  community  was 
organized  in  France  in  the  19th.  century  and  has  a 
branch  in  Toronto,  Canada. 

BASILICA. — (1)  In  Athens  a  portico  in  which  the 
archon  basileus  (whence  the  name)  presided.  (2)  A 
Roman  hall  of  justice  of  rectangular  form  divided 
by  pillars  into  aisles  and  nave,  and  later  adopted  as 
a  form  of  early  church  architecture.  (3)  A  church 
or  cathedral  in  the  form  of  the  old  basilica,  or  one  to 
which  the  Pope  has  given  the  name.  (4)  A  legal 
code,  being  a  Greek  adaptation  of  the  Roman  code, 
issued  by  Basil  the  Macedonean  in  878,  and  in 
revision  in  885. 

BASILIDES. — A  Gnostic  teacher  and  writer, 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (117-138)  at 
Alexandria.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  writings  of 
Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Hippolytus. 
His  statement  of  the  problem  of  evil  was  couched  in 
the  concepts  of  Persian  duaUsm.  The  solution  is 
Gnosticism  (q.v.). 

BASIN. — A  vessel,  ordinarily  with  flaring  sides, 
and  made  of  metal,  used  in  the  Jewish  ritual,  and  in 
early  churches  for  ablutions. 

BATH,  BATHING. — Immersion  in  or  cleansing 
with  water.  The  Levitical  legislation  emphasized 
the  rehgious  value  of  the  cleanhness  of  the  body, 
so  that  bathing  came  to  be  of  ceremonial  importance. 
See  Lev.  16:4.  Other  religions  such  as  Hinduism 
have  given  the  bath  a  place  in  the  cult.  See  Puri- 
fication. 

BAUER,  BRUNO  (1809-1882).— German  his- 
torian and  theologian.  He  taught  in  Berlin  and 
Bonn,  1834-1842,  beginning  his  work  as  an  ortho- 
dox Hegelian.  But  his  critical  work,  begun  about 
1840,  was  so  destructive  that  in  1842  the  govern- 
ment cancelled  his  hcense  and  he  retired,  spending 
his  remaining  years  writing  works  of  history  and 
theology.  The  merit  of  his  critical  work  lay  in  its 
attempt  to  interpret  the  New  Testament  as  the 
outgrowth  of  vital  religious  movements  and  con- 
troversies. 

BAUMGARTEN,  MICHAEL  (1812-1889).— 
German  Protestant  theologian;  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Rostock,  1850-1858,  which  chair  he  lost 
because  of  his  liberalism.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Deutscher  Proieslantenverein  in  1865. 

BAUR,  FERDINAND  CHRISTIAN  (1792- 
1860). — German  biblical  critic  and  church  historian, 
head  of  the  so-called  Tubingen  school.  In  most  of 
his  work  he  was  strongly  influenced  by  the  phi- 
losophy of  Hegel,  which  he  applied  to  history. 
The  result  was  the  Tendenz  (tendency  or  bias)  inter- 
pretation of  the  New  Testament  books,  to  which 
Baur  found  the  key  in  the  opposition  between  the 


45 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Begging,  Significance  of 


Pauline-Gentile  Christianity  and  the  Petrine- 
Jewish  wing  of  the  church.  While  Baur's  work 
greatly  stimulated  the  critical  historical  study  of 
the  New  Testament,  it  was  impaired  by  his  too 
rigorous  appHcation  of  his  hypothesis. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 
BAXTER,  RICHARD  (1615-1691).— English 
puritan  and  theologian.  From  1641-1660  he  was 
minister  at  Kidderminster,  the  place  being  trans- 
formed under  his  influence.  He  dechned  the  bishop- 
ric of  Hereford  in  1660,  and  in  1662  left  the  Anglican 
church.  He  continued  to  preach,  but  during  his 
remaining  years  was  persistently  persecuted,  espe- 
cially by  Chief  Justice  George  Jeffreys.  Baxter 
was  a  voluminous  author,  the  best  known  of  his 
works  being  The  Saints'  Everlasting  Rest.  His 
theology  was  modified  Calvinism,  making  a  distinct 
place  for  free  grace. 

BAYLE,  PIERRE  (1647-1706).— French  phi- 
losopher and  man  of  letters ;  professor  of  philosophy 
at  the  Protestant  University  of  Sedan  until  sup- 
pressed in  1682,  and  afterwards  in  Rotterdam.  He 
was  greater  as  a  critic  than  as  a  constructive 
thinker.  His  greatest  work  was  a  historical  and 
critical  dictionary. 

BEADLE. — An  officer  in  the  church  of  England, 
whose  duties  are  the  maintenance  of  order  in 
churches  and  churchyards  during  service,  attendance 
on  the  clergy  in  the  vestry,  as  well  as  oversight  over 
certain  matters  of  parish  administration. 

BEADS,  USE  OF.— See  Rosary. 

BEARD. — The  fact  that  the  beard  is  a  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  manhood  is  perhaps  the  reason 
for  certain  customs  and  beliefs  which  have  arisen. 
Many  primitive  and  some  sophisticated  people 
regard  it  as  a  Divine  gift  and  therefore  sacred. 
To  pull  it  or  to  mutilate  it  was  an  insult  (II  Sam. 
10:4).  Its  voluntary  removal  was  a  symbol  of 
mourning  (Ezra  9:3).  The  savage  thought  that 
the  possession  of  part  of  another's  beard  gave 
him  magical  power  over  him.  This  idea  hes  behind 
the  scrupulous  care  of  the  beard  on  the  part  of 
Muslims.  In  certain  sects  of  Christians  it  has 
been  considered  sinful  to  cut  the  beard. 

BEAST. — In  Jewish  literature,  from  the  2nd. 
century  B.C.,  in  early  Christian  literature  and  in 
Islamic  literature,  a  mythical  monster,  of  dragon- 
like appearance,  which  is  the  incarnation  of  opposi- 
tion to  God  and  His  people.  Such  symbolism 
is  probably  derived  from  Babylonian  mythology. 

BEATIFICATION,— In  the  R.C.  church  a  papal 
declaration  that  the  deceased  person  under  con- 
sideration is  worthy  of  limited  homage,  including 
the  title  of  "Blessed."  It  is  frequently  a  step 
toward  canonization  (q.v.).  Beatification  is  of 
two  kinds:  (i)  equipollent  (or  equivalent)  which 
springs  from  popular  sympathy  which  the  church 
approves;  (ii)  formal  which  is  the  outcome  of  the 
church's  decision  to  venerate  a  person  on  the 
double  ground  of  holiness  of  Ufe  and  miracles. 

BEATIFIC  VISION.— An  immediate  vision  of 
God  which  is  a  portion  of  the  future  bliss  of  the 
saved.  The  belief  is  founded  on  such  passages 
as  I  Cor.  13:12,  I  John  3:2,  Rev.  22:4. 

BEATITUDE.— (1)  A  condition  of  supreme 
happiness  or  blessedness.  (2)  The  name  applied  to 
any  of  the  declarations  of  blessedness  which  Jesus 
made  in  the  "Sermon  on  the  Mount"  in  Matt. 
0:3-11  and  Luke  6:20-22. 


BECKET,  THOMAS  A  (ca.  1 1 18-1 170) .— EngUsh 
chancellor  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  As 
chancellor,  Becket  was  capable  and  efficient,  earn- 
ing the  friendship  of  Henry  II.  When  he  became 
archbishop  in  1162,  he  refused  to  be  a  tool  of  the 
King,  and  within  a  year  trouble  began.  The 
conflict  culminated  in  the  Constitutions  of  Claren- 
don, 1164  (q.v.),  to  which  Becket  was  compelled 
to  subscribe.  When  he  repudiated  his  promise, 
he  fled  to  France,  where  with  the  assistance  of  the 
pope,  Alexander  III.,  he  continued  the  struggle. 
In  July  1170  a  formal  reconciUation  was  effected 
and  Becket  returned  to  England,  but  in  December, 
he  was  murdered  by  royahsts.  In  1172  the  R.C. 
church  canonized  Becket  and  for  a  long  time  his 
shrine  in  Canterbury  was  the  object  of  pious  pil- 
grimages. 

BEDE,  THE  VENERABLE.— The  first  English 
scholar  of  renown,  priest  and  author,  672  or  673-735. 
He  wrote  in  Latin  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
English  Nation  (Hisloria  ecclesiastica  gentis  Anglo- 
rum)  which  contains  a  few  autobiographical  refer- 
ences. He  also  wrote  some  treatises  on  science  and 
a  considerable  number  of  commentaries  and  homi- 
lies. He  translated  the  4th.  Gospel  into  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

BEDLAM.— A  contraction  for  "Bethlehem" 
hospital,  first  opened  in  London  as  a  priory  for  the 
monks  and  nuns  of  the  Star  of  Bethlehem  in  1247. 
In  1330  it  was  being  used  as  a  hospital,  and  by 
1403  there  were  some  lunatics  housed  there.  In 
1547  Henry  VIII.  gave  it  to  the  corporation  of 
London  as  a  hospital  for  the  insane,  so  that  it  was 
the  first  such  hospital  in  England  and  the  second  in 
Europe.  The  word  Bedlam  is  used  figuratively  for 
confusion. 

BEECHER,  HENRY  WARD  (1813-1897).— 
American  preacher,  author  and  reformer;  pastor 
of  Plymouth  Congregational  Church,  Brooklyn, 
N.Y.,  1847-1887;  was  one  of  the  greatest  pulpit 
orators  of  America,  preaching  the  love  of  God  as  the 
essence  of  the  Gospel.  He  was  a  leader  of  the 
mediating  party  on  the  slavery  question;  and 
accomplished  much  in  promoting  a  better  under- 
standing between  England  and  the  U.S.A.  in  those 
critical  days.  Though  not  a  technical  scholar  in 
any  specific  sphere  he  was  a  man  of  wide  culture 
and  of  great  influence  in  transforming  theological 
sympathies  during  his  later  years. 

BEELZEBUB.— (Also  written  Baalzebub  and 
Beelzebul.)  A  god,  lord  of  flies,  worshiped  by 
the  PhiUstines  and  consulted  by  idolatrous  Hebrews. 
In  New  Testament  times  the  name  was  applied  to 
the  prince  of  the  devils. 

BEGGING,  RELIGIOUS  SIGNIFICANCE  OF. 

— Poverty  and  asceticism  have  often  been  regarded 
as  ideal  conditions  of  the  cultivation  of  spiritual 
life.  To  own  property  was  to  divert  the  attention 
from  divine  to  earthly  things.  To  indulge  in  the 
good  things  of  life  was  to  act  contrary  to  the  spirit 
of  him  who  called  for  self-denial  from  his  followers. 
It  follows  from  this  principle  that  the  most  religious 
persons  practised  the  severest  asceticism  in  an  age 
that  interpreted  religion  in  those  terms,  and  they 
had  to  live  by  the  contributions  of  those  who 
respected  them  as  saints.  It  was  but  a  step  from 
penniless  saintship  to  saintly  mendicancy.  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  accepting  literally  the  command 
of  Jesus  to  sell  all  possessions,  divested  himself  of  his 
property  and  founded  an  order  of  brothers  who,  as 
mendicant  wanderers,  sanctified  begging  as  divinely 
ordained.     In  similar  fashion  the  Brahman  ascetic 


Beghards 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


46 


expects  to  obtain  provision  for  his  bodily  needs, 
and  even  a  reforming  Jainism  maintains  the  theory 
of  pubUc  support  for  the  devout.  The  beggar  is 
a  means  of  grace  to  the  giver,  for  he  provides  a 
channel  for  almsgiving,  and  almsgiving  accumulates 
merit  against  the  day  of  reckoning  that  is  to  come. 
See  Charity  and  Almsgiving. 

Henry  K.  Rowb 
BEGHARDS. — Communities  of  lay  brothers, 
mainly  artisans,  corresponding  to  the  Beguines.  (q.v.) 
The  earliest  records  are  of  communities  in  Belgium 
in  the  first  half  of  the  13th.  century.  As  these 
associations  dissolved,  the  name  became  associated 
with  wandering  mendicants  through  the  similarity 
of  the  name  with  "beggar."  The  Beghards  were 
persecuted  by  the  secular  clergy,  and  did  not  sur- 
vive the  14th.  century. 

BEGUINES. — 'The  name  of  certain  lay  sister- 
hoods in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  of  which 
the  corresponding  male  communities  are  called 
Beghards.  The  founder  of  these  communities 
was  Lambert  de  Begue  (ca.  1187),  a  priest  of  Liege. 
These  communities  differed  from  regular  orders 
in  that  the  vows  taken  were  not  irrevocable.  At 
the  Reformation  the  orders  were  suppressed  in 
Protestant  countries.  The  existing  beguinages  in 
Germany  are  almshouses  for  poor  spinsters;  in  the 
Netherlands  they  are  more  like  the  original  com- 
munities. 

BEHAISM. — A  new  Asiatic  religion  in  origin 
connected  with  Shi'ite  Muhammadanism  (q.v.). 

Its  two  immediate  antecedents,  Babism  and 
Sheikhism,  are  clearly  closely  related  to  that  party 
of  Shi'ites,  whose  hopes  center  in  the  succession 
of  twelve  Imams.  Imams  (sometimes  Imam- 
Mahdis),  in  common  parlance  leaders  in  the  ritual, 
are  to  these  people  certain  descendants  of  Moham- 
med in  whom  the  Godhead  manifests  itself  to 
humanity.  Of  the  twelve  Imams  recognized  by 
this  party  the  last  took  office  in  the  year  260  of  the 
Mohammedan  Era  =  873-74  a.d.  He  disappeared 
mysteriously,  and  the  manner  and  date  of  his 
death  are  not  known.  Many  think  him  still  alive. 
To  him  Messianic,  in  part  chiliastic,  hopes  attached 
themselves.  Accordingly  as  the  Mohammedan 
year  1260  (1844  a.d.)  approached,  some  men  began 
to  look  for  a  new  era  with  his  return. 

The  new  movement  was  inaugurated  by  Sheikh 
(rehgious  Elder)  Ahmed  al-Ahsai  (d.  1826)  and 
his  successor  Kazim  of  Resht.  They  claimed  to 
be  in  communication  with  the  absent  Imam  and 
announced  his  return.  Their  followers,  the 
Sheikhis,  called  them  Babs,  "gates"  between 
humanity  and  the  Imam. 

In  1260  AH  (1844  a.d.)  a  young  disciple  of 
Kazim,  Ali  Mohammed  of  Shiraz  proclaimed  him- 
self such  a  Bab.  This  is  the  origin  of  what  is  now 
called  Babism.  His  claims  did  not  stop  there. 
Influenced  by  followers  of  various  ranks  he  became 
the  Imam  Mahdi.  His  unfinished  book,  the 
Beyan,  was  a  new  revelation  inaugurating  a  new 
religion.  Political  claims  led  to  his  imprisonment. 
Armed  risings  of  his  followers  brought  about  his 
execution  in  1850,  and  severe  persecutions  of  his 
adherents  in  Persia  from  that  time  forth. 

Mirza  Yahya,  entitled  Subh-i-Ezel  (Dawn  of 
Eternity)  was  the  Bab's  successor.  He  fled  with 
other  leaders  to  Turkey.  Because  of  propaganda 
in  Persia  they  were  removed  in  1863  from  Bagdad 
to  Adrianople.  There  Yahya's  elder  and  abler 
brother  Husain  Ali,  entitled  Behd'ullah  (Splendor 
of  God),  in  1866-67  announced  himself  Messiah  of 
a  new  dispensation,  to  which  the  Bab  was  a  mere 
forerunner.  The  following  year  Subh-i-Ezel  was 
banished  to  Cyprus,  Beha'uUah  to  Acre  in  Pales- 


tine. Most  Babists  joined  Beha'uUah  and  accepted 
his  new  Bible,  Kilab-i-aqdas  (the  most  holy  book), 
which,  influenced  by  Christian  ideas  of  love  and 
justice,  marks  an  advance  on  Babism. 

In  1892  Beha'uUah  died,  having  forestalled  with 
curses  any  claimant,  who  might  supplant  him,  as  he 
had  supplanted  the  Bab.  His  sons  quarreled  about 
leadership  and  interpretation.  The  minority  party 
began  propaganda  in  America  at  the  Columbian 
Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893.  American  converts 
were  soon  won  over  to  the  majority  party.  They 
issue  literature  in  English  from  Chicago,  where  the 
building  of  a  great  Bahai  temple  is  planned. 

Americans  scarcely  understand  fully  certain 
Asiatic  aspects  of  the  new  religion.  Beha'uUah 
had  two  wives  and  a  concubine.  E.  G.  Browne's 
notes.  The  Episode  of  the  Bab  (Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press,  1891),  356-73,  and  the  same  author's 
Materials  for  the  Study  of  the  Babi  Religion  (1918), 
154-64  and  193  should  not  be  overlooked. 

M.  Sprengling 

BEHAVIOR  AND  BEHAVIORISM.— These 
terms  indicate  respectively  a  recently  developed 
method  of  studying  the  psychology  of  animals  and 
men,  and  the  doctrines  of  consciousness  and  the 
organism  which  it  involves. 

The  method  is  to  observe  the  responses  of  the 
organism  to  stimuli.  The  stimulus  may  be  either 
experimentally  set  up  or  such  as  operates  in  the 
course  of  ordinary  experience.  The  significance  of 
the  stimulus  and  the  nature  of  the  organism's  reaction 
are  determined  by  the  inherited  instincts  of  the 
organism  and  its  previous  experience.  In  principle 
the  method  recognizes  no  difference  between  the 
behavior  of  the  lower  animals  and  man  except  that 
the  latter  may  become  much  more  complex  and 
refined.  No  account  is  taken  of  the  findings  of 
introspection  and  the  concept  of  consciousness  is 
completely  discarded.  The  ideal  of  the  behaviorist 
is  to  make  psychology  as  completely  objective  as  is 
chemistry  or  physics.  "Thinking"  is  identified  by 
one  investigator  with  movements  of  the  larynx, 
pleasure  and  pain  with  the  various  contractions 
and  relaxations.  Behavior  is  indeed  highly  indi- 
viduaUzed  in  man  but  intimate  acquamtance 
with  a  man's  past  and  his  environment  afford 
means  for  understanding  and  even  for  predicting 
his  conduct.  The  whole  organism  thus  becomes  the 
subject  of  inquiry.  An  action  is  not  viewed  as  the 
function  of  any  one  part,  much  less  of  a  conscious 
agent,  soul  or  mind,  but  of  the  entire  system  of 
nerves  and  muscles  as  organized  by  inheritance 
and  experience.  The  results  achieved  have  the 
attraction  of  definiteness  and  co-ordination  with 
other  more  developed  sciences  but  the  formulations 
are  admitted  by  its  advocates  to  be  very  incomplete. 

In  so  far  as  the  term  behaviorism  represents  a 
metaphysical  theory  it  is  on  the  side  of  materialism 
and  mechanistic  theory,  but  these  implications 
have  not  been  worked  out  beyond  the  negative 
attitude  taken  toward  consciousness  and  any  power 
of  introspection.  Such  extreme  tendencies  ought 
not,  however,  to  obscure  the  value  of  the  method  in 
determining  the  capacities  and  accomplishments  of 
individuals  and  bringing  many  phenomena  of  con- 
duct out  of  the  realm  of  mystery  and  mere  theory. 

Edward  S.  Ames 

BEHAVIORISM.— See  Behavior  and  Behav- 


BEHISTUN.— The  name  of  the  locaUty  in 
Persia  where  are  found  the  great  rock  inscriptions 
of  Darius,  important  because  of  the  fight  they 
throw  upon  the  rehgious  ideas  of  the  Achaemenian 
rulers.     See  Zoroastrianism, 


BEL.— See  Baal. 


47 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Benevolence 


BEL  AND  THE  DRAGON.— An  apocryphal 
supplement  to  the  Book  of  Daniel  which  identifies 
Daniel  with  Cyrus,  and  explains  his  being  cast  into 
the  lion's  den  because  he  destroyed  a  dragon  which 
was  an  object  of  worship. 

BELGIC  CONFESSION.— A  Calvinistic  con- 
fession of  faith,  dating  from  1561  which  has  become 
the  symbol  of  the  Reformed  churches  in  Belgium 
and  Holland,  and  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  church 
in  America.     See  Confessions  op  Faith. 

BELIAL,  BELIAR.— Two  forms  of  the  same 
word.  In  the  O.T.  the  word  is  used  as  a  common 
noun,  usually  signifying  a  worthless  or  wicked 
person  or  thing.  In  Neh.  1 :  15  this  wicked  power 
is  personified,  and  this  use  is  the  basis  for  the  identi- 
fication of  Belial  with  Antichrist  or  Satan  which 
occurs  in  the  apocryphal  literature  and  N.T.,  as 
II  Cor.  6: 15. 

BELIEF.— See  Faith. 

BELLARMINE,  ROBERT  FRANCESCO 
ROMOLO  (1542-1620).— Italian  Roman  Catholic 
ecclesiastic  and  theologian,  a  vigorous  champion 
of  ultramontanism  and  the  greatest  exponent  of 
Catholicism  in  the  modem  world.  He  was  one 
of  the  council  in  Galileo's  first  trial,  his  attitude 
being  judicial,  claiming,  however,  that  Copernican- 
ism  should  be  presented  as  an  hypothesis  until  sci- 
entifically attested.  He  was  a  cardinal,  theological 
professor  in  Louvain  and  Rome,  and  archbishop  of 
Capua. 

BELLS. — See  Gongs  and  Bells. 

BELTANE. — A  Celtic  midsummer  festival  for 
the  production  of  fertility.  It  required  a  freshly 
kindled  fire  in  which  were  burned  a  sacred  tree 
(probably  the  oak),  an  animal  representative  of  the 
vegetation  spirit  and  one  or  more  human  victims. 
The  cutting  of  mistletoe  before  the  victims  could  be 
slain  was  a  rule  of  the  ritual.  Since  the  fire  and 
the  fertility  symbols  (tree,  animal,  man)  were  the 
source  of  magical  power  the  community  brought 
these  into  contact  with  fields,  houses,  and  people 
in  various  ways — by  jumping  through  the  fire, 
decorating  the  houses  with  branches,  carrying  burn- 
ing brands  or  scattering  ashes  over  the  fields,  and 
eating  the  flesh  of  the  victims. 

BENEDICT. — The  name  of  fourteen  popes,  and 
one  antipope. 

Benedict  7.-574-578. 

Benedict  77  .—683-685. 

Benedict  III. — 855-858,  was  chosen  by  the  clergy 
and  people  but  for  a  time  was  not  recognized  by 
the  Emperor,  Louis  II.,  who  appointed  Anastasius 
as  antipope. 

Benedict  77.- 900-903. 

Benedict  V. — 964.  His  pontificate  lasted  less 
than  two  months  when  he  was  deposed  by  the 
Emperor  Otto  I. 

Benedict  VI. — 972-974,  was  elected  by  Otto 
the  Great,  but,  on  the  emperor's  death,  was  mur- 
dered by  the  people. 

Benedict  VII. — 974—983,  was  elected  by  those 
who  had  driven  out  Benedict  VI. 

Benedict  7777.— 1012-1024. 

Benedict  IX. — 1033-1048,  a  nephew  of  Benedict 
VIII. 

Benedict  X. — 1058-1059,  was  deposed  by 
Hildebrand,  and  is  reckoned  by  some  Catholic 
authorities  as  an  antipope. 

Benedict  XI. — 1303-1304,  a  scholar  and  author 
of  several  commentaries.  He  obtained  peace  with 
France  which  had  b"2ii  an  enemy  of  the  papacy. 


Benedict  Z77.— 1334-1342,  negotiated  toward 
the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches; 
began  the  building  of  a  splendid  palace  at  Avignon 
where  he  lived. 

Benedict  XIII. — (1)  The  title  assumed  by 
Pedro  de  Luna,  antipope,  1328-1422  or  1423. 
From  1394  when  he  was  elected  by  the  cardinals 
until  his  death  he  persisted  in  keeping  up  the  schism. 

(2)  Pope,  1724-1730,  made  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  reform  clerical  morals,  and  was  a  weak  adminis- 
trator. 

Benedict  XIV. — 1740-1758,  was  an  eminent 
scholar  and  author,  was  friendly  in  his  relations 
with  the  European  sovereigns,  and  unsympathetic 
toward  the  Jesuits. 

Benedict  ZF.— 1915-. 

BENEDICT  OF  NURSIA  (ca.  480-  ca.  544).— 
The  founder  of  western  monastieism  and  framer  of 
the  Benedictine  rule.  Educated  in  Rome,  he  fled 
as  a  youth  to  a  cave,  following  a  life  of  asceticism, 
prayer,  and  meditation  for  three  years.  Disciples 
were  attracted  to  him,  and  he  founded  the  famous 
monastery  at  Monte  Cassino  in  Italy.  His  rule  was 
"conspicuous  for  its  discretion,"  making  scholarly 
reading  and  labor  in  the  fields  compulsory  as  well  as 
the  specific  rehgious  disciphne. 

BENEDICTINES.— The  monks  who  live  in 
accordan(!e  with  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia 
(q.v.);  also  called  Black  Monks,  owing  to  the  color 
of  their  habit.  In  596  Augustine  of  Canterbury 
introduced  the  order  into  England.  In  1846  it 
was  introduced  into  America.  The  Benedictines 
accomplished  much  in  the  conversion  of  the  Teu- 
tonic tribes,  the  civilization  of  N.W.  Europe,  and  in 
the  spread  of  education  and  learning.  The  order 
includes  nuns  and  lay  brothers  as  well  as  monks. 

BENEDICTION.— (1)  In  Evangelical  churches 
a  solemn  and  formal  intercession  with  God  for  his 
blessing,  such  as  is  used  at  the  conclusion  of  public 
worship.  (2)  A  blessing  invoked  by  one  person  for 
another  as  the  benediction  of  a  rather  on  a  son. 

(3)  In  R.C.  usage,  a  liturgical  element  in  the  sacra- 
ments whereby  the  person  or  object  is  purified, 
sanctified,  or  consecrated  to  holy  service  by  virtue 
of  the  divine  authority  vested  in  the  church. 

BENEFICE. — In  canon  law,  the  right  to  enjoy 
certain  ecclesiastical  revenues  by  virtue  of  being 
the  occupant  of  a  church  office  which  has  been 
endowed  or  on  account  of  rendering  certain  specific 
services.  In  the  Roman  church  the  cure  of  souls  is 
not  a  necessary  condition  of  a  benefice;  in  the 
Anglican  church  this  restriction  is  made.  The  law 
regulates  the  conditions  for  canonical  appointment, 
the  circumstances  by  which  the  office  is  vacated,  and 
the  rights  and  obhgations  of  the  benefice. 

BENEFIT  OF  THE  CLERGY.— A  privilege 
accorded  to  the  clergy  of  the  Middle  Ages  in 
England,  and  later  extended  to  all  who  could 
read,  of  being  tried  for  offences  before  the  bishop's 
court  rather  than  the  secular  court.  In  some 
cases  it  resulted  in  the  miscarriage  of  justice.  It 
was  abolished  in  the  U.S.A.  in  1790  and  in  England 
in  1827. 

BENEVOLENCE. — Literally  "willing  or  wish- 
ing well"  to  others;  an  ethical  purpose  to  promote 
the  well-being  of  others. 

The  term  came  into  prominence  in  the  discus- 
sions of  the  British  Moralists  (q.v.),  who  were 
endeavoring  to  establish  the  foundations  of  moral 
conduct  in  native  human  impulses  rather  than 
in  external  authority.    Benevolence  was  declared 


Bentham,  Jeremy 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


48 


to  be  a  natural  capacity  of  the  human  mind,  lead- 
ing to  altruistic  behavior.  In  Christian  ethics, 
the  ideal  of  charity  or  love  is  employed  to  denote 
such  conduct,  and  Christian  love  is  regarded  as  a 
divinely  created  attitude  rather  than  as  a  natural 
impulse.  By  certain  American  theologians  (e.g., 
Jonathan  Edwards)  benevolence  is  made  the 
supreme  virtue,  from  which  all  morality  flows. 
Edv/ards  defined  it  as  "that  habit  or  frame  of  mind 
wherein  consists  a  disposition  to  love  being  in 
general."  This  is  readily  identified  with  Christian 
love. 

In  popular  speech  benevolence  means  gifts  of 
money  to  support  religious  or  social  enterprises. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

BENTHAM,  JEREMY  (1748-1832).— Noted 
Enghsh  writer  on  legal  and  moral  subjects.  He 
gave  what  is  perhaps  the  most  thorough-going 
analysis  in  existence  of  the  principles  which  must 
guide  individual  conduct  and  legislation  designed  to 
secure  the  maximum  happiness  for  mankind.  See 
Utilitarianism. 

BERENGAR  OF  TOURS.— Scholar  and  ecclesi- 
astic, born  probably  between  1000  and  1010, 
d.  1088.  He  is  noted  for  the  prolonged  controversy 
which  he  had  with  the  church  over  the  Eucharist, 
Berengar  being  discipUned  because  he  refused 
to  accept  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE  (1685-1753) —Irish 
bishop  and  philosopher;  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Dubhn,  and  in  1713  took  orders.  In  1728  he  went 
to  America,  intending  to  found  a  college  in  the 
Bermudas  to  train  missionaries  to  the  Indians,  but 
was  not  supported.  After  his  return  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Cloyne,  1734.  His  writings  include  the 
New  Theory  of  Vision,  the  Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge,  and  Dialogues.  He  is  noted  for  his 
theory  of  subjective  idealism  which  asserts  that  the 
only  certain  knowledge  which  we  possess  is  knowl- 
edge of  our  ideas.  Berkeley  himself  denied  the 
existence  of  a  material  world,  holding  that  our  ideas 
are  stimulated  by  direct  divine  activity- 

BERNARD  OF  CLAIRVAUX  (1090-1153).— 
Mediaeval  preacher  and  monk.  He  entered  a 
Cistercian  monastery  and  was  appointed  abbot  of 
the  Clairvaux  monastery  in  1115.  To  his  intense 
zeal  and  irigorous  devotion  were  added  unusual 
gifts  as  a  preacher,  so  that  he  soon  became  famous. 
He  was  drawn  into  ecclesiastical  affairs  where  his 
powerful  influence  resulted  in  the  termination  of 
the  long  papal  schism  by  the  abdication  of  the 
antipope  in  1138,  and  in  the  election  of  a  Cistercian 
as  pope  in  1145.  He  was  greater  spiritually  than 
intellectually.  Although  no  match  for  Abelard's 
logic  in  the  controversy  with  him,  his  personal  influ- 
ence enabled  him  to  triumph  in  the  name  of  religion. 
His  power  lay  in  his  zeal,  faith,  sincerity  and  humil- 
ity, together  with  his  administrative  and  oratorical 
powers  which  made  him  the  embodiment  of  the  ideal 
of  mediaeval  monachism.  He  wrote  extensively 
on  various  phases  of  Christian  life,  many  of  his 
hymns  occupying  a  cherished  place  in  Christian 
hymnody. 

BERNARD  OF  CLUNY.— Monk  of  the  tweKth 
century,  especially  noted  for  his  long  poem  of  nearly 
three  thousand  Unes  De  contemptu  mundi,  in 
which  is  set  forth  the  writer's  conception  of  monastic 
hfe.  The  poem  contains  a  number  of  hues  of 
spiritual  beauty.  The  most  famous  section  was 
translated  by  Neale  as  the  hymn  "Jerusalem  the 
Golden." 

BERNARDINES.— The  Cistercian  (q.v.)  order 
of  monks  resuscitated  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux. 


BEROSUS.— A  Babylonian  priest  of  the  4th. 
century  b.c.  who  wrote  a  History  of  Babylonia 
only  fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved. 

BES. — A  demon-dispelling  god  of  ancient 
Egypt  who  guarded  the  articles  of  the  toilet  and 
was  the  friend  of  children.  His  task  of  warding  off 
evil  spirits  probably  accounts  for  his  grotesque 
shape,  dwarf  body,  short  legs  and  gorgon-like  head. 

BESTIALITY.— Behavior  appropriate  to  beasts 
and  therefore  degrading  in  character  when  found 
in  human  beings.  The  more  primitive  the  society, 
the  more  the  disposition  for  men  to  manifest  these 
qualities.  Bestiality  appears  in  a  gluttonous 
abuse  of  the  appetite  for  food,  wanton  sexual  prac- 
tices including  intercourse  with  beasts,  and  inhuman 
treatment  of  enemies. 

BESTIARIES. — Mediaeval  treatises  on  animals 
in  which  human  and  moral  characteristics  are 
ascribed  to  them,  whereby  they  are  used  as  reUgious 
symbols  for  Christ,  the  soul,  immortality,  the  devil, 
virtues  and  vices.    See  Symbolism. 

BET  HAMIDRASH.— (Hebrew:  house  of 
study.)  School,  in  connection  with  the  synagog,  in 
which  adults  study  the  Jewish  Law. 

BET  HILLEL  AND  BET  SHAMMAL— (Bet  = 

Hebrew:  house  of.)  The  two  great  Rabbinic 
schools  that  flourished  in  Palestine  during  the 
1st.  century.  They  were  founded  respectively  by 
Hillel  and  Shammai  and  in  their  many  disputa- 
tions they  follow  their  masters,  the  School  of  Hillel 
being  characterized  by  its  moderation  and  that  of 
Shammai  by  its  severity. 

BETHLEHEMITES.— Three  Christian  orders 
have  carried  the  name:  a  13th.  century  association 
in  England  of  Dominican  type;  the  Knights  and 
Hospitalers  of  the  Blessed  Mary  of  Bethlehem  who 
for  a  few  brief  months  fought  the  Turks  in  the 
15th.  century;  and  a  Central  American  order  of 
Bethlehem  Brothers  founded  at  the  close  of  the  17th. 
century  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  hospital  of 
Mary  of  Bethlehem  in  Guatemala. 

BETROTHAL.— The  act  of  pledgmg  to  mar- 
riage, accompanied  among  certain  folks  by  a  religious 
ceremonial.    See  Marriage. 

BETTING. — ^The  act  of  wagering  some  specific 
thing  or  amount  over  against  another  with  reference 
to  an  uncertain  issue.  The  practice  is  generally 
considered  morally  objectionable.    See  Gambling. 

BEYSCHLAG,  WILLIBALD  (1823-1900).— Ger- 
man Protestant  preacher  and  theologian;  court 
preacher  and  theologian;  court  preacher  at  Karls- 
ruhe, 1856-1860;  professor  of  practical  theology 
in  Halle,  1860-1900;  theologian  of  the  mediating- 
school,  championed  the  freedom  of  the  church 
from  state  control.  His  chief  works  were  Das 
Leben  Jesu,  and  Neutestamentliche  Theologie. 

BEZA,  THEODORE  (1519-1605).— French 
theologian,  educated  in  law  and  in  Greek;  prac- 
tised law  in  Paris  1539-1548;  united  with  Calvinistic 
church,  Geneva,  in  1548;  occupied  the  chairs  in 
Greek  at  Lausanne,  1549-1558  and  at  Geneva 
1558-1564,  and  in  theology  and  Greek,  1564-1597. 
On  the  death  of  Calvin  in  1564  he  became  his  suc- 
cessor in  office  which  position  he  held  till  1600.  He 
was  an  author  of  considerable  activity,  writing  a 
defence  of  Calvin  in  the  burning  of  Servetus,  a 
biography  of  Calvin  and  several  theological  works. 


49 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS     Bible  Christians  or  Bryanites 


He  also  published  editions  of  the  New  Testament 
in  Greek  and  Latin. 

BHAGAVAD,.  GITA.— The  name  of  a  poem,  lit- 
erally "The  Lord's  Song,"  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
6th.  book  of  the  Mahabharata  (q.v.),  and  consists  of 
a  conversation  between  Krishna  and  Arjuna.  The 
date  is  between  200  B.C.  and  200  a.d.  The  Gita 
is  the  most  widely  used  section  of  Hindu  sacred 
literature  by  the  philosophically  minded  Hindus 
of  the  present.  Its  fundamental  religious  position 
is  that  any  action  which  is  performed  in  disregard  of 
the  fruit  of  action  is  good.  Duty  done  unselfishly 
will  result  in  overcoming  Karma  (q.v.).  The 
religious  life  enjoined  in  the  Gita  is  more  active  than 
that  of  Buddhism  or  Brahmanism.  At  the  same 
time  the  Gita  contains  diverse  elements,  and  its 
teaching  is  not  a  unity.    See  Hinduism. 

BHAKTI-MARGA.— A  Hindu  name  for  the 
way  of  salvation  by  faith  in  a  personal  God.  Bhakti 
has  the  sense  of  trusting  devotion  to  one  who  can 
save.  Fully  half  of  the  people  of  India  are  counted 
as  followers  of  this  theistic  type  of  religion.  See 
Hinduism. 

BIBLE. — The  collection  of  sacred  writings  which 
serves  as  the  basis  of  the  Christian  Religion. 

1.  The  Bible  consists  of  two  main  portions,  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  New  Testament.  The 
former  was  written  almost  entirely  in  Hebrew, 
although  there  are  a  few  pages,  chiefly  in  Daniel, 
written  in  Aramaic.  The  Old  Testament  was 
selected  from  the  mass  of  Hebrew  literature  because 
its  various  writings  were  regarded  as  being  inspired 
by  God.  These  writings  are  organized  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  in  three  parts — the  Law,  the  Proph- 
ets, and  the  Writings.  It  is  probable  that  each  one 
of  these  three  groups  marks  a  period  in  the  selection 
of  the  sacred  writings,  for  the  distinction  between 
the  collection  of  the  Prophets  and  that  of  the  Writ- 
ings is  hard  to  draw,  as  there  are  historical  books 
in  the  former  and  prophetic  books  in  the  latter.  (In 
the  Greek  translation  of  the  O.T.  the  Writings  are 
called  Hagiographa  or  Sacred  Writings.) 

The  exact  date  at  which  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  closed  is  hard  to  state.  The  opinion 
is  now  almost  universal  among  scholars  that  the 
Book  of  Daniel  and  very  probably  some  of  the 
Psalms,  if  not  other  material  of  the  Sacred  Writings, 
belong  in  the  last  two  centuries  before  Christ.  It 
would  be  natural,  therefore,  that  there  should  be 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  acceptance 
of  some  of  these  books.  A  point  in  illustration 
of  this  is  to  be  seen  in  the  controversy  among  the 
rabbis  as  to  Esther.     See  Canon;  Old  Testament. 

The  New  Testament  is  composed  of  a  group  of 
writings  supposedly  of  apostolic  origin,  if  not  author- 
ship. These,  hke  those  writings  which  composed 
the  Old  Testament,  were  selected  from  a  consider- 
able hterature.  Also,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Old 
Testament,  there  was  some  uncertainty  as  to  the 
right  of  certain  books  to  be  admitted  to  the  New 
Testament  group.  By  the  middle  of  the  3rd.  cen- 
tury, however,  these  questions  were  limited  to 
James,  Hebrews,  II  Peter,  II,  III  John  and  Revelation 
among  the  canonical  books;  and  among  those 
that  were  never  admitted  to  the  canon,  the  Apoca- 
lypse of  Peter,  the  teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles, 
the  Epistles  of  Barnabas  and  Clement,  the  Acts  of 
Paul,  and  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas.  By  the  middle 
of  the  5th.  century  the  limits  of  the  canon  were 
closed  in  the  West,  but  discussions  as  to  certain 
books,  notably  Revelation,  continued  in  the  East  for 
a  century  longer.  The  influence  which  led  to  the 
closing  of  the  canon  and  so  the  final  constitution 
of  the  Bible  as  a  closed  hterature,  belongs  to  the 


general  course  of  the  church's  history.  It  is  note- 
worthy, however,  that  the  discussions  concerning 
the  canonicity  of  certain  books  do  not  affect  those 
which  are  most  essential  to  the  history  of  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Christian  rehgions.  See  Inspiba- 
tion;  New  Testament. 

Many  of  the  writings  which  the  Hebrew  people 
did  not  beheve  to  "contain  divine  doctrines"  were 
gradually  grouped  into  a  third  collection.  To 
this  belong  some  of  the  most  valuable  writings  which 
have  come  down  to  us  from  the  ancient  past.  So 
irnportant  are  they,  that  they  are  grouped  in  the 
Bible  used  by  the  Roman  CathoKcs  as  a  sort  of  inter- 
mediate canon  known  as  the  Apocrypha  (q.v.). 
Much  of  this  material  was  added  to  the  Greek 
translation  (LXX)  of  the  Hebrew  canon  by  the  Jews 
of  Alexandria.  Certain  Roman  Catholic  scholars  have 
undertaken  to  distinguish  the  authority  which  be- 
longs to  the  Apocrypha  from  that  which  belongs  to 
the  other  volumes  of  the  canon,  but  such  distinction 
was  stopped  by  the  action  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
April  8,  1546,  which  directs  the  use  of  the  Apocry- 
pha of  the  Old  Testament  as  Scripture.  (For  vari- 
ations in  the  Eastern  Bibles  see  Canon.) 

2.  The  Bible  as  finally  recognized  serves  as  the 
basis  for  the  theology  of  the  church.  It  is  regarded 
by  all  branches  of  Christians  as  inspired — that  is  to 
say,  as  revealing  the  truth  which  otherwise  would 
not  have  been  gained  by  man.  In  the  controversy 
between  the  Protestants  and  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  16th.  and  17th.  centuries,  the  Bible  became 
a  basis  of  authority  with  the  Protestants,  com- 
parable with  the  authority  of  the  Pope  among  the 
Roman  Catholics.*  The  necessity  of  such  an  ulti- 
mate court  of  appeal  led  the  Protestant  scholastics 
to  attribute  to  the  Bible  Uteral  infallibility.  It  was, 
therefore,  treated  in  theology  without  regard  to  the 
historical  origin  of  the  books,  or  the  historical 
understanding  of  its  meaning.  As  the  Bible  was 
very  widely  read  among  Protestants  this  element  of 
its  authority  became  essential  to  Protestant  the- 
ology, which  was  built  up  by  a  combination  of  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  chosen  with  little  or  no  regard  to 
their  historical  meaning.  The  Bible  became  the 
source  of  all  religious  knowledge,  and  under  the 
influence  of  this  new  conception  of  its  inspiration 
it  was  appealed  to  by  a  great  variety  of  theologies. 
The  Bible  became,  as  its  were,  a  set  of  divine  oracles 
to  be  used  as  a  source  and  support  of  theologies. 

The  rise  of  the  historical  method  of  the  study  of 
Hterature  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th.  century  had 
a  profound  influence  in  modifying  this  conception 
of  the  Bible.  It  began  to  be  studied  from  the  point 
of  the  origin  not  only  of  its  various  books,  but,  also,  of 
the  various  possible  portions  of  the  books.  This 
historical  inquiry  resulted  in  a  new  appreciation  of  the 
Bible  as  a  product  and  record  of  religious  experience 
singularly  unified  and  progressing  along  self- 
consistent  hues.  In  this  sense  it  may  be  used  in 
theology  as  the  record  of  a  revelation  of  God  in 
human  experience.  In  the  Old  Testament  this 
experience  is  interpreted  largely  through  the 
medium  of  the  history  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
Jewish  state;  and  in  the  New  Testament  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  experience  of  Jesus  and  those 
accepting  him  as  the  Messiah.  Such  a  view  gives 
full  recognition  to  the  historical  origin  of  the 
Scripture,  the  historical  development  of  the  experi- 
ence and  the  historical  valuation  of  the  various 
concepts  in  which  the  experience  of  God  is  set  forth. 
The  trustworthiness  of  the  record  is  not  confused 
with  questions  of  literal  infallibility  and  leads  to  a 
better  understanding  of  the  Christian  movement. 

Shailer  Mathews 

BIBLE  CHRISTIANS  OR  BRYANITES.— A 
sect  which  was  an  offshoot  of  Methodism,  founded 
by  William  O'Brien   in  Devonshire,  England,  in 


Bible  Societies 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


50 


1815.  Mr.  O'Brien's  dictatorialness  caused  dis- 
sension, resulting  in  his  withdrawal  in  1829.  But 
the  church  continued  its  identity,  growing  and 
expanding  until  in  1882,  it  numbered  300  ministers 
and  34,000  members  scattered  throughout  the 
United  States  and  the  British  Empire.  In  1884 
the  Canadian  branch  joined  in  the  union  of  all 
Methodist  bodies,  which  was  followed  by  a  similar 
union  in  Austraha,  and  in  1907  by  the  absorption 
of  the  parent  church  in  the  United  Methodist 
church. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.— Organizations  for  the 
translation  and  distribution  of  the  Bible,  in  whole  or 
in  parts.  Among  the  earUest  societies  were  the 
Corporation  for  the  Promoting^  and  Propagating  of 
the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  in  New  England  (1649), 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 
(q.v.),  founded  in  1698,  and  the  Canstein  Institute, 
founded  in  Halle,  1710.  The  largest  society  is  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  founded  in  Lon- 
don, 1804,whose  circulations  have  reached  1 1,000,000 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  in  a  year,  and  whose  total 
distributions  exceed  300,000,000  copies  in  over  500 
languages  and  dialects.  There  have  been  numer- 
ous European  societies.  The  most  important 
American  association  is  the  American  Bible  Society, 
organized  by  representatives  of  31  kindred  societies 
in  1816,  whose  annual  circulation  exceeds  2  million 
copies. 

BIBLICAL  COMMISSION.— A  commission  es- 
tablished in  1902  by  decree  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  com- 
posed of  a  committee  of  cardinals  assisted  by 
theological  consultors,  the  duties  of  which  include 
the  defence  of  Catholic  exegesis,  the  decision  of 
matters  of  Biblical  criticism  in  dispute  among 
Catholic  scholars,  and  the  occasional  publication 
of  studies  on  the  Bible. 

BIBLICAL  CRITICISM.— The  art  of  accurately 
determining  the  origin,  purpose,  and  meaning  of  the 
Biblical  Uterature. 

The  function  of  criticism. — ^The  term  "criti- 
cism" brings  before  the  average  man  the  idea  of 
captious  fault-finding.  The  aim  of  a  just  criticism, 
however,  is  to  see  a  piece  of  Uterature  exactly  as  it  is 
and  to  estimate  it  without  prejudice  of  any  kind, 
favorable  or  unfavorable.  The  result  of  the  process 
of  criticism  may  be  increased  appreciation  rather 
than  depreciation,  and  the  greater  the  hterature 
under  study  the  more  certain  is  it  that  criticism 
will  but  enhance  its  value.  BibUcal  literature  has 
little  to  fear  and  much  to  gain  through  a  thoroughly 
scientific  criticism. 

Kinds  of  criticism. — The  criticism  of  literature 
concerns  itself  with  two  questions:  (1)  Is  the  text 
of  the  document  preserved  in  its  original  form? 
(2)  What  does  the  document  mean?  The  search  for 
the  answer  to  the  first  question  yields  Textual  Criti- 
cism, sometimes  called  "Lower  Criticism."  Both 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  offer  a  wide  field 
for  the  pursuit  of  this  science.  Both  originated 
many  centuries  ago  and  the  original  manuscripts 
have  long  since  disappeared.  The  oldest  MS.  of 
the  Old  Testament  goes  back  only  to  the  9th.  cen- 
tury A.D.,  and  of  the  New  Testament  to  the  4th. 
century  a.d.  These  oldest  MSS.  were  certainly 
preceded  by  other  MSS.  from  which  these  were 
copied,  and  there  is  no  means  of  knowing  how  many 
times  the  process  of  copying  had  taken  place.  But 
copying  is  always  attended  by  error.  There  are 
now  in  existence  thousands  of  MSS.  of  the  Biblical 
texts,  representing  almost  innumerable  variations. 
The  critic  must  examine  these  minutely,  deter- 
mine their  relative  ages  and  habitats,  group  them 
accordingly,  and  estimate  aright  their  contribution 


toward  the  discovery  of  the  correct  text.  Another 
source  of  information  upon  the  text  is  found  in  the 
old  translations  of  the  Scripture,  the  date  of  some 
of  which  hes  further  back  than  that  of  our  oldest 
MSS.  These  often  reflect  a  different  original 
from  that  found  in  any  MS.  Still  another  source 
for  the  text  is  at  hand  in  the  quotations  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  found  m  the  writings  of 
the  early  Church  Fathers. 

The  search  for  the  answer  to  the  second  question 
yields  Literary  Criticism,  commonly  known  as 
Higher  Criticism,  in  distinction  from  the  lower^  or 
textual  criticism.  Here  the  critic  aims  to  discover 
everything  that  will  throw  light  upon  the  author's 
words.  Is  the  writing  under  review  poetry  or 
prose?  This  is  by  no  means  always  an  easy  or  an 
unimportant  problem.  If  prose,  is  it  a  mere 
matter-of-fact  annalistic  record,  or  is  it  didactic, 
homiletic  and  imaginative  in  character?  When 
was  it  written  and  under  what  circumstances? 
Was  it  all  written  at  the  same  time  and  by  the  same 
hand,  or  is  the  writing  a  composite  production? 
What  sort  of  person  was  the  author,  to  what  social, 
pohtical  or  ecclesiastical  group  did  he  belong? 
What  purpose  did  he  seek  to  accomplish  by  his 
utterance  and  what  means  did  he  employ  to  attain 
it?  How  much  did  he  owe  to  his  predecessors,  and 
what  was  his  influence  upon  posterity? 

Most  of  the  data  with  which  the  literary  critic 
must  work  are  to  be  found  in  the  literature  itself 
upon  which  he  is  working.  Evidence  as  to  date  wiU 
often  appear  in  allusions  to  contemporary  events  or 
to  past  history.  Characteristics  of  vocabulary, 
syntax,  and  literary  style  will  tell  for  or  against  the 
unity  of  the  writing.  Consideration  of  the  religious 
standards  and  aims  will  help  in  dating  a  book  and  in 
determining  questions  of  authorship  and  unity. 
But  there  is  also  the  necessity  of  pursuing  a  process 
of  comparative  criticism.  This  will  have  to  do  first 
with  similar  writings  within  the  Hebrew  Hterature 
itself.  How  does  one  Psalm  compare  with  another, 
or  one  prophecy  with  another,  or  one  code  with 
another?  We  must  go  further  afield,  however,  and 
institute  comparisons  between  Hebrew  Uterature 
and  Babylonian  on  the  one  hand,  and  between 
Hebrew  and  Egyptian  Uterature  on  the  other. 
How  do  the  legends  in  Genesis  compare  with  the 
corresponding  myths  and  legends  of  Babylonia? 
How  much  do  the  former  owe  to  the  latter?  What 
is  the  difference  between  the  psalms  of  Israel  and 
those  of  Babylon?  Does  the  Messianic  prophecy 
of  Israel  owe  its  inspiration  to  the  Messianism  of 
Egypt?  Only  by  such  investigations  do  we  come 
to  a  fuU  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  Bible. 

J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

BIBLICAL  INTRODUCTION.— This  term  is 
now  applied  to  the  literary  history  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments. 

Since  almost  all  theological  science  has  to  do  with 
the  proper  understanding  of  the  Scriptures  the  term 
Introduction  might  be  made  to  cover  a  wide  field. 
At  the  present  time,  however,  we  mean  by  BibUcal 
Introduction  that  science  which  endeavors  to  dis- 
cover the  date  and  composition  of  the  various  BibU- 
cal books.  It  then  arranges  the  component  parts 
in  their  true  historical  sequence.  Many  of  the  books 
are  discovered  to  be  composite,  and  they  must  of 
course  be  carefully  analyzed  into  their  elements. 
This  process,  which  is  caUed  the  higher  (better, 
Uterary  or  historical)  criticism  is  simply  the  appUca- 
tion  to  bibUcal  literature  of  the  methods  which  are 
used  in  the  study  of  other  ancient  books. 

A  question  which  naturaUy  suggests  itself  is 
whether  Biblical  Introduction  should  be  extended 
to  include  the  books  called  Apocrypha.  The 
Roman  Catholic  scholar  will  naturally  include  them 
in  his  discussion,  and  from  the  pomt  of  view  of 


51. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Biogenesis 


purely  literary  history  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
this  is  correct.  In  practice,  however,  Protestant 
scholars  reaUzing  the  special  importance  of  the 
canonical  books  usually  confine  their  discussion 
to  them.  H.  P.  Smith 

BIBLICAL  THEOLOGY.— The  theology  of  the 
Bible,  considered  apart  from  the  later  theology  of 
the  church. 

Until  modern  times  no  distinction  was  made 
between  the  teaching  of  Scripture  and  the  orthodox 
system  of  doctrine.  It  was  taken  for  granted  that 
the  Bible  was  a  single  whole,  constituting  a  harmoni- 
ous body  of  divine  revelation;  and  that  this  revela- 
tion had  been  accurately  formulated  in  the  various 
creeds,  and  had  to  be  understood  in  the  fight  of 
them.  At  the  Reformation  it  was  perceived  that 
the  then  prevaifing  theology  was  often  at  variance 
with  Scripture,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  revise 
it  in  conformity  with  Bible  standards.  But  the 
idea  still  persisted  that  the  teaching  of  the  Bible 
and  traditional  dogma  were  essentially  the  same. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  18th.  century  this  view  began 
to  undergo  a  modification.  The  Bible  was  studied 
with  a  new  literary  feeling,  and  was  seen  to  belong 
to  a  different  age  and  a  different  world  of  thought 
from  the  later  creeds.  The  creeds  themselves 
were  examined  historically,  and  aUowance  was 
made  for  the  manifold  influences  which  had  helped 
to  mould  them.  But  it  was  still  assumed  that  the 
Bible  contained  a  coherent  system  of  revealed 
truth,  in  which  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  supple- 
mented each  other.  Efforts  were  made  to  bring 
all  the  inspired  writers  into  harmony,  and  thus  to 
build  up  a  scheme  of  doctrine  which  should  corre- 
spond faithfully  with  the  teaching  of  Scripture. 

For  a  variety  of  reasons  this  conception  of  a 
biblical  theology  has  now  broken  down.  It  is  recog- 
nized (1)  that  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  though 
related,  are  quite  distinct;  (2)  that  between  them 
fies  a  period  of  several  centuries,  in  which  reUgious 
ideas  were  largely  transformed;  (3)  that  both 
Testaments  comprise  a  number  of  different  types  of 
teaching;  (4)  that  in  both  of  them  we  must  reckon 
with  influences  from  without,  as  well  as  with  an 
inner  development.  Biblical  Theology  is  now 
treated,  therefore,  under  the  two  separate  heads  of 
O.T.  and  N.T.  theology.  The  theology  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  viewed  in  its  relation  to  the 
national  life  of  Israel.  The  process  is  traced  out 
whereby  a  primitive  form  of  religion  was  developed 
and  purified  by  the  ethical  teaching  of  the  great 
prophets,  and  was  latterly  hardened  into  a  legal 
system.  _  New  Testament  theology  is  likewise 
studied  historically.  The  Gospel  evidence  is  sifted, 
in  order  to  discover  the  original  message  of  Jesus; 
then  it  is  shown  how  this  message  was  understood  in 
the  primitive  church;  how  it  was  interpreted  by 
Paul;  how  it  was  re-stated  by  the  Fourth  evangelist 
and  the  author  of  Hebrews  in  terms  of  Alexandrian 
thought.  The  old  conception  of  a  single  body  of 
truth,  revealed  in  the  Bible  and  formulated  in  the 
creeds  has  thus  disappeared.  Modern  enquiry 
seeks  rather  to  do  justice  to  the  different  phases 
of  thought  represented  in  each  of  the  Testaments, 
and  to  the  changes  of  outlook  which  found  expres- 
sion in  the  later  history  of  doctrine. 

There  is  a  sense,  however,  in  which  the  theology 
of  the  Bible  may  still  be  regarded  as  a  whole. 
When  we  apply  the  historical  method  to  the  various 
books  of  Scripture  we  become  aware  of  certain'' 
peat  ideas  (e.g.,  the  Kingdom  of  God,  the  moral 
law,  eternal  life,  forgiveness  of  sin)  which  were 
gradually  developed  in  the  religion  of  Israel  and 
came  to  their  fruition  in  Christianity.  In  order 
to  apprehend  these  ideas  in  their  Christian  form  it 
IS  necessary  to  trace  them  back  to  their  roots  in  the 


Old  Testament.  Biblical  Theology,  when  thus 
understood,  must  ever  form  the  basis  of  Christian 
doctrine.  E.  F.  Scott 

BIBLIOLATRY.— Literally,  book-worship;  ex- 
travagant and  uncritical  devotion  to  the  Bible  as 
possessing  divine  authority  apart  from  a  properly 
scientific  estimate  of  its  contents. 

BIDDING-PRAYER.— In  the  Anglican  church. 
the  prayer  preceding  the  sermon,  so  called  because^ 
originally  the  preacher  bade  the  people  pray  foi' 
the  church,  the  king,  royal  family,  etc.  In  thf 
Lutheran  church,  a  prayer  for  specific  objects,  so 
called  because  the  deacons  bid  the  people  pray  for 
these  things. 

BIDDLE,  JOHN  (1615-1662).— Teacher, 
author,  and  theologian;  known  as  the  founder  of 
English  Unitarianism ;  was  several  times  impris- 
oned for  his  heretical  views. 

BIEDERMANN,  ALOIS  EMANUEL  (1819- 
1885). — Swiss  theologian,  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Zurich,  who  elaborated  a  profound  system 
of  theology  on  the  basis  of  Hegelian  monism.  His 
chief  work  was  Christliche  Dogmatik. 

BIGAMY. — (1)  In  criminal  law,  the  marriage  of 
a  second  spouse  while  the  first  is  living.  (2)  In  canon 
law,  the  marriage  of  a  second  wife  after  the  death 
of  the  first,  an  action  which  in  the  R.C.  Church  is 
an  impediment  to  holy  orders. 

BIGOTRY. — A  stubborn  adherence  to  a  given 
creed  or  party  or  ideal  accompanied  by  an  intoler- 
ant attitude  toward  differing  beliefs,  including 
unreasonableness  on  the  part  of  the  adherent  him- 
self, and  a  disposition  to  coerce  others  to  agreement. 
The  word  meant  religious  hypocrisy  in  16th.  cen- 
tury usage. 

BIKSHU  (BIKKU).— The  lower  of  the  two 
grades  of  disciples  in  early  Buddhism  applied  to  one 
who  had  entered  upon  the  way  that  leads  to  the 
higher  state  of  the  Arhat. 

BILO CATION.— The  hypothesis  that  a  being 
of  body  may  have  more  than  one  location  at  the 
same  time  without  multiplication  of  substance. 
It  is  involved  in  the  R.C.  defense  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  real  presence  of  the  body  of  Christ  in  the 
Eucharist. 

BINATION.— The  celebration  of  the  Mass  twice 
on  the  same  day  by  the  same  ministrant.  The 
R.C.  permits  binafion  only  under  specifically 
exceptional  circumstances. 

BINDING    AND    LOOSING.— See  Keys, 

Power  op  the. 

BIOGENESIS. — A  term  no  longer  in  use  among 
biologists  used  to  express  the  view  that  Hving  forms 
can  arise  only  from  hving  forms.  The  term  arose 
when  "spontaneous  generation"  had  its  behevers. 
Certain  early  experiments  seemed  to  indicate  that 
in  a  completely  lifeless  and  sealed  solution  organ- 
isms would  appear.  This  was  called  spontaneous 
generation,  or  "abiogenesis,"  as  distinct  from  life- 
generation,  or  "biogenesis."  With  the  improve- 
ment of  technique,  however,  especially  in  connection 
with  bacteriology,  it  was  discovered  that  the  "hfe- 
less"  solution  was  not  lifeless,  and  that  the  "sealed" 
solution  was  not  always  sealed  against  certain 
organisms.    Abiogenesis,  therefore,  has  disappeared 


Biretta 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


52 


as  a  doctrine  based  upon  any  observation,  and  with 
it  this  use  of  the  term  biogenesis. 

The  term  is  also  used  as  a  synonym  for  evolution 
as  appUed  to  the  plant  and  animal  kingdoms.  See 
Evolution.  John  M.  Coulter 

BIRETTA. — ^A  square  cap  with  three  ridges  on 
its  upper  surface  worn  as  the  official  cap  of  R.C. 
ecclesiastics.  The  biretta  for  cardinals  is  red, 
for  bishops  is  purple  or  black,  and  for  priests 
black. 

BIRTH,  BIRTHRIGHT.— About  birth,  as  about 
death,  are  universally  associated  religious  rites 
and  behefs.  The  desire  for  children,  the  desire  to 
protect  the  mother  and  to  insure  the  health  and 
future  of  the  child,  give  rise  to  efforts  to  drive 
away  possible  evils  and  bewitchments,  to  secure 
easy  dehvery,  to  bring  to  the  child  the  protection 
of  good  powers,  finally  to  secure  for  it  the  proper 
recognition  of  fellow  men.  These  various  motives 
have  given  occasion  not  only  for  important  religious 
ceremonies,  such  as  purification  after  child-birth, 
circumcision,  baptism,  but  also  to  a  great  number 
of  superstitions  which  are  still  present  in  European 
folklore,  such  as  faith  in  charms,  dread  of  change- 
lings, stories  of  good  fairies.  In  virtually  all  pagan 
religions  there  are  goddesses  whose  especial  charge 
is  birth,  and  under  whose  protection  expectant 
mothers  are  placed.  The  belief  in  defilement  as  an 
accompaniment  of  childbirth  (cf .  Leviticus,  chap. 
13),  hence  calling  for  especial  purificatory  rites,  is 
frequent,  although  its  more  primitive  form  is  rather 
the  dread  of  witchcraft  at  this  dangerous  period. 
Among  certain  peoples  mothers  dying  in  childbirth 
were  regarded  as  thereby  made  heroic,  and  special 
honors  were  given  them.  Belief  in  re-birth  of 
infants  still-born  or  early  dying  is  also  not  infre- 
quent, and  in  some  pagan  religions  there  is  held  to 
be  a  special  limbo  for  the  souls  of  such,  awaiting 
rebirth. 

Birthright  is  the  right  to  inheritance  or  to  social 
station  as  a  consequence  of  birth  condition.  Its 
most  important  forms  are  the  rights  following  from 
legitimacy  or  illegitimacy;  primogeniture,  or 
seniority  of  birth;  the  rights  of  sex,  male  children 
commonly  being  given  prior  recognition;  the  rights 
of  rank,  due  to  the  social  station  of  the  par- 
ents. Among  many  peoples,  including  the  ancient 
classical  peoples  and  some  modern  Orientals, 
birthright  depended  upon  recognition  of  the  child 
by  the  father,  who  had,  if  he  chose,  the  right  to 
expose  the  child.  Devotion  of  an  unborn  or 
first-born  child  to  sacrifice  or  to  religious  service  is 
another  parental  right  frequently  recognized  in 
pagan  religions.  H.  B.  Alexander 

BIRTHDAY.— Those  who  beUeve  in  astrology 
and  some  others  regard  certain  days  as  lucky  and 
others  unlucky.  Certain  African  tribes  practise 
infanticide  of  children  born  on  unlucky  days.  With 
astrology  came  the  horoscope  and  the  elaborate 
arrangement  of  lucky  and  unlucky  days  based  on 
the  astrological  signs  evident  on  the  day  of  birth; 
as,  e.g.,  among  Hindus,  Chinese  and  many  others. 
Among  many  peoples  birthdays  are  celebrated  as 
embodying  the  idea  of  the  renewal  of  life.  Birth- 
days of  martyrs,  saints,  and  gods  are  made  occasions 
of  special  celebration,  e.g.,  the  Christian  Christ- 
mas (q.v.)  and  the  Hindu  observance  of  Rama's 
birthday. 

BISHOP.— The  earliest  officers  of  Christian 
churches  were  called  both  presbyter  (elder)  and 
bishop.  In  Acts  20:28  Paul  addresses  elders  as 
bishops.  Officers  appointed  by  the  apostles  are 
called  presbyters  in  Acts  15 :23,  bishops  in  /  Clement 


42.  Apparently  each  church  community  had 
several  bishops,  both  in  the  East  {Didache  15)  and 
in  Rome  (/  Clement  44,  Hermas,  Vision  III.  5). 
Probably  the  name  bishop  was  apphed  to  an  elder 
presiding  over  worship  and  distributing  alms. 
Early  in  the  2nd.  century  a  monarchic  bishop  is 
found  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  presbyters  in  Syria 
and  Anatoha  {Epistles  of  Ignatius)  and  by  150  a.d. 
in  Rome.  The  bishop  was  soon  acknowledged 
as  a  divinely  guaranteed  vehicle  of  the  inherited 
faith  (Irenaeus,  TertulMan),  and  3rd.  century  diffi- 
culties arising  from  persecution  resulted  m  the 
acceptance  of  the  bishop's  monarchic  authority  in  dis- 
cipUne  and  his  priesthood  by  divine  right  over  souls. 

This  meant  a  city  bishop  with  power  over  a  single 
community,  but  by  presiding  at  synods  the  bishop 
of  the  provincial  capital  became  (3rd.  century)  a 
metropoUtan  or  archbishop  with  growing  jurisdiction 
over  others,  while  synods  of  larger  areas  (Syria, 
Egypt,  Italy)  developed  the  higher  rank  of  Patriarch 
for  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Rome,  Byzantium.  Ex- 
tension of  a  bishop's  jurisdiction  to  a  diocese 
beyond  the  city  came  when  Teutonic  invaders 
settled  on  the  estates  of  a  gau  or  county  subordinated 
themselves  to  the  bishop  of  the  old  Roman  city 
which  was  the  county  seat,  or  (England  and  Ger- 
many) from  the  fact  that  the  first  bishops  were 
missionaries  serving  a  large  area.  All  bishops  at 
first  were  equal  but  by  an  historical  process  (pre- 
siding at  synods,  appeals,  reception  of  decisions)  a 
primacy  of  great  centers  arose  which  with  the 
11th.  century  became  for  the  Roman  bishop  in 
theory  and  increasingly  in  fact  an  absolute  mon- 
archic power  over  all  western  bishops.  The  episco- 
pal constitution  of  the  Cathohc  church  was  renewed 
by  the  action  of  the  Council  of  Constance  (1415), 
but  after  the  Council  of  Trent  bishops  tended  to  be 
deputies^  of  the  Pope.  This  subordination  to  the 
papacy  is  increased  by  the  modern  separations  of 
church  and  state.  Originally  both  the  laity  and  the 
clergy  joined  in  electing  a  bishop.  The  assumption 
by  Teutonic  kings  of  the  right  to  confirm  or  even 
to  appoint  led  to  the  Investiture  dispute  which 
ended  (1122)  with  the  provision  of  election  by  the 
chapter,  excluding  the  laity.  The  pope  then 
installed  in  spiritual  functions  and  the  king  in 
pohtical  and  property  rights.  However,  in  Cathohc 
countries  the  state  has  usually  had  the  right  of 
nomination  and  in  Protestant  German  states  the 
chapter  elects  one  whose  acceptibihty  to  the  govern- 
ment is  assured.  When  the  United  States  was  a 
mission  country  nominations  were  sent  both  by  the  ' 
diocesan  priests  and  the  bishops  of  the  province  to 
the  Congregation  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith. 
In  1908  the  United  States  ceased  to  be  a  mission 
and  the  Apostolic  Constitution  of  Pius  X.  placed 
the  choice  of  bishops  virtually  in  the  control  of  the 
Cardinal  Secretary  of  State. 

The  Lutheran  reform,  save  in  Deimaark  and 
Sweden,  substituted  superintendents.  Calvin's 
church  recognized  no  ecclesiastic  above  a  pastor. 
In  the  Methodist  churches  of  America  bishops  are 
chosen  by  the  General  Conference,  have  no  dioce- 
san power,  and  are  properly  Superintendents.  In 
Great  Britain  the  title  is  not  used  by  Wesleyans. 
Certain  other  Protestant  bodies  employ  the  term  but 
only  in  the  Church  of  England  and  its  American  off- 
shoot is  there  an  episcopal  office  resembhng  that 
of  Cathohc  history.  F.  A.  Christie 

BISMILLAH. — An  Arabic  formula  meaning  "in 
the  name  of  Allah"  which  appears  in  the  Koran  as 
the  opening  phrase  of  each  section  and  is  used  by 
Moslems  at  the  commencement  of  each  act  of 
ceremonial.  It  is  also  used  as  a  potent  word  of 
power  having  efficacy  in  itself  to  ward  off  evil  influ- 
ences and  to  assure  a  safe  beginning  of  every  action. 


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filood 


BLACK  ART.— The  term  "black  art,"  or 
"black  magic,"  is  a  traditional  perversion  of  the 
classical  "necromancy" — necromantia  (meaning  dis- 
tinction by  communication  with  the  dead)  being 
corrupted  into  negromantia  (as  if  from  negro-,  black), 
doubtless  due  to  association  with  the  conception  of 
the  devil  as  black.  The  black  art  comprises  all 
forms  of  magic  supposed  to  be  due  to  collusion  with 
evil  spirits,  as  well  as  necromancy  proper;  the  term 
has  even  been  applied  to  astrology.  "Black  magic" 
is  contrasted  with  "white  magic"  which  includes 
innocent  forms  of  wonder-working,  such  as  legerde- 
main and  various  forms  of  divination  not  deemed 
to  be  due  to  intercourse  with  spirits. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

BLACK  DEATH.— A  pestilence  of  Oriental 
origin  resembhng  in  many  particulars  the  bubonic 
plague,  appearing  in  Italy  (1348),  from  which,  over 
trade  routes,  it  rapidly  spread  into  large  areas  of 
western  Europe.  In  consequence  of  its  mortality — 
variously  estimated  as  high  as  forty  per  cent  of  the 
population  and  heaviest  in  Italy,  France,  and 
England — great  structural  changes  took  place  in 
society.  With  the  scarcity  of  labor,  wages  rapidty 
rose  and  the  older  aristocracy  was  largely  sup- 
planted by  one  rising  from  the  masses.  Class  inter- 
ests became  pronounced,  discontent  acute,  and 
irreligion  rife.  Not  only  were  the  efficiency  and 
moral  tone  of  the  clergy  impaired  by  the  admission 
into  the  priesthood  of  the  immature,  untrained,  and 
worldly  minded,  but  non-residence  and  pluralism, 
seemingly  necessary  in  this  crisis,  secured  the  footing 
from  which  in  later  centuries  it  was  so  difficult  to 
dislodge  them.  Peter  G.  Mode 

BLACK  FAST.— The  most  rigorous  form  of 
fasting  in  R.C.  history,  the  austerity  relating  both 
to  the  food  and  time.  Latterly  the  rigorous  require- 
ments have  been  relaxed. 

BLACK  FATHERS.— The  popular  name  for 
the  congregation  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary. 

BLACK  FRIARS.— The  name  attached  to 
Dominican  monks  in  England  because  of  the  color 
of  their  garments. 

BLACK  JEWS.— The  Church  of  God  and 
Saints  of  Christ,  composed  chiefly  of  negroes  who 
claim  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  true  Jews. 

BLACK  MONKS.— The  popular  designation  for 
monks  of  the  Benedictine  order. 

BLACK  RUBRIC— The  declaration  which  com- 
mands kneeling  at  the  end  of  the  order  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Holy  Communion  in  the  Anglican 
church  prayer-book,  so  called  from  the  black 
letters  in  which  it  was  formerly  printed. 

BLACK  SISTERS.— The  name  given  to  Alexian 
nuns  because  of  their  black  habit.     See  Alexians. 

BLACK  SUNDAY.— See  Passion  Sunday. 

BLASPHEMY.— From  the  Greek,  to  injure  by 
speech;  literally,  defamatory  speech;  specifically, 
spoken  or  written  words  insulting  to  God.  The 
Levitical  legislation  prescribed  the  death  penalty 
for  blasphemy  (Lev.  24:16),  as  did  also  the  Roman 
law.  In  England  and  the  United  States,  it  is 
punishable  by  fine,  imprisonment,  or  corporal 
punishment,  but  the  law  is  seldom  put  into  effect. 
Formerly,  blasphemy  was  defined  so  as  to  include 
denial  of  certain  orthodox  Christian  behefs,  such 
as  the  Trinity  and  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures. 
In  France  speaking  against  the  Virgin  Mary,  the 


saints,  or  any  holy  things  was  included  in  blasphemy 
which  was  punished  rigorously.  In  Muhammedan- 
ism,  blasphemy  includes  contemptuous  speaking 
of  Mohamet,  a  guilty  Muslim  being  considered 
an  apostate,  his  punishment  being  death. 

BLAVATSKY,  HELENA  PETROVNA  (1831- 
1891). — Russian  authoress  who  traveled  extensively, 
and  with  Col.  H.  S.  Alcott  founded  the  Theosophical 
Society  in  New  York  in  1875.  Her  most  important 
work,  Isis  Unveiled,  is  an  attempt  at  a  systematic 
presentation  of  theosophy.    See  Thkosophy. 

BLESSEDNESS.— A  condition  of  happiness  or 
felicity  which  in  Christian  and  other  theistic 
religions  is  associated  with  the  divine  favor  upon  or 
jjresence  in  human  experience,  whereas  in  ethical 
and  non-theistic  thought  such  as  Buddhism  it  is 
related  to  the  attainment  of  a  right  state  of  mind. 
See  Matt.  6:3-11;  Dhamma'pada,  ch.  15. 

BLESSING  AND  CURSING— The  power  of 

the  spoken  word  seems  to  men  at  a  certain  stage  of 
thought  to  be  something  uncanny  or  as  we  should 
say  supernatural.  The  injurious  word  is  a  curse, 
the  helpful  one  a  blessing.  As  thought  became 
more  clear  the  theory  was  formed  that  the  curse  or 
blessing  was  of  force  because  the  speaker  was  in 
communion  or  special  relations  with  a  demon  or 
divinity.  The  demon  might  by  the  efTective  form 
of  words  be  bound  to  a  physical  object  (Aladdin's 
lamp)  and  obhged  to  do  the  bidding  of  its  owner. 
But  a  curse,  even  if  pronounced  by  a  common 
man,  might  work  harm  by  its  own  inherent  force. 

Magicians,  priests,  and  men  near  death  had 
especial  power  of  cursing  and  blessing.  Thus, 
the  blessing  of  Isaac  once  given  to  Jacob,  though 
intended  for  Esau,  could  not  be  reversed.  When 
the  divinity  is  active  in  making  the  curse  or  blessing 
effective  the  form  is  usually  that  of  a  prayer. 
Examples  are  not  rare,  however,  in  which  the 
speaker  commands  the  divinity  rather  than  entreats 
him.  The  judicial  oath  in  which  the  witness  in- 
vokes vengeance  on  himself,  in  case  he  lies,  is  a 
natural  development  from  the  curse.  One  of  the 
earhest  examples  is  the  Hebrew  formula:  "God  do 
so  to  me  and  more  too  if  I  do  not  do  thus  and  so." 

H.  P.  Smith 

BLESSING,  PRIESTLY.- (Jewish.)  In  the 
Jewish  ritual,  the  Priestly  Blessing  (Num.  6:22-27) 
is  pronounced  in  the  Synagog,  according  to  the 
orthodox,  on  certain  holy-days  by  the  descendants 
of  the  old  priests;  or,  according  to  the  reform 
Jews,  by  the  Rabbi  dismissing  the  congregation  at 
the  close  of  some  services. 

BLEST,  ABODE  OF  THE.— See  Future  Life, 
Conceptions  of  the. 

BLISS. — Supreme  happiness.  See  Blessed- 
ness. 

BLOOD. — Religiously  significant  as  the  basis 
of  relationship,  a  means  of  conciliation,  or  a  con- 
tainer of  power. 

The  common  basic  idea  concerning  blood  is 
given  in  Deut.  12:23,  "The  blood  is  the  life." 
Consequently  blood  is  everywhere  more  or  less 
sacred,  and  its  use  sacramental. 

Blood  is  universally  regarded  as  the  bond  of 
relationship.  Relationship  is  natural  (through 
birth)  or  artificial  (through  ceremony).  In  the 
latter  case  common  blood  is  made  to  flow  in  the 
veins  of  men  by  contact  of  fresh  wounds,  by  two 
men's  drinking  each  other's  blood,  or  by  drinking 
blood  drawn  from  a  third  source,  making  a  bond  as 
close  as  if  it  came  through  birth.     Among  primitives 


Blood-Brotherhood 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


rA 


this  bond  extends  over  the  clan  or  tribe:  one  common 
blood  flows  in  the  veins  of  every  clan-member. 
When  a  tribesman  is  slain,  Arabs  say:  "Our  blood 
has  been  shed."  Its  social  value  Ues  in  the  protec- 
tion of  life  imder  conditions  of  nearly  perpetual 
strife. 

The  blood-feud  is  a  consequence  of  blood  rela- 
tionship. When  a  clansman  is  slain,  a  relative 
(family  or  clansman)  is  bound  to  avenge  him. 
This  may  involve  counter  reprisals,  and  feuds 
arise  which  last  generations. 

As  a  means  of  conciliation  blood  may  affect  gods 
(see  Sacrifice);  an  exami)le  in  the  human  sphere 
is  that  Australians  drink  each  other's  blood  at  a 
feast  to  settle  difficulties. 

As  sacred,  blood  may  be  (a)  forbidden  as  food; 
or  (b)  eaten  to  consecrate  a  ceremony — before 
giving  testimony,  to  provide  an  omen  (India),  or  to 
sanctify  or  make  powerful  a  fetish  (Africa). 

A  concomitant  notion  is  that  blood  has  potency, 
working  beneficently  or  harmfully  according  to 
circumstances.  Its  beneficent  powers  vary.  It 
imparts  strength  to  the  old  (Australia);  gives  a 
victor  the  life  or  courage  of  a  slain  enemy  (Africa) ; 
bestows  temporary  power  on  ghosts  (Odyssey, 
XI.  34  £f.);  sustains  the  dead;  and  on  a  priest 
confers  power  of  prophecy.  It  prevents  and 
cures  disease,  makes  marriage  fruitful,  and  averts 
evil  influences  (India).  Bathing  with  it  (actually 
or  metaphorically)  purifies  from  sin  or  defilement 
(Mithraism,  Dyaks,  East  Indians;  cf.  many 
Christian    hymns). 

Its  perils  appear  in  prohibitions  of  or  restrictions 
upon  its  use.  Some  kinds  are  especially  dangerous. 
The  blood  of  childbirth  and  of  menstruation  ara 
supremely  perilous.  Usually,  when  blood  is  shed, 
it  must  be  buried  to  protect  the  passer-by.  Parents 
may  not  look  upon  it  for  a  certain  period  after 
the  birth  of  twins  (Africa).  The  husband's  blood, 
drunk  at  marriage,  remains  in  the  wife's  veins  and 
reveals  and  punishes  infidelity  (India). 

George  W.  Gilmore 

BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD.— A  fraternal  bond 
formed  by  the  ceremony  of  the  mingling  of  blood. 
The  conception  grew  out  of  the  primitive  conception 
of  kinship  as  necessarily  blood-relationship.  See 
Brotherhood. 

BLOOD-COVENANT.— A  solemn  agreement 
into  which  two  parties  Have  entered,  sealed  by 
each  drinking,  being  infused  with,  or  smearing  them- 
selves with  the  blood  of  the  other.    See  Covenant. 

BLOOD-FEUD. — ^A  form  of  primitive  justice 
in  which  the  family  of  a  murdered  or  maltreated 
individual  assumed  the  responsibility  of  vengeance 
in  kind  upon  the  offender  or  his  kin.  It  is  found 
in  especial  vigor  among  the  Semitic  and  Aryan 
peoples  though  the  Indo-Aryans  seem  early  to  have 
outgrown  the  blood-revenge  stage.  The  growth 
of  more  closely  knit  societies  caused  the  adoption 
of  the  principle  of  wergeld  (ransom)  to  a  large 
extent.  When  the  state  was  firmly  established  the 
right  and  responsibihty  of  blood-revenge  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  king  who,  in  the  name  of  the 
community,  exacted  vengeance  on  the  culprit. 
Even  the  blood-feud  had  its  strict  rules  and  was  a 
form  of  crude,  though  wasteful,  justice. 

BLOOD-RELATIONSHIP.— See  Consan- 
guinity. 

BLOOD-REVENGE.— The  custom  in  tribal 
society  whereby  the  next  of  kin  of  a  murdered  man 
is  bound  to  avenge  the  murder  by  the  death  of  the 
murderer  or  of  one  of  the  murderer's  tribe. 


BLUMHARDT,  JOHANN  CHRISTOFF  (1805- 
1880). — Swiss  pastor  of  unusual  religious  power, 
who  believed  in  the  possibihty  of  divine  healing 
through  prayer,  and  who  established  and  superin- 
tended an  institute  for  religious  healing  at  Bad  Boll. 
He  was  a  man  of  sincere  and  devout  life,  and  exer- 
cised wide  influence. 

BODELSCHWINGH,       FRIEDRICH      VON 

(1831-1910). — Influential  Lutheran  pastor,  noted 
for  his  vigorous  promotion  of  the  work  of  the  Inner 
Mission,  and  for  his  theological  school  at  Bethel  in 
Prussia,  founded  to  counteract  the  rationalistic 
tendencies  of  the  theological  faculties  in  the  uni- 
versities. 

BODHISATTVA.— A  name  applied  in  Buddhism 
to  those  who  are  destined  for  future  Buddhahood. 
They  are  the  great  cosmic  saviors  who  pass  through 
the  ten  stages  leading  to  complete  knowledge  and 
after  successive  existences  accept  at  last  the  peace 
of  essential  Boddhahood.    See  AvalgkiteSvara. 

BODY. — The  physical  part  of  an  organism,  dis- 
tinguished from  its  bionomic  or  its  spiritual  being. 
The  conception  of  a  man  as  organized  from  several 
modes  of  being  is  well-nigh  universal,  the  physical 
or  material  mode  (the  body  of  the  living,  the  corpse 
of  the  dead)  being  conceived  as  the  bond,  envelope, 
or  home  of  the  life,  spirit,  soul,  mind,  or  other 
modes  contrasted  with  it.  In  primitive  thought 
and  in  early  religious  practices  the  distinction  of 
material  and  immaterial  does  not  clearly  exist; 
the  body  is  rarely  conceived  as  fixed  in  form,  while 
the  various  elements  added  thereto  to  constitute 
a  living  man  are  themselves  regarded  as  more  or  less 
perceptible  by  the  physical  senses.  It  is  first  with 
Plato  that  the  distinction  between  the  material 
flesh  and  the  immaterial  soul  is  sharply  drawn. 
Nevertheless,  the  conception  of  a  body  from  which 
a  more  sublimated  life  or  soul  can  be  disengaged, 
temporarily  as  well  as  permanently,  exists  from  the 
lowest  savagery  upward  through  human  culture. 

The  influence  of  the  disjunctive  idea  of  body  and 
soul  has  been  one  of  the  most  profound  both  upon 
ritual  and  speculation.  The  body  as  the  house  of 
the  soul  requires  purification,  internally  and  exter- 
nally; as  endowed  with  appetites,  it  calls  for  temper- 
ate or  ascetic  control,  for  castigation,  etc.;  as 
subject  to  profound  changes  in  the  seasons  of  life, 
it  calls  for  ritual  safeguards,  often  among  savages 
for  mutilations;  as  a  corpse,  it  demands  burial 
and  rites  of  allaying  the  dead.  Speculatively  it  is 
difficult  for  man  totally  to  separate  the  conception 
of  life  from  that  of  embodied  life;  hence  arises  the 
ideas  of  a  partial  life  attending  the  corpse,  as  among 
the  Egyptians;  of  bodily  resurrection;  of  incarnation 
and  reincarnation;  of  a  transfigured  or  sublimated 
spiritual  body;  of  astral,  ghostly,  or  phantasmal 
bodies,  etc.  See  Asceticism;  Burial;  Incarna- 
tion; Resurrection;  Soul;  Spirit. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

BOEHME,  JAKOB  (1575-1624).— German  mys- 
tic. His  parents  were  peasants  and  he  was  a  shoe- 
maker. By  prayer,  Bible  study,  and  reading  of 
mystical  books,  he  acquired  the  spirit  of  a  mystical 
visionary.  He  met  with  much  opposition  in  his 
day,  but  his  works  subsequently  became  a  source 
of  inspiration  to  such  great  minds  as  Friedrich 
Schlegel,  Hegel  and  ScheUing.  Boehme  did  not 
depart  from  the  current  orthodox  doctrines,  al- 
though he  used  the  allegorical  and  mystical  methods 
of  interpretation. 

BOETHUSIANS. — A  Jewish  sect  flourishing 
at  the  time  of  the  Saducees,  and  closel}'  related 
to  them  in  thought. 


55 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Bornholmers 


BOGOMILS. — A  Christian  community  originat- 
ing in  Bulgaria,  owing  its  name  to  a  priest,  Bogumil 
(927-968).  The  beliefs  of  the  Bogomils  were  a 
fusion  of  Manicha»an  dualism  and  Marcion's 
gnosticism.  Miracles,  sacraments,  and  ceremonies 
were  interpreted  spiritually  and  asceticism  was 
required.  The  movement  spread  over  Eastern 
Europe.  The  order  was  officially  condemned  in 
1111.  In  1650  the  Bogomils,  having  accommodated 
their  doctrines  to  orthodoxy,  were  absorbed  into 
the  R.C.  Church. 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN.— A  15th.  century 
sect  committed  to  a  more  radical  reform  than  was 
the  national  (Calixtine)  church  of  Bohemia  from 
which  it  sprang. 

From  the  9th.  century  the  church  in  Bohemia 
was  intensely  nationalistic  (language,  liturgy). 
The  Hussite  wars,  1419-1432,  following  Huss'  (q.v.) 
death,  voiced  these  national  aspirations,  with  the 
desire  for  religious  reform.  Two  parties  resulted, 
moderates  (Calixtines,  Utraquists),  and  radicals 
(Taborites).  By  accepting  the  Compacts  (q.v.), 
1433,  the  former  secured  concessions  (free  preaching, 
cup  for  laity)  and  leadership.  The  Taborites  in- 
cluded irreconcilables  (destroyed  by  Romanists  and 
Utraquists,  1434),  and  others  whose  interests 
were  supremely  religious.  The  latter  attached 
themselves  to  the  Chelcic  Brethren.  Rejecting 
force,  and  living  strictly  by  the  Gospel,  they 
retired,  1457,  to  Kunwald,  Lititz,  where  they 
assumed  the  name  Unitas  Fratrum  or  Brethren. 
In  1467  they  became  an  independent  sect  (Matthias 
ordained  bishop  by  Waldenses).  From  1494  the 
movement  lost  its  idiosyncracies  and  became 
sympathetic  toward  the  intellectual  and  spiritual 
tendencies  of  the  age  (Universities,  Reformation). 
Bohemian  Protestantism  was  all  but  annihilated 
during  the  Thirty  Years  War.  Commenius  and 
Jablonsky  preserved  the  history  and  traditions  of 
the  Brethren  till  the  brotherhood  was  reconstituted 
and  broadened  by  Zinzendorf  (q.v.),  and  the 
Moravian  Brethren  (q.v.).     Henry  H.  Walker 

BOLLANDISTS.— The  Belgian  Jesuits,  who 
are  the  publishers  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (q.v.), 
so  named  from  John  Bolland  (1596-1665),  the 
Jesuit  father  who  was  one  of  the  principal  organizers 
of  the  work.  The  Belgian  edition  of  the  Acta 
Sanctorum  has  reached  63  volumes.  They  also 
publish  a  quarterly  periodical,  the  Analecta  Bol- 
landiana. 

BONAR,  HORATIUS  (1808-1889).— Scotch 
hymn  writer,  and  Presbyterian  minister.  He  wfote 
several  religious  books,  and  edited  several  journals. 
Many  of  his  hymns  are  in  common  usage. 

BONAVENTURA,  ST.  (1221-1274).— R.C. 
theologian.  In  1243  he  entered  the  Franciscan 
order,  and  by  1255  rose  to  the  office  of  general  of  the 
order.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Roger  Bacon 
and  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  stood  in  opposition  to 
both.  By  his  orders  Bacon  was  prevented  from 
lecturing  at  Oxford.  His  philosophy  was  Neo- 
Platonism,  and  his  theology  was  suffused  with 
Platonic  influence.  He  was  canonized  by  Sixtus  IV. 
in  1482. 

BONIFACE.— The  name  of  nine  Popes. 

Boniface  I. — Bishop  of  Rome,  418-422. 

Boniface  //.—Pope,  530-532. 

Boniface  III. — Pope,  Feb.-Nov.,  606,  obtained 
from  Emperor  Phocas  recognition  of  the  primacy 
of  Rome. 

Boniface  IV. — Pope,  608-615,  received  from 
Phocas  the  Roman  pantheon  which  was  converted 
into  a  church. 


Boniface  V. — Pope,  619-625,  influential  in 
Christianizing  England,  creating  Canterbury  as  a 
Metropohtan  see. 

Boniface   VI. — Pope  for  15  days  in  896. 

Boniface    VII.— Pope,  984-985. 

Boniface  VIII.— Fope,  1294-1303.  He  em- 
broiled the  papacy  in  a  number  of  conflicts  with 
European  nations  by  his  arrogance  and  pomp. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  bull,  Unum  Sanctam  (q.v.). 

Boniface  IX. — Pope,  1389-1404,  was  pohtically 
active  and  succeeded  in  restoring  Roman  order  in 
the  papal  states.  His  pontificate  fell  during  the 
time  of  the  papal  schism,  and  rival  popes,  Clement 
VII.  and  Benedict  XIII.,  held  office  at  Avignon. 

BONIFACE,  SAINT  (680-754)  .—Missionary 
to  Germany,  and  proconsul  of  the  Papacy.  He 
was  a  Saxon  by  birth,  a  great  scholar  and  preacher, 
going  as  a  missionary  to  Frisia  in  716.  His  influ- 
ence was  large  on  both  the  German  and  Prankish 
churches.  The  protection  of  Charles  Martel 
contributed  to  his  success.  From  732-754  he 
was  archbishop.  In  754  he  was  murdered  by  the 
Frisian  pagans. 

BONIFATIUS-VEREIN.— A  society  for  the 
protection  of  R.C.  interests  in  the  Protestant  sec- 
tions of  Germany. 

BOOK    OF    COMMON    DISCIPLINE.— The 

name  given  to  the  book  on  church  organization 
drawn  up  by  the  Scotch  Presbyterians  in  1560. 
A  revised  edition  appeared  in  1578. 

BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.— The  book 
containing  the  forms  and  modes  of  public  service 
appointed  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1549,  for  use 
in  the  established  church  of  England,  and  used 
with  certain  modifications  by  other  Protestant 
bodies. 

BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD.— One  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  religion  of  ancient  Egypt,  the  contents 
of  which  are  largely  magical  formulae  and  charms. 

BOOK  OF  LIFE.— In  the  Book  of  Revelation, 
a  heavenly  book  in  which  human  destinies  are 
portrayed  as  being  recorded.  The  imagery  is 
common  to  many  Oriental  peoples  who  have  pic- 
tured the  existence  of  celestial  books  or  tablets 
containing  the  wisdom  of  the  gods  and  mythologies 
concerning  the  earth  and  its  human  inhabitants. 
Such  ideas  may  be  paralleled  from  the  religious 
literature  of  Babylonia,  Egypt,  Persia,  India,  China, 
Islam,  and  Judaism.  They  are  especially  prominent 
in  apocalyptic  literature  such  as  Enoch,  Daniel,  and 
Revelation. 

BOOTH,  WILLIAM  (1829-1911).— Founder  of 
the  Salvation  Army  (q.v.).  He  was  educated  for 
the  Methodist  New  Connexion  ministry,  and  in 
1865  founded  the  Christian  Mission  for  social  rehef 
in  East  London  which  subsequently  developed 
(1876),  into  the  Salvation  Army  of  which  Booth 
was  commander-in-chief  until  his  death. 

BOOTHS,  FEAST  OF.— See  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles. 

BORNHOLMERS.— A  Danish  pietistic  sect, 
so  named  from  the  Danish  island  of  Bornholm  in 
the  Baltic  Sea,  which  became  the  center  of  the 
movement.  It  was  the  development  of  an  evangel- 
istic movement  in  Sweden  (from  1846)  which  spread 
to  Denmark  where  the  leader,  1863-1877,  was 
P.  C.  Trandberg. 


BosBuet,  Jacques 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


56 


BOSSUET,  JACQUES  BENIGNE  (1627-1704). 
— French  R.C.  diyine,  renowned  as  a  pulpit  orator 
and  controversialist.  His  dominant  purpose  was 
to  reunite  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  but  he 
was  too  pedantic  to  make  a  popular  appeal.  In 
the  quarrel  between  Louis  XIV.  and  the  pope,  he 
tried  to  support  the  papacy  while  opposing  the 
Jesuits. 

BOUNDARY.— In  all  parts  of  the  world  early 
peoples  were  careful  to  mark  the  limits  of  their 
lands.  Where  there  were  no  natural  markings, 
trees,  stones,  or  waste  places  were  established  as 
artificial  marks.  Such  boundaries  were  sacredly 
preserved  and  the  boundary  mark  carried  its  own 
magical  power  to  inflict  penalty  upon  the  trans- 
gressor. When  gods  arise  such  figures  as  Min, 
Hermes  and  Terminus  have  as  their  chief  function 
the  protecting  of  the  boundaries  and  roads.  In 
many  places  an  annual  ritual  of  re-establishing  the 
markings  was  performed.  Unknown  dangers  lurked 
at  the  boundaries — Jack  o'  Lanterns,  restless  souls, 
witches — especially,  as  at  the  cross-roads,  where 
boundaries    met. 

BOURIGNIANISM.— The  doctrinal  system  of 
Mme.  Antoinette  Bourignon,  a  French  visionary 
and  mystic  (1616-1680);  a  type  of  quietism  in 
which  spiritual  ecstasy  rather  than  cult  or  dogma 
is  made  paramount. 

BRAHMA. — As  differentiated  from  Brahman 
he  is  the  personal  creator  god,  known  by  many 
names,  e.g.,  Hiranyagarbha,  Prajapati,  Narayana. 
He  forms  one  of  the  Hindu  triad  with  Vishnu  and 
Piva.  In  early  Buddhist  literature  he  has  an 
important  place  as  the  supreme  figure  among  the 
gods;  he  holds  his  position  in  the  epics  but  in 
the  later  religious  development  recedes  before  the 
growing  popularity  of  Vishnu  and  Shiva.  But  see 
also  Brahman. 

BRAHMAN. — (1)  A  word  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  Indian  reUgious  literature.  The  etymology 
is  uncertain,  but  most  writers  trace  it  to  the  root 
brh,  "to  speak."  When  used  in  the  neuter  it  refers 
to  power  or  force,  and  when  in  the  masculine  to  the 
one  who  possesses  the  force.  The  meaning  of 
the  word  has  developed  historically,  (i)  The 
spoken  hymn,  or  prayer  or  magic  formula.  Then 
(u)  the  power  in  that  prayer  or  formula.  Then  as 
the  sacrifice  retired  the  hymn  in  the  cult,  it  meant 
(in)  the  power  in  the  sacrifice.  When  the  ritual 
developed,  the  sacrifice  was  regarded  as  the  most 
potent  force  in  the  world  hence  "brahman"  came 
to  mean  (iv)  the  cosmic  force,  or  the  world-soul. 
See  Atman.  (2)  The  designation  of  the  highest 
of  the  four  Indian  castes.  See  India,  Religions 
and  Philosophies  of. 

BRAHMANAS. — The  prose  commentaries 
added  to  the  sacred  Vedic  texts  of  India.  They 
are  exegetical  and  speculative,  giving  detailed 
explanation  of  the  sacrifices. 

BRAHMANASPATI     (BRIAHASPATI) .  —  The 

Lord  of  prayer;  either  the  heavenly  priest  of  the  gods 
or  the  personification  and  deification  of  the  magical 
power  of  the  brahmanical  priesthood. 

BRAHMANISM.— The  religion  elaborated  by 
the  Brahman  priesthood  between  the  period  of 
Vedic  Religion  (q.v.)  and  the  development  of 
Hinduism  (q.v.). 

The  terms  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism  are 
often  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  whole  religious 
development  of  India  after  the  Rig-Vedic  period. 


It  is  convenient  to  restrict  the  former  to  the  earlier 
sacerdotal  phases,  the  latter  to  the  period  when 
popular  elements  preponderated.  Brahmanism  dif- 
fers from  Vedic  Religion  because  of  the  extreme 
comphcation  of  its  ritual,  which  relegated  the  gods 
to  a  subordinate  position  and  became  an  end  in 
itself;  from  Hinduism  because  of  its  lack  of  a 
fervent  devotion  to  a  personal  god,  and  because  of 
its  emphasis  on  knowledge  and  ritualistic  works  as 
the  chief  means  of  salvation. 

1.  Historical  setting  and  date. — The  Punjab  was 
no  longer  the  center  of  civilization.  Culture  was 
now  centralized  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges  and 
Jumna.  The  period  may  be  dated  roughly  between 
1000  and  200  B.C.;  but  Brahmanism  lingered  on 
long  after  that,  and  the  beginnings  of  Hinduism 
soon  confuse  the  outlines. 

2.  Social  background. — ^In  the  fertile  plains 
and  enervating  climate  of  the  Ganges  valley  life 
became  easier  and  more  settled.  The  development 
of  greater  political  unity  was  accompanied  by  a  con- 
solidation of  the  priesthood  and  its  exaltation  to  a 
position  of  social  supremacy.  Caste  (qv.)  and  the 
doctrines  of  karma  (q.v.)  and  transmigration  (q.v.) 
made  their  appearance;  and  with  them  a  pessimistic 
attitude  toward  life  and  a  negative  ethical  ideal. 
Asceticism  became  a  prominent  factor.  As  the 
spoken  language  changed,  the  hymns  of  the  Rig- 
Veda  became  archaic  and  obscure.  Interpretation 
became  necessary.  This,  together  with  the  hymns, 
was  handed  down  orally.  Minute  attention  was 
paid  to  accent  and  grammar.  One  wrong  accent 
might  vitiate  a  whole  sacrifice.  To  master  this 
complicated  science  an  education  became  necessary. 
Scholars  gathered  around  famous  teachers.  There 
ensued  a  period  of  formalism  and  polemic;  a  recast- 
ing of  received  doctrines  and  an  elaboration  of 
minutae  parallel  to  that  of  the  period  of  the  school- 
men in  Europe.  A  priestly  theory  of  the  ideal  life 
developed  (the  four  Agramas),  perhaps  largely 
theoretical,  but  still  of  great  influence  on  all  later 
thought.  (1)  The  Brahmacarin  (Religious  Student) 
spent  years  (according  to  one  theory,  twelve  years 
for  each  Veda)  in  the  house  of  a  teacher,  Hving  a 
chaste,  abstemious  life,  and  memorizing  the  sacred 
texts.  (2)  He  returned  home,  married,  and  became 
a  Grhastha  (Householder);  performed  all  the 
religious  and  social  duties  prescribed  by  priestly 
tradition.  (3)  When  his  hair  turned  grey,  and  he 
had  a  grown  son  who  might  succeed  him  as  head  of 
the  family,  he  went,  alone  or  with  his  wife,  to  a 
hermitage  in  the  forest.  There  Hfe  involved  fewer 
religious  and  social  duties,  and  left  him  freer  for 
meditation  on  the  meaning  of  the  ritual  and  of  reU- 
gion  in  general.  (4)  He  then  abandoned  any 
fixed  abode  and  lived  as  a  Sannyasi  (one  who  com- 
pletely renounces  the  world)  or  Bhiksu  (Beggar), 
wandering  as  a  solitary  mendicant  subsisting 
entirely  on  alms.  This  is  the  ideal  picture  from 
the  Brahman  point  of  view.  A  man  might  pass 
from  the  first  to  the  third  or  fourth  stage,  or  remain 
permanently  in  the  second.  The  theory  applied 
only  to  the  three  higher  castes,  for  the  Qudras  were 
always  rigorously  excluded  from  a  knowledge  of 
the  sacred  texts.  The  K?atriyas  and  Vaigyas  were 
contented,  doubtless,  with  a  short  term  of  studentship. 

3.  The  texts. — All  the  Vedic  texts  except  the 
hymns  of  the  Rig-Veda  belong  to  Brahmanism. 
The  Sama-Veda  consists  of  hymns,  mostly  from  the 
Rig- Veda,  set  to  elaborate  music.  The  Yajur- 
Veda  consists  of  sacrificial  formulae,  mostly  in 
prose.  The  Atharva-Veda  is  made  up,  for  the  most 
part,  of  magic  charms.  Around  the  texts  of  all 
four  Vedas  there  grew  up  a  body  of  explanation 
and  interpretation  (interspersed  with  myths  and 
legends),  long,  rambUng  texts  in  prose  called  Brah- 
manas.     In     certain     radical    speculative    circles 


57 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Brahmanism. 


thought  tended  away  from  the  ritual  itself  to 
an  allegorical  and  symbolical  interpretation  of 
the  inner  meaning  of  the  ritual,  to  speculation  on  the 
power  of  word  and  act  (hymn  and  ritual).  The 
sacrifice  became  a  cosmic  power.  From  this  period 
come  the  Aranyakas  (Forest  Books) .  This  rational- 
izing tendency  culminated  in  the  Upanishads, 
which  became  philosophical  and  divorced  from  the 
ritual.  The  Brahmanas  were  so  diffuse  and  un- 
wieldy that  need  was  felt  for  short  summaries  of 
the  ritual.  Further,  in  their  interpretation  they 
followed  the  order  of  the  hymns  in  each  Veda,  not 
the  order  in  which  the  hymns  were  used  in  the 
ritual.  This  summary  was  given  in  the  Sutras, 
texts  of  almost  algebraic  brevity.  Of  the  authors 
of  certain  Sutras  it  is  said  that  they  cared  more  for 
the  saving  of  a  single  short  vowel  than  for  the  birth 
of  a  son.  These  texts  fall  into  three  classes:  (1)  The 
Crauta  Sutras  deal  with  the  elaborate,  aristocratic 
Soma  sacrifices.  (2)  The  Grihya  Sutras  deal  with 
the  simpler  household  ceremonies.  (3)  The  Dharma 
Sutras  deal  with  the  duties  of  men  to  the  gods  and 
to  one  another.  They  are  largely  social  and  con- 
tain the  germs  of  the  later  law-books^.  Each  of 
the  four  Vedas  has  its  own  Brahmanas,  Aranyakas, 
Upanishads,  and  Sutras.  Further,  as  Brahman 
culture  spread  over  northern  India,  divergence  of 
practice  in  the  matter  of  rituahstic  details  gave 
rise  to  different  schools  for  each  Veda.  The  schools 
differed  little  in  their  fundamental  texts,  but  in  the 
Brahmanas  and  later  texts  the  divergencies  became 
very  great.  There  were  four  classes  of  priests, 
with  each  its  Veda.  The  Sutras  of  any  one  Veda 
give  only  the  duties  of  one  class  of  priests. 

4.  Ritualistic  Brahmanism. — This  was  essen- 
tially priestly  and  aristocratic.  It  centered  around 
a  ritual  of  extreme  complexity  demanding  three 
fires,  many  priests,  and  a  large  expenditure.  The 
pantheon  remained  much  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Rig- Veda.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  supreme 
position  of  Prajapati,  and  the  growing  importance 
of  Vishnu  and  Qiva  (Rudra).  There  was  much 
more  cosmological  speculation.  The  significant 
thing  is  the  difference  in  attitude  toward  the 
gods.  The  gods  fall  into  the  background.  The 
ritual  and  the  power  of  the  priests,  as  controlling 
the  forces  engendered  by  the  sacrifice,  are  in 
the  foreground.  The  gods  are  Hke  figures  in  a 
puppet  show  managed  by  the  priests.  The  whole 
sacrifice  becomes  a  magical  operation;  the  force 
set  in  motion  by  it  is  the  greatest  in  the  uni- 
verse; on  it  depends  the  welfare  of  the  universe; 
the  gods  are  obhgatory  intermediators.  The  gods 
have  powers  greater  than  those  of  men,  but  they 
themselves  must  perform  sacrifices  in  order  to  gain 
their  desires.  "The  sun  would  not  rise  if  the 
priest  did  not  sacrifice."  "Verily  there  are  two 
kinds  of  gods;  for,  indeed,  the  gods  are  the  gods; 
and  the  Brahmans  who  have  studied  and  teach 
sacred  lore  are  the  human  gods.  The  sacrifice  of 
these  is  divided  into  two  kinds :  oblations  constitute 
the  sacrifice  to  the  gods;  and  gifts  to  the  priests 
that  to  the  human  gods,  the  Brahmans  who  have 
studied  and  teach  sacred  lore."  The  reHgious  goal 
was  the  dutiful  performance  of  ceremonial  works. 
The  ritual  itself  was  entirely  a  personal  matter. 
There  was  no  state  rehgion;  there  were  no  temples 
or  idols.  The  benefit  of  the  sacrifice  accrued  only 
to  the  man  (and  his  family)  who  had  it  performed. 

5.  Philosophical  Brahmanism. — Toward  the 
end  of  the  Rig-Vedic  period  an  effort  had  been  made 
to  find  some  sort  of  unity  behind  the  gods,  and 
behind  the  many  forces  of  nature.  This  philo- 
sophical tendency  developed  chiefly  out  of  ritual- 
istic considerations.  A  mysterious  power  emanated 
from  everything  connected  with  the  cult,  espe- 
cially from  the  hymn  or  prayer.     Since  the  sac- 


rifice came  to  be  considered  the  greatest  power  in 
the  universe,  the  word  Brahman  (the  hymn  and 
its  magical  potency)  was  employed  to  denote 
the  cosmic  energy,  the  immanent  cosmological 
power  in  the  universe.  Prajapati  became  a 
personal  manifestation  of  the  neuter  Brahman. 
The  Upanishads  tried  to  define  more  closely  what 
this  Brahman  was.  There  is,  however,  no  one 
system  of  philosophy,  only  vague,  inconsistent  grop- 
ings  based  on  associative  thinking  rather  than  on 
thinking  rigorously  controlled  by  the  objects  of  the 
external  world.  The  final_  answer  given  was  that 
Brahman  is  the  same  as  Atman,  the  force  within 
the  body,  the  sum  of  its  vital  energies,  the  soul.  The 
essential  doctrines  of  the .  Upanishads  are  the 
following:  (1)  The  individual  soul  is  identical  with 
the  world  soul.  (2)  The  individual  existence  of 
the  soul  is  for  it  a  state  of  suffering.  Coupled  with 
this  are  the  theories  of  karma  and  transmigration, 
and  a  pessimistic  view  of  life.  (3)  The  individual 
soul  may  be  freed  from  its  misery  by  union  with 
the  world  soul.  This  union  is  realized  when  the 
individual  soul  becomes  conscious  of  its  identity  with 
Brahman.  Salvation  is  not,  as  in  the  Rig-Veda, 
a  personal  life  of  enhanced  material  joys,  but  the 
merging  of  the  individuality  into  the  unified,  pan- 
theistic Brahman  where  individuahty  is  lost. 
The  first  statement  admits  of  two  interpretations: 
(1)  A  complete  identity  of  the  two,  a  monism  in 
which  the  external  world  fades  away  to  nothingness, 
becomes  an  illusion.  (2)  The  Atman  bears  the 
same  relation  to  Brahman  that  the  spark  bears  to 
fire.  The  predominant  note  is  the  second:  a 
vague  pantheism  which  does  not  deny  the  world, 
but  pays  Uttle  attention  to  it;  Brahman,  the 
soul,  and  the  salvation  of  the  soul  are  in  the  fore- 
ground. There  is  no  good  reason  for  beUeving 
that  the  doctrine  of  illusion  was  definitely  formu- 
lated in  the  Upanishads.  But  if  not  formulated  it 
hovered  on  the  edge  of  consciousness  as  the  union 
with  Brahman  became  more  and  more  a  mystical 
process.  For  mok§a  (release)  chief  emphasis  is 
laid  on  knowledge,  not  the  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  ritual  or  of  the  sacred  texts,  or  a  controlled 
intellectual  knowledge  based  on  observation  of 
the  material  world,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  irmer, 
esoteric  meaning  of  the  sacred,  revealed  texts;  and 
this  passed  over  into  an  intuitive,  mystical,  immedi- 
ate knowledge  of  Brahman.  This  trait  is  character- 
istic of  all  later  Hindu  thought.  Some  emphasis 
is  laid  on  reUgious  works,  but  only  as  a  preparation, 
as  a  katharsis.  The  same  is  true  of  asceticism, 
which  was  worked  over  into  the  theory  of  the 
fourth  A^rama.  Asceticism  was  not  all  of  priestly 
origin.  Much  of  it  developed  independently  and 
then  amalgamated  with  priestly  theory.  Whenever 
asceticism  and  mysticism  begin,  conservative 
creed  and  dogma  and  social  barriers  begin  to 
break  down.  From  the  theory  of  transmigration 
and  from  the  animistic  conception  of  the  unity  of 
all  life  developed  the  idea  of  ahihsa  (the  sanctity  of 
all  life)  which  largely  modified  the  old  ritual  by 
symbolic  substitution  of  other  things  for  the  animals 
slaughtered  in  the  sacrifice. 

6.  Popular  Brahmanism. — The  Grihya  and 
Dharma  Sutras,  the  rites  of  which  were  chiefly 
performed  by  the  householder  himself  (with  one 
fire),  give  elaborate  directions  for  ceremonies 
beginning  in  the  third  month  of  pregnancy  and 
reaching  up  to  the  time  of  burial:  birth,  name- 
giving,  tonsure,  initiation,  marriage,  burial,  sacri- 
fices for  the  departed  ancestors,  ceremonies  at  the 
building  of  houses,  about  cattle  and  ploughing,  about 
the  first  fruits,  morning,  evening,  and  midday 
worship,  duties  to  Brahmans  and  guests,  etc. 
Marriage  and  the  begetting  of  a  son  were  matters 
of  extreme  importance.     If  there  were  no  male 


Brahma  Samaj 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


58 


descendants  to  perform  ceremonies  for  the  dead,  the 
souls  of  the  ancestors  were  jeopardized.  Hence  the 
necessity  for  early  marriage.  Further,  for  a  girl  to 
be  unmarried  at  puberty  was  considered  equiva- 
lent to  the  destruction  of  a  Ufe.  The  details  of  the 
ceremonies  were  not  invented  by  the  Brahmans 
and  imposed  upon  the  people  for  their  own  aggran- 
dizement any  more  than  were  the  Qaruta  cere- 
monies. All  were  based  on  widespread  popular 
beliefs  and  customs,  but  were  elaborated  by  priestly 
ingenuity  to  a  degree  of  complexity  found  nowhere 
else  in  the  world.  The  priests,  of  course,  did 
utilize  the  tacit  popular  acknowledgment  of 
priestly  sanctity  to  estabUsh  their  own  social 
primacy.  Popular  Brahmanism,  however,  marks 
already  what  is  so  characteristic  of  Hinduism,  the 
process  of  amalgamation  between  conservative 
priestly  theory  and  popular  beUefs  and  customs. 

W.  E.  Clark 
BRAHMA  SAMAJ. — An  eclectic  theistic  sys- 
tem founded  in  India  in  1830.  The  founder  was 
Ram  Mohan  Roy,  who  was  influenced  by  a  com- 
parative study  of  religions  to  organize  a  society 
which  should  conserve  the  best  in  Hindu  thought, 
be  loyal  to  India  and  adopt  the  monotheism  and 
ethics  of  Christianity.  The  second  great  leader 
was  Debendra  Nath  Tagore  under  whom  the  society 
tended  toward  a  distinctly  Indian  theism  based 
on  Ramanuja's  philosophy.  The  third  leader  was 
Keshub  Chandra  Sen,  who  attempted  to  establish 
a  more  universal  theism  with  still  more  pronounced 
emphasis  on  the  Christian  elements.  Since 
Keshub's  death  in  1884  the  Samaj  has  lacked 
in  leadership  and  vitaUty.  The  system  is  rational- 
istic and  stresses  the  ethical  and  social  sides  of 
religion.  It  has  exercised  an  influence  altogether 
out  of  proportion  to  its  numerical  strength,  because 
of  the  personnel  of  its  membership.  Unfortunately 
it  has  been  hampered  by  divisions  into  sects. 

BRAINERD,  DAVID  (1718-1747).— Missipn- 
ary  of  the  Scottish  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  Christian  Knowledge  of  the  Indians  of  New 
York,  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  He  endured 
much  hardship,  and  died  after  four  years  of  heroic 
service  from  tuberculosis. 

BREAD,  LITURGICAL  USE  OF.— See  Holy 
Meals. 

BREAST,  STRIKING  THE.— (1)  An  act, 
symbolic  of  penitence,  performed  in  certain  parts 
of  the  R.C.  liturgy.  (2)  A  symbol  of  mourning 
among  certain  rehgious  groups,  e.g.,  the  Hindus. 

BREATH. — The  breath  as  an  image  of  life  is 
natural  and  universal.  Gen.  2:7,  is  only  one  of  a 
multitude  of  illustrations  to  be  drawn  from  the  lore 
of  many  peoples  showing  how  inevitably  man 
typifies  living  by  the  breathing  which  is  its  condi- 
tion. Many  words  for  soul,  including  classical 
and  Hebrew  examples  (Hebrew  ruah,  nephesh, 
Latin  anima,  spiritus,  Greek  psyche,  pneuma), 
hark  back  to  "breath"  or  "wind"  as  their  original 
meaning;  while  certain  rites,  such  as  the  well- 
known  Roman  custom  of  the  inhaling  of  the 
last  breath  of  a  dying  person  by  a  kinsman  (Vergil, 
Aeneid  iv.  684,  and  others)  point  to  a  literal 
identification  of  the  soul  with  the  departing  life- 
breath.  In  ritual  the  breath  is  often  symbolized  and 
regarded  as  sacred.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
American  Indians,  among  whom  the  breath  which 
mingles  with  the  smoke  from  the  sacred  pipe  is 
viewed  as  a  commingling  of  the  life-breath  of  the 
smoker  with  the  life-breath  of  nature,  while  fre- 
quently breathing  upon  the  sick  is  thought  to  be 
efficacious  in   restoring  health.    It   is,   however, 


among  the  peoples  of  the  East,  especially  the 
Hindus,  that  the  ritualistic  significance  of  breathing 
has  received  most  conscious  attention,  a  part  of 
the  discipline  in  hohness  of  the  Hindu  seeker  con- 
sisting in  regulated  breathing,  thought  to  be 
symbolic  of  the  processes  which  sustain  the  life  of 
the  world,  which  is  itself  viewed  as  the  periodical 
inbreathing  and  outbreathing  of  the  spirit  of 
Brahm.  There  are  some  traces  in  ancient  Greek 
philosophy  of  a  similar  conception  of  a  world- 
atmosphere  and  a  breathing  universe;  and  at  least 
figuratively  a  like  idea  is  suggested  in  Ps.  33:6, 
where  the  breath  of  the  Lord  is  spoken  of  as  crea- 
tive, and  Job  4 : 9,  where  it  is  spoken  of  as  destruc- 
tive. Undoubtedly  the  idea  of  the  sanctity  of 
breathing  is  associated  also  with  the  idea  of  speech, 
the  instrument  of  prayer  and  supplication  and  of 
sacred  songs;  while  some  notion  of  supernatural 
breath  is  associated  with  the  prophetic  inbreathing 
of  vapors  (as  of  the  Pythia  at  Delphi)  and  with  the 
notion  of  prophesying  to  the  winds  (Ezek.  36:9), 
or  of  winds  as  being  the  vehicles  of  gods  and  spirits. 
See  Inspiration;  Soul;  Spirit;  Wind;  Word. 

H.  B.  Alexander 
BRETHREN.— See  Dunkards  (Progressive). 

BRETHREN,  BOHEMIAN.— See  Bohemian 
Brethren. 

BRETHREN    OF    THE    COMMON    LIFE.— 

See  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life. 

BRETHREN    OF   THE   FREE   SPIRIT.— See 

Adamites. 

BRETHREN,  MORAVIAN.— See  Moravian 
Brethren. 

BRETHREN,  PLYMOUTH.— See  Plymouth 
Brethren. 

BRETHREN,  RIVER.— See  River  Brethren. 

BRETHREN,  UNITED.— See  United  Breth- 
ren. 

BREVIARY.— In  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches,  a  liturgical  book  which  contains  the  daily 
services  and  prayers  for  the  canonical  hours.  Its 
daily  use  is  binding  on  all  members  of  the  higher 
orders  of  clergy  and  of  certain  religious  communities. 

BRIBERY. — In  criminal  law,  the  act  of  pledg- 
ing, presenting,  receiving  or  extorting  an  advantage 
or  gift  by  a  person  in  the  discharge  of  pubhc  duty 
to  induce  a  certain  type  of  behavior.  Because 
of  its  anti-social  character  it  is  morally  condemned. 

BRIDE. — See    Marriage. 

BRIDEGROOM.— See  Marriage. 

BRIDGE. — The  building  of  a  passage  across  a 
river  was  a  dangerous  work  for  early  peoples  and 
was  thought  to  require  the  sacrifice  of  human  life  to 
the  river  powers  to  give  security  to  the  structure. 
A  river,  as  a  boundary  to  be  crossed  by  a  bridge, 
gave  to  many  religions  the  idea  of  a  bridge-passage 
into  the  other  world.  This  is  especially  noteworthy 
in  the  eschatology  of  Persia  and  Islam.  Bridges 
were  built  under  the  direction  of  religious  officials 
in  early  times  as  is  evident  in  the  Roman  and 
Christian  title  of  Pontifex  applied  to  the  chief 
priest. 

BRIDGET,  SAINT.— (1)  (452-523),  one  of  the 
patron  saints  of  Ireland,   (2)   (1302-1373),  a  cele- 


59 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Bruno,  Giordano 


brated  saint  of  Sweden,  founder  of  the  Brigittines 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES.— A  series  of 
eight  treatises  "On  the  power,  wisdom,  and  good- 
ness of  God,  as  manifested  in  Creation"  pubhshed 
in  1833-1836  in  12  vols.,  so  named  from  the  8th  earl 
of  Bridgewater  (died  1829),  by  whose  will  a  pro- 
vision of  8,000  was  made  for  the  writing  and  pub- 
lishing of  the  same. 

BRIEF. — (1)  Legal,  a  condensed  written  state- 
ment of  the  argument  and  the  authorities  to  which 
appeal  is  made  in  a  case  brought  to  trial.  (2)  Ec- 
clesiastical, a  rescript  of  the  Pope,  less  formal  than 
a  bull.     See  Bulls  and  Briefs. 

BRIGGS,  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS  (1841-1914). 
— American  theologian,  professor  in  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York,  occupying  the  chairs 
of  Hebrew,  1874-1891,  Bibhcal  theology,  1891- 
1904,  and  theological  encyclopaedia  and  symboUcs, 
1904-1914.  Briggs  was  a  Presbyterian,  and  was 
cited  before  the  General  Assembly  for  heresy 
because  of  views  concerning  the  Bible  growing  out 
of  his  advocacy  of  Higher  Criticism.  Charged 
with  heresy  in  1892,  he  was  in  1893  suspended 
from  the  Presbyterian  ministry.  In  1899  he  entered 
the  priesthood  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  theological  works. 

BRIGIT. — ^A  culture  goddess  of  the  Irish 
Celts  who  in  various  places  appears  as  the  patron 
deity  of  learning,  fertility,  medicine,  metal-work 
and  of  the  domestic  fire.  Under  Christianity  she 
became  Saint  Brigit. 

BRIGITTINES.— A  R.C.  monastic  order, 
founded  about  1350  by  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden,  and 
which  spread  over  Europe.  There  are  nine  existing 
communities,  in  England  (1),  Bavaria  (1),  Holland 
(2),  and  Spain  (5),  all  composed  of  women. 

BRITISH  MORALISTS.— The  name  given 
to  a  number  of  philosophers  in  England  during  the 
18th.  century,  who  sought  to  find  an  independent 
foundation  for  morahty. 

The  British  morahsts  lived  in  a  period  when 
the  theological  foundation  of  ethics  was  being 
discredited.  See  Deism;  Rationalism.  They 
sought  to  estabUsh  morahty  in  unquestionable 
fashion  by  proving  that  it  is  independent  of  all 
external  authority,  growing  out  of  self-evident 
considerations.  Morahty  was  sometimes  grounded 
in  the  ultimate  nature  of  things,  and  sometimes  in 
the  immediate  intuition  of  men.  Hutcheson 
elaborated  the  doctrine  of  a  distinct  moral  sense. 
Others  laid  stress  on  an  innate  feeUng  of  sympathy, 
or  an  original  impulse  to  benevolence.  Others, 
again,  emphasize  the  evident  utility  or  happiness- 
producing  effect  of  morahty.  The  chief  names 
are  Shaftsbury,  Hutcheson,  Cudworth,  Mandeville, 
Butler,  Adam  Smith,  and  Bentham.  Their  dis- 
cussions were  of  great  value  in  stimulating  a  scientific 
study  of  ethics.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

BROAD  CHURCH. — A  party  within  the  Angli- 
can church  that,  influenced  by  the  historical  spirit 
of  Germany,  defends  the  Established  Church  on 
Erastian  grounds,  seeks  to  make  it  flexible,  suited 
to  the  age,  and  sufficiently  broad  to  embrace  dis- 
senters. It  insists  on  absolute  freedom  of  thought 
and  speech,  and  opposes  compulsory  subscription 
to  creeds.  It  has  had  the  distinguished  leadership 
of  Arnold,  Whateley,  Maurice,  Stanley,  Kingsley, 
Farrar,  Henson,  and  others. 


BROOKE,  STOPFORD  AUGUSTUS  (1832- 
1916). — Enghsh  minister  and  man  of  letters,  a 
clergyman  of  the  Anghcan  church,  1857-1880, 
when  he  became  a  Unitarian.  He  was  noted  as  a 
Uterary  critic. 

BROTHERHOOD.— A  relationship  of  close 
mutual  regard  and  service  arising  from  either 
natural  kinship  or  membership  in  a  common  society 
or  order. 

Unselfish  social  relations  are  normally  developed 
in  family  hfe  and  these  are  widely  used  as  analogies 
by  which  to  describe  and  organize  various  social 
groups.  A  brotherhood  is  a  group  in  which  all  the 
members  have  equal  standing  and  share  equally 
in  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  group.  Brother- 
hoods may  be  organized  for  various  religious  and 
moral  ends,  ranging  from  mutual  benefit  associations 
to  organizations  for  serving  social  need.  Monasti- 
cism  (q.v.)  is  one  of  the  most  wide  spread  forms  of 
religious  brotherhood.  In  Christian  history  there 
have  been  many  groups  which  have  repudiated 
sacerdotahsm  and  have  estabUshed  religious  com- 
munities with  equal  authority  for  all  members. 
Such  communities  have  frequently  preferred  the 
name  Brothers  or  Brethren  (q.v.)  to  the  name 
Church.  In  modern  life  there  are  numerous 
fraternities  with  more  or  less  elaborate  initiation 
ceremonies  where  men  pledge  themselves  to  promote 
certain  mutual  interests.  The  mediaeval  guilds 
were  often  regarded  as  brotherhoods,  and  some 
modern  trades  unions  take  the  title,  as,  e.g.,  the 
Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers. 

A  wide  variety  of  ritualistic  ceremonies  is 
found  in  connection  with  initiation  into  a  brother- 
hood. Drinking  or  sucking  one  another's  blood, 
consecration  by  some  common  blood  ritual,  par- 
taking of  a  common  ceremonial  meal,  and  a  mystic 
introduction  to  the  secrets  and  duties  of  the  brother- 
hood by  disciplinary  exercises  are  common  means. 

Sisterhoods  represent  similar  relationships  among 
women,  e.g.,  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  COMMON  LIFE.— A 
community  of  devout  men  founded  by  Gerard 
Groot  (1340-1384)  and  his  disciple  Florentius 
Radewyn.  It  was  an  attempt  to  revive  piety. 
The  members  of  the  community  continued  in  their 
vocations,  and  practised  communism.  Thomas  a 
Kempis  was  a  member  of  the  community.  By  the 
middle  of  the  17th.  century  it  had  ceased  to  exist. 

BROWNE,  ROBERT  (1550-1633).— A  leader 
among  Enghsh  Separatists,  active  first  as  a  school 
teacher,  and  later  as  a  clergyman  of  the  established 
church.  He  protested  against  episcopal  authority, 
and  formulated  that  theory  of  church  government 
(Brownism)  which  subsequently  developed  into 
Independency  (q.v.)  and  CongregationaUsm  (q.v.). 

BROWNIE.— In  Scottish  mythology,  a  spirit 
of  benevolent  temperament  imagined  to  enter  the 
farm  houses  and  do  the  work  while  the  inhabitants 
are  asleep. 

BROWNISM.— See  Congregationalism. 

BRUNO,  GIORDANO.— ItaHan  philosopher, 
ca.  1548-1600.  He  entered  the  Dominican  order 
at  15,  but  on  account  of  his  views  was  persecuted 
and  fled  from  Rome  in  1576,  going  to  Geneva,  Paris, 
London,  Wittenberg,  Prague,  and  in  1591  returning 
to  Venice  where  the  agents  of  the  Inquisition  impris- 
oned him.  After  a  long  confinement,  he  was  burned 
at  the  stake  in  1600.  He  rejected  Aristotelianism, 
and  accepted  the  heliocentric  hypothesis  of  Coperni- 
cus.    He  said  the  unity  in  the  varying  phenomena 


Bryanites 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


60 


of  the  universe  is  God,  who  is  not  creator  nor 
prime  mover  but  soul  of  the  world.  This  philosophy 
threatened  to  undermine  Catholic  doctrine,  and 
therefore  incurred  the  church's  displeasure. 

BRYANITES.  — See  Bible  Christians; 
Methodism. 

BUCER  (or  BUTZER),  MARTIN  (1491-1551).— 
German  reformer  and  theologian,  a  contemporary 
and  supporter  of  Luther.  In  1548  he  decUned 
to  sign  the  ti-uce  between  the  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants at  Augsburg,  whereupon  he  had  to  flee  to 
England.  He  was  given  a  chair  in  divinity  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  died  ten  years  later. 

BUDDHA.— See  Gautama. 

BUDDHAGHOSA.— A  Buddhist  writer  of  the 
fifth  century  a.d.  whose  best  known  work  is  the 
Visuddhi  Magga  ("Path  of  Purity")  in  which  he 
gives  a  concise  statement  of  the  significance  of  the 
Buddhism  of  his  period. 

BUDDHISM.— The  rehgion  of  a  sect  founded 
by  Siddhattha  Gotama  (later  called  Buddha  "The 
EnUghtened.") 

Beginning  as  the  reUgion  of  a  small  group  of 
monks  in  Magadha  it  gradually  spread  over  all  of 
India;  thence  to  Ceylon,  Burma,  Siam,  Cambodia, 
Tibet,  China,  Mongolia,  Corea,  and  Japan.  In 
India  it  failed  to  maintain  itself,  and  merged  into 
Hinduism. 

1.  The  Founder. — ^Buddha  was  born  about 
560  B.C.  at  Kapilavastu,  northeast  of  Benares,  in 
the  foothills  of  the  Himalayas.  According  to 
tradition  he  was  the  son  of  the  chief  of  the  Qakya 
clan;  was  reared  in  luxury,  but  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
nine  abandoned  home-life  (leaving  his  wife  and 
child)  and  became  a  Wanderer.  India  at  the  time 
was  full  of  earnest,  deeply  religious  souls  seeking 
salvation;  each  wandered  and  preached  and 
gathered  disciples.  Buddha  was  but  one  of  many. 
Of  the  other  contemporary  sects  only  Jainism  has 
endured.  For  six  years  he  sought  help  from 
Brahman  teachers  and  others  with  whom  he  came  in 
contact,  practiced  the  severest  asceticism,  but 
found  no  comfort.  Then  under  the  Bo-tree,  "the 
tree  of  enUghtenment,"  the  truth  flashed  into  his 
mind.  For  forty-five  years  he  wandered  about  the 
country  on  his  ministry,  preaching  salvation. 

^  II.  Essential  Doctrines  op  Primitive  Budd- 
hism.— 1.  The  Four  Noble  Truths. — The  essentials 
of  Buddha's  teachings  are  best  represented  by  the 
first  sermon  at  Benares.  First  comes  a  statement 
of  the  Middle  Path  which  avoids  the  two  extremes 
of  habitual  devotion  to  the  pleasures  of  sensual 
things  and  to  self-mortification,  both  of  which  are 
"low  and  vulgar,  ignoble,  unprofitable,  and  fit  only 
for  the  worldly  minded . ' '  Then  follows  the  enuncia- 
tion of  the  Four  Noble  Truths:  (1)  All  individual 
existence  is  misery.  (2)  The  cause  of  this  misery 
is  tanha  "thirst,"  the  attachment  to  objects'  of 
sense.  (3)  The  possibiUty  of  release,  of  becoming 
unattached  and  passionless.  (4)  The  Noble  Eight- 
fold Path  consisting  of  Right  Views,  Right  Aspira- 
tions, Right  Speech,  Right  Conduct,  Right  Mode  of 
Livelihood,  Right  Effort,  Right  Mindfulness,  and 
Right  Contemplation. 

2.  God,  the  soul,  and  the  world. — In  this  sermon 
there  is  no  mention  of  God  or  of  Soul.  Early  Budd- 
hism did  not  know  a  personal  God,  a  Creator  and 
Ruler.  Buddha  did  not  deny  the  gods;  but  the 
gods  are  merely  higher  and  more  powerful  than 
men;  a  man,  by  good  deeds,  may  Be  reborn  as  a 
god,  but  at  last  even  the  gods  pass  away  and  must 
be  reborn.    Buddha  emphasized  the  inevitability 


of  cause  and  effect.  Within  the  cognizable  world 
the  law  of  cause  and  effect  is  supreme,  everything  is 
subject  to  change,  nothing  is  permanent.  Buddha's 
analysis  of  the  individual  showed  him  only  five 
skandhas,  "aggregates"  (matter,  feelings,  sense- 
perceptions,  pre-cQspositions,  and  consciousness) 
all  of  which  are  subject  to  change,  are  impermanent; 
in  them  is  nothing  changeless  and  eternal.  From 
this  came  the  doctrine  of  anatta  "no-soul."  Does 
this  denote  an  absolute  and  categorical  denial  of 
any  soul  (any  being  in  itself)  or  does  Buddha 
merely  argue  against  the  current  animistic  ideas  of 
soul?  The  denial  seems  to  denote  only  the  denial 
of  a  permanent  soul  anywhere  in  the  five  aggregates; 
in  them  is  to  be  found  only  that  which  is  conditioned, 
produced,  and  therefore  perishable.  If  there  is 
anything  permanent  it  must  be  outside  of  them, 
not  subject  to  change  and  to  the  operation  of  cause 
and  effect.  Buddha  repudiates  both  the  material- 
istic attitude  involving  an  eternity  for  an  individual 
soul,  and  the  nihilistic  attitude  which  sees  only 
complete  annihilation;  both  conceptions  are  heresy. 
"There  is,  O  monks,  a  non-born,  a  non-becoming,  a 
non-created,  a  non-caused.  If  there  were  not,  there 
would  be  no  refuge  for  that  which  is  born,  becomes, 
is  created,  is  caused."  This  permanent  something 
cannot  be  reached  by  speculation,  which  can  deal 
only  with  the  five  aggregates  of  the  world  of  cause 
and  effect;  it  is  to  be  attained  only  by  the  saint  in 
his  state  of  mystic  insight. 

3.  The  indeterminates. — Constantly  recurring  in 
the  sermons  are  references  to  the  indeterminates 
(whether  the  world  is  eternal  or  not,  whether  the 
world  is  infinite  or  not,  whether  the  soul  is  the  same 
as  the  body  or  different  from  it,  whether  a  man 
exists  in  any  way,  or  not,  after  death) .  Such 
questions  Buddha  resolutely  refused  to  answer  as 
not  tending  to  edification,  as  not  having  to  do  with 
the  fundamentals  of  the  religious  hfe.  "Just  as 
the  great  ocean  has  one  taste  only,  the  taste  of  salt, 
just  so  this  doctrine  and  this  (uscipUne  have  one 
taste  only,  the  taste  of  dehverance."  To  Buddha 
the  most  obvious  thing  about  Mfe  was  the  imperma- 
nence  of  objects,  their  constant  flux  and  flow.  By 
cUnging  to  them,  as  a  result  of  the  forces  set  in 
motion  by  good  and  bad  acts,  results  rebirth  in  a 
never  enaing  circle.  There  must  be,  he  felt,  some 
escape,  something  more  permanent.  Early  Budd- 
hism was  not  an  austere  philosophy  but  a  religion 
filled  with  emotional  mysticism,  the  personal 
expression  of  which  is  psychologically  the  same  in 
all  reUgions,  no  matter  what  the  creed  and  theology. 

4.  Nirvana. — The  permanent  something,  the 
summum  bonum,  the  rehgious  ideal  is  called 
Nirvana.  It  is  a  mystical  experience  which  can- 
not be  defined  or  described.  The  word  means 
hterally  the  going  out  of  the  fire  of  anger,  of  wrath, 
of  greed,  of  desire.  It  is  a  state  of  passionlessness 
which  may  be  attained  even  in  the  present  hfe. 
What  became  of  the  saint  after  death  was  one  of 
the  indeterminates  about  which  Buddha  refused 
to  speculate.  Buddha,  like  Socrates,  suited  his  dis- 
course to  those  with  whom  he  talked,  was  an  adept 
at  dialectic.  He  looked  upon  his  doctrine  as  a  medi- 
cine, upon  himself  as  a  physician  who  could  cure  the 
disease  of  individual  existence.  If  a  man  was  an  ad- 
herent of  one  point  of  view  about  the  world  and  the 
soul  Buddha  contented  himself  with  pointing  out 
the  objections,  with  showing  the  plausibihty  of  the 
opposite  point  of  view,  the  futihty  of  any  such  dis- 
cussion. Then  he  came  to  his  own  point  of  view, 
which  discarded  all  such  speculations,  which  through 
certain  ethical  principles  brought  to  a  man  passion- 
lessness and  contentment  of  mind  whatever  he 
might  believe  about  God,  the  world,  and  the  soul. 
The  teaching  is  a  pragmatic  ethics,  intensely  prac- 
tical and  human,  not  theological  and  metaphysical 


61 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Bulls  and  Briefs 


like  Brahmanism.  Hence  its  general  appeal  and 
success  outside  of  India.  Brahmanism  and  Hindu- 
ism were  too  closely  bound  up  with  the  Indian 
social  structure  to  have  much  success  outside  of 
India. 

5.  Ethics  and  mental  discipline. — Buddha  found 
certain  ethical  principles  which  to  his  mind,  and, 
as  history  has  shown,  to  millions  of  other  minds, 
would  work,  would  lead  to  the  cessation  of  hatred 
and  desire,  craving  and  discontent.  For  the  prac- 
tice of  these  principles  mental  control  was  neces- 
sary. Buddha,  however,  distrusted  deeply  the 
mobility  of  the  mind,  and  doubted  the  possibility 
of  entirely  detaching  oneself  so  long  as  one  remained 
in  contact  with  worldly  things.  He  insisted  on  life 
as  a  monk  as  an  essential  to  salvation.  The 
thoughts  are  wayward  and  hard  to  control.  On 
the  least  slackening  of  attention  they  jump  from 
one  object  to  another  as  monkeys  leap  from  branch 
to  branch. 

6.  The  monkhood. — Buddhist  monkhood  was 
not  based  on  asceticism,  which  Buddha  discarded. 
It  gave  congenial  seclusion  for  meditation  and 
mystic  contemplation.  There  were  many  in  India 
who  abandoned  homelife,  became  Wanderers,  and 
formed  groups  of  ascetics,  but  the  Buddhists  order 
was  closely  organized,  with  elaborate  rules  and  a 
bi-monthly  confessional,  and  therefore  maintained 
itself  and  grew  at  the  expense  of  the  looser  ascetic 
groups. 

III.  Mahayana  and  Philosophical  Specula- 
tions.— Later  Buddhist  thought,  in  characteristic 
Indian  fashion,  demanded  a  rational  basis  of 
belief.  Within  two  or  three  centuries  after  Budd- 
ha's death  came  a  split  in  the  order  which  gave  rise 
to  the  two  great  schools  of  Hinayana  and  Maha- 
yana, the  Little  and  the  Great  Vehicles.  On  the  one 
hand  a  body  of  conservatives  clung  to  the  thought 
that  Buddha  was  a  man  who  had  lived  and  struggled 
and  preached  and  entered  permanently  into  Nir- 
vana; that  he  lived  on  only  in  his  teachings.  The 
Radicals  extended  his  life  into  the  past  and  future, 
worked  out  a  theory  of  pre-existences  and  mytho- 
logical existences,  and  found  at  last  in  the  con- 
tinuity going  through  these  lives  a  unity  identical 
with  the  law  or  order  of  the  whole  cosmos.  The 
Transcendentalists  carrying  this  thought  farther, 
analyzing  every  concept  by  a  dialectic  process, 
showing  the  contradiction  involved  in  any  finite 
concept  (any  concept  involving  a  limitation  which 
has  an  antithesis),  developing  ideas  of  absolute 
Being  as  distinguished  from  relative  Being,  could 
find  no  place  for  this  universal  Buddhahood  in  the 
visible  cosmos  and  placed  it  in  the  reahn  of  absolute 
Being,  in  ^unyata.  This  means  literally  emptiness, 
but  does  not,  as  has  often  been  stated,  mean 
vacuity  and  complete  annihilation.  Qunyata  is 
neither  Being  nor  Non-being,  as  understood  from 
the  point  of  view  of  common-sense  realism,  but 
transcends  both.  From  the  point  of  view  of  this 
synthesis  the  phenomenal  world  has  no  meaning. 
In  Hinayana  Buddhism,  found  now  in  Ceylon, 
Burma,  and  Siam,  which  keeps  close  to  the  old 
naive  realism  of  primitive  Buddhism,  the  ideal  was 
the  Arhat  "saint"  who  attained  Nirvana  himself 
and  entered  into  it  permanently  to  come  no  more 
into  the  world.  To  the  Mahayana  this  is  a  selfish 
ideal.  The  Bodhisattva  became  their  ideal.  He 
attains  sainthood,  but  instead  of  entering  into 
Nirvana  continues  to  transmigrate  in  order  to 
imitate  the  life  of  the  Buddha,  to  become  a  Buddha 
in  some  future  life,  to  help  save  all  men.  The  con- 
cept of  karma  was  enlarged.  Good  karma,  instead 
of  helping  only  the  one  by  whom  it  was  acquired, 
could  be  transferred  to  others  and  help  them.  The 
way  was  opened  for  the  conception  of  Buddha  as  a 
God  manifesting  himself  to  men  by  incarnations,  to 


saints  in  mythological  heavenly  existences,  for  the 
conception  of  Nirvana  as  a  heaven,  for  the  invention 
of  hells. 

IV.  Tantric  Buddhism. — By  the  7th.  century 
A.p.  Buddhism  had  approximated  to  Tantric 
Hinduism.  Magic  played  a  large  part.  Animistic 
soul  concepts  crept  in.  Asceticism  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  miraculous  powers  (coupled  with  mystical, 
magical  formulae  and  diagrams)  were  important  for 
the  attainment  of  Nirvana.  Female  deities,  as 
counterparts  of  the  male  deity,  and  sexual  elements 
became  prominent. 

V.  Decline  of  Buddhism  in  India. — Buddhism 
has  been  extinct  in  India  since  about  1200  a.d. 
For  the  cause  we  are  to  look  not  so  much  to  external 
persecution  as  to  internal  conditions.  Buddhism 
needed  earnest,  zealous  monks  who  would  preach 
morahty  to  the  laymen,  and  by  personal  example 
keep  the  precepts  before  their  minds.  The  monks 
became  lax  in  their  morality  or  plunged  into  meta- 
physical speculation  and  scholastic  wrangling, 
thereby  losing  their  hold  on  the  people. 

VI.  The  Texts. — In  the  3rd.  century  b.c.  Budd- 
hism was  adopted  as  the  state  religion  by  AQoka, 
the  Constantine  of  Buddhism,  and  a  canon  formed 
at  a  council  held  under  his  auspices  was  taken  to 
Ceylon  in  a  language  not  far  removed  from  the 
original  Magadhi.  This  canon  (with  perhaps 
later  additions)  has  been  preserved  intact.  In 
India  the  language  of  the  texts  changed  as  the 
spoken  language  changed,  and  when  Sanskrit  was 
freely  used  as  the  common  literary  language,  the 
texts  were  put  into  Sanskrit.  In  the  1st.  century 
A.D. ,  at  a  council  held  by  the  great  Scythian  emperor 
Kanishka,  a  canon  was  formed  in  Sanskrit.  As 
Buddhism  vanished  from  India  this  canon  and 
the  later  texts  based  on  it  were  lost.  Some  have 
been  preserved  in  Nepal;  most  are  still  preserved  in 
Tibetan  and  Chinese  translations. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Pali  canon  as  a  whole 
represents  the  unified  tradition  of  Buddhism  before 
the  split  into  sects.  Already  in  it  scholastic  and 
mythological  tendencies  are  evident.  See  India, 
Religions  of,  for  statistics.  See  also  China,  Re- 
ligions of;  Japan,  Religions  of;  Thibet,  Re- 
ligions of:  Korea,  Religions  of. 

W.  E.  Clark 

BUGENHAGEN,  JOHANN  (1485-1558).— 
German  Protestant  reformer,  a  close  friend  of 
Luther  and  Melanchthon.  Wittenberg  was  the 
scene  of  his  activity.  He  is  remembered  for  his 
skill  as  an  organizer,  and  for  his  assistance  to  Luther 
in  translating  the  Bible. 

BULLINGER,  HEINRICH  (1504-1575).— Swiss 
Reformer,  a  friend  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin,  and 
after  the  death  of  Zwingli  his  successor  at  Zurich. 
He  was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  First  and  Second 
Helvetic  Confessions  (q.v.)  which  reflect  his  views  on 
the  Lord's  Supper  and  predestination. 

BULL-ROARER.— A  flat  piece  of  wood  which, 
when  swung  rapidly  on  a  string,  makes  a  roaring 
sound  like  thunder.  It  is  found  in  use  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  in  the  initiation  ceremonies  of 
primitive  peoples.  Its  nature  is  kept  secret  from 
the  uninitiated  to  whom  it  represents  the  dread 
of  the  unknown  spirit  forces.  Evidence  of  its 
use  comes  from  Africa,  Australia,  America  and 
Melanesia. 

BULLS  AND  BRIEFS.— In  the  broadest  sense 
a  bull  is  any  pontifical  act  authorized  under  the 
seal  of  the  pope,  pertaining  to  the  authority  or 
economy  of  the  Roman  Church,  whether  dealing 
with  points  of  fact,  or  questions  of  law,  administra- 
tion, doctrine,  discipline,  etc.    The  term  is  derived 


Bulls  and  Briefs 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


62 


from  the  metal  seal  or  bulla  (in  the  papal  chancellery 
almost  always  of  lead),  affixed  to  the  document  in 
certification  thereof.  Besides  this  insignia  a  bull 
also  invariably  has  the  titular  formula  of  the  pope, 
semis  servorum  Dei,  and  the  papal  Benevalete 
written  in  the  form  of  a  monogram. 

Before  the  6th.  century  no  systematic  terminol- 
ogy was  used  to  classify  the  various  kinds  of  docu- 
ments which  were  issued  by  the  papal  chancellery. 
We  find  many  terms,  such  as  Lillerae,  Epistola, 
Pagina,  Scriptura,  Decretum,  Privilegium,  Precepum, 
Auctoritas.  The  three  most  particular  kinds  of  mis- 
sives under  the  early  popes  were  Synodical  Letters, 
Exeats  or  letters  of  credential,  and  Decreta,  i.e., 
authoritative  pronouncements  of  the  papacy  upon 
matters  of  administration  and  discipline.  These 
last  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  sources 
of  canon  law.    See  Law,  Canon. 

From  the  time  of  Hadrian  I  (772-95)  every 
papal  document,  no  matter  what  its  character, 
was  called  a  bull.  The  Benedictine  mediaevalists  of 
the  17th.  century  divided  all  papal  bulls  into  two 
categories — "great"  and  "little"  bulls.  The  classi- 
fication was  not  a  scientific  one,  for  it  rested  not 
upon  the  substance  of  the  document,  but  wholly 
upon  its  form.  The  former  class  comprised  those 
documents  emanating  from  the  papal  chancellery 
which  complied  with  every  detail  of  chancellery 
composition  touching  title,  salutation,  invocation, 
valedictory,  signature,  dating,  etc.,  and  the  style 
or  composition  of  which  was  distinguished  by  an 
assonance  or  rhythmic  cadence  (cursus)  which  was 
very  effective  when  read  aloud,  as  all  bulls  of  impor- 
tance were  promulgated,  through  the  mouth  of  a 
papal  legate  (q.v.).  This  practice  was  an  inherit- 
ance from  the  ancient  Roman  schools  of  rhetoric. 

The  "little"  bulls  lacked  many  of  these  diplo- 
matic insignia,  often  being  emitted  without  all  of 
them  except  the  papal  title  and  papal  signature, 
i.e.,  monogram.  Bulls  are  technically  entitled 
according  to  their  opening  words  (as  secular  laws 
were  also  in  the  Middle  Ages),  as  Ausculta  Fili, 
Unam  Sanctam,  etc. 

The  history  of  papal  bulls  forms  an  important 
chapter  in  mediaeval  palaeography  and  diplomatic. 
Certain  of  the  popes,  notably  Gregory  I  (590-604), 
Hadrian  I  (772-95),  Nicholas  I  (858-67),  Leo  IX 
(1049-54),  Eugenius  III  (1145-53),  Eugenius  IV 
(1431-47),  made  permanent  changes  or  introduced 
new  practices,  so  that  the  dates  of  their  pontificates 
have  served  to  periodize  the  history  of  the  papal 
chancellery.  The  most  important  of  these  features 
are  as  follows:  Name.  The  early  popes  sometimes 
named  themselves  before,  sometimes  after  the  name 
of  the  person  addressed.  No  fixed  practice  obtained 
till  the  time  of  Nicholas  I,  with  whom  the  usage  of 
putting  the  pope's  name  first  was  estabUshed. 
Title.  The  earUest  popes  used  no  title  except 
episcopus,  with  or  without  the  qualifying  phrase 
catholicae  ecclesiae  or  ecclesiae  Romanae.  The 
word  papa  (pope)  is  only  occasional  before  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  also  introduced  the  title  servus  ser- 
vorum Dei,  and  the  invariable  titular  formula  of  the 
pope  since  the  middle  of  the  9th.  century.  Use 
of  the  Salutation  is  rare  before  the  7th.  century. 
The  early  popes  sometimes  spoke  of  themselves 
in  the  singular,  sometimes  in  the  plural;  but  the 
latter  usage  was  rare  except  in  addressing  patriarchal 
bishops,  metropohtans  and  great  lay  princes  like 
the  Germanic  kings.  The  tendency  of  succeeding 
centuries  was  for  use  of  the  first  person  singular, 
and  from  the  time  of  Eugenius  III  no  other  usage  is 
found.  On  the  other  hand,  in  addressing  the  pope, 
the  use  of  the  plural  pronoun,  "Your  Holiness' 
is  the  proper  form.  Depending  upon  the  nature 
of  the  bull  there  may  be  a  Perpetual  Clause 
(ad   perpetvum  rei  m^moriam,  or  similar   words), 


and  an  Invocation,  usually  ending  with  the  word 
"Amen."  A  Valedictory  concluding  the  bull  was 
of  early  and  permanent  usage,  generally  in  the 
singular  even  when,  as  under  the  early  popes, 
the  plural  pronoun  was  used  in  the  first  part  of  the 
bull.  The  form  of  valedictory  at  first  varied,  but 
since  the  pontificate  of  Hadrian  I  the  word  "Bene- 
valete" has  been  fixed.  Originally  the  word  was 
written  put,  but  was  gradually  abridged  until  it 
evolved  into  the  papal  Monogram  in  the  time  of 
Leo  IX.  The  popes  do  not  sign  the  bulls.  The 
papal  monogram  is  the  signature.  Dating.  Under 
the  later  Roman  Empire  the  popes  used  the  con- 
sular fasti  to  designate  the  year,  with  the 
Kalends,  Nones  and  Ides  of  the  Roman  calendar  to 
denote  the  month  and  day.  When  the  consular 
elections  ceased  in  the  middle  of  the  6th.  century 
the  popes  dated  according  to  the  year  of  the  reigning 
emperor  at  Constantinople  until  the  breach  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  over  the  Iconoclastic 
Controversy  (q.v.),  after  which  they  dated  accord- 
ing to  the  name  and  year  of  the  Frank  kings. 
Hadrian  I  was  the  first  pope  to  date  according  to  his 
own  pontificate.  Some  of  the  popes  clung,  until 
well  down  in  the  Middle  Ages,  to  the  chronological 
practice  inaugurated  by  Constantine  of  dating  by 
the  year  of  the  indiction  (q.v.).  Gregory  VII  was 
partial  to  this  usage.  By  the  time  of  Clement  III 
(1187)  dating  by  the  years  of  the  pontificate  became 
fixed.  In  the  15th.  century  Nicholas  V  introduced 
the  year  of  the  incarnation  as  an  additional  date. 
Hadrian  I  (772-95)  initiated  the  system  of  double- 
dating,  one  to  indicate  the  date  of  composition 
(scriptum)  of  the  bull,  the  other  to  indicate  the 
date  of  publication.  During  the  period  of  conflict 
with  the  German  emperors  the  popes  were  often 
refugees  from  Rome  and  frequently  counter-popes 
were  opposed  to  them.  As  a  precautionary  meas- 
ure, in  order  to  prevent  the  bulls  of  counter-popes 
being  confused  with  those  of  the  lawful  pope, 
Calixtus  II  (1119-24)  suppressed  the  date  of 
scriptum  and  substituted  designation  of  place  to- 
gether with  date  of  publication. 

In  the  case  of  "great"  bulls  what  is  known  as 
the  Rota  is  also  added,  i.e.,  to  concentric  circles 
with  a  cross  drawn  through  their  center,  the  inner 
circle  enclosing  the  papal  monogram,  and  a  motto 
from  Scripture  in  the  zone  between  the  inner  and 
the  outer  circle.  Beyond  the  papal  seal  and  papal 
monogram,  no  other  witness  is  absolutely  indis- 
pensable to  the  authentication  of  a  buU.  But  in  the 
case  of  "great"  bulls  the  seals  of  the  papal  chancellor 
and  cardinals,  at  least  those  in  Rome,  were  usually 
attached.  The  last  "great"  bull  bearing  the  pleni- 
tude of  the  diplomatic  insignia  of  the  papal  chancel- 
lery, was  that  pertaining  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1564. 

From  the  time  of  Eugenius  IV  the  tendency  has 
been  to  restrict  the  use  of  the  term  "bull"  to 
important  papal  pronouncements  upon  doctrine 
and  discipline,  and  to  appointments  of  cardinals  and 
bishops.  All  other  official  acts  of  the  pope  are 
known  as  Briefs,  which  practically  answer  to 
the  Benedictine  designation  of  "httle"  bulls. 
As  these  are  said  to  proceed  ex  motu  proprio  such  a 
document  is  not  infrequently  called  a  Motus  Propri. 
Finally  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  all  docu- 
ments emanating  from  the  papal  chancellery  are 
written  in  Latin.       James  Westfall  Thompson 

BUNYAN,  JOHN  (1628-1688).— English  reli- 
gious author,  born  near  Bedford,  and  reared  in  an 
atmosphere  of  Puritanism.  He  served  in  the 
Parliamentary  army  in  the  civil  war,  1645,  his 
miUtary  experience  yielding  him  many  figures  for 
his  hterary  work.  His  rehgious  experience  began 
with  a  period  of  storm  and  stress  which  overtaxed 


63 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Caird,  Edward 


his  nervous  energy.  When  peace  came  he  joined 
the  Baptist  church,  and  soon  began  to  preach. 
Five  years  later  (1660)  he  was  thrown  into  Bedford 
jail  where  he  remained  12  years.  During  his 
imprisonment  he  wrote  Grace  Abounding  (pub. 
1666).  In  1671  he  was  released,  but  was  again 
incarcerated  for  a  brief  period  in  1675.  During 
the  periods  of  imprisonment  he  wrote  his  immortal 
Pilgrim's  Progress  which  was  pubUshed  in  1678  and 
reached  its  tenth  edition  in  1685.  In  1682  he  pub- 
lished the  Holy  War,  and  in  1684  the  second  part 
of  Pilgrim's  Progress.  He  is  acknowledged  as  the 
greatest  allegorist  of  Christian  literature. 

BURIAL. — The  act  of  the  interment  of  a  dead 
body,  an  act  which  is  usually  an  occasion  for  a  re- 
ligious rite.   See  Death  and  Funeral  Practices. 

BURMA,  RELIGIONS  OF  AND  MISSIONS 

TO. — Burma  is  a  province  of  British  India,  includ- 
ing the  old  independent  kingdom  of  Burma 
and  former  British  Burma.  The  total  area  is 
about  240,000  sq.  miles  which  includes  the  Chin 
hills  and  Shan  states.  The  population  in  1911  was 
12,115,217  as  against  10,490,624  in  1901. 

The  Burmese  are  of  the  Mongoloid  type,  and  are 
gay  and  vivacious.  Since  the  coming  of  the  British 
there  has  been  quite  an  influx  of  Chinese,  Telugus, 
and  Tamils.  About  65  per  cent  of  the  population 
speak  Burmese,  but  there  are  many  other  vernacu- 
lars in  use.  The  degree  of  literacy  indicates  the 
progress  of  education,  the  proportion  being  22  per 
cent  as  compared  with  6  per  cent  in  India  proper. 
In  religion,  about  85  per  cent  of  the  people  are 
Buddhists,  6  per  cent  animists,  3  per  cent  Hindus, 
31  per  cent  Muslims,  2  per  cent  Christians,  besides 
small  numbers  of  Sikhs,  Jains,  Zoroastrians,  Jews 
and  Confucians.  The  Buddhism  of  Burma  is  Hlna- 
yana  Buddhism  (see  Buddhism)  and  has  done  much 
to  enlighten  the  people  as  it  has  fostered  education 
and  a  comparatively  high  ethical  standard. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Christian  population 
of  Burma  is  comprised  of  Baptists  and  Roman 
Catholics.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  had  mis- 
sionaries in  Burma  for  several  centuries,  and  their 
work  is  divided  between  French  and  ItaUan  mis- 
sions. Protestant  missions  were  begun  in  Burma 
in  1807  by  the  English  Baptists,  but  the  first 
permanent  mission  was  that  of  the  American 
Baptists  who  began  work  in  Rangoon  in  1813  under 
the  leadership  of  Adoniram  Judson  (q.v.).  Their 
most  successful  work  has  been  among  the  hiU  tribes, 
especially  the  Karens  and  the  Lahu.  ^  The  mission 
has  a  fine  equipment  and  its  work  is  progressing 
amcng  ail  classes.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  opened  work  in  1859  and  has  con- 
ducted a  strong  work  among  the  Burmese  and 
the  Karens.  Other  Protestant  missions  at  work 
are :  the  American  Methodist  Episcopal  (since  1879), 
the  English  Wesleyan  Methodists  (since  1889), 
the  Y.M.C.A.,  the  Y.W.C.A.,  the  Mission  to  the 


Lepers,  the  Leipzig  Missionary  Association,  the 
China  Inland  Mission  (in  Bhamo),  and  the  Mis- 
sionary Peace  Association.        A.  S.  Woodbuene 

BURNT  OFFERING.— A  form  of  sacrifice  in 
which  the  whole  of  the  victim  is  consumed  on  the 
altar.    See  Sacrifice. 

B  U  S  H I  D  O  .—"Military-knight-ways."  The 
code  of  moral  action  of  the  feudal  retainers  or 
samurai  of  Japan  from  the  13th.  to  the  close  of  the 
19th.  centuries.  The  soul  of  the  knight  was 
loyalty  but  he  was  expected  also  to  have  the 
qualities  of  courage,  fortitude,  honor,  rectitude, 
courtesy  and  benevolence.  Hia  training  was 
intended  to  produce  fighting  valor,  physical  and 
moral  courage.  His  ideal  was  honor  rather  than 
wealth  or  learning.  His  symbol  was  the  sword. 
The  spirit  of  old  Japan,  of  loyalty  to  land  and 
emperor,  is  embodied  in  Bushido.  The  word 
itself  is  of  comparatively  modern  coinage. 

BUSHMEN  OR  BASJESMANS.— An  aborigi- 
nal African  folk,  formerly  of  nomadic  habits,  the 
remnant  of  whom  dwell  in  the  less  fertile  parts  of 
S.  Africa.  Toward  the  north  they  have  mingled 
with  the  Bantus.  Their  religion  is  an  inferior 
type  of  animism  with  some  indications  of  totemism. 

BUSHNELL,  HORACE  (1802-76).— American 
theologian,  pastor  in  Hartford,  Conn.  ,and  influential 
writer  on  theological  subjects. 

His  work  was  prophetic  of  the  change  soon  to 
appear  in  American  Protestant  theology,  whereby 
the  Calvinistic  framework  and  the  rigid  method  of 
proof-text  argument  were  abandoned,  and  religious 
convictions  were  derived  from  a  study  of  Christian 
experience.  His  most  important  works  are  Chris- 
tian Nurture,  in  which  many  ideals  of  modern 
religious  education  are  anticipated;  God  in  Christ, 
in  which  an  experiential  interpretation  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  is  substituted  for  metaphysical 
disputation;  and  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  in  which 
the  doctrine  of  penal  substitution  is  rejected  in 
favor  of  the  conception  of  redemptive  suffering  on 
God's  part. 

BUTLER,  JOSEPH  (1692-1752).— Anghcan 
bishop  and  philosopher.  Beginning  as  a  Presby- 
terian, he  joined  the  Church  of  England  when  a 
youth,  entered  the  ministry  and  eventually  became 
bishop  of  Durham.  He  wrote  important  works 
on  Christian  ethics,  but  is  best  known  because  of 
his  great  apologetic  work,  The  Analogy  of  Religion, 
Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Course  and  Constituiion 
of  Nature.  This  was  a  refutation  of  Deism  (q.v.) 
on  the  ground  that  the  objections  against  revealed 
religion  may  be  urged  with  equal  cogency  against 
the  whole  constitution  of  nature  and  that  design 
in  the  universe  is  argued  by  analogies  between 
natural  processes  and  admittedly  rational  acts. 


CABALA.— See  Kabbala. 

CAEDMON.— The  earUest  Christian  poet  of 
England,  hved  in  the  latter  half  of  the  7th.  century, 
and  wrote  bibUcal  and  theological  narratives  in 
vigorous  verse  in  the  vernacular.  A  hymn,  which 
Bede  translated  into  Latin,  is  extant  in  the  North- 
umbrian dialect,  and  is  the  oldest  known  Christian 
hymn  in  a  Germanic  language. 

.     CAESAROPAPISM.— That  form  of  government 
in  which  the  political  ruler  has  supreme  authority  in 


religious   matters,   e.g.,   the  government  of   Con- 
stantine. 

CAIRD,  EDWARD  (1835-1908).— Scotch  phi- 
losopher and  theologian;  brother  of  John  Caird;  in 
1866  became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  from  1893-1906  was 
master  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  philosophy 
and  theology  he  was  a  neo-HegeUan,  and  one  of  the 
most  influential  thinkers  of  his  day.  The  Eoolu- 
tion  of  Theology  in  the  Greek  Philosophers  embodies 
his  conception  of  religious  development. 


Caird,  John 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


64 


CAIRD,  JOHN  (1820-1898).— Scotch  theologian 
and  philosopher;  in  1862  appointed  professor  of 
divinity  and  in  1873  vice-chancellor  and  principal 
of  Glasgow  University.  His  theology  is  an  inter- 
pretation of  Christianity  in  terms  of  HegeUanism. 

CALIPH.— See  Khalif. 

CALIXTINES.— A  Hussite  sect  m  the  15th. 
century,  which  demanded  that  laymen  should  be 
permitted  to  partake  of  the  wine  m  the  eucharist. 
See  Utraquists;  Bohemian  Brethren. 

CALIXTUS,  OR  CALLISTUS  — The  name  of 
three  popes. 

Calixtus  I. — 217-222,  condemned  SabeUius; 
was  opposed  in  office  by  Hippolytus ;  the  catacombs 
of  St.  Calixtus  were  excavated  under  his  cemetery. 

Calixtus  II. — 1119-1124,  obtained  a  settlement 
of  the  investiture  controversy  (q.v.)  at  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms,  1122. 

Calixtus  ///.— 1455-1458. 

CALIXTUS,  GEORGE  (1586-1656).— German 
Lutheran  theologian.  In  the  syncretistic  con- 
troversy, he  strove  to  effect  a  reconcihation  of 
Western  Christendom  by  eliminating  minor  points 
of  difference  between  Cathohcs  and  Protestants, 

CALL. — A  sense  of  inner  impulsion,  interpreted 
as  a  divine  direction  to  imdertake  a  course  of  action, 
specifically,  a  life  work. 

1.  Vocational. — By  an  interesting  misinterpre- 
tation of  I  Cor.  7:20  the  idea  arose  that  each  man 
was  designated  by  God  to  the  Ufe  work  in  which  he 
was  engaged,  hence  the  English  word  call  or  voca- 
tion, as  applied  to  one's  occupation.  The  concep- 
tion is  doubtless  one  of  great  religious  significance, 
and  is  taking  its  place  as  part  of  the  modern  rehgious 
endeavor  to  obliterate  the  artificial  distinction 
between  the  sacred  and  the  secular.  That  farmers 
and  carpenters,  statesmen  and  merchants,^  are 
needed  in  the  kingdom  of  God  as  well  as  ministers 
and  teachers,  is  a  commonplace  of  modern  religious 
thinking.  The  endeavors  that  are  being  made  to 
develop  wise  vocational  guidance  and  instruction 
may  have  deep  religious  significance  if  the  church 
takes  its  part  in  the  making  of  a  sound  human 
society. 

2.  Religious. — There  are  two  meanings  of  the 
word  that  have  become  somewhat  confused.  It 
has  always  been  felt  that  a  person  who  is  to  under- 
take reUgious  service  should  be  divinely  appointed 
(Acts  13 : 7).  But  as  the  organization  of  the  church 
developed  those  alone  could  serve  as  ministers  who 
had  been  "called"  in  regular  order  and  by  proper 
authority.  A  minister  is  still  said  to  be  called  of 
God  and  also  called  by  the  church.  The  practical 
significance  of  the  conception  is  that  each  person 
should  seriously  take  account  of  himself  with 
reference  to  his  opportunities  for  service  in  the 
world  and  should  most  carefully  consider  those 
occupations  which  do  not  promise  large  financial 
reward  but  do  offer  peculiar  opportunities  for  bene- 
fiting mankind.  By  conference  with  friends  and 
by  prayer,  he  should  seek  to  put  himself  in  an 
attitude  to  make  his  decision  aright  and  to  accept 
the  divine  leading,  which  will  come  to  him  as  an 
inner  sense  of  obhgation.  What  is  thus  character- 
istic of  the  decision  of  Ufe  work  may  also  be  true 
in  the  decision  to  undertake  all  types  of  religious 
service.  Theodore  G.  Scares 

CALLISTUS.— See  Calixtus. 

CALVARY.— (1)  The  Anglicized  form  of  the 
Latin  calvaria,  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  golgotha; 


the   place   where   Jesus   was    crucified.     (2)    Any 
sculptural  portrayal  of  the  crucifixion. 

CALVIN,  JOHN  (1509-1564).— Born  at  Noyon, 
Picardy,  trained  for  law,  converted  to  Protestantism 
about  1534  through  unknown  influences,  published 
an  annotated  edition  of  Seneca's  De  Clementia  to 
mitigate  the  persecution  of  French  reformers. 
Associated  with  Farel,  he  estabUshed  in  Geneva  a 
theocratic  church  order  notable  for  its  consistory 
and  rigorous  system  of  discipline.  Becoming 
unpopular  in  Geneva  he  temporarily  (1538-1541) 
established  himself  in  Strasburg  where  refugees 
from  many  lands  became  acquainted  with  his 
church  service  and  system  of  theology.  Returning 
to  Geneva  though  countering  vigorous  opposition 
he  was  able  to  dominate  the  city,  making  it  famed 
for  its  moral  tone,  educational  facilities,  and  eco- 
nomic prosperity.  Here  hundreds  of  preachers 
were  trained  for  the  Reformation  propaganda  in 
western  Europe  and  notably  in  France.  His  most 
important  literary  productions  were  a  Catechism, 
a  Commentary  on  Romans,  and  the  Institutes,  the 
last  of  which  embody  the  principles  known  as 
Calvinism,  through  which  its  author  has  rendered 
his  greatest  service  toward  militant  Protestantism. 
See  Calvinism.  Peter  G.  Mode 

CALVINISM. — A  name  given,  more  narrowly, 
to  the  system  of  doctrine,  or,  more  broadly,  to  the 
entire  attitude  towards  Ufe,  characteristic  of  those 
Protestant  Christians  known,  in  contrast  with  the 
Lutheran,  as  the  Reformed,  and  one  of  whose  most 
illustrious  teachers  in  the  16th.  century  was  John 
Calvin. 

1.  Calvin's  achievement. — John  Calvin,  of  the 
second  generation  of  Reformers,  standing  on  the 
shoulders  of  Luther  (whom  he  delighted  to  honor), 
shared  with  Luther  and  all  the  Reformers  the 
fundamental  standpoint  of  the  Augustinian  doc- 
trine of  grace.  Out  of  the  underlying  reUgious 
consciousness  of  which  this  doctrine  is  the  expres- 
sion, he  had  the  genius  to  release  a  principle  of 
Ufe  which  reinstituted  healthy  granulation  in  the 
diseased  body  of  European:  society — and  thus,  as 
Mark  Pattison  puts  it,  "saved  Europe."  The 
vehicle  by  which  this  new  life-principle  was  spread 
through  Europe  was  the  Reformed  Churches. 
They  came  to  be  spoken  of,  accordingly,  as  "Cal- 
vinistic"  Churches — it  was  not  a  name  of  their  own 
choosing — and  the  complex  of  their  points  of  view, 
theological,  philosophical,  ethical,  social,  economic, 
political,  as  "Calvinism." 

2.  Calvinism  in  its  broad  sense. — The  creative 
energy  of  Calvinism  has  left  a  permanent  mark  not 
only  on  the  thought  of  mankind,  but  on  the  social 
order  of  civilized  peoples,  the  political  organization 
of  states,  and  the  economic  life  of  communities. 
Taking  its  start  in  a  readjustment  of  the  religious 
relation  it  worked  its  way  first  to  a  reformation  of 
morals,  and  thence  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  en- 
tirety of  life.  It  has  been,  for  instance,  the  source 
and  guardian  of  the  poUtical  liberties  of  the  modern 
world;  and  Max  Weber  has  shown  that  even  the 
capitalism  which  makes  the  growth  of  modern 
industrialism  possible  has  its  root  in  Calvinism. 
It  was  only  in  Calvinism  that  Protestantism  set 
over  against  Romanism  a  complete  world-system 
having  in  it  an  organific  power  capable  of  giving 
form  and  energy  to  the  entirety  of  life.  Accordingly 
P.  Hume  Brown  remarks  that  "of  all  the  develop- 
ments of  Christianity,  Calvinism  and  the  Church  of 
Rome  alone  bear  the  stamp  of  an  absolute  reUgion." 

3.  Doctrinal  system  of  Calvinism. — From  the 
point  of  view  of  its  doctrinal  system,  Calvinisni  may 
be  looked  upon  either  as  theism  come  to  its  rights, 
in  which  case  it  is  a  world-view  and  should  be 


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Campanile 


considered  in  comparison  with  other  comprehensive 
world- views;  or  as  the  reUgious  relation  in  its 
purest  expression,  in  which  case  it  stands  in 
contrast  with  the  other  great  religions  of  the 
world;  or  as  the  logical  exposition  of  evangelical 
rehgion,  in  which  case  it  challenges  comparison 
with  other  methods  of  conceiving  Christianity. 
Theism  comes  to  its  rights  in  a  teleological  inter- 
pretation of  the  universe,  in  which  all  that  comes  to 
pass  is  explained  as  the  outworking  of  God's  aU- 
comprehensive  plan,  and  is  referred  ultimately  to 
the  will  of  God  as  the  cause  of  all  things.  The 
religious  relation  in  its  purity  is  one  of  absolute 
dependence  on  God,  and  is  best  expressed  in  a  life  in 
which  an  attitude  of  dependence  on  God,  responsi- 
bility to  Him  and  trust  in  Him  is  sustained  in  all 
its  activities,  intellectual,  emotional  and  execu- 
tive. The  soul  of  evangeUcalism  lies  in  utter 
dependence  on  the  grace  or  free  mercy  of  God  as  the 
only  source  of  all  the  efficiency  which  enters  into 
salvation. 

4.  Fundamental  principle  of  Calvinism. — From 
each  point  of  view  alike  the  fundamental  principle 
of  Calvinism  is  seen  to  reside  in  its  profound  sense 
of  God  and  its  reference  of  everything  to  Him.  He 
who  believes  in  God  without  reserve,  and  is  deter- 
mined that  God  shall  be  God  to  him,  in  all  his 
thinking,  feeling,  doing,  throughout  all  his  indi- 
vidual, social,  religious  relations,  is  a  Calvinist. 
This  is  often,  but  not  very  felicitously,  expressed  by 
saying  that  Calvinism  is  the  pure  embodiment  pf 
the  principle  of  predestination,  as  Lutheranism  is, 
it  is  added  in  contrast,  of  the  principle  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith.  Both  the  doctrines  of  predestination 
and  of  justification  of  faith,  however,  were  com- 
mon to  the  entirety  of  original  Protestantism; 
and  Calvinists  make  the  claim  at  least  of  preserving 
both  alike  in  their  only  consistent  statement. 
What  Calvinism  really  represents  is  logical  theo- 
centric  thinking;  a  world- view,  a  religion,  a  soteri- 
ology,  in  which  the  vision  of  God  in  His  glory 
rules  all,  and  the  one  endeavor  is  to  render  to  God 
His  rights  in  every  sphere  of  thought  and  action. 

5.  Chief  depositories  of  Calvinism. — The  Re- 
formed theology  is  already  given  expression  in  its 
fundamental  principles  in  the  teaching  of  ZwingU. 
It  received  its  first  comprehensively  systematic 
formulation,  however,  at  the  hands  of  Calvin,  whose 
Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion  remains  until  to- 
day one  of  its  chief  classics.  It  has  been  embodied 
since  then,  however,  in  a  long  series  of  important 
doctrinal  treatises,  which  have  on  the  whole  pre- 
served a  remarkable  conformity  to  type.  Among 
the  latest  of  these  may  be  named  those  by  the 
American,  Charles  Hodge,  and  by  the  Netherlander, 
Herman  Bavinck.  It  has  also  found  expression, 
naturally,  in  formal  Confessions,  which  have  been 
particularly  numerous  because  of  the  extension 
of  the  Reformed  Churches  through  many  nations, 
the  Church  in  each  requiring  an  independent 
declaration  of  its  faith.  The  most  influential  of 
these  are  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession,  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession— the  last  of  which  has  the  advantage  of 
having  been  prepared  after  the  Arminian  contro- 
versy and  of  summing  up  thus  the  results  of  the 
entire  Reformed  development. 

6.  The  "Five  Points"  of  Calvinism.— The 
Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  contain  the  reply  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  to  the  "Remonstrance,  made 
on  five  points  against  the  Calvinistic  system  by 
the  Dutch  Arminians  of  the  early  17th.  century. 
They  reassert  over  against  this  protest  the  Calvin- 
istic doctrines  of  absolute  predestination,  particular 
redemption,  total  depravity,  irresistible  grace,  and 
the  perseverance  of  the  saints.  These  five  heads 
of   doctrine  are  accordingly  very  commonly,  but 


not  wholly  accurately,  spoken  of  as  "the  five  points 
of  Calvinism."  They  are  really  the  Calvinistic 
obverse  to  the  five  points  of  Remonstrantism. 
Though  they  cannot  be  treated  as  the  formative 
principles  of  Calvinism,  however,  they  provide  in 
their  entirety  a  not  unfair  summary  of  its  sub- 
stantial teaching.  B.  B.  Warpield 

CALVINISTIC  METHODISTS.— A  denomina- 
tion of  Welsh  origin  largely  confined  to  Wales, 
which  combines  the  evangelicism  of  Methodism 
with  Calvinistic  doctrine.  The  beginnings  of  the 
movement  are  traceable  to  Rev.  Griffith  Jones 
(1684-1761) .  The  first  Calvinist  Methodist  associa- 
tion dates  from  1743,  but  not  until  1795  was  separa- 
tion from  the  church  of  England  considered.  In 
1811  the  body  ordained  the  first  group  of  ministers 
and  in  1823  issued  their  confession,  founded  on 
the  Westminster  Confession.  The  church  govern- 
ment is  a  combination  of  Presbyterianism  and  Con- 
gregationalism. A  vigorous  mission  is  conducted  in 
N.  India.  All  the  revivals  occurring  in  Wales  since 
1735,  have  originated  with  the  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists. In  many  respects  it  is  the  strongest  church 
in  Wales.  There  are  a  number  of  churches  of  the 
denomination  in  England,  but  the  administrative 
work  is  done  in  the  Welsh  assembly.  There  are 
about  190,000  communicants. 

CAMALDOLESE.— The  name  (from  Campus 
Maldoli,  near  Arezzo,  Italy,  the  site  of  their  first 
hermitage)  of  a  R.C.  rehgious  order  of  men,  the 
outgrowth  of  a  monastic  reform  by  St.  Romuald 
early  in  the  11th.  century.  The  Camaldolese  have 
no  written  rule,  but  endeavor  to  practice  an  ideal 
asceticism  of  silence,  prayer,  and  labor,  combining 
solitude  and  community  life.  Their  religious  garb 
is  a  white  robe,  scapular,  cowl,  girdle,  and  an  ample 
cloak.  There  is  also  a  similar  order  of  Camaldolese 
nims  near  Florence. 

CAMBRIDGE  PLATONISTS.— A  group  of 
theological  and  philosophical  thinkers,  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  17th.  century,  largely  members  of 
Cambridge  University,  who  set  forth  theological 
systems  dominated  by  Platonism  and  Neo- 
Platonism.  They  opposed  both  the  sacerdotalism 
of  Laud,  and  the  rationalistic  doctrines  of  Hobbes; 
were  known  as  Latitudinarians;  sought  to  harmon- 
ize revelation  and  reason;  were  mystical,  tolerant 
and  liberal.  The  best  known  of  the  group  are  Ralph 
Cudworth,  Richard  Cumberland,  and  Henry  More. 

CAMERON,  JOHN  (1579-1623).— Scottish 
theologian,  leader  of  a  school  of  Calvinists,  who 
modified  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  asserting 
that  God's  influence  on  the  human  will  is  entirely 
moral. 

CAMERONIANS.— A  section  of  the  Scottish 
Covenanters  (q.v.)  led  by  Richard  Cameron  (1648- 
1680),  which  after  1690  became  a  separate  church. 
They  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  or  to 
exercise  civil  functions.  From  1743  they  took  the 
name  Reformed  Presbyterians;  and  in  1876  the 
majority  united  with  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

CAMISARDS.— The  designation  of  French 
Protestants  who  rebelled  in  1702-1705  against 
Louis  XIV.,  asserting  religious  liberty  and  civil 
rights  lost  through  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes.  Excited  by  persecution,  and  led  by 
enthusiastic  preachers  the  Camisards  frequently 
developed  fantastic  ecstatic  phenomena. 

CAMPANILE. — A  bell  tower  in  connection  with 
a  church  or  town  hall  in  Italy,  usually  detached 


Campbell,  Alexander 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


66 


from  the  church.  Among  the  more  famous  are  those 
of  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  Giotto's  at  the  Duomo  in 
Florence,  and  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa. 

CAMPBELL.  ALEXANDER  (1788-1866).— 
Founder  of  the  aenomination,  Disciples  of  Christ 
(q.v.).  His  father,  Thomas  Campbell,  and  he  were 
originally  Presbyterians,  in  1812  became  Baptists, 
and  in  1830  formed  the  new  denomination.  They 
taught  baptism  unto  repentance  by  immersion,  the 
imminent  second  advent  of  Christ,  the  abandonment 
of  creeds,  a  return  to  the  primitive  Christianity  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  church  union  on  these 
premises. 

CAMPBELL,  JOHN  McLEOD  (1800-1872).— 
Scottish  Theologian;  was  convicted  of  heretical 
teachings  concerning  the  Atonement  and  expelled 
from  the  Presbyterian  ministry  by  the  General 
Assembly,  1830.  For  16  years  he  preached  in 
Glasgow  in  an  undenominational  church.  His 
contribution  to  theology  was  his  work,  The  Nature 
of  the  Atonement,  in  which  the  current  doctrine 
that  the  death  of  Christ  rendered  penal  satisfaction 
to  God  was  denied.  Campbell  held  that  Christ 
offered  vicarious  repentance  on  behalf  of  humanity 
and  so  satisfied  God's  justice. 

CAMPBELL,  THOMAS.— See  Campbell, 
Alexander. 

CAMPBELLITES. — Popular  designation  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ  (q.v.)  because  of  the  foionder, 
Alexander  Campbell. 

CANAANITES.— The  inhabitants  of  Canaan, 
one  of  the  ancient  names  of  the  land  known  today 
as  Syria.  The  name  first  appears  in  the  Tel  el 
Amarna  Tablets  and  is  there  used  interchangeably 
with  Amurru  (Amorite-land),  the  common  Baby- 
lonian designation  of  the  Westland  from  before 
2500  B.C.  The  Phoenicians  called  themselves 
Canaanites,  and  so  did  the  Carthaginians  as  late 
as  the  5th.  century  a.d. 

The  inhabitants  of  Canaan  were  not  a  homogene- 
ous people.  In  most  of  the  twenty-two  passages 
of  tlie  Old  Testament  where  the  predecessors  of  the 
Israehtes  are  enumerated,  the  Amorites  and  Hittites 
hold  prominent  places  alongside  of  the  Canaanites. 
Similar  testimony  comes  from  the  Amarna  Tablets 
and  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  which  also  show  the 
presence  in  this  region  of  Indo-European  elements. 

The  hieroglyphic,  cuneiform  (Amarna  and 
Babylonian)  and  Old  Testament  records  are  our 
chief  Uterary  sources  for  the  study  of  Canaanite 
civilization.  _  In  addition  we  have  the  results  of  the 
excavations  in  Palestine  (see  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund),  which  enable  us  to  trace  the  story 
from  the  days  when  the  Canaanites  were  neolithic 
cave  dwellers.  For  centuries  Egypt  was  master  in 
Canaan  and  greatly  influenced  its  material  develop>- 
ment,  but  in  the  growth  of  business  and  legal  pro- 
cedure as  well  as  in  mythological  thinking,  the 
influence  of  Babylonia  was  much  stronger.  The 
reUgion  of  the  Canaanites  was  Baalism  (see  Baal). 

D.  D.  Luckenbill 

CANDELMAS. — Church  feast  commemorating 
the  presentation  of  Christ  in  the  temple,  celebrated 
Feb.  2nd.  The  Roman  church  regards  it  as  cele- 
brating the  purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  custom,  introduced  in  the 
11th.  century,  of  blessing  the  candles  for  the  whole 
year  on  that  day. 

CANNIBALISM.— The  eating  of  human  flesh 
by   human  beings,   a  practise  of  multiple  origin, 


including  the  impulse  of  hunger,  the  disposal  of 
dead  kinsfolk,  human  sacrifice  to  the  deity,  the 
desire  for  revenge,  a  ceremony  of  initiation,  and 
various  magical  practises  of  the  sympathetic 
and  protective  types.  Cannibahsm  is  usually 
regulated  by  ceremonials,  and  probably  endo- 
cannibahsm  (the  victim  being  a  tribesman)  is  of 
rehgious  origin. 

CANON. — (1)  The  list  of  writings,  ecclesiasti- 
cally authorized  as  constituting  the  Bible,  (q.v.). 
(2)  A  finding  of  an  ecclesiastical  council  regarding 
discipline  or  doctrine.  See  Law,  Canon.  (3)  The 
rules  of  a  religious  order.  (4)  A  list  of  canonized 
saints.  (5)  An  ecclesiastical  dignitary  who  receives 
an  income  for  the  conduct  of  services  in  cathedral  or 
collegiate  churches.  In  the  Roman  church,  canons 
five  in  a  community  as  Canons  Regular.  In  the 
Church  of  England  the  rule  of  ceUbacy  has  been 
removed,  but  the  duties  are  the  same.  (6)  The 
portion  of  the  Mass  between  the  Sanctus  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  (7)  A  class  of  hymns  used  in 
the  Eastern  church. 

CANON  (BIBLICAL).— Canon,  meaning  "meas- 
uring rod,"  "rule,"  was  the  term  which  was  first 
applied  by  Christians  in  the  second  half  of  the  4th. 
century  a.d.  to  that  collection  of  books  which  has 
been  recognized  by  the  Christian  church  as  Holy 
Scripture.  The  processes  through  which  each 
book  passed  before  it  was  recognized  as  part  of  the 
divine  library  are  too  complex  to  be  discussed  in 
this  connection.  But  we  shall  specify  the  epochs 
in  which  certain  groups  of  those  books  seem  first  to 
have  been  collected  and  regarded  as  sacred  and 
authoritative.  The  gradual  growth  of  the  Old 
Testament  culminating  at  the  Council  of  Jamnia 
at  the  close  of  the  1st.  century  a.d.,  and  of  the  New 
Testament  culminating  for  the  West  at  the  end  of 
the  4th.  century  a.d.,  and  for  the  East  in  the  fol- 
lowing century,  is  one  of  the  characteristic  features 
of  their  formation. 

I.  The  Old  Testament. — The  growth  of  the 
Old  Testament  Canon  may  be  observed  in  the 
recognition  chronologically  of  the  three  groups  of 
books  into  which  it  has  been  arranged.  (1)  The 
first  collection  embraces  the  so-called  five  books  of 
Moses,  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy,  termed  the  "Pentateuch."  This 
group  also  called  "the  law"  was  first  publicly 
recognized  as  sacred  and  authoritative  by  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  about  444  b.c.  (in  Neh.  8:9).  Hence- 
forth Jewish  writers  referred  to  "the  law"  as  the 
first  and  most  highly  inspired  of  all  the  three  sections 
of  the  Old  Testament.  (2)  The  second  collection 
is  "the  Prophets,"  broken  into  two  subdivisions: 
(a)  that  covering  historical  material,  Joshua, 
Judges,  (I  and  II)  Samuel  and  (I  and  II)  Kings, 
called  by  Jewish  writers, '  'the  former  prophets" ;  and 
(6)  that  embracing  pipphetic  utterances,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Ezekie?%"h(i 'the  Twelve  (Hosea,  Joel, 
Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi) — eight 
books,  by  Jewish  reckoning.  This  group  was 
recognized  as  authoritative  about  200  B.C., 
and  accorded  an  equal  place  by  side  of  "the  law"  as  a 
second  part  of  the  Old  Testament.  (3)  The  third 
group  of  books  was  called  "the  Writings"  and 
embraced  all  the  Old  Testament  books  not  found 
in  the  first  and  second  groups.  These  in  their  order 
in  the  Hebrew  Bible  are,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job, 
Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes, 
Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra-Nehemiah  and  (I  and  II) 
Chronicles — eleven  books.  These  were  for  the  most 
^art  probably  recognized  as  authoritative  in  132  B.C. 
by  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach  in  the  preface  to  the  book 
of  Ecclesiasticus.    Those  books  that  were  in  dis- 


67 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Canon  (Biblical) 


pute  in  the  times  of  Christ  (Esther,  Song  of  Songs, 
and  Ecclesiastes)  were  finally  recognized  as  genuine 
and  authoritative  by  the  assembly  of  Palestinian 
Jews  held  at  Jamnia,  near  Joppa,  about  90  a.d. 
That  Council  by  its  public  recognition  of  the  dis- 
puted books  simply  confirmed  and  fixed  what  had 
been  already  for  a  long  time  the  opinion  of  leading 
Jewish  writers.  By  that  decision  the  full  collection 
(Canon)  of  Old  Testament  books  was  informally 
closed — embracing  within  its  compass  exactly  those 
books  now  found  in  our  Hebrew  Bibles  and  also  in 
the  (English)  Authorized  and  Revised  Versions  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

This  same  collection  of  Old  Testament  books  was 
regarded  by  Jesus  and  the  apostles  as  sacred  and 
authoritative,  doubtless  on  the  basis  of  the  com- 
mon Jewish  belief  of  that  day.  Even  the  books 
which,  in  some  quarters,  had  been  held  in  dispute, 
gradually  won  their  way  to  full  recognition.  The 
founders  and  fathers  of  the  Christian  church 
accepted  in  full  the  decision  of  the  learned  rabbis 
of  their  day  at  the  Council  of  Jamnia,  and  hence- 
forth the  Old  Testament  of  the  Hebrews  was 
revered  and  quoted  as  Holy  Scripture.  See  Old 
Testament. 

II.  The  New  Testament. — How  and  when  did 
the  books  now  constituting  the  New  Testament 
become  authoritative,  and  take  their  place  by  the 
side  of  those  already  embraced  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment? 

Jesus,  in  his  utterances,  spoke  with  an  authority 
which  soon  ranked  with  that  claimed  for  the  Old 
Testament.  The  apostles  and  other  New  Testa- 
ment writers  were  so  influential  and  effective  in 
their  works  and  words  and  lives  that  they  secured 
the  immediate  attention,  gradual  obedience,  and 
even  reverence  of  the  Christian  communities  of 
their  day.  Their  letters  and  other  writings  were 
read  in  the  churches  and  Christian  assemblies, 
and  were  received  with  a  degree  of  sacredness  and 
authority  that  soon  attributed  to  them  a  divine 
character.  During  the  2nd.  and  3rd.  centuries  the 
growth  of  the  Christian  church  may  be  largely 
attributed  to  the  use  which  the  pastors  and  evangel- 
ists made  of  these  same  writings  in  their  preaching 
and  teachings.  Early  Christian  preachers  and 
teachers  used  a  larger  number  of  writings  in  their 
church  work  than  those  now  contained  in  the  New 
Testament.  Early  Christian  writers,  too,  recog- 
nized varying  grades  of  authority  in  the  apostolic 
works  current  in  their  day,  thus  verifying  the 
statement  that  the  whole  process  of  gaining  author- 
ity was  gradual.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  so-called  authority  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment books  was  a  growth  through  several  stages 
and  centuries.  And  there  was  a  difference,  too, 
between  the  results  seen  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West. 

1.  The  first  period  in  the  East  and  the  West 
extended  from  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  to  about 
A.D.  220.  The  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul  (Romans, 
I  and  II  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philip- 
pians,  Colossians,  I  and  II  Thessalonians,  I,  II,  and 
III  Timothy,  Titus  and  Philemon)  and  the  four 
Gospels  (Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John)  were 
read  in  the  churches  and  were  received  as  sacred 
and  divine.  In  the  same  group  we  find  also  Acts, 
I  Peter  and  I  John — all  with  their  authority  gener- 
ally recognized  by  a.d.  220.  In  this  same  period 
also  we  find  the  following  writings  as  a  kind  of 
candidates  for  admission  to  authority:  The  Apoca- 
lypse of  Peter,  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles, 
Shepherd  of  Hermes,  Epistles  of  Clement  of  Rome 
and  of  Barnabas,  Acts  of  Paul  and  a  second  Epistle 
of  Clement.  These  were  read  in  some  of  the 
churches,  but  failed  to  obtain  general  recognition  as 
equal  to  the  books  found  in  the  first  group. 


2.  In  the  second  period  (a.d.  220-323)  in  the 
West  there  seems  to  have  been  little  progress  in 
recognition  of  the  books  still  in  dispute.  The  early 
church  fathers  in  general  refer  to  those  already 
recognized  as  accepted  and  authoritative,  and 
probably  under  the  influence  of  Origen,  the  greatest 
scholar  in  the  East,  add  to  their  list  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  on  the  basis  of  its  dependence  on  and 
agreement  with  apostolic  teachings  in  general 
although  not  of  apostolic  authorship.  The  real 
tests  now  at  work  in  both  sections  of  the  country, 
the  East  and  the  West,  were  (1)  use  of  the  docu- 
ments in  the  churches  and  (2)  apostolic  authorship, 
(3)  appeals  to  the  teachings  of  those  books  as 
against  the  heresies  of  the  day.  That  is,  church 
usage  and  authorship  helped  fix  the  authority  of  the 
books  current  among  them. 

3.  The  third  period  in  the  West  may  be  desig- 
nated as  the  last  three  quarters  of  the  4th.  cen- 
tury. Several  causes  conspired  to  fix  the  limits 
of  the  books  to  be  regarded  as  sacred:  (a)  the 
difference  between  them  and  other  books  was  empha- 
sized by  the  persecutions  in  which  the  destruction 
of  those  very  sacred  books  was  the  chief  aim.  That 
fact  stimulated  their  production,  so  that  Constan- 
tine  ordered  through  Eusebius  fifty  great  Bibles 
produced.  (6)  The  Scriptures  were  now  being 
prepared  as  a  whole  and  so  limits  thereto  became  a 
practical  question,  (c)  The  preparation  of  creeds 
for  the  church  demanded  the  fixing  of  the  limits  of 
the  New  Testament.  There  are  many  lists  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  which  have  come 
down  to  us  from  the  4th.  century,  but  the  first  one 
to  agree  with  those  of  our  present  (Western)  New 
Testament  was  that  of  Athanasius,  a.d.  397.  In  the 
same  year  the  Third  Council  of  Carthage  recog- 
nized, approved  and  confirmed  as  its  list  (canon), 
the  same  New  Testament  books  that  we  of  the 
Western  church  have  today. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  churches  in  the  East 
under  the  leadership  of  Origen  and  other  great 
churchmen  were  slower  in  recognizing  the  authority 
of  some  of  the  New  Testament  writings.  Origen 
seems  to  have  recognized  James,   Jude,   I  Peter, 

I  John,  and  Revelation,  but  barred  II  Peter  and  II 
and  III  John,  while  II  and  III  John,  Jude  and 
Revelation  were  refused  recognition  in  Antioch  and 
the  Syriac-speaking  world  to  the  close  of  the 
4th.  century.  Origen  refers  to  the  Gospel  of  the 
Hebrews  apologetically,  the  Gospels  of  Peter  and 
James,  the  Acts  of  Paul,  and  gives  quotations  from 
Hermas  and  Barnabas  as  "Scripture,"  though 
he  admits  that  Hermas  was  not  accepted  by  all. 
It  is,  however,  striking  that  Origen  wrote  no 
commentary  on  any  of  the  books  not  now  part  of 
our  New  Testament.  Eusebius  the  historian 
took  a  long  step  ahead  in  the  settlement  of  the 
troublesome  question.  He  made  three  lists  of  the 
books  involved  in  the  dispute:  (1)  those  recognized 
and  regarded  as  authoritative  by  all  the  Christian 
churches  and  leaders.  These  were  the  four  Gospels, 
Acts,  Epistles  of  Paul,  I  Peter,  I  John,  and  Revela- 
tion (doubtfully).  (2)  Books  which  he  would 
recognize  though  some  bar  them:    James,   Jude, 

II  Peter,  II  and  III  John.  (3)  Books  that  he 
regarded  as  spurious:  Acts  of  Paul,  Shepherd  of 
Hermas,  Apocalypse  of  Peter,  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  and  perhaps,  as  some  think, 
Revelation. 

4.  In  the  Western  church  during  the  5th.  cen- 
tury Augustine  (430  a.d.)  laid  down  certain  rules 
by  which  the  authoritative  recognition — the  canon- 
icity — of  the  several  books  should  be  determined: 

(1)  the  books  accepted  and  acknowledged  by  all 
the   churches  should    be   regarded   as   canonical; 

(2)  books  not  universally  accepted  should  be 
subjected  to  two  tests:    (a)  those  received  by  the 


Canon  (Buddhist) 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


6ft 


majority  of  the  churches  are  to  be  acknowledged, 
and  (6)  those  received  by  the  ApostoUc  churches  are 
to  be  preferred  to  those  recognized  by  only  a  small 
number  of  churches  of  less  authority,  in  other 
words,  those  not  founded  by  the  apostles.  Augus- 
tine's application  of  these  tests  gave  him  precisely 
the  books  of  our  (Western)  New  Testament.  Jerome 
(a.d.  420)  also  accepted  the  same  New  Testament, 
including  Hebrews  and  Revelation,  on  the  authority 
of.  earher  writers,  and  not  because  of  the  opinions 
of  his  day.  Augustine's  opinion  and  Jerome's 
Latin  Bible — 'the  Vulgate — seemed  to  complete 
the  crystallization  of  the  Western  canon  of  the 
New  Testament  without  the  edict  of  any  General 
Council,  and  this  before  the  middle  of  the  5th. 
century.     See  New  Testament. 

III.  Canons  op  Various  Churches. — There 
is  no  universally  accepted  biblical  canon.  In 
distinction  from  the  Protestant  canon  of  today  the 
older  churches  adopted  as  their  Scripture  a  collec- 
tion of  biblical  books  either  with  omissions  there- 
from or  additions  thereto.  Of  those  bodies  mention 
can  be  made  of  only  a  few. 

1.  The  Syrian  Church. — The  Syriac  version 
of  Scripture  is  found  in  two  distinct  classes  of 
manuscripts,  representing  different  rescensions. 
But  they  agree  on  the  books  found  in  their  canon. 
Both  classes  omit  II  and  III  John,  II  Peter,  Jude 
and  Revelation,  but  contain  all  other  books  of 
the  Western  canon  without  any  apocryphal  addi- 
tions. This  version  was  also  the  source  of  the 
first  Armenian  translation,  which  was  later  revised 
from  the  N.T.  Greek. 

2.  The  Coptic  Church. — The  Egyptian  versions 
of  the  New  Testament  are  two,  the  Sahidic  (The- 
baic) of  upper  Egypt,  and  the  Bohairic  (Memphitic) 
of  lower  Egypt.  The  former  exists  only  in  frag- 
ments today  while  the  latter  has  been  published 
entire.  This  is  the  canon  of  the  Coptic  church.  It 
is  identical  in  content  with  the  canon  of  the  Western 
church,  but  omits  Revelation.  This  same  lack  is 
found  in  the  fragments  of  the  Sahidic  translation. 

3.  The  Eastern  or  Greek  Church.— We  have  seen 
the  Eastern  church  establishing  as  its  canon  of 
Scripture  the  Septuagint,  together  with  its  quota  of 
apocryphal  books:  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Judith, 
Tobit,  History  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  History  of 
Susanna,  I  and  II  Maccabees,  Wisdom  of  Sirach. 

4.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church. — 'The  power  of 
tradition  as  well  as  the  content  led  the  authorities 
of  the  Roman  church  to  determine  by  Council  the 
limits  of  their  sacred  volume.  The  church  had 
sanctified  by  long  usage  Jerome's  primary  transla- 
tion of  the  Vulgate,  except  the  Psalter  which  was 
Jerome's  second  revision  of  the  Old  Latin.  No 
formal  official  decree  of  the  Roman  church  had 
fixed  the  limits  of  the  Bible.  Disputes  through 
centuries  on  the  authority  of  the  apocryphal  books 
were  suddenly  settled  by  a  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  April  8,  1546.  This  edict  determined  that 
in  the  canon  of  the  Western  church  there  should  be 
included  Tobit,  Judith,  Additions  to  Esther,  Book 
of  Wisdom,  Eccleeiasticus,  Baruch,  Additions  to 
Daniel,  I  and  II  Maccabees,  III  and  IV  Esdras, 
books  which  had  been  revered  by  long  usage  in 
the  church,  and  whose  claim  to  recognition  had 
been  generally  rejected  by  the  churches  in  the 
early  Christian  centuries. 

Practically  all  the  canons  of  other  minor  churches 
are  based  on  one  or  other  of  those  already  named. 
And  even  within  most  of  them  there  was  liberty 
allowed  in  the  discussion  of  the  comparative 
authority  of  the  books  already  regarded  as  sacred. 
See  Bible.  Ira  M.  Price 

CANON  (BUDDHIST).— The  language  spoken 
by  the  founder  of  Buddhism  was  Magadhi  but 


the  written  Scriptures  have  come  down  to  us 
in  Pali  and  Sanskrit.  Of  these  two,  only  the 
Pali  canon  of  Ceylon,  Burma  and  Siam  is  complete. 
It  is  called  the  Tripitaka  or  "three  baskets"  and 
consists  of  the  Vinaya-Pitaka  or  Basket  of  Dis- 
cipline, the  Sutta-Pitaka  or  Sermon  Basket  made 
up  of  five  divisions  or  nikayas  (Digha,  Majjhima, 
Samyutta,  Aaguttara,  and  Khudda),  and  the 
Abhidhamma-Pitaka  or  Basket  of  Higher  Religion. 
This  canon,  brought  together  probably  by  the  time 
of  Asoka  in  the  3rd.  century  B.C.,  was  the  literature 
of  the  Hfnayana  sect.  The  Mahayana  form  of  the 
religion  has  an  extensive  literature  but  no  authorita- 
tive canon. 

CANON  LAW.— See  Law,  Canon. 

CANONS,  ANGLICAN.— The  rules  and  regula- 
tions drawn  up  by  an  ecclesiastical  convocation  in 
1603  and  ratified  by  James  I.  in  1604,  as  the  official 
expression  of  English  church  law. 

CANONS,  APOSTOLIC— See  Apostolic 
Canons. 

CANONS,  COLLECTIONS  OF  ANCIENT.— 

Collections  of  conciUar  decisions  and  papal  decrees 
pertaining  to  church  government. 

CANONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL.— Rules  or 

standards  of  conduct  or  doctrine,  fixed  by  the 
church. 

CANONESS.— A  member  of  a  R.C.  secular 
congregation  under  the  rule  of  an  abbess,  and 
governed  by  vows  of  obedience  and  chastity. 

CANONICAL  HOURS.— Times  appointed  by 
the  canon  or  rule  of  the  church,  Roman  or  Anglican, 
for  specific  purposes,  as  prayer,  devotion,  and,  in 
England,  the  celebration  of  marriage.  The  usual 
devotional  hours  are  called  matins  (including  noc- 
turnes and  lauds),  prime,  tierce,  sext,  nones,  vespers, 
and  compline. 

CANONIZATION.— The  formal  process  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches  by  which  a  beatified 
person  is  enrolled  as  a  saint.  See  Saints,  Venera- 
tion op;   Beatification. 

CANTICLE. — (1)  A  non-metrical  sacred  song. 
Usually  adapted  from  the  Scriptures  and  chanted, 
in  church  services.     (2)  PI.     The  canonical  book 
known  also  as  the  Song  of  Solomon  or  Song  of 
Songs. 

CANTICLE   pF  THE  BLESSED   VIRGIN.— 

More  formal  designation  of  the  Magnificat  (q.v.). 

CANTIONALE.— The  designation  of  collections 
of  ecclesiastical  music  for  the  complete  liturgy  in 
the  Lutheran  and  Bohemian  Brethren  services. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.— The  infliction  by 
a  legally  constituted  authority  of  the  death  penalty 
for  a  specific  crime.  In  the  code  of  Hammurabi — 
the  earliest  extant  collection  of  laws — 'the  death 
penalty  was  imposed  for  many  offences.  Progress 
has  been  steadily  made  in  the  direction  of  mitigating 
the  barbarity  of  the  methods  of  execution  and  of 
reducing  the  number  of  crimes  for  which  capital 
punishment  is  inflicted.  In  the  leading  nations 
today  the  punishment  is  confined  to  murder  and 
treason.    See  Penology. 

CAPITALISM,  ETHICS  OF.— Capitalism  is 
the  present  method  of  carrying  on  industry  and 


09 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Capitalism,  Ethics  of 


business  in  western  Europe  and  in  America.  It  is 
contrasted  with  older  methods  of  carrying  on  large 
enterprises,  such  as  slavery  or  forced  levies.  It  is 
contrasted  also  with  sociaUsm,  which  in  the  form 
known  as  state  socialism  would  carry  on  basic 
industries  through  state  resoui^es  and  credft.  It 
is  contrasted  also  with  an  agricultural  system  of 
small  farms  which  does  not  require  any  large 
accumulation  of  resources.  It  signifies  the  accumu- 
lation by  private  hands  of  a  store  of  tools  and 
resources  which  can  be  used  to  provide  material 
and  equipment  for  manufacture  and  pay  wages  of 
laborers,  managers  and  salesmen  until  products 
are  placed  on  the  market.  In  its  actual  operation, 
it  operates  largely  through  corporations.  It 
employs  the  great  development  of  credit,  by  which, 
through  the  agency  of  banks,  the  resources  of 
great  numbers  of  people  and  the  earning  power 
of  future  generations  are  all  made  available  for  a 
present  enterprise.  It  implies  the  wage  system 
in  which  the  owners  of  capital  are  the  employers, 
assuming  risks  and  taking  profits,  whereas  two 
groups  of  workers,  commonly  known  as  salaried 
and  wage  workers,  receive  a  relatively  stable 
wage  but  no  profits.  It  therefore  tends  to  form 
sharply  marked  classes  having  a  certain  degree  of 
common  interest  in  that  both  normally  desire 
continuous  and  prosperous  industry  (subject  to 
limitation  of  output  by  either  group  when  this 
seems  the  more  profitable  method  of  enhancing 
prices)  but  with  conflicting  interests  as  to  the  shares 
of  total  income  which  shall  go  to  employers'  profits 
and  workers'  wages  respectively. 

The  ethics  of  capitalism  must  be  understood  to 
signify  not  the  ethics  of  all  engaged  in  modern 
industry  and  business  (the  ethics  of  one  group  of 
these  is  treated  under  Labor  Movement,  Ethics 
op)  but  the  ethics  which  the  system  tends  to  foster, 
particularly  in  the  owning  and  managing  class. 
Individual  members  of  the  class  may  in  various 
respects  be  governed  by  their  membership  in  other 
groups — reUgious,  political,  local — or  be  deter- 
mined by  temperament  or  conviction  to  actions  not 
in  accord  with  the  capitalistic  ideal. 

1.  The  primary  object  of  capitalism  is  the  carry- 
ing on  of  business  and  industry  for  profit.  It  is  not 
the  craftsman's  interest  in  skill,  nor  the  inventor's 
interest  in  discovery,  although  these  may  be  utilized 
as  means.  It  is  not  the  avaricious  seeking  of  wealth 
apart  from  the  process  of  business;  it  is  "making 
money" — not  merely  getting  money.  Success  from 
the  capitalistic  point  of  view  is  secured  by  building 
up  a  great  business,  but  the  outstanding  measure 
of  success  is  not  so  much  the  efficiency  of  the  busi- 
ness or  its  service  to  the  public  as  it  is  the  profits 
secured  as  shown  in  the  annual  balance  sheet. 

Further,  its  conception,  although  not  excluding 
the  spending  of  money  upon  luxuries,  or  the  bestowal 
of  it  upon  education  and  philanthropy,  does  not 
directly  favor  such  uses.  The  central  idea  is  that 
business  enterprise  for  profit  is  not  a  means  to 
anything  else — leisure,  art,  science,  religion,  ostenta- 
tious display — but  is  itself,  if  not  the  all-sufficient, 
at  least  the  most  important,  end  and  value  of  life. 
It  is  not  merely  the  means  of  acquiring  wealth, 
it  is  both  a  fascinating  occupation  and,  under 
present-day  conditions,  the  greatest  source  of 
power  in  comparison  with  which  politics  is  of 
secondary  interest  and  place.  The  logical  use  to 
make  of  the  great  bulk  of  wealth  accumulated  is  to 
use  it  as  capital — for  expanding  business  and 
industry. 

2.  The  class  which  best  exemplifies  the  capital- 
istic ideal  becomes  not  only  an  active  accumulative 
class,  but  a  property-ownmg  class.  As  such  it  is, 
however,  distinguished  from  such  a  propertied  class 
as  the  British  landed  aristocracy  with  whom  prop- 


erty is  subsidiary  to  political  power  or  intricately 
involved  in  family  prestige  and  social  status.  The 
capitalist  class  receives  the  successful  business 
man  irrespective  of  family.  It  is  also  distinct 
in  its  ideals  from  the  farmer  class  which,  although 
owning  property,  gets  little  advantage  from  the 
collective  process  of  modern  industry  and  finance, 
works  hard  at  manual  labor,  gets  little  gain  through 
the  labor  of  hired  wage  workers,  and  does  not 
realize  the  meaning  of  the  power  of  property 
in  combination.  It  is  contrasted  most  sharply 
with  the  wage-earning  class,  which  possesses  little 
property.  (In  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
P'rance,  and  Germany  the  tendency  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few  is  so  uniform 
as  to  imply  that  this  tendency  is  part  of  the  system, 
though  greatly  aggravated  in  Great  Britain  by 
primogeniture.  The  richest  two  per  cent  in  all 
these  countries  own  considerably  more  than  half 
the  wealth,  the  upper  middle  class,  comprising 
eight  per  cent  of  the  population,  owns  about  one- 
third,  leaving  from  one-thirtieth  to  one-eighteenth 
for  the  remaining  four-fifths  of  the  population.) 

The  attitude  of  the  capitalist  is  not  militancy 
for  its  own  sake,  but  as  the  builder  of  enterprise  and 
the  owner  of  it  .he  resents  any  interference  with  his 
rights  of  control  and  ownership,  and  hence  opposes 
such  recognition  of  any  group  as  lesssen  his  power. 
He  is  willing  to  give  what  he  considers  fair  or  even 
liberal  wages,  but  is  likely  to  insist  that  he  must  be 
the  sole  judge  of  what  is  fair. 

3.  The  capitalist  group  is  a  competitive  group. 
It  observes  strictly  certain  "rules  of  the  game," 
e.g.,  which  condemn  forgery,  frauds  of  certain 
kinds,  failure  to  keep  contracts.  In  merchandizing 
it  has  made  progress  in  recent  years  toward  stand- 
ards of  quality  and  uniformity  of  prices.  But  in 
large  fields  of  operation,  the  maxim  caveat  emptor 
prevails.  The  logical  standard  of  value  is  "what 
you  can  get"  or  "what  the  traffic  will  bear"  rather 
than  any  assumed  intrinsic  value  or  any  relation 
to  cost  of  production.  In  this  point  it  has  en- 
countered opposition  in  other  groups,  particularly 
when  prices  for  various  kinds  of  quasi-public 
services — e.g.,  railroad  and  gas  rates — have  been  in 
question.  Monopoly  is  in  such  cases  a  disturbing 
factor. 

4.  In  dealing  with  labor,  capitalism  has  in  the 
past  also  preferred  the  competitive  method,  as 
contrasted  with  any  method  of  collective  bargaining. 
It  has  stood  for  the  "open  shop,"  which  means  in 
practice  that  the  employer  bargains  with  the  indi- 
vidual employee  and  not  with  the  union  to  which 
an  employee  may  theoretically  belong.  The 
employer  believes  that  in  this  way  there  is  gjreater 
incentive  to  individual  efficiency.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  except  in  times  of  extraordinarj^  scarcity 
of  labor,  the  open,  i.e.,  non-union  shop,  is  highly 
advantageous  to  the  employer. 

6.  In  relation  to  the  pubUc  at  large,  capitalism 
has  adopted  the  underlying  philosophy  of  Adam 
Smith:  if  each  man  seel^  his  own  interest,  he  will 
promote,  though  unintentionally,  the  public  good. 
Capitalism  believes  the  present  system  to  be  the 
best  yet  devised  for  carrying  on  the  world's  industry 
and  commerce.  It  believes  that  prosperity  is 
dependent  upon  giving  capitalism  a  free  hand,  sub- 
ject to  a  certain  amount  of  pubUc  control  over 
railroads,  banking,  etc.,  which  operates  to  stabilize 
prices  and  values. 

6.  The  prevailing  agency  of  capitalism  is  the 
corporation.  This  is  impersonal.  It  can  be 
held  to  legal  responsibility,  but  as  it  is  organized 
for  a  single  purpose,  namely  "for  profit,"  it  does 
not  admit  other  motives  to  enter  into  its  conduct  of 
affairs  which  would  interfere  with  profits.  Both 
in  its  relation  to  the  pubhc  and  in  its  relation  to 


Capitularies 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


70 


workmen,  the  corporation  frequently  pursues 
policies  varying  widely  from  the  views  entertained 
by  individual  directors  or  stockholders.  This 
impersonal  attitude  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
ethics  of  capitalism.  It  also  explains  much  of 
the  public  attitude  toward  corporations,  since  the 
public  refuses  to  treat  a  corporation  in  the  same 
way  in  which  it  would  treat  an  individual  who  has 
feelings  and  morals.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
the  very  fact  that  the  corporation  is  impersonal 
favors  a  stricter  control  over  its  operations  in  the 
interest  of  public  welfare.  Jamios  H.  Tufts 

CAPITULARIES.— Legal  enactments  originat- 
ing with  the  Merovingian  and  Carolingian  Kings, 
so  called  from  their  divisions  into  chapters  {capi- 
tulae).  The  capitularies  included  ecclesiastical 
legislation  emanating  from  the  councils  of  bishops 
and  by  royal  approval  made  binding  on  all  Chris- 
tians. 

CAPPADOCIAN      THEOLOGY.— Cappadocia 

was  an  inland  province  in  Asia  Minor  in  which 
Caesarea,  the  episcopal  see  of  Basil,  was  one  of  the 
important  towns.  Nazianzus  and  Nyssa  were 
places  of  no  importance  except  as  the  centers  of  the 
bishoprics  of  the  two  Gregorys.  These  three  con- 
temporaries are  known  as  "the  three  Cappadocians," 
their  contribution  to  theology  being  the  formulation 
of  the  Trinitarian  doctrine  in  terms  of  three  hypos- 
tases (persons)  in  one  ousia  (substance).  The 
"persons"  of  the  trinity  were  thus  individualizations 
of  one  divine  substance  common  to  the  three,  the 
aim  being  to  avoid  tritheism  and  Sabellianism. 

CAPRICE. — An  abrupt  change  of  attitude, 
purpose  or  plan  without  adequate  moral  grounds. 

CAPUCHINS.— A  R.C.  order  of  friars  originat- 
ing in  1520  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Franciscan  order, 
so  named  from  their  pointed  hood  (capuche).  Their 
discipUne  is  rigorous,  and  purports  to  be  a  literal 
observance  of  that  of  St.  Francis. 

CARDINAL. — A  member  of  the  highest  official 
body  in  the  R.C.  church.  The  cardinals  form  with 
the  pope  the  College  of  Cardinals,  the  governing 
body  of  the  church,  and  elect  a  pope  when  there  is 
a  vacancy.  The  number  of  cardinals  was  fixed  by 
Sixtus  V.  1586  at  70,  divided  into  tjiree  orders: 
6  cardinal  bishops,  50  cardinal  priests,  and  14 
cardinal  deacons.  Nomination  to  the  office  is  a 
papal  function,  as  is  also  the  installation  service. 
By  decree  of  Urban  VIII.,  1630,  the  title  of  Emi- 
nence was  attached  to  the  office. 

CARDINAL  VIRTUES.— Those  virtues  which 
are  deemed  most  necessary  in  human  conduct. 
Plato  named  prudence,  courage,  temperance,  and 
justice.  The  R.C.  church  calls  these  natural  and 
adds  three  theological  virtues — faith,  hope,  and  love. 
See  Virtues  and  Vices. 

CAREY,  WILLIAM  (1761-1834).— Pioneer  mi^ 
sionary  to  India  and  Oriental  scholar.  In  1792 
through  his  efforts  the  first  Baptist  missionary 
society  was  formed;  and  in  1793  he  went  to  India. 
He  translated  the  Bible  as  a  whole  or  in  part  into 
26  Indian  vernaculars,  and  was  for  30  years  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  Fort  WilUam  College. 

CARLSTADT,  ANDREAS,  RUDOLPH 
BODENSTEIN  VON  (1480-1541).— Protestant 
Reformer.  Originally  a  follower  of  Aquinas  and 
Scholasticism,  he  became  a  defender  of  Luther,  but 
gradually  advanced  to  revolutionary  views  which 
led  to  estrangement.    After  confUct  with  the  state 


he  had  to  flee  Germany  and  spent  the  last  twelve 
years  of  his  life  in  Switzerland. 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS  (1795-1881).— Carlyle, 
like  Coleridge,  mediated  to  England  and  America 
the  German  current  of  thought  which  produced 
Transcendentalism  and  the  interest  in  divine 
Immanence.  At  first  a  prey  to  skepticism,  op- 
pressed by  the  mechanistic  view  of  the  Universe, 
he  reacted  powerfully  {Sartor  Resartus,  1838)  to 
Goethe's  conception  of  nature  as  infused  with 
deity  and  of  each  human  will  as  an  utterance  of  this 
divine  nature.  Despite  his  intense  moral  earnest- 
ness Carlyle  tends  to  speak  of  the  divine  will  as 
Force,  and  his  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,  as  well 
as  well  as  his  historical  works,  glorifying  the  strong 
wills  that  have  shaped  history,  verge  perilously 
on  the  doctrine  that  might  is  right.  Though  dis- 
trusting poHtical  democracy  he  was  a  champion 
of  oppressed  workingmen  with  a  bitter  hostility  to 
the  laissez  faire  economists.  He  dealt  with  the 
social  problem  in  Chartism  (1829)  and  Past  and 
Present  (1843).  F.  A.  Christie 

CARMATIANS.— See  IsMA'iLis. 

CARMELITES.— A  R.C.  mendicant  order, 
founded  by  Berthold,  a  crusader,  on  Mt.  Carmel 
in  the  12th.  century,  and  called  in  England  "White 
Friars"  from  the  white  mantle  worn  over  their 
brown  cloak.  St.  Theresa  (q.v.)  introduced  drastic 
reforms  into  the  order  in  the  16th.  century,  resulting 
in  a  division  into  the  discalced  or  barefooted  and 
calced  or  older  branch,  the  former  section  being  the 
more  active  and  numerous. 

CARO,  JOSEPH  (1488-1575).— Great  Jewish 
rabbi,  mystic,  talmudist,  and  codifier,  born  in  Spain, 
flourished  in  Palestine.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his 
Shulhan-'Aruk  (set  table),  the  latest  and  most 
authoritative  code  of  rabbinic  law. 

CAROLINE  BOOKS.— Four  books  which  ap- 
peared in  790^791  under  the  name  of  Charle- 
magne, forbidding  the  worship  of  images  and  pic- 
tures, but  approving  their  use  as  works  of  art  for 
ornaments  and  memorials. 

CARTESIANISM.— The  philosophical  system 
originating  with  Descai'tes  (q.v.),  attempting  with 
mathematical  exactness  to  demonstrate  funda- 
mental truths  on  the  basis  of  indubitable  facts  of 
experience.  These  facts  were  the  conscious  self 
(cogito,  ergo  sum)  and  the  ideas  which  cannot  be 
eliminated  by  critical  doubt.  The  existence  of 
God  is  held  to  be  necessary  in  order  to  account  for 
the  content  of  consciousness. 

CARTHAGE,  SYNODS  OF.— As  the  leading 
city  in  northern  Africa  and  the  home  of  distin- 
guished bishops,  among  whom  was  Cyprian,  Carth- 
age was  the  seat  of  a  large  number  of  Synods  during 
the  first  six  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 

Of  these  Synods  the  most  important  were  those 
(251,  252,  253,  255,  256)  concerned  with  deciding 
the  attitude  of  the  church  to  those  who  under  perse- 
cution had  lapsed  from  the  faith;  and  those  which 
dealt  with  questions  which  arose  in  the  great 
Donatist  controversy  (see  Donatism)  (most  impor- 
tant 401,  403,  404,  408,  418).  Synods  were  also 
held  in  connection  with  the  Pelagian  contro- 
versy. 

The  Synod  of  419  indicated  the  independent 
attitude  of  the  African  Church  toward  the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  Subsequent  Synods  (525,  535)  dealt  with 
the  relation  of  Arians  to  the  Catholic  church. 

Shailer  Mathews 


71 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Catechism 


CARTHUSIAN.— An  extremely  vigorous  R.C. 
order  of  monks,  established  in  S.  Italy  by  St.  Bruno 
in  1086.  An  almost  solitary  life,  poor  food  with  no 
meat,  coarse  and  scanty  clothing,  and  a  vow  of 
silence  are  their  characteristic  rules. 

CARTWRIGHT,  PETER  (1785-1872).— A 
famous  pioneer  evangeUst  in  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal church  in  America,  noted  for  his  direct  and 
unsophisticated  manner  of  preaching. 

CARTWRIGHT,  THOMAS  (1535-1603).— Eng- 
lish Puritan,  who  engaged  in  a  long  conflict  with 
Whitgift,  in  which  he  defended  Presbyterian  views 
of  church  government  as  against  episcopalianism. 

CASSIAN,  JOHN  (ca.  360-ca.  435).— Monk, 
who  founded  two  monastic  institutions  at  Mar- 
seilles, among  the  first  in  Western  Europe.  He  was 
canonized,  and  a  feast  in  his  honor  was  long  observed 
in  Marseilles.  He  wrote  two  treatises  on  monastic 
life. 

CASTE. — A  term  applied  to  the  division  of 
society  into  exclusive  classes,  especially  applicable 
to  India. 

The  accident  of  birth  determines  a  man's  place 
in  the  social  order.  The  basis  of  society  is  the 
endogamous  group.  Marriage  outside  the  group  is 
forbidden.  Food  or  drink  may  not  be  received  from 
members  of  lower  castes  or  partaken  of  with  them. 
Each  caste  forbids  certain  kinds  of  food.  Occupa- 
tion is  restricted,  in  a  large  measure,  to  the  tradi- 
tional one  of  the  caste.  Each  group  claims  a  com- 
mon ancestor.  In  India,  the  Brahman  castes  occupy 
a  position  of  unquestioned  social  supremacy,  but 
the  invention  and  fixation  of  caste  is  not  due 
entirely  to  priestly  aggrandizement.  They,  as  pos- 
sessing religious  sanctity,  as  intermediators  between 
men  and  gods,  as  sole  custodians  of  the  sacred 
texts,  were  tacitly  recognized  as  the  highest  models 
of  ceremonial  and  racial  purity. 

The  earliest  Sanskrit  word  for  caste  is  variia, 
"color."  The  first  line  of  demarkation  was  that 
between  the  white  Aryans  and  the  dark-skinned 
Dravidians.  The  basis  of  the  system  was  purity 
of  blood,  of  ceremonial  practice,  of  social  custom. 
Then  came  a  fixation  of  the  loose  division  of  the 
people  into  priests  (Brahmans) ,  warriors  (Ksatriyas) , 
tillers  of  the  soil  (Vaigyas),  and  menials  (Qiidras); 
occupation  became  hereditary,  and  position  in  the 
social  scale  depended  on  the  nature  of  the  occupa- 
tion and  on  purity  of  cult.  Some  of  the  twenty-four 
hundred  distinct  castes  are  tribal  in  origin,  some 
occupational,  some  religious,  some  national,  some 
are  due  to  crossing  of  blood,  to  migration,  to  change 
of  custom.  No  one  formula  will  cover  the  whole 
system.  Caste  does  not  tend  to  social  or  national 
unity.  New  castes  are  constantly  forming.  The 
system  is  not  absolutely  rigid,  but  changes  slowly  to 
meet  changes  of  social  conditions.  Expulsion  from 
caste,  for  infringement  of  caste  rules,  means  com- 
plete social  excommunication.  W.  E.  Clark 

CASUISTRY.— The  art  of  applying  general 
moral  principles  to  particular  actions.  (1)  Broadly, 
casuistry  is  involved  in  all  estimation  of  conduct 
under  moral  standards.  (2)  But  the  term  is  usually 
limited  to  the  settlement  of  doubtful  cases  under 
fixed,  authoritative  standards,  as  in  Jewish  law, 
Puritan  ethics,  and  especially  Catholic  practise, 
where  authoritative  moral  prescriptions  applied  in 
the  confessional  made  it  necessary  to  seek  judgment 
on  specific  conduct  by  moral  experts.  (3)  Such 
casuistry  easily  resulted  in  pernicious  legalistic 
elaboration  and  evasion.  Hence  the  term  now 
usually  carries  a  sinister  reference.     In  thiy  sense 


casuistry,  in  antithesis  to  the  basing  of  moral  life 
•  on  attitude  and  intelligence  rather  than  rules,  and 
to  the  re-shaping  of  moral  ideals  in  the  very  process 
of  applying  them,  is  alien  to  modern  life.  The 
method  of  legal  decisions  forms  its  nearest  present 
analogue.  J.  F.  Crawford 

CATACOMBS.— Originally  the  name  of  some 
low-lying  hollows  (catacumbae)  along  the  Appian 
Way,  came  to  designate  the  subterranean  passages 
excavated  there  and  afterwards  in  other  places  by 
the  Roman  Christians  for  burial  places.  They  were 
excavated  principally  in  the  3rd.  and  early  4th. 
centuries.  St.  Jerome  visited  them  in  his  boyhood 
(ca.  354).  By  the  end  of  the  4th.  century  they 
were  venerated  and  visited  by  pilgrims,  and  were 
repaired  and  restored  by  the  popes.  After  the 
barbarian  invasions  they  fell  into  disrepair  and 
in  the  9th,  century  the  bodies  were  for  the  most 
part  removed  to  other  places.  The  catacombs  were 
soon  forgotten  and  remained  so  until  1578  when 
they  were  accidentally  rediscovered.  It  should  be 
observed  that  they  were  made  not  for  concealment 
or  refuge,  but  simply  as  places  of  burial,  the  Chris- 
tians, like  the  Romans  of  earlier  times,  preferring 
burial  to  cremation.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

CATECHETICAL  INSTRUCTION.— The  dis- 
cipline, including  especially  the  impartation  of  the 
fundamentals  of  Christian  doctrine,  considered 
necessary  as  preparation  for  full  participation  in  the 
fellowship  of  the  church. 

It  has  been  the  almost  universal  theory  of  the 
church  that  a  person  should  possess  some  intelli- 
gent appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  Christian  life 
and  teaching  before  becoming  a  communicant. 
The  instruction  given  to  the  candidate  was  called 
from  the  early  method  of  impartation  catechetical 
(i.e.,  oral)  and  the  candidate  was  known  as  a  cate- 
chumen (q.v.).  The  body  of  instruction  gradually 
became  fixed  and  in  its  elaborated  written  form 
was  called  the  catechism  (q.v.). 

Theodore  G.  Scares 

CATECHETICS.— The  science  deahng  with  the 
theory  and  practice  of  instructing  children  and  new 
converts  in  the  fundamentals  of  Christian  faith; 
so  called  because  the  catechism  has  been  tradi- 
tionally employed.  See  also  Catechism;  Cate- 
chetical Instruction;    Catechumen. 

CATECHISM. — A  summary  of  fundamental 
Christian  doctrine  intended  for  children  and  for 
those  uninstructed  in  the  faith.  See  also  Catechu- 
men; Catechetical  Instruction. 

In  the  early  days  of  Christianity  religious  instruc- 
tion was  necessarily  oral  and  so  naturally  took  the 
name  catechizing  (literally,  teaching  by  oral  repeti- 
tion). In  order  to  elucidate  the  truth  the  teacher 
would  employ  the  question  and  answer  method. 
This  tended  to  become  fixed  as  set  question,  and 
definite,  accurately  stated  answer.  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  the  accepted  form  of  imparting  knowledge 
in  all  subjects.  Thus  the  word  catechism  came  to 
mean  a  body  of  elementary  instruction  cast  in  the 
question  and  answer  form.  Its  present  religious 
use  seems  to  date  from  the  Reformation. 

1.  Early  Christian  catechisms. — The  instruction 
given  to  the  catechimien  (q.v.)  in  the  early  church 
was  partly  practical,  concerned  with  his  actual 
Christian  living,  and  partly  doctrinal,  that  he 
might  be  furnished  with  sound  knowledge  of  the 
fundamentals  of  faith.  The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  (see  Didache),  written  in  the 
2nd.  century,  was  probably  designed  for  this  pur- 
pose. Subsequent  training  came  to  involve  three 
elements.  One  of  the  most  important  was  the 
Apostleis'  Creed  (q.v.)  which  was  to  be  learned, 


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explained,  and  believed.  The  church  with  fine 
insight  early  realized  that  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  a 
model  of  Christian  aspiration,  and  based  its  teach- 
ing regarding  fellowship  with  God  upon  the  petitions 
of  this  prayer.  The  central  doctrine  of  salvation 
turns  so  greatly  upon  the  meaning  of  sin  that  Chris- 
tian teachers  found  it  necessary  to  give  careful 
instruction  on  this  subject.  The  Decalogue  was 
thought  to  be  especially  useful  for  this  purpose,  as 
each  of  the  sins  there  forbidden  could  be  presented 
as  typical  of  a  whole  class  of  sins.  Thus  the 
commandment  against  murder  was  the  basis  for 
instruction  regarding  all  sins  arising  from  anger 
or  vengeance,  the  commandment  against  adultery  for 
all  sins  of  the  flesh,  and  so  on.  As  the  heathen 
tribes  of  central  and  northern  Europe  were  con- 
verted, it  was  very  useful  to  be  able  to  put  the 
candidates  for  Christian  fellowship  through  a 
discipline  which  emphasized  the  ethical  meaning 
of  their  new  faith. 

While  these  three  elements  of  instruction  were 
employed  during  the  Middle  Ages,  we  do  not  know 
that  they  were  ever  put  into  definite  catechetical 
form  before  the  Reformation.  It  was  in  the 
endeavor  to  indoctrinate  people  against  theo- 
logical error  that  the  catechism  was  developed  by 
the  reformers. 

2.  Protestant  catechisms. — The  three  elements 
which  bad  been  traditionally  employed  were  still 
used.  The  Creed  was  the  expression  of  faith. 
The  recitation  and  explanation  of  the  Law  was  the 
statement  of  the  obligation  taken  for  the  child  by 
the  sponsors  and  now  to  be  assumed  by  him.  The 
Lord's  Prayer  was  the  means  of  securing  from 
God  the  ability  to  keep  the  commands.  To  these 
were  added  questions  and  answers  upon  the  doc- 
trine of  the  sacraments.  Special  care  was  taken 
in  the  phrasing  of  these  latter  statements  as  the 
controversies  regarding  the  sacraments  were  par- 
ticularly keen.  A  very  large  number  of  catechisms 
appeared  of  which  a  few  stand  out  as  of  chief 
importance. 

(1)  Luther's. — Martin  Luther  attached  the  very 
greatest  importance  to  the  instruction  of  the  young 
in  the  Christian  faith.  For  doctrinal  reasons  he 
rearranged  the  order  of  the  traditional  elements 
putting  the  Law  first  in  order  to  produce  conviction 
of  sin,  then  the  Creed  as  the  exposition  of  grace,  then 
the  Lord's  Prayer  as  the  expression  of  Christian 
life.  These  were  followed  by  the  sacraments 
together  with  the  exposition  of  confession  and 
absolution.  He  put  forth  his  catechism  in  1529 
in  two  forms,  the  smaller  and  the  larger.  These 
soon  attained  wide  popularity  and  became  stand- 
ard for  the  Lutheran  church. 

(2)  Heidelberg. — The  Reformed  church  differed 
on  some  important  points  from  the  Lutheran,  and 
it  was  necessary  therefore  that  appropriate  cate- 
chisnis  should  be  prepared.  Calvin  published 
one  in  1536  and  another,  the  Genevan  Catechism, 
in  1545.  But  the  great  Reformed  catechism  of  the 
16th.  century  was  the  Heidelberg,  published  in 
1563.  It  was  translated  into  many  languages  and 
is  still  the  most  popular  catechism  in  the  Reformed 
faith.  It  is  a  highly  elaborated  statement  of 
creed  and  doctrine,  containing  129  questions 
and  answers.  It  consists  of  three  parts:  (1)  the 
sin  and  misery  of  man,  (2)  redemption  by  Christ, 
which  includes  the  Creed  and  the  sacraments, 
(3)  the  Thankful  Life  of  the  Christian,  including 
the  Decalogue  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

(3)  Anglican. — A  catechism  was  included  in 
the  first  Book  of  Common  Prayer  (1549)  which 
followed  the  old  order,  the  Creed,  the  Command- 
ments, and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  order  being 
justified  as  faith,  duty,  and  aspiration.  In  1604 
there  was  added  a  section  upon  the  sacraments 


in  which  form  the  catechism  has  continued  to  the 
present  time. 

(4)  Westminster. — Calvin's  Genevan  Catechism 
was  translated  for  the  Scottish  Presbyterians. 
The  controversies  of  the  century  led  to  a  demand 
for  a  more  exact  definition  of  Christian  doctrine, 
and  the  Westminster  Assembly  undertook  this 
task.  Two  catechisms  were  published,  the  Larger 
and  the  Shorter,  in  1647,  of  which  the  latter  is  the 
more  celebrated.  It  is  a  most  elaborate  statement 
of  Calvinistic  divinity.  It  contains  107  questions 
and  answers.  Proceeding  from  the  Scriptures  it 
defines  God,  the  Trinity,  the  eternal  decrees,  the 
fall,  the  offices  of  Christ,  the  work  of  the  Spirit  in 
redemption,  effective  calling,  justification,  adoption, 
sanctification,  and  the  benefits  thereof.  Questions 
39  to  82  deal  with  the  commandments.  Then 
follows  the  consideration  of  the  way  of  salvation 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments.  Questions  98 
to  107  deal  with  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  Creed  is 
appended  to  the  Catechism,  but  is  not  explained. 

(5)  Numerous  catechisms  have  been  put  forth 
from  time  to  time  by  various  Christian  bodies  and 
by  individuals.  Most  notable  among  the  latter 
is  that  of  Isaac  Watts.        Theodore  G.  Soaees 

CATECHUMEN.— A  term  applied  in  early 
Christianity  to  one  who  was  receiving  instruction 
preparatory  to  baptism  and  membership  in  the 
church.  The  word  is  now  sometimes  used  for  one 
who  is  receiving  instruction  preparatory  to  con- 
firmation. See  also  Catechisxm;  Catechetical 
Instruction. 

The  first  converts  to  Christianity  were  Jews  and 
Gentiles  familiar  with  the  Hebrew  faith.  The 
acceptance  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  was  sufficient  to 
warrant  their  incorporation  in  the  Christian  com- 
munity. When  the  gospel  was  preached  to  the 
heathen  who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment background  it  was  necessary  to  give  them  a 
period  of  instruction  in  the  fundamentals  of  the 
faith  before  they  could  be  baptized  and  accepted 
as  Christians.  Moreover  children  of  Christian 
families  needed  similar  instruction.  There  was 
therefore  developed  a  class  of  novitiates  who  were 
permitted  to  attend  the  services  and  to  enjoy  the 
Christian  fellowship  but  were  not  admitted  to  the 
Lord's  Supper,  not  even  being  present  at  its  observ- 
ance. Inasmuch  as  they  were  in  a  condition  of 
tutelage  they  were  called  catechumens  or  learners. 
When  the  church  was  satisfied  that  they  understood 
the  articles  of  faith  and  were  living  a  worthy  Chris- 
tian life,  they  were  permitted  to  take  the  solemn 
vow  of  allegiance  to  Christ  and  to  receive  Christian 
baptism. 

With  the  adoption  of  infant  baptism  and  the 
acceptance  of  children  into  the  church  before  they 
were  capable  of  personal  faith,  the  vows  had  to 
be  taken  by  sponsors.  The  catechumenate  thus 
disappeared.  Gradually,  however,  the  ceremony  of 
confirmation  was  developed,  in  which  the  vow 
of  allegiance  was  taken  personally  by  the  candidate 
when  he  had  attained  sufficient  maturity.  The 
same  reasons  which  formerly  led  to  instruction 
preceding  baptism  now  required  similar  instruction 
before  confirmation.  The  child  passing  through 
this  period  of  preparation  may  be  called  a  cate- 
chumen. 

While  the  above  statement  applies  especially  to 
the  Catholic,  Lutheran,  and  Anglican  churches,  a 
similar  preparation  is  employed  by  other  bodies 
before  receiving  children  into  full  church  member- 
ship, without,  however,  the  use  of  the  term  cate- 
chumen. Theodore  G.  Scares 

CATEGORICAL  IMPERATIVE.— A  phrase 
used   by   Immanucl   Kant    (q.v.)    indicating   the 


73 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS         Cathedral  Architecture 


a  priori  absolute  supremacy  of  the  formal  concep- 
tion of  the  ethically  right.  The  ethical  impera- 
tive is  thus  a  normative  and  entirely  formal 
principle  of  action  with  a  function  analogous  to 
that  of  the  categories  in  the  realm  of  thinking. 

CATENA. — A  series  of  quotations  from  Patristic 
and  other  acknowledged  authorities  to  form  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Scripture  or  an  elucidation  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine.  The  earliest  known  catena  is  that  of 
Procopius  (d.  528). 

CATHARI. — Puritans;  the  name  adopted  by 
various  reforming  sects  in  the  history  of  Christianity, 
as  the  Albigenses,  Waldenses  New  Manichaeans 
(q.v.). 

CATHARINE.— See  Catherine. 

CATHEDRA.— (1)  The  Latin  name  for  the  seat 
or  throne  of  a  bishop  in  the  principal  church  of  his 
diocese;  hence  (2)  A  designation  of  official  teaching 
of  the  church  by  the  bishop.  Thus  ex  cathedra 
is  applied  to  a  formal  pronouncement  of  the  pope 
in  the  exercise  of  his  cathoUc  office,  indicating, 
according  to  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council, 
the  infallibility  of  such  a  pronouncement. 

CATHEDRAL.— The  church  in  which  the  bishop 
has  his  throne  (Cathedra)  and  near  which  he 
resides.  Its  rank  (episcopal,  arch-episcopal,  metro- 
politan, patriarchal)  corresponds  to  the  dignity  of 
the  see  to  which  he  belongs.  Without  specified  form 
or  dimension,  in  addition  to  the  sanctuary,  choir,  and 
nave,  the  cathedral  possesses  an  episcopal  seat  in 
which  the  bishop  officiates,  attended  by  his  chapter, 
which  constitutes  his  council,  and  upon  which  de- 
volves the  cure  of  souls  exercised  through  a  vicar 
chosen  either  from  its  own  number  or  outside. 
The  members  of  the  chapter  are  called  canons,  to 
each  of  which  is  assigned  a  stall.  Of  these  canons 
residence  is  required  for  a  fixed  proportion  of  the 
year,  usually  three  months.  In  many  places  cer- 
tain ceremonies  are  reserved  to  the  cathedral,  espe- 
cially the  administration  of  baptism.  Its  revenue, 
provided  by  endowment  funds,  is  entirely  distinct 
from  those  of  the  cathedral  parish.  See  Bishop; 
Canon;  Chapter.  Peter  G.  Mode 

CATHEDRAL  ARCHITECTURE.— Meaning  as 
it  does  a  church  which  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  the 
word  cathedral  does  not  carry  any  definite  implica- 
tions as  to  architecture.  The  same  building  may 
be  a  cathedral  at  one  date  and  not  at  another. 
Thus,  the  history  of  cathedral  architecture  begins 
with  that  of  the  episcopate  and  with  those  scattered 
pre-Constantinian  churches  of  which  _  we  have 
inadequate  records  and  still  more  inadequate 
remains.  Under  Constantine  many  imposing  cathe- 
drals were  built  in  Italy,  Palestine,  and  elsewhere. 
Though  time  has  spared  none  of  them,  their  general 
features  were  permanently  retained  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical architecture  of  Western  Europe.  An 
extensive  open  court — atrium — frequently  with  a 
fountain  in  the  center  and  colonnades  about  the 
sides,  separated  the  place  of  worship  from  the 
street.  Beyond  the  court  -a  transverse  corridor — 
narthex — or  two  such  gave  access  to  the  body  of  the 
church — nave.  Here  a  wide  middle  aisle  was  set 
off  by  longitudinal  colonnades  from  narrow  and 
lower  side  isles.  The  latter  had  sloping  lean-to 
roofs,  the  carpentry  of  which  was  often  visible 
on  the  interior,  and  above  the  abutment  of  which 
rose  the  clere-story  of  the  middle  aisle  beneath 
a  gabled  roof.  At  the  end  opposite  the  entrance 
the  aisles  were  terminated  by  a  transverse  aisle — 
transept — or  aisles,  the  height  of  the  middle  aisle 


and  at  right  angles  to  it.  Beyond  this  a  projection 
-;-apse — which  was  commonly  semicircular,  con- 
tinued the  direction  of  the  nave  and  terminated 
the  structure.  A  well  known  exponent  of  the  type 
is  St.  Paul's  at  Rome,  though  the  building  as'we 
see  it  today  is  less  than  a  century  old.  St.  Clement's 
at  Rome,  though  it  too  has  been  rebuilt,  gives  a 
fine  impression  of  the  early  church  because  the 
atrium  and  old  interior  furnishings  are  preserved. 
Those  persons  not  in  full  standing — penitents  and 
new  converts — might  gather  in  the  atrium  and 
narthex.  The  congregation  stood  within  the 
church,  the  women  in  the  left  aisle  or  in  galleries 
above.  The  clergy  officiated,  facing  the  congre- 
gation at  the  altar  table  in  the  transept,  or  read  the 
Gospel  and  the  Epistle  from  pulpits  on  their 
respective  sides  near  the  transept  end  of  the  nave. 
The  throne — cathedra — of  the  bishop  and  lower 
benches  for  the  inferior  clergy  were  in  the  apse. 
There  were  adjoining  dependent  buildings,  such  as 
the  baptistry  and  the  dwellings  of  the  clergy. 

The  Christian  East  showed  great  variety  in  its 
Early  _  Christian  architecture.  In  the  interior 
of  Syria,  where  vast  numbers  of  early  churches, 
including  some  cathedrals,  still  remain,  ruinous 
and  abandoned,  the  atrium  might  be  omitted  or 
changed  to  a  court  at  the  side  of  the  church,  and 
chambers  beside  the  apse  compensated  for  the 
absence  of  the  transept.  In  Egypt,  too,  transept 
and  atrium  were  irregular  and  the  sanctuary 
appeared  as  a  separate  domed  room  on  the  axis 
of  the  nave. 

In  contrast  to  the  longitudinal  church,  or 
basilica,  of  which  the  above  account  has  been  given, 
there  developed  contemporaneously  the  central 
type,  especially  characteristic  of  Armenia  but  best 
known  by  its  manifestation  in  Byzantine  architec- 
ture. The  great  example  is  Hagia  Sophia  at 
Constantinople.  The  atrium,  outer  and  inner 
narthex,  and  apse  were  built  as  in  the  longitudinal 
type;  the  distinguishing  feature  was  a  huge  domed 
central  room  that  formed  the  body  of  the  structure. 
Though  the  atrium  later  disappeared,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  aisles  about  the  central  room  varied, 
and  innumerable  modifications  of  construction  and 
decoration  were  introduced,  this  central  type 
remained  standard  for  the  territory  of  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  just  as  the  longitudinal  type 
did  for  the  territory  of  the  Roman  patriarch. 
Because  of  overseas  connections  at  Venice  the 
eastern  type  is  echoed  in  St.  Mark's;  and,  for  all 
their  local  pecuharities,  the  traditions  of  Roumania, 
Russia,  and  so  forth,  follow  the  Byzantine  to  the 
present  day,  though  the  great  height  and  eccentric 
decoration  of  such  a  cathedral  as  Moscow  make  it 
necessary  to  analyze  the  ground  plan  to  see  the 
derivation. 

In  Western  Europe  the  desire  for  more  enduring 
buildings  and  the  development  of  ecclesiastical 
organization  were  two  important  factors  in  the 
evolution  of  architecture.  The  basilica  had  pos- 
sessed but  a  wooden  roof  and  was  therefore  continu- 
ally in  need  of  repair  and  was  frequently  destroyed 
by  fire.  The  vaulting  was  the  most  obvious 
achievement  of  the  Romanesque  style,  which  made 
its  appearance  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  mil- 
lennium. Northern  Italy  (e.g.,  Modena),  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine  (e.g.,  Bamberg),  and  Southern 
France  were  the  region  of  its  fullest  expansion.  The 
Gothic  was  simply  a  continuation  of  the  Romanesque ; 
in  it,  however,  the  problems  of  vaulting  were  much 
more  successfully  solved;  it  grew  up  in  Northern 
France  (e.g.,  St.  Denis,  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  etc.), 
was  carried  forward  into  a  great  national  style  in 
England,  spread  southward  to  Spain  and  Italy  and 
eastward  to  Cyprus.  Through  the  periods  of  the 
Romanesque  and  the  Gothic  the  clergy  was  becoming 


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74 


more  numerous  and  more  powerful.  This  reveals 
itself  in  the  way  their  part  of  the  church  grew  in 
relative  size.  The  transept,  which  originally  ran 
across  the  end  of  the  nave,  gradually  advanced 
toward  the  middle,  leaving  a  long  choir  behind  it; 
finally,  the  transept  even  passed  the  middle  at 
times  and  the  resultant  choir  was  so  long  that 
in  England  a  second  easterly  transept  was  introduced. 
Meanwhile  the  cult  of  the  saints  had  led  to  the 
provision  of  countless  subsidiary  chapels,  and  in 
the  Gothic  cathedrals  of  France  lady  chapels  ran 
all  the  way  around  the  sanctuary   proper. 

The  Renaissance  abruptlj^  deflected  the  course 
of  architectural  evolution  in  Western  Europe. 
Imitation  of  classical  buildings,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
of  Byzantine  doming,  on  the  other,  broke  the 
virility  of  time-honored  tradition.  Only  the 
Baroque  style,  spread  everywhere  by  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  e.g.,  even  to  Mexico,  still  retained  the 
spirit  of  a  creative  tradition.  But  the  vascillation 
between  conflicting  ideals  makes  many  modern 
cathedrals  seem  more  a  medley  than  a  harmonious 
composition.  At  present,  however,  serious  attempts 
are  being  made  to  build  in  an  orderly  fashion  on  the 
solid  foundations  of  the  past,  though  there  is  much 
disagreement  as  to  what  past  should  be  chosen. 

John  Shafley 

CATHERINE  DE'  MEDICI  (1519-1589).— 
Queen  of  France,  was  influential  during  the  period 
of  turmoil  of  the  wars  of  religion  (q.v.).  She  was  a 
CathoUc,  and  resolved  to  keep  down  Protestants, 
yet  not  utterly.  The  murder  of  Coligny,  and 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  Were  results 
of  her  anti-Protestant  policy. 

CATHERINE,  SAINT.— There  are  six  saints 
of  this  name  in  the  Roman  Cathohc  calendar.  The 
most  famous  are  St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  who 
professed  Christianity  in  the  time  of  Maximus 
(308-314)  for  which  she  was  tortured  on  a  wheel 
and  beheaded;  and  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna  (1347- 
1380),  an  ecstatic  who  received  the  stigmata. 

CATHOLIC,  CATHOLICISM.— A  term  applied 
to  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  church  to  indicate 
that  they  are  universally  observed. 

The  spread  of  Christianity  through  the  Roman 
Empire  gave  rise  to  a  great  number  of  different 
groups  with  their  own  behefs  and  practices.  In  no 
small  measure,  these  were  the  outgrowth  of  attempts 
of  various  philosophies  and  rehgions  to  appropriate 
some  element  of  Christianity.  In  opposing  these 
various  groups,  the  church  appealed  to  the  Bible  as 
the  expression  of  apostolic  views  and  authority. 
After  the  bishops  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  apostolic  teaching,  there  grew  up  a  sort 
of  Bishops'  Christianity,  which  was  described  as 
that  which  was  held  by  all,  everywhere  and  always. 
This  idea  of  a  universal  doctrine  possessed  by  a 
universal  community  of  believers,  as  opposed  to 
sects,  heresies  and  schisms  which  emphasized  some 
particular  doctrine  or  practice  is  the  central  element 
in  Catholicism. 

After  the  Reformation,  catholic  character  was 
claimed  by  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches,  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  Protestant  churches.  In  late  years, 
however,  it  has  been  claimed  by  the  Anghcan 
and  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  the  representatives  of  the  historical, 
universal  Christian  church.  Catholic  churches 
regard  themselves  as  the  true  agents  of  saving  grace 
of  which  the  sacraments  are  the  channels.  Non- 
conformists are  regarded  as  schismatics,  if  not 
heretics.  In  Protestant  usage  the  words  indicate 
the  universality  and  completeness  of  the  Christian 
system  as  distinct  from  variant  theories. 

Shailer  Mathews 


CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH,  THE.— 

A  religious  denomination  growing  out  of  a  movement 
begun  in  England  in  1830  and  taking  definite 
form  in  1835.  Certain  persons  were  associated  by 
their  exercise  of  special  spiritual  gifts  and  their 
expulsion  from  other  churches.  Edward  Irving 
(q.v.)  was  a  leader  in  this  group,  hence  the  name 
"Irvingites"  was  applied  to  them,  though  repudiated 
by  the  group  itself.  They  do  not  publish  statistics, 
claiming  that  the  membership  embraces  all  the 
baptized.  Their  services  are  highly  liturgical, 
much  emphasis  being  placed  on  symbolism.  They 
are  millenarians,  believing  that  the  church  must 
make  spiritual  preparation  for  the  millennium  by 
the  maintenance  of  all  ordinances  and  ministeries 
ordained  of  God.  Hence  they  support  a  fourfold 
ministry  of  apostles,  prophets,  evangelists  and 
pastors.  The  movement  has  spread  to  the  U.S.A., 
Germany  and  Holland. 

CATHOLIC  CHURCH.— See  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION.— An  act  passed 
by  the  British  Parliament  under  the  ministry 
of  Wellington  and  Peel  in  1829  by  which  the  civil 
disabilities,  under  which  Roman  Cathohcs  had 
suffered  since  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  were  removed. 

CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.— The  epistles  in  the 
New  Testament  which  were  addressed  to  general 
readers  in  contradistinction  from  those  addressed 
to  specific  churches  or  persons.  They  include  the 
epistle  of  James,  two  of  Peter,  three  of  John  and 
Jude. 

CATHOLIC,  GREEK.— Belonging  or  apper- 
taining to  the  Greek  church,  officially  designated 
as  the  Holy  Orthodox  Catholic  Apostolic  Oriental 
Church. 

CATHOLIC,  ROMAN.— Belonging  to  or  relat- 
ing to  the  Roman  church,  designated  in  its  title  as 
the  Holy  Catholic  ApostoUc  and  Roman  Church. 

CATHOLIC  SOCIETIES.— Aside  from  the 
numerous  monastic  and  clerical  Orders  (q.v.)  and 
Congregations  (q.v.)  of  medieval  and  modern  times, 
the  Church  of  Rome  has  developed  a  complex  of 
organizations,  international,  national  ("Church 
Extension  Society  of  the  United  States,"  etc.), 
diocesan,  or  parochial  in  character,  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  piety  and  charity,  primarily  among  the  laity. 
While  in  no  sense  confined  to  recent  times,  the 
19th.  century  witnessed  a  remarkable  development 
of  these  organizations. 

I.  Confraternities,  or  Sodalities. — Volun- 
tary associations  canonically  established  and 
ecclesiastically  controlled.     They  are  of  three  sorts. 

(1)  Those  cultivating  personal  piety  through 
veneration. — Included  here  are  Confraternities  of 
the  "Holy  Family,"  "Holy  Ghost,"  "Holy  Name," 
"Holy  Sacrament,"  "Sacred  Heart,"  and  "Precious 
Blood";  of  the  Virgin  ("Holy  Rosary,"  "Our 
Blessed  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel,"  "Children  of  Mary," 
etc.);  of  angels  and  saints  ("St.  Michael,"  "St. 
Benedict,"  "St.  Anthony  of  Padua,"  "St.  Joseph," 
etc.). 

(2)  Those  manifesting  zeal  for  souls,  or  engaging 
in  charity. — Included  here  are  Confraternities  minis- 
tering to  the  poor  ("Purgatorial  Societies");  to  the 
dying  ("of  the  Agony  of  Christ") ;  to  the  conversion 
of  sinners  ("of  the  Holy  ....  Heart  of  Jesus"); 
to  instruction  in  the  faith  ("of  Christian  Doctrine"); 
to  family  hfe  ("of  St.  Francis  Regis");  to  church 
music  ("of  St.  Cecilia");  to  temperance  reform 
("League  of  the  Cross"). 


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Celtic  Religion 


(3)  Those  ministering  to  the  needs  of  certain 
classes  of  society. — Included  here  are  Confraternities 
such  as  the  "Association  of  Christian  FamiUes"; 
"of  the  Holy  Childhood"  (missionary);  "of  the 
Child  Jesus"  (protective);  "of  the  Blessed  Virgin" 
(for  priests);  "of  Mass-servers  and  Sacristans"; 
GeseUenvereine  (for  journeymen);'  "of  St.  Raphael" 
(for  emigrants),  etc.  Arch-confraternities  include 
several  Confraternities  having*  similar  names  and 
purposes.     They  are  numerous  and  strong. 

II.  Pious  Associations. — Distinguished  from 
Confraternities  in  not  being  canonically  estab- 
lished, though  approved  by  ecclesiastical  authority, 
and  as  being  subject  to  milder  regulations.  In- 
cluded here  are  the  Societies  of  "St.  Vincent  de 
Paul"  (reUef  of  poverty);  "for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith"  (missionary);  the  "League  of  the  Sacred 
Heart"  (intercessory);  the  "Holy  Childhood 
League"  (missionary),  etc. 

Rome  forbids  membership  in  all  strictly  secret 
societies  (Masons,  Knights  of  Pythias,  etc.),  and 
regards  with  suspicion  organizations  including  both 
CathoUcs  and  Protestants.      Henry  H.  Walker 

CATHOLIKOS.— The  title  assumed  by  the 
spiritual  head  of  the  Armenian  church,  and  of  the 
Nestorian  church. 

CAUSE,  FIRST.— See  First  Cause. 

CECILIA,  SAINT.— The  patron  saint  of  music 
and  the  blind  in  the  Catholic  church,  whose  feast 
is  celebrated  Nov.  22nd.  She  was  probably  a 
Roman  lady  of  musical  talent  who  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  Marcus  Aurelius  between  176  and  180. 
She  has  been  a  favorite  subject  for  painters. 

CELESTINE.— The  name  of  five  popes. 

Celestine  I.,  422-432,  opposed  Nestorianism  and 
Pelagianism;  the  first  pope  to  show  interest  in  the 
churches  of  Great  Britain. 

Celestine  II.,  1143-1144. 

Celestine  III.,  1191-1198. 

Celestine  IV.,  1241,  died  sixteen  days  after 
election. 

Celestine  V.,  1294,  abdicated  after  five  months, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  VIII.  who  put 
him  in  prison  where  he  died  in  1296;  canonized  as 
St.  Peter  Celestine  in  1313. 

CELIBACY  (CHRISTIAN).— Abstinence  from 
marriage;  one  of  the  three  vows  taken  by  the 
Catholic  monk,  and  a  rule  binding  also  on  the 
priesthood.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  the  church 
the  conception  arose  that  the  celibate  state  was  more 
conducive  to  genuine  piety  than  the  married  state. 
This  gradually  grew  into  a  demand  on  those  who 
conducted  ecclesiastical  ministrations.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  (1545-1563)  made  celibacy  absolutely 
binding  on  all  taking  major  orders  or  the  monastic 
vow.  The  various  Protestant  confessions  expressly 
repudiate  celibacy  as  binding  on  their  ministry. 

CELIBACY  (NON-CHRISTIAN).— Of  the  great 
religions  only  Buddhism  has  developed  the  celibate 
ideal  in  any  way  parallel  to  Christianity.  The 
native  religions  of  China  and  Japan  give  it  no 
place.  In  Iran  it  was  expressly  forbidden.  It 
entered  Islam  only  under  Christian  influence. 
In  India  the  ascetic  and  mendicant  was  expected 
first  to  have  passed  through  the  married  state. 
Buddhism,  however,  developed  orders  of  monks 
and  nuns  who  were  under  vows  of  celibacy  and 
wherever  this  religion  flourished  such  celibate 
communities  are  found.  Influenced  by  Buddhism 
the  Taoist  groups  of  China  have  acquired  an  atti- 
tude of  approval  toward  celibacy.     In  Buddhism,  as 


among  the  Jains,  the  rule  did  not  apply  to  the  laity 
and  monks  were  always  free  to  return  to  the  life 
of  the  citizen.  Ancient  America  also  required  celi- 
bacy of  the  oflScial  priesthood,  shamans  and  medi- 
cine men. 

CELSUS. — A  Greek  Platonist  who  opposed 
Christianity  in  the  latter  half  of  the  2nd.  century. 

The  Uterary  work  of  Celsus  has  disappeared 
except  as  voluminously  and  accurately  preserved  in 
Origen's  masterly  reply.  He  was  evidently  sincere 
in  attempting  to  show  the  inferiority  of  Christianity 
to  Greek  philosophy  and  he  marshalled  a  very  com- 
plete list  of  objections  raised  against  Christianity 
in  that  period.  Chief  among  these  were  the  secret 
and  illegal  if  not  shameful  character  of  Christian 
gatherings;  the  social  inferiority  of  Christians;  the 
crudity  and  lack  of  originality  of  Christian  teach- 
ings; the  impossibility  of  the  deity  of  Jesus  Christ; 
the  demoniacal  origin  of  biblical  theophanies;  and 
the  fooUshness  of  declaring  the  equality  of  men 
before  a  God  impiously  claimed  to  be  loving. 

Shailer  Mathews 

CELTIC  RELIGION.— The  Celts  form  one  of 
the  great  branches  of  the  Indo-European  peoples. 
They  are  first  mentioned  by  classical  Greek  writers 
who  describe  them  as  inhabiting  central  Europe. 
A  portion  of  them  moved  south,  entering  northern 
Italy  and  threatening  Rome  itself  390  B.C.;  another 
group,  at  a  much  later  date,  moved  southeastward, 
and  settled  in  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor.  The  greater 
body  of  them,  however,  went  westward,  settling 
in  Gaul  (France)  and  the  British  Isles,  probably 
early  in  the  first  millennium  before  Christ.  It  was 
with  Galhc  and  British  Celts  that  Julius  Caesar 
fought  in  his  northern  campaigns,  and  his  notes 
are  our  first  extended  references  to  these  peoples. 
Celtic  languages  are  today  spoken  in  Brittany  (in 
France),  and  in  parts  of  Wales,  Ireland  and  Scotland. 

1.  Religion. — Like  that  of  other  barbarous 
peoples,  the  religion  of  the  Celts  was  a  pagan  poly- 
theism. Gallic  images  which  have  been  preserved 
show  that  they  venerated  animals,  or  animal-gods, 
such  as  the  boar,  stag,  bear,  as  is  natural  among  a 
hunting  people.  Other  images  indicate  veneration 
of  trees  and  vegetation,  and  it  is  assumed  that  the 
worship  of  nature's  fertility  was  early  important. 
Celtic  temples  were  sacred  groves,  and  among  the 
deities  honored  were  "corn-mothers"  and  "corn- 
maidens"  associated  with  the  productivity  of  the 
fields.  Other  important  deities  were  gods  of  com- 
merce and  roads,  of  war,  of  poetry  and  eloquence, 
and  of  the  world  of  the  dead.  A  notable  cult  was 
that  of  the  sky  or  sun-god,  worshipped  with  bale- 
fires and  other  rites  in  which  fire  was  employed. 
With  the  insular  Celts  the  sea-god  was  naturally 
important,  and  it  was  a  common  belief  that  the 
dead  were  conveyed  to  caverns  beneath  the  sea  or 
to  islands  beyond  the  waters.  _  Belief  in  life  after 
death  was  very  strong  in  Celtic  religion,  and  the 
spirits  of  ancestral  heroes  were  honored  in  myth 
and  rite.  Remains  of  Celtic  mythology  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  British  Isles,  where  the  stories  con- 
nected with  King  Arthur  and  King  Lear  indicate 
that  these  were  ancient  Celtic  divinities,  or  divine 
heroes.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Irish  saga  heroes, 
Finn,  or  Fionn,  and  Cuchulainn. 

2.  Druidism. — The  most  famous  feature  of  Cel- 
tic rehgion  is  Druidism.  The  Druids  were  the 
priests  of  the  Celtic  peoples  of  antiquity,  and  they 
are  supposed  to  have  been  divided  into  a  number  of 
orders  or  ranks,  one  of  which  was  that  of  the  bards, 
or  poets.  They  were  regarded  not  only  as  priests, 
but  also  as  sorfcerers  and  healers,  and  as  teachers  of 
the  traditional  religion.  "To  worship  the  gods,  to 
do  no  evil,  to  exercise  courage,"  are  the  maxims 
which    they    emphasized    according    to    Diogenes 


Cemetery 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


76 


Laertius,  while  other  classical  writers  ascribe  to 
them  teachings  as  to  the  motions  of  the  stars,  form 
of  the  earth,  and  transformation  of  the  elements — 
a  crude  science.  Their  rites,  however,  included 
cruel  forms  of  human  sacrifice,  and  hence  Druidism 
was  made  unlawful  by  the  Roman  emperors.  In 
Ireland  it  was  early  replaced  by  Christianity. 

H.  B.  Alexander 
CEMETERY.— A  place  for  the  burial  of  the 
dead,  so  called  by  the  early  Christians  from  the 
Greek  word  meaning  a  sleeping-place.  Originally 
they  were  separate  from  churches,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  catacombs  (q.v.).  Churchyards  (q.v.), 
later  came  to  be  used  till  the  unsanitary  conditions 
due  to  overcrowding  them  led  to  the  setting  apart 
of  park-like  enclosures  for  the  purpose,  the  practise 
now  in  European  and  American  coimtries.  Ceme- 
teries have  been  used  by  oriental  peoples,  such  as 
the  Chinese  and  Turks,  since  ancient  times. 

CENOBITES.— Monks  who  live  a  community 
life  under  a  rule,  in  contrast  with  anchorites  or 
hermits  who  withdrew  from  the  world.     See  Mon- 


CENSER. — A  container  for  burning  incense  in 
religious  ceremonials,  also  called  thurible. 

CENSORSHIP. — Official  examination  and  regu- 
lation of  manuscripts,  books  and  plays  intended 
for  publication  or  production.  Censorship  of 
religious  books  harks  back  to  Constantine's  edict 
regarding  the  works  of  Arius,  After  the  invention 
of  the  printing  press,  the  Catholic  church  exercised 
more  strict  regulation  of  literature.  Benedict  XIV. 
created  the  congregation  of  the  Index  in  1753  whose 
duty  is  the  censorship  of  books  for  the  guidance  of 
all  Catholics.  Censorship  of  news  matter  and  of 
correspondence  sent  by  mail  or  telegraph  is  an 
important  aspect  of  the  State's  direction  of  military 
operations. 

CENSURE. — -Disapproval  expressed  by  ecclesi- 
astical authority  in  the  form  of  a  public  reprimand, 
with  or  without  an  added  penalty. 

CERBERUS.— In  Hellenic  legend,  the  dog  which 
acted  as  sentinel  at  the  entrance  to  the  realm  of 
the  dead  in  the  underworld,  frustrating  all  attempts 
at  escape,  while  permitting  all  to  enter. 

CEREMONIAL,  CEREMONY.— See  Cult; 

Rites,  Rituals  and  Ceremonies. 

CERES. — The-  grain-goddess  of  the  old  Roman 
religion.  She  is  never  a  clearly  anthropomorphic 
figure  but  rather  the  spirit  of  the  growing  crops. 

CERINTHUS,  CERINTHIANS.— Cerinthus,  an 
early  Jewish  Christian  Gnostic,  lived  in  Asia  Minor 
toward  the  close  of  the  1st.  century  a.d.  Tradition 
makes  him  an  Egyptian  Jew  who  had  studied  under 
Philo  of  Alexandria  before  coming  in  contact  with 
Christianity.     See  Gnosticism. 

CERTAINTY. — An  attitude  of  unquestioning 
affirmation  of  a  proposition  or  idea,  making  possible 
decisive  action. 

Certainty  may  rest  (1)  on  personal  experience  or 
investigation,  as  when  an  eye-witness  is  sure  con- 
cerning what  he  saw;  (2)  on  self-evident  or 
axiomatic  propositions,  as  the  postulates  of  mathe- 
matics or  of  logic;  (3)  on  the  testimony  of  men 
believed  to  have  reUable  information,  as  the  con- 
clusions of  an  expert. 

Religiously,  certainty  is  urged  because  it  makes 
possible  decisive  consecration.     It  may  rest  on 


any  of  the  three  foundations  mentioned  above. 
When  personal  experience  is  the  source,  we  have 
assurance  (q.v.).  In  Christianity  the  source  of 
certainty  has  usually  been  reUance  on  the  word  of 
inspired  Scripture.  The  critical  historical  study 
of  sacred  literature,  however,  has  modified  this 
basis  of  certainty,  and  more  attention  is  now  being 
given  to  experimental  and  rational  grounds  for 
belief.     See  Assurance;  Doubt. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
CHAIR  OF  ST.  PETER.— The  Papal  office  in 
the  R.C.  church,  so  designated  because  Peter  is 
traditionally  regarded  as  the  founder. 

CHAITYA. — A  monument  erected  over  the 
relics  of  a  saint  by  the  Jains  and  Buddhists.  It 
came  also  to  mean  any  shrine  or  relic  depository 
and  is  used  in  a  special  sense  to  refer  to  the  temples 
of  these  two  religious  groups. 

CHAKRAVARTIN.— The  Hindu  term  used  to 
designate  a  world-conquering  ruler  or  universal 
monarch. 

CHALCEDON,  COUNCIL  OF.— The  Fourth 
Ecumenical  Council  held  in  451  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  up  dogma  regarding  the  person  of  Christ. 
It  was  attended  by  six  hundred  Bishops,  mostly 
from  the  Greek  Church.  The  decision  of  the 
Council  was  to  the  effect  that  in  Jesus  Christ  there 
were  two  natures,  unmingled,  but  so  united  in  the 
one  person,  Jesus  Christ,  that  neither  nature  was 
affected.     See  Creed. 

CHALDEANS. — See  Assyria  and  Babylonia, 
Religion  of. 

CHALDEAN  CHRISTIANS.— See  Nestorians. 

CHALICE. — (1)  A  goblet-shaped  cup,  used  in 
the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  (2)  Some- 
times used  metaphorically  of  the  contents  of  the  cup. 

CHALMERS,  THOMAS  (1780-1847).— Scottish 
Presbyterian  preacher  and  theologian.  He  instituted 
an  ambitious  system  of  education  and  poor-relief 
in  Glasgow  which  met  with  marked  success;  was  an 
influential  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  St. 
Andrews  and  Edinburgh;  a  leader  in  the  movement 
for  ecclesiastical  freedom  and  the  first  moderator 
of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  on  their  with- 
drawal from  the  established  church.  He  was  a 
scholar  in  economics  as  well.  Of  the  more  than 
thirty  volumes  from  his  pen,  the  chief  is  his  refuta- 
tion of  Hume's  objections  to  miracles.  His  Insti- 
tutes of  Theology  were  strictly  Calvinistic. 

CHANCE. — An  unassignable  cause  of  an  event; 
the  cause  being  unknown,  the  fortuitous  element 
itself — chance — is  frequently  treated  as  if  it  were  a 
real  cause.  In  Greek  mythology,  chance  (Tyche) 
was  a  goddess.     See  Tychism. 

CHANCEL. — That  space  in  a  church  beyond 
the  nave  and  transepts  reserved  for  the  officiating 
minister,  choir,  and  communion  table.  In  Roman 
churches  the  word  "sanctuary"  has  largely  displaced 
the  word  "chancel."  In  non-conformist  churches, 
the  chancel  refers  to  a  space  railed  off  in  front  of  the 
pulpit. 

CHANCERY,  APOSTOLIC— The  Roman  curia 

(q.v.). 

CHANGELING.— A  child  substituted  for  or 
put  in  the  place  of  another;  especially  in  folk-lore, 
a  child  believed  to  have  been  substituted  by  the 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Charity  and  Almsgiving 


fairies.  Among  less  cultured  peoples  weaklings  or 
imbecile  infants  were  regarded  as  non-human 
children  substituted  for  beautiful  children.  Scottish 
people  believed  such  substitutions  were  impossible 
after  christening.  The  origin  of  the  belief  lies  in 
the  notion  that  infants  are  especially  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  demons  and  fairy-folk. 

CHANGES,  BOOK  OF.— A  Chinese  classic 
dating  from  the  12th.  century  B.C.,  the  commen- 
taries on  which  are  ascribed  to  Confucius. 

CHANNING,  WILLIAM  ELLERY  (1780-1842). 
— American  preacher  and  author,  ordained  to  the 
ministry  of  the  Federal  St.  Congregational  Church, 
Boston,  1803.  He  developed  strong  anti-Calvinistic 
and  anti-Trinitarian  beliefs,  and  became  the  leader 
of  the  Unitarian  movement.  He  also  wrote  and 
labored  in  behalf  of  the  anti-slavery  movement. 
See  Unitarianism. 

CHANT. — A  song  or  melody  in  church  music, 
adapted  to  unmetrical  verses  such  as  the  Psalms, 
or  those  comprised  of  both  recitative  and  rhythm. 
See  Music. 

CHANUKKA.— See  Hantjkka. 

CHAOS. — (1)  A  condition  of  utter  disorder  and 
lawlessness  in  contrast  to  the  conception  of  order 
and  design  expressed  by  the  word  "cosmos."  See 
Cosmogony.  (2)  In  Greek  mythology  the  oldest 
of  the  gods,  progenitor  of  Nox  and  Erebus. 

CHAPEL. — As  distinguished  from  a  church,  a 
small  building  devoted  to  rehgious  purposes; 
a  place  of  worship  not  belonging  to  an  established 
church;  a  small  building  used  for  worship  attached 
to  or  a  part  of  a  church  or  other  building.  The 
word  has  also  a  number  of  derived  uses. 

CHAPLAIN. — A  minister  whose  office  is  the 
conduct  of  special  religious  services  for  some  person- 
age, the  state,  the  army,  the  navy,  a  public  institu- 
tion or  a  fraternal  society,  etc. 

CHAPLET.  — (1)  A  head  dress,  originally  a 
garland  or  wreath.  (2)  One  third  of  a  rosary,  i.e., 
55  beads,  used  by  R.CathoUcs  in  counting  prayers. 
See  Rosary. 

CHAPTER.— (1)  One  of  the  conventional 
divisions  of  a  book  of  the  Bible.  (2)  A  group  of 
clergy  attached  to  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church. 
(3)  A  local  branch  of  a  society  or  fraternity. 

CHAPTER-HOUSE.— The  place  in  which  the 
chapter  (q.v.)  assembles  to  conduct  business. 

CHARACTER.— The  sum  of  fundamental  traits 
which  distinguish  one  individual  from  another. 
In  a  moral  sense  the  settled  tastes  and  purposes  of 
a  person  which  determine  his  behavior. 

The  formation  of  a  right  character  is  the  primary 
aim  of  moral  and  religious  education.  This  end 
is  attained  when  certain  habitual  preferences  are  so 
well  established  that  a  person's  response  to  any 
stimulus  will  be  directed  by  them.  This  involves 
a  cultivation  of  taste  so  that  an  inner  conviction  as 
to  the  right  of  certain  ideals  is  present.  A  good 
character  is  attained  when  fidelity  to  good  ideals  is 
to  be  depended  upon.  Since  such  fidelity  involves 
allegiance  to  a  spiritual  imperative,  it  is  akin  to  re- 
ligious faith  and  is  reinforced  by  religious  experience, 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

CHARACTER,  INDELIBLE.— An  ineradicable 
mark  or  trait  declared  by  Catholic  theologians  to  be 


imprinted  on  the  soul  by  the  sacraments  of  baptism, 
confirmation  and  ordination. 

CHARISMATA. — Superhuman  powers  which 
were  regarded  by  the  early  Christians  as  given  a 
believer  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

In  most  religions  supernatural  powers  are  held 
to  be  conferred  on  certain  persons.  Primitive 
religions  noticeably  recognize  the  possession  of 
superhuman  powers  on  the  part  of  medicine-men 
and  the  like.  In  the  Hebrew  religion  such  powers 
were  ascribed  to  the  Spirit  of  Yahweh.  Such 
powers  varied  from  ability  to  manufacture  vessels 
to  the  gift  of  prophecy.  Primitive  Christians  were 
the  first  to  hold  that  the  Holy  Spirit  came  upon 
all  members  of  the  messianic  kingdom. 

According  to  Paul  (I  Cor.  12:18;  Rom.  12:5-6; 
Eph.  4:11)  these  charismata  included  those  of 
tongues,  the  interpretation  of  tongues,  the  power  to 
work  miracles,  and  also  administration.  They 
formed  the  basis  of  the  organization  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  division  of  labor  in  the  early  church, 
since  each  office  presupposed  a  charism  (as  of 
apostleship,  teaching,  prophecy,  evangelism).  Not 
all  Christians  had  the  same  charism,  although  more 
than  one  might  come  to  an  individual.  Paul 
taught  that  charismata  were  of  no  moral  value 
without  love,  which  he  also  described  as  a  "fruit" 
of  the  Spirit. 

It  is  impossible  to  understand  exactly  the 
psychology  of  the  charismata,  or  to  know  just  when 
they  ceased  to  appear  among  the  Christians. 
Miraculous  powers  were  attributed  to  the  Christians 
for  several  centuries  after  the  death  of  Christ. 
Similar  powers  (especially  of  heahng  and  of 
"tongues")  have  been  sporadically  claimed  even 
into  modern  days.  See  Irving,  Edward;  Faith 
Healing;  Tongues.  Shailer  Mathews 

CHARITY  AND  ALMSGIVING  (CHRISTIAN). 

— The  relief  of  the  poor  by  gifts  or  organized  aid. 

The  underlying  motive  to  social  relief  is  the 
spirit  of  goodwill.  Almsgiving  is  theoretically 
but  the  expression  of  the  spirit  of  charity,  but  the 
act  has  been  confused  with  the  motive. 

Generosity  was  conspicuous  among  the  early 
Christians.  The  gospel  of  Jesus  was  based  on  the 
spirit  of  goodwill,  and  the  apostle  Paul  frequently 
exhorted  to  charity.  The  administration  of  charity 
compelled  organization  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem. 
New  Testament  teaching  emphasized  the  spirit  of 
charity  as  the  essential  element,  but  almsgiving 
was  very  early  recognized  as  meritorious  and 
became  highly  approved.  Much  of  Christian 
charity  became  vitiated  by  the  selfish  motives  that 
lay  back  of  it,  but  we  must  not  underestimate  the 
kindly  sympathy  that  found  expression  through 
the  gift.  The  Catholic  church  taught  the  obligation 
of  charity,  and  encouraged  right  motives.  Gifts 
were  poured  upon  the  altars  of  the  church,  and 
the  bishops  became  the  administrators.  The 
amount  of  wealth  that  was  given  away  through  and 
to  the  church  was  enormous. 

Unfortunately  the  Middle  Ages  brought  Uttle 
conception  of  the  importance  of  estimating  the 
effects  of  almsgiving  upon  the  recipients.  The  donor 
was  almost  exclusively  concerned  with  the  bene- 
fits accruing  to  himself.  He  paid  his  doles  to 
the  poor,  or  built  shrines  and  churches  that  he  might 
gain  favor  with  Heaven.  The  victims  of  his 
generosity  were  relatively  unimportant.  The  result 
was  that  thousands  of  paupers  swarmed  around  the 
doors  of  the  monasteries,  or  infested  the  city  lanes, 
begging  for  the  means  of  subsistence.  The  sanction 
of  the  church  seemed  to  be  given  to  this  method  of 
getting  a  living,  when  the  mendicant  friars  set  an 
example  in  this  respect,  but  the  friars  themselves 


Charity  and  Almsgiving         A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


78 


gave  a  noble  expression  to  charity  in  their  social 
service  among  the  poor  and  miserable. 

The  church  used  poor  funds  for  the  aid  of  the 
parish  poor  in  their  homes.  Later  more  of  this 
aid  was  given  in  monasteries,  hospitals,  and  pubUc 
institutions.  The  Reformation  deprived  the  church 
of  much  of  its  property,  and  the  support  of  the 
indigent  was  thrown  on  the  public  officials.  The 
town  guilds  had  aided  their  members  in  cases  of  want 
or  sickness;  now  the  raunicipaUties  themselves 
began  to  make  provision  for  the  poor.  Private 
contributions  had  made  possible  the  maintenance 
of  small  homes  for  a  few  in  poverty,  but  the  poor 
laws  of  England  provided  poorhouses  in  all  the 
parishes.  At  first  the  inmates  were  taken  care  of 
without  their  own  labor,  but  after  a  century  of  such 
experiments  it  was  found  better  to  set  the  people 
to  work. 

In  America  poorhouses  were  provided  by  towns 
or  counties  as  soon  as  the  number  of  local  depend- 
ents became  too  large  to  be  taken  care  of  in  families. 
In  these  public  institutions  children  and  adults, 
imbeciles  and  epileptics,  drunkards  and  cripples 
were  herded  together,  and  commonly  placed  under 
the  irresponsible  care  of  a  contractor  who  worked  the 
inmates  for  his  own  benefit.  By  degrees  it  came 
to  seem  advisable  to  separate  the  different  classes  of 
dependents.  State  institutions  were  estabUshed 
for  the  care  of  the  insane  and  the  feeble-minded. 
The  aged  and  children  were  placed  in  homes  where 
they  could  be  taken  care  of  properly.  Defectives 
and  deUnquents  were  sorted  out,  and  given  rational 
treatment.  The  19th.  century  brought  new  and 
wiser  conceptions  of  charity,  and  attempts  of 
various  kinds  were  made  to  systematize  the  methods 
in  vogue  in  different  places,  and  to  co-ordinate  pubUc 
and  private  charity. 

Current  interest  in  charity  as  a  subject  of  study 
centers  about  its  causes  and  the  best  means  for  its 
prevention  and  cure.  It  is  well  understood  that 
almsgiving,  though  bringing  satisfaction  to  the 
giver,  is  a  hindrance  to  self-reliance,  and  should  be 
resorted  to  in  individual  cases  only  as  a  temporary 
expedient.  On  the  other  hand  without  the  large 
gifts  of  philanthropy  it  would  be  impossible  to 
carry  on  the  numerous  charitable  agencies  that 
illustrate  so  beautifully  the  modern  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

A  great  many  methods  are  in  use  for  social  uplift. 
Some  of  these,  like  housing  plans,  friendly  clubs, 
and  social  settlements  are  above  the  Une  of  charity, 
but  they  flow  from  the  same  spirit  of  goodwill. 
Children's  aid  societies  are  agencies  that  with  one 
hand  are  preventing  indigency  and  crime,  and  with 
the  other  are  Ufting  victims  out  of  their  misery. 
Relief  agencies  find  it  necessary  to  make  careful 
investigations  to  determine  where  relief  shall  be 
given,  whether  in  the  home  or  at  a  public  institution, 
to  decide  on  the  form  and  amount  of  aid  and  the 
length  of  time  for  which  it  shall  be  given.  It  is  an 
accepted  principle  that  temporary  relief  should  be 
large  enough  to  cover  the  need,  and  then  that 
steps  shall  be  taken  to  make  relief  unnecessary  by 
finding  occupations  for  the  individual  or  some 
member  of  the  needy  family.  Relief  in  the  home 
spares  the  feelings  of  these  who  must  receive  help, 
and  it  is  a  general  principle  that  the  home  shall  not 
be  broken  up  if  it  can  be  prevented,  but  it  is  often 
preferable  that  the  public  authorities  should  take 
charge  of  the  case,  and  at  least  some  of  the  members 
of  the  family  be  transferred  to  public  institutions. 
Co-operation  between  private  and  public  agencies 
is  indispensable. 

It  is  possible  to  classify  modern  charities  as 
institutional,  including  asylums,  homes,  hospitals, 
and  reformatories,  most  of  which  are  cared  for  by 
pubUc  authority;  or  private,  such  as  the  voluntary 


agencies  that  give  aid  in  the  homes,  that  provide 
nurses  and  medicines,  and  that  plan  various  means 
of  prevention  to  check  the  growth  of  dependency. 
As  in  the  days  of  primitive  Christianity,  ecclesias- 
tical charity  still  expresses  the  spirit  of  Christ,  but 
the  application  of  its  ministry  depends  increasingly 
on  the  teaching  of  social  science.  See  Charity 
Organizations.  Henry  K.  Rowe 

CHARITY  AND  ALMSGIVING  (ETHNIC).— 

Institutional  charity  (hospitals,  orphanages, 
asylums,  and  the  like)  is  and  has  been  peculiar  to 
Christianity  except  as  imitated  under  other  systems 
of  religion  in  modern  times.  Under  primitive  reli- 
gions the  only  form  of  almsgiving  common  and 
considered  obhgatory  is  the  hospitality  characteristic 
of  many  races  or  that  considered  due  to  clan  or 
totemic  members  away  from  home.  It  is  not  to 
be  forgotten  throughout,  however,  that  "the  milk 
of  human  kindness"  has  always  been  a  factor  of 
greater  or  lesser  influence  in  life. 

For  Egypt  decisive  evidence  exists  for  the 
exercise  of  almsgiving  as  a  religious  duty  in  the 
"Negative  Confession"  uttered  by  the  soul  in 
the  judgment  hall:  "I  have  allowed  no  man  to  go 
hungry."  Numerous  tomb  inscriptions  carry  the 
sentiment:  "I  gave  bread  to  the  hungry  and  clothes 
to  the  naked."  (Cf.  Budge,  Osiris  and  the  Egyp- 
tian Resurrection,  chap,  x.) 

Respecting  Babylonia  data  are  deficient. 

Chinese  religious  teachers  stress  benevolence  as  a 
quality  of  the  "perfect  man,"  and  obhgatory  on  all. 
Confucius  and  Mencius  emphasize  wisdom  and 
discrimination  in  exercising  this  quality,  the 
existence  of  which  they  both  teach  and  assume. 
The  former  describes  the  Chinese  phrase  "charity 
of  heart"  by  "love  one  another":  the  latter  puts  it 
first  among  the  four  virtues  and  makes  courtesy  a 
part  of  the  gift.  Later  teachers  differ  greatly 
respecting  the  application  of  benevolent  principles. 
(Cf.  Chinese  Classics,  II.  53,  414;  Tao  Teh  King, 
XIII;  Li  Ki,  XXXVIII;  Christie,  Thirty  Years 
in  the  Manchu  Capital,  passim;  Mo  Ti,  chaps. 
XIV,  XV.) 

In  the  Greek  and  Roman  worlds  it  would  be 
difficult  to  establish  a  religious  base  for  benevolence. 
Private  benevolences  took  the  form  of  public 
buildings  and  entertainments,  often  included  largess 
(undiscriminating  frequently)  of  goods  and  money. 
Rehgion  was  often  an  affair  of  city  or  state.  But 
possession  of  wealth  entailed  the  duty  of  generosity. 
Still,  even  corporations  and  guilds  disregarded  the 
sick,  disabled,  widows,  and  orphans.  Claudius 
forbade  abandonment  of  sick  slaves  or  forcing  them 
out  to  starve.  This  is  indicative  in  a  sinister 
way.  (Cf.  Abbott,  Common  People  of  Ancient 
Rome,  pp.  179  ff.) 

Zoroastrianism  places  Benevolence  among  the 
four  "energizing  immortals"  (  Yasna,  XXXIII, 
"Good  Mind").  Visparad,  XV,  1  implies  rehef 
of  the  poor:  "Place  the  needy  with  those  without 
need."  Parsis  boast  the  absence  of  beggars  in  their 
community,  and  their  charity  to  others  is  a  proverb. 
The  last  ten  days  of  the  year  are  set  apart  for 
deeds  of  charity,  religious  banquets,  ceremonials 
for  the  dead  (cf.   Vistasp  Yast  [XXIV],  V,  36). 

The  Indian  religions  (Brahmanism,  Hinduisrn, 
Buddhism,  Jainism)  favor  the  ascetic  or  monastic 
fife  of  absolute  poverty  and  consequent  dependence 
of  the  "religious"  on  alms  for  bare  subsistence. 
The  sacred  laws  prescribe  almsgiving,  especially  to 
the  ascetic  and  to  monks.  A  constantly  present 
motive  is  acquisition  of  "merit"  by  the  donors. 
The  result  here  and  elsewhere  under  like  conditions 
is  a  plethora  of  beggars  over  and  above  the  ascetics 
and  monks  (cf.,  e.g.,  Pratt,  India  and  Its  Faiths, 
p.  41). 


79 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Charms  and  Amulets 


In  Islam  almsgiving  is  one  of  the  five  pillars 
of  the  faith,  prescribed  principally  under  the 
terms  zakat,  "cleansing,"  and  sadagah,  "righteous- 
ness"— terms  which  sufficiently  indicate  the  reli- 
gious view  of  believers  and  founder  of  its  relation 
to  donors.  It  is,  therefore,  a  prime  duty,  is  coupled 
with  prayer,  its  wherewithal  drawn  from  the 
donor's  superfluity  yet  involving  the  bestowal  of 
something  prized  (cf.  I  Cor.  13:3),  and  is  for  the 
benefit  of  relatives,  orphans,  the  poor,  and  travellers. 
(Quran,  2:40,  211,  216  f.,  263;  23:4;  24:27; 
30:38;  64:17;  73:20;  98:4,  etc.) 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore 

CHARITY,  BROTHERS  OF.— (1)  The  designa- 
tion of  various  R.C.  benevolent  orders  in  the 
mediaeval  period.  (2)  A  lay  order,  founded  in 
1540  in  Grenada  by  John  Ciudad  (John  of  God),  a 
Portuguese,  which  is  especially  devoted  to  care  of 
the  sick.    There  now  exist  about  120  houses. 

CHARITY  ORGANIZATION.— 1.  History.— 
Indiscriminate  charity  tends  to  pauperism.  Its 
antidote  is  charity  organization.  Among  the  first 
to  see  this  was  Reverend  Thomas  Chalmers  of 
Glasgow.  In  his  parish  he  was  able  to  check  alms- 
giving, and  by  friendly  visitation  of  charity  workers 
to  help  the  needy  help  themselves.  Charity  organi- 
zation since  then  has  been  based  on  that  principle. 
A  charity  organization  society  is  not  an  agency  of 
direct  relief.  It  often  co-ordinates  such  agencies  in 
a  whole  city,  but  its  own  object  is  to  prevent  and 
cure  poverty.  It  gives  aid  only  in  an  emergency. 
The  experiments  of  Chalmers,  supplemented  by 
the  investigations  of  Edward  Denison  in  London, 
resulted  in  the  organization  of  the  Charity  Organiza- 
tion Society  of  London  in  1869.  This  society  was 
unable  to  unite  all  the  agencies  of  the  metropolis, 
as  it  Loped  to  do,  but  it  has  performed  a  valuable 
service  itself,  and  has  been  an  impetus  to  similar 
organizations  in  England  and  the  United  States. 

American  societies,  mostly  after  the  London 
model,  came  into  existence  in  the  seventies  in  the 
centers  of  population  in  the  East.  The  first  to  be 
organized  thoroughly  on  the  London  plan  was  that 
of  Buffalo  in  1877.  In  the  forty  years  that  followed 
similar  societies  were  formed  in  the  leading  cities  of 
the  country,  usually  under  the  name  of  the  Charity 
Organization  Society  or  the  Associated  Charities. 
Co-operation  was  a  cardinal  principle  of  such  organi- 
zation, and  it  soon  produced  a  National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Corrections  that  became  a  forum 
for  discussion.  Charity  organization  rests  on  the 
following  four  principles:  Pecuniary  aid  should 
be  given  only  in  an  emergency,  or  after  thorough 
investigation  of  conditions  reveals  grave  need. 
Friendly  encouragement  should  take  the  place  of 
almsgiving  in  an  effort  to  get  an  individual  or 
family  to  achieve  self-support.  Co-operation  be- 
tween relief  agencies  is  essential  to  prevent  duplica- 
tion of  effort  and  oversight.  Discussion  of  problems 
and  public  education  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
charity  organization  are  necessary  instruments  in 
the  effective  alleviation  of  poverty. 
,  2.  Organization. — The  method  of  organization 
and  work  may  be  summarized  briefly.  The  mem- 
bership of  the  society  consists  of  those  who  con- 
tribute to  its  maintenance.  The  members  elect  a 
board  of  directors,  who  guide  the  administrative 
policy.  An  executive  committee  of  this  board 
keeps  in  close  touch  with  the  superintendent  and 
district  heads.  There  is  a  central  office,  with  dis- 
trict centers  in  the  large  cities.  Sometimes  the  dis- 
trict center  has  its  own  organization,  but  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  all  sections  should  be  closely 
co-ordinated  with  the  main  office  of  the  city  or- 
ganization. Since  the  success  of  charity  organi- 
zation depends  on   the  efficiency   of  its  workers, 


it  is  becoming  increasingly  necessary  that  they  be 
well  trained.  For  this  purpose  training  schools  of 
philanthropy  have  been  organized  in  several  cities. 
Workers  thus  trained  visit  frequently  among  the 
houses  of  the  poor,  give  them  friendly  counsel  and 
expert  assistance  in  meeting  their  difficulties,  and 
bring  back  their  experiences  to  the  weekly  confer- 
ences of  the  society.  On  that  occasion  specific  cases 
are  discussed  on  the  basis  of  the  facts  elicited,  and 
plans  are  formed.  The  success  of  organized  charity 
depends  mainly  on  the  abihty  of  its  friendly  visitors. 
They  are  unpaid  workers,  but  in  most  cases  they 
are  faithful  to  their  self-imposed  obligations. 
They  are  sometimes  criticised  as  case-hardened,  but 
their  sympathy  as  often  needs  restraint  for  the 
good  of  those  whom  they  are  trying  to  help. 

An  important  part  of  the  task  performed  by  the 
charity  organization  society  is  the  keeping  of  accu- 
rate records  of  charity  cases.  The  society  is  in 
close  contact  with  the  various  charitable  agencies 
in  the  city,  and  it  keeps  the  records  of  its  own 
visitors.  By  means  of  a  card  catalogue  at  the 
central  office,  kept  over  a  period  of  years  and  fre- 
quently revised,  it  is  possible  for  the  society  to 
keep  well  informed  and  to  furnish  information  to 
other  agencies  that  may  be  greatly  needed  as  a 
basis  for  wise  action. 

In  addition  to  these  services  the  society  is  often 
able  to  aid  and  advise  public  officials  and  com- 
mittees, to  influence  the  community  to  provide 
social  reforms  and  neighborhood  improvements, 
such  as  playgrounds,  and  to  supply  information  to 
philanthropists  who  wish  to  give  help  where  it  is 
most  needed.  Henry  K.  Rows 

CHARITY,  SISTERS  OF.— The  designation  of 
several  R.C.  female  associations  which  undertake 
the  care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick;  e.g.,  The  Sisters 
of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  organized  in 
1617  and  operative  in  Europe  and  America;  and 
The  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Charles  dating  from 
1626,  and  found  in  Europe. 

CHARLEMAGNE  (742-814).— Sole  monarch  of 
the  Franks  in  771  Charlemagne  extended  Prankish 
power  in  Italy,  Spain,  Bavaria,  Saxony  and,  Dec.  25, 
800,  was  crowned  by  the  Pope  in  Rome  as  Emperor 
("the  central  event  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  Bryce). 
This  renewal  of  the  idea  of  the  old  empire  made 
him  head  of  Western  Europe  both  in  state  and 
church  affairs,  an  emperor  with  something  of  the 
character  of  supreme  pontiff.  He  developed  an 
efficient  administrative  system  which  united  all  in 
personal  allegiance  to  him,  fostered  arts  and  learn- 
ing, opened  schools  and  planned  even  a  system  of 
popular  education.  His  large  ideal  gave  an  impress 
to  the  mediaeval  world  though  his  work  for  civiliza- 
tion lapsed  through  the  weakness  of  his  successors. 

CHARLES  V.  (1500-1558).— king  of  Spain, 
elected  emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  1519.  He 
had  to  deal  with  the  problems  caused  by  the  Prot- 
estant Reformation,  as  well  as  with  the  ambitions  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Prance  and  of  England.  His  first 
important  act  as  emperor  was  the  promulgation 
of  the  Edict  of  Worms,  declaring  Luther  an  outlaw. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  a  constant  struggle  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics  ending  in  the  Religious 
Peace  of  Augsburg,  1555,  whereby  equal  rights 
were  granted  Lutheran  and  R.C.  princes.  In  1556 
he  abdicated  and  entered  a  monastery. 

CHARMS  AND  AMULETS.— A  charm  may  be 
defined  as  a  small  portable  object  worn  on  the 
person,  or  otherwise  preserved,  for  magico-religious 
reasons.  The  name,  derived  from  the  Latin  carmen 
(a  song),  is  also  often  applied  to  incantations,  spells, 


Charms  and  Amulets 


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80 


and  passwords.  Such  verbal  charms  must  be 
uttered  to  be  effective,  whereas  material  charms 
are  continuously  effective  without  any  action  on 
the  part  of  the  wearer. 

1.  Classification  of  charms. — Material  charms, 
used  specifically  to  bring  good  fortune  or  to  trans- 
mit desirable  quahties,  are  called  taHsmans,  a  word 
of  Arabic  origin.  An  amulet  is  a  material  charm, 
whose  purpose  is  to  protect  the  wearer  against  real 
or  imagined  dangers — witchcraft,  evil  eye,  sick- 
ness, disease,  accidents,  etc.  Occasionally,  however, 
the  same  charm  will  be  employed  for  both  these 
purposes.  As  a  rule  the  talisman  will  be  worn 
secretly  for  good  luck,  the  amulet  openly  to  avert 
evil. 

2.  Kinds  of  charms. — Talismans  and  amulets 
have  been  of  many  different  kinds  and  formed  of 
different  substances.  Miss  Freire-Marreco  enumer- 
ates the  following  classes  of  objects,  both  natural 
and  artificial,  as  very  commonly  used:  "stones 
(especially  those  of  a  curious  shape  or  naturally 
perforatea),  stone  implements  (celts  and  arrow- 
heads); curious  vegetable  growths,  roots,  leaves, 
seeds,  nuts;  horns,  teeth,  claws,  and  other  parts  of 
animals  and  insects,  shells,  human  hair  and  teeth, 
rehcs  of  the  dead;  medicinal  substances;  sub- 
stances believed  to  have  been  extracted  from  the 
sick  in  magical  cures;  iron,  gold,  silver,  rock-crystal, 
alum,  salt,  coral;  red,  blue,  and  white  things; 
strings,  threads,  and  rings;  representations  of 
human  and  animal  forms,  phallic  emblems,  repre- 
sentations of  eyes,  hands,  horns,  and  crescents; 
beads,  imported  ornaments;  written  charms, 
quotations  from  sacred  writings,  inscribed  objects, 
medals,  coins;  obsolete  weapons  and  ornaments; 
relics  and  mementos  of  holy  persons  and  places, 
portions  of  offerings,  and  dedicated  things." 

3.  Choice  of  charms. — -In  some  cases  the  errone- 
ous association  of  ideas,  so  characteristic  of 
primitive-minded  people,  provides  a  sufficient 
explanation  for  the  choice  of  charms.  Thus,  the 
color  of  certain  stones  suggests  flesh,  hence  garnets 
and  cornelians  may  be  carried  as  amulets  against 
skin  diseases.  This  logical  fallacy  underlies  magical 
practices  (see  Magic),  But  many  other  objects 
come  to  be  used  as  charms  because  they  are  sup- 
posed to  contain  magico-spiritual  power  (see  Mana). 
Such  power  may  be  ascribed  to  them  because  of 
their  mysterious  properties.  The  fact  that  amber, 
when  rubbed,  attracts  light  objects  probably  led 
to  the  notion  that  to  look  through  amber  beads 
strengthens  the  sight,  and  the  special  virtue  attrib- 
uted to  iron  was  perhaps  often  based  on  observation 
of  its  magnetic  qualities.  Power  may  be  ascribed 
to  other  objects  on  account  of  their  rarity  or  unusual 
shape,  e.g.,  perforated  stones  and  double  walnuts 
or  almonds.  Again,  association  with  some  sacred  or 
powerful  being  or  thing  may  give  rise  to  charms. 
For  example,  the  detachable  parts  of  certain 
animals,  e.g.,  tusks  of  wild  boars,  lower  jaw-bone 
of  the  tortoise,  tufts  of  eagle-feather,  are  used 
to  gain  their  qualities.  The  lore  of  rehcs  in  Chris- 
tendom is  similarly  explained  (see  Reli  cs)  .  Finally, 
any  object  supposed  to  be  inhabited  by  a  spirit  may 
properly  be  described  as  a  charm;  hence  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  charms  and  so-called 
fetishes  (see  Fetishism), 

4.  Artificial  ^  charms. — When  the  supply  of 
natural  charms  is  limited,  recourse  will  be  had  to 
artificial  substitutes.  Of  these,  some  are  models 
or  representations  of  objects,  such  as  the  crosses  and 
figures  of  the  saints  worn  in  European  countries. 
Others  are  objects  containing  some  magical  name 
or  inscription,  such  as  Jewish  amulets  containing 
verses  from  the  Pentateuch  or  the  Psalms  and 
Mohammedan  amulets  composed  of  texts  from  the 
Koran,     Among  primitive  peoples  the  making  of 


artificial  charms  is  usually  an  important  function 
of  the  professional  magician. 

6.  Diffusion  of  charms. — The  use  of  charms  is 
practically  world-wide.  Wherever  the  belief  in 
witchcraft,  evil  eye,  and  demonism  is  especially 
pronounced,  there  will  usually  be  a  corresponding 
development  of  prophylactic  and  protective  charms. 
Man  seldom  nourishes  a  superstition  without 
devising  some  effective  antidote  for  it. 

HuTTON  Webster 

CHARTERHOUSE.— (1)  A  monastery  of  the 
Carthusian  order;  (2)  a  school,  chapel  and  alms- 
house in  London,  Eng.,  founded  in  1611  in  a  sup- 
pressed Carthusian  monastery  and  in  1872  removed 
to  Godalming,  Surrey. 

CHARTISM,  CHARTISTS.— A  19th.  century 
movement  in  Great  Britain  to  extend  the  poUtical 
power  of  the  working  classes. 

Bad  harvests  and  depression,  following  hard 
upon  the  enactment  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832, 
caused  great  disappointment  among  the  masses, 
who  in  1838  drew  up  a  program  called  the  "People's 
Charter."  It  had  six  points — manhood  suffrage, 
equal  electoral  districts,  vote  by  ballot,  annual 
parliaments,  abolition  of  property,  quahfications 
for  membership  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
payment  of  parliamentary  members.  As  coercive 
measures  it  was  prepared  to  abstain  from  the  use 
of  excisable  products,  to  cause  runs  on  the  bank,  and 
to  organize  _  nation-wide  strikes.  Petitions  were 
sent  to  Parliament.  Riots  developed.  A  demon- 
stration in  London  planned  on  a  large  scale  (1848) 
proved  a  disappointment  and  the  beginning  of 
waning  enthusiasm,  which  was  hastened  by  reviv- 
ing prosperity,  the  Reform  Bills  of  1867  and  1885, 
and  the  Ballot  Act  of  1872.         Peter  G.  Mode 

CHARVAKAS.— See  Lokayatas. 

CHASIDIM. — (1)  A  body  of  pious  Jews  who 
joined  with  the  Hasmoneans  (q.v.).  (2)  A  pietistic 
reaction  against  Talmudic  legalism,  emphasizing 
religious  ecstasy,  originating  among  Polish  Jews  of 
the  18th,  century  and  now  restricted  to  Southern 
Russia. 

CHASTITY.— The  state  of  refraining  from  se«ual 
relations  so  as  to  secure  religious  or  moral  purity. 

The  power  of  sexual  passion  has  led  to  various 
religious  attitudes.  At  one  extreme  it  is  positively 
worshiped  (see  Phallicism)  ;  at  the  other  extreme  it 
has  been  rigorously  suppressed  as  the  root  of  evil 
(see  Concupiscence;  Asceticism).  In  primitive 
thinking  sexual  activity  is  frequently  beheved  to 
have  an  occult  influence  on  processes  of  nature  or 
significant  enterprises.  Chastity  in  such  cases  is 
required,  e.g.,  of  a  warrior  before  combat,  or  of  a 
tribe  during  planting  season,  or  of  a  candidate 
before  religious  ceremonies.  It  has  commonly 
been  demanded  of  religious  officials  who  must  be 
spiritually  clean  in  order  to  secure  the  favor  of  the 
gods.  Vestal  virgins  and  celibate  priests  are 
examples.  Asceticism  lays  especial  stress  on 
chastity,  and  it  is  included  in  the  vows  of  monks  and 
nuns. 

While  the  religious  interpretation  of  chastity  is 
largely  a  development  of  the  idea  of  tabu,  moral  and 
social  considerations  have  also  had  great  influence. 
Monogamy  has  proved  to  be  the  type  of  sexual 
relationship  best  fitted  to  develop  loyalty,  unselfish 
love,  care  for  children  and  other  virtues  essential 
to  social  welfare.  But  monogamy  is  meaningless 
unless  chastity  is  expected  on  the  part  of  all  un- 
married persons.  The  natural  jealousy  of  men 
has  exalted  chastity  in  women  in  the  interests  of 
that   exclusive   personal   relationship   which   true 


,<?! 


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Child-Marriage 


love  demands.  Unfortunately,  men  have  claimed 
for  themselves  a  freedom  not  countenanced  in 
women.  Hence  the  existing  "double  standard" 
of  morality.  With  the  emancipation  of  women 
and  the  growing  desire  for  consistency  in  ethical 
theory,  there  is  an  increasing  pressure  for  a  stricter 
code  of  morals  for  men.  The  terrible  scourge  of 
venereal  disease,  due  almost  entirely  to  illicit  sexual 
relations,  is  an  additional  argument  for  chastity. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 
CHEMNITZ,  MARTIN  (1522-1586).— German 
theologian  and  reformer,  prominent  in  the  formula- 
tion and  acceptance  of  the  Formula  of  Concord.  He 
participated  in  the  Adiaphorist  controversy  (q.v.), 
and  in  polemics  against  Crypto-Calvinism,  Roman 
Catholicism  and  the  Jesuits.  Doctrinally  he 
stood  midway  between  Luther  and  Melanchthon. 

CHEMOSH.— The  national  deity  of  the  Moab- 
ites.     See  Moabites. 

CHERUB,  CHERUBIM.— An  order  of  spirits 
attendant  on  the  Divine  presence.  The  cherub  is 
a  survival  of  ancient  Hebrew  mythology,  derived 
from  the  same  source  as  the  Assyrian  winged  bulls, 
the  griffins  of  Phoenician  art,  and  the  Egyptian 
Sphinx.  In  the  Old  Testament  cherubim  appear 
as  bearers  of  Yahweh's  throne  (Ps.  18:10:  Ezek. 
1:5  ff.,  10:1  ff.)  as  guardians  of  His  holiness 
(Gen.  3 :24;  I  Kings  6 :23  ff.),  or  in  both  capacities 
(Exod.  25 :  18  ff.,  37 :7  ff.).  In  Apocryphal  literature 
they  form  part  of  the  ten  "troops  of  angels"  who 
mount  guard  on  the  throne  of  God's  glory,  "singing 
songs  in  the  boundless  light  with  small  and  tender 
voices"  (Enoch  71:7;  2  Enoch  20:1^).  The 
four  "Uving  creatures"  of  Rev.  4:6  ff.  are  a  blend 
of  cherubim  and  seraphim  (q.v.). 

Alex.  R.  Gordon 

CHIEF  GOOD.— See  Summum  Bonum. 

CHILAN  BALAM. — A  group  of  books  written 
by  the  native  scribes  of  the  Maya  Indians  of 
America  embodying  records  of  the  ancient  times 
previous  to  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  as  well  as 
■primitive  astrology  and  medicine.  The  characters 
in  which  the  books  are  written  were  the  invention 
of  tlie  Spanish  monks. 

CHILDHOOD,  RELIGION  OF.— The  experi- 
ence of  social  relations  with  the  superhuman  and 
the  consequent  effects  upon  conduct  of  boys  and 
girls  under  twelve  years  of  age.  See  also  Religious 
Education. 

I.  Theories  as  to  the  Nature  op  Child- 
hood.— (1)  The  doctrine  oj  natural  depravity  shuts 
out  childhood  from  any  possibihty  of  genuine 
religion  until  the  miracle  of  regeneration  has  taken 
place.  In  consequence,  the  church  has  often  been 
at  great  pains  to  stimulate  in  young  children  a 
consciousness  of  sin  and  a  willingness  to  be  saved  in 
the  hope  that  the  required  conversion  would  be 
secured.  ReUef  from  this  difficulty  was  obtained 
by  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration,  whereby 
it  was  held  that  the  nature  of  the  child  was  changed, 
thus  the  process  of  religious  education  could  be 
effective. 

(2)  The  doctrine  of  the  positive  religious  nature  of 
the  child  has  come  to  be  very  generally  held,  partly 
on  the  theological  ground  that  all  men  are  children 
of  God  and  partly  on  the  theory  that  there  is  a 
ndtural  instinct  for  rehgion  in  man.  According  to 
this  view,  it  is  the  task  of  religious  education  to 
develop  in  childhood  a  certain  religious  quality 
which  is  supposed  to  be  already  present  at  birth  and 
which  requires  appropriate  culture. 

(3)  The  theory  of  instinctive  behaviour. — Looked 
at  biologically,  a  child  is  born  with  the  tendencies 


to  act  that  have  been  developed  tlirough  the  long 
range  of  racial  fife.  He  is  non-moral  and  his  acts 
are,  first  of  all,  purely  instinctive.  The  social  group 
to  which  he  belongs  determines  the  conditions  of  fife 
in  which  these  instincts  operate,  developing  some, 
modifying  others.  MoraUty  and  religion  are 
social  developments,  resting  on  a  complex  play  of 
instinct,  representing  gradual  achievements  of  the 
race.  The  child  cannot  be  said  to  have  a  moral  or 
reUgious  nature.  He  has  the  common  human  nature 
which  in  the  process  of  living  acquires  more  or  less 
the  higher  moral  and  reUgious  habits  of  the  group. 

II.  iVlORALITY  AND  RELIGION  AS  SoCIAL  HaBITS. 

— (1)  Social  suggestion  is  one  of  the  strongest  influ- 
ences to  which  we  are  subject.  Hence  the  homo- 
geneity of  nations,  of  communities,  of  special  groups 
of  fanulies.  It  is  almost  inevitable  that  we  do  what 
others  do.  The  young  child  is  a  candidate  for 
human  experience  and  the  natural  way  to  achieve 
experience  is  by  following  the  paths  that  others  set. 
This  is  sometimes  called  imitation  but  it  is  very 
much  more  than  conscious  copying.  It  yields  the 
satisfaction  of  ability  to  do  the  things  that  others 
do.  Doubtless  prayer,  various  acts  of  worship,  and 
general  participation  in  religious  exercises  have  their 
beginnings  in  this  way. 

(2)  A  sense  of  the  permitted  and  the  non- 
permitted  is  an  extension  of  social  suggestion  as  the 
child  feels  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  his  elders 
upon  certain  types  of  conduct.  A  very  significant 
basis  of  religious  experience  is  found  in  the  child's 
appreciation  of  God's  approval  and  disapproval, 
resulting,  imder  wise  leadership,  on  the  one  hand  in 
genuine,  if  simple  contrition,  confession,  and  the 
sense  of  forgiveness,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in  joy 
in  conscious  well  doing. 

(3)  An  emotional  prejudice  for  the  ways  of  one's 
own  group  may  result  in  very  valuable  moral  and  reli- 
gious achievements.  Thus  a  child  may  be  desirous 
of  maintaining  cleanliness  and  modesty,  of  speaking 
the  truth,  of  performing  acts  of  sympathetic  kind- 
ness, of  helping  God  in  his  good  work  in  the  world, 
largely  because  his  own  folk  do  that  sort  of  thing. 

III.  The  Stage  op  Personal  Religion. — 
(1)  The  danger  of  precocity. — It  seems  to  be  clear 
that  early  adolescence  is  the  time  when  the  habitual 
reUgion  of  childhood  becomes  personal.  There  is 
an  experience  of  commitment  to  the  way  of  life 
which  has  hitherto  been  followed  as  a  matter  of 
course.  This  should  not  be  called  conversion  but 
should  be  recognized  as  a  stage  of  religious  progress 
following  upon  a  genuine  religious  childhood.  But 
the  experience  should  by  no  means  be  superinduced 
through  social  pressure  and  the  creation  of  highly 
emotional  situations. 

(2)  The  elements  of  childhood  religion  are  to  be 
found  in  the  glad  conformity  to  the  moral  and 
religious  practices  of  the  elders  and  of  the  church 
society;  in  a  joy  in  the  good  world  where  God  is  and 
where  so  much  kindness  is  to  be  experienced  and 
exercised;  in  the  happy  and  earnest  assumption 
of  the  tasks  that  belong  to  the  child  as  a  co-operating 
member  in  God's  great  family  on  earth.  Ideas  of 
God,  of  duty,  of  social  living,  corresponding  with 
these  experiences,  will  be  a  natural  part  of  childhood 
religion.  Theodore  G.  Soares 

CHILD-MARRIAGE.— The  practice  of  uniting 
in  formal  marriage  children  under  fifteen  years  of 
age,  usually  the  marriage  of  a  girl  under  fifteen  with 
an  older  man. 

As  a  custom  child-marriage  is  known  to  exist 
among  primitive  peoples,  notably  ^  among  the 
Australians  and  Melanesians.  It  is  especially 
prevalent  in  India,  and  is  ordinarily  thought  of  as  a 
Hindu  custom.  More  than  one-half  of  the  total 
female  population  of  British  India  are  married  before 


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82 


fifteen  years  of  age,  somet;|mes  while  they  are  mere 
infants.  Child-marriage  is  least  common  in  India 
among  the  Dra vidian  and  other  native  tribes  which 
have  remained  relatively  uninfluenced  by  the  caste 
system  of  the  Hindus.  In  the  western  provinces  the 
girl  remains  at  home  with  her  parents  until  sexual 
maturity  is  reached;  but  in  Bengal  girls  commence 
their  married  life  at  the  age  of  nine  years.  In  1891 
the  British  government  made  an  ineffectual  attempt 
to  check  child-marriage  by  prescribing  that  the  age 
of  legal  marriage  should  be  not  less  than  twelve 
years.  The  practice,  however,  continues  and  is 
supported  by  all  the  Hindu  castes. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 
CHILIASM. — See  Millenabianism. 

CHINA,  MISSIONS  TO.— I.  Nestorian  and 
Roman  Catholic  Missions. — The  history  of 
missions  in  China  covers  a  period  of  1,300  years. 
Discarding  unconfirmed  traditions  of  earlier  evangeli- 
zation, it  is  now  generally  conceded  that  Nestorian 
missionaries  reached  China  in  635  a.d.,  and  were 
favorably  received  by  the  reigning  emperor.  Their 
influence  was  at  its  height  in  the  9th.  century,  when 
a  hostile  imperial  edict  compelled  3000  Christian 
teachers  to  return  to  private  life.  Apparently 
they  never  recovered  from  this  reverse,  although  as 
many  as  30,000  Nestorian  Christians  were  found  in 
China  by  the  Franciscans  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
14th.  century. 

A  brief  but  interesting  period  of  missionary 
activity  under  the  Mongol  Dynasty  was  begun  in 
1292  by  John  of  Monte  Corvino  and  the  Franciscans, 
under  the  Great  Khan  of  Peking  who  even  sent  an 
embassy  to  the  Pope.  But  in  1368  the  Mongol 
Dynasty  was  overthrown,  and,  in  the  anarchy 
that  followed,  the  last  traces  of  Christianity  dis- 
appeared. 

Two  hundred  years  later  a  permanent  lodgment 
was  effected  in  the  country  by  the  Jesuits,  under 
the  famous  Matteo  Ricci  (1583).  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans  followed,  and  by  1664  over  1,600 
churches  had  been  established  in  five  provinces. 
In  1724  the  Emperor  Yung  Cheng  issued  an  edict 
strictly  forbidding  any  further  propagation  of  the 
religion,  and  for  130  years  the  church  was  only  main- 
tained secretly  by  heroic  endurance.  Since  the 
treaty  of  1860  Catholic  missions  have  made  rapid 
progress.  Their  statistics  for  1916  {Les  Missions 
de  Chine  et  da  Japon,  1917)  give  a  total  of  1,800,000 
Christians  distributed  over  all  the  eighteen  provinces 
and  Mongolia;  a  full  half  milhon  of  these  are  in 
the  province  of  Chihli.  Eleven  societies  are  now 
at  work.  Of  these  the  Lazarists  have  the  largest 
number  of  adherents,  the  Jesuits  coming  second. 

II.  Protestant  Missions. — 1.  The  early  period. 
■ — The  period  of  beginnings  may  be  said  to  reach 
from  the  coming  of  the  first  Protestant  missionary, 
in  1807,  till  the  opening  of  the  whole  empire  to 
missionary  work  in  1862.  When  the  Rev.  Robert 
Morrison,  under  appointment  by  the  London 
Mission,  reached  Canton  in  September,  1807,  the 
chances  of  Christianizing  the  Chinese  seemed 
remote  indeed.  Neither  residence  nor  work  in 
Chinese  territory  was  permitted,  and  after  a  year 
he  was  driven  to  the  Portuguese  settlement  of 
Macao.  Most  of  the  work  of  the  earliest  mis- 
sionaries was  of  necessity  carried  on  at  various 
ports  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago  where  colonies 
of  Chinese  were  to  be  found.  Singapore,  Malacca, 
Java,  Penang  and  even  Bangkok  were  occupied 
from  time  to  time,  and  some  progress  was  made, 
especially  along  educational  and  literary  lines. 
An  Anglo-Chinese  College  was  opened  by  Dr. 
Morrison  in  Malacca  in  1818,  where  about  fifty 
students  finished  their  education;  a  half  million 
volumes  were  also  issued  in  Chinese.    The  trans- 


lation of  the  Bible  was  completed  by  Morrison 
and  Milne  and  was  published  in  1818.  These 
early  years  saw  much  labor  spent  in  the  distribution 
of  tracts  and  booklets  by  Gutzlaff,  Medhurst  and 
others  as  far  north  as  Manchuria.  The  beginning 
of  medical  work  was  made  by  Dr.  Peter  Parker  at 
Canton  in  1835.  At  the  time  of  the  first  Opium 
War  in  1842,  however,  Christianity  had  nowhere 
taken  root  in  Chinese  soil.  Although  about  fifty 
missionaries  had  been  sent  from  England  and 
America,  only  five  or  six  converts  could  be 
numbered. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Nanking  (1842),  the  ports  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo  and  Shanghai 
were  opened  to  foreign  trade  and  residence,  and 
two  years  later  France  and  America  concluded 
treaties  giving  the  right  to  erect  houses  of  worship 
in  the  ports.  Each  of  these  cities  was  speedily 
occupied  by  mission  boards.  Itinerant  evangeliza- 
tion was  carried  on  from  these  centers,  but  hostility 
and  petty  persecution  continued.  The  number  of 
mission  boards  increased  from  seven  to  nineteen, 
with  about  169  missionaries  on  the  ground,  but  at 
the  end  of  fifty  years  the  total  number  of  converts 
was  not  much  above  one  hundred. 

2.  The  middle  period — the  period  of  expansion — 
began  in  1860,  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  the  British 
and  French.  Seven  additional  cities  were  thrown 
open  to  foreign  residence,  and  for  the  first  time  the 
right  was  conceded  to  travel  with  passports  through- 
out the  eighteen  provinces.  Both  foreigners  and 
natives  were  also  protected  in  the  "quiet  pro- 
fession and  teaching"  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  although  the  provinces  of  Shansi 
and  Shensi  were  not  opened  till  1876,  and  the  four 
most  westerly  provinces  till  a  year  later.  Hunan 
was  the  last  to  be  occupied,  in  1897.  In  1860,  over 
one  hundred  missionaries  were  waiting  in  Shanghai 
for  the  opening  of  these  new  doors,  and  Tientsin 
and  Peking  were  entered  by  numerous  societies. 
Medical  and  educational  work  was  speedily  estab- 
lished, and  woman's  work  grew  rapidly  after  1868. 

Throughout  all  this  period,  however,  although 
the  common  people  were  well  disposed,  the  steady 
opposition  if  not  the  open  hostility  of  both  officials 
and  literati  continued  almost  without  diminution. 
The  most  extravagant  propaganda  of  misrepresenta- 
tion was  carried  on  against  the  Christian  religion. 
The  culminating  outbreak  of  this  antagonism  to  all 
foreign  influences,  the  Boxer  Uprising,  brought  this 
period  of  slow  but  steady  expansion  to  an  end  in  1900. 
How  much  had  been  accomplished  from  1860-1900 
is  indicated  by  the  mission  statistics  lor  1898. 
The  one  hundred  Christians  had  grown  to  80,000, 
and  the  nineteen  societies  to  fifty-three.  Twenty- 
five  hundred  missionaries,  male  and  female,  were 
upon  the  field,  aided  by  twice  the  number  of 
native  helpers.  There  were  1766  day-schools  and 
105  institutions  of  higher  learning.  Foreign 
physicians  numbered  190. 

3.  The  modern  peri,od,  since  the  Boxer  Uprising 
in  1900,  has  been  significant  and  fruitful.  The 
stubborn  resistance  of  the  educated  classes  has 
broken  down,  and  an  attitude  of  receptiveness 
toward  western  teaching,  and  even  of  friendUness 
toward  the  missionaries,  has  largely  replaced  the 
old  dislike.  The  change  has  been  due  to  several 
chief  causes — the  disillusionment  following  on  the 
Boxer  Rebellion,  the  imperial  decree  in  1905  aboUsh- 
ing  the  old  system  of  education,  the  promise  in 
1908  of  constitutional  government,  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  Manchus  in  1911.  The  new  repubhc 
was  widely  supported  by  Christians.  Missionary 
aid  in  flood  and  famine  work,  in  the  national  Red 
Cross  associations,  and  at  the  time  of  the  pneumonic 
plague,  had  produced  a  deep  and  favorable  impres- 
sion.   As  the  first  exalted  impulses  of  the  revolution 


83 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


China,  Religions  of 


began  to  fail,  and  bribery  and  dishonesty  began  to 
manifest  themselves  in  their  old  forms  under  the 
new  republican  conditions,  thoughtful  men  began 
to  see  that  fresh  moral  impulse  was  needed  for  new 
times. 

As  a  consequence  of  these  and  other  causes, 
opportunities  for  wider  influence  on  the  part  of  the 
church  have  sprung  up  on  every  side.  Old  separa- 
tions and  divisions,  both  national  and  denomina- 
tional, have  everywhere  been  breaking  down,  and 
union  efforts,  especially  in  educational  and  medical 
lines,  multiply  year  by  year.  The  undenomina- 
tional work  of  the  Y.M.C.A.,  especially  among  the 
large  government  schools,  has  been  of  great  value, 
and  its  staff  has  increased  five-fold  within  ten 
years.  Central  boards  for  united  action  are  a 
feature  of  this  modern  period  that  promise  to  be  of 
the  widest  helpfulness.  The  so-called  "Continua- 
tion Committee"  of  the  federated  churches  in  the 
Edinburgh  Conference,  the  new  China  Medical 
Board,  the  Christian  Educational  Association,  the 
China  Medical  Missionary  Association  are  all  full 
of  promise  for  the  future.  Practically  all  bodies 
working  in  China  now  recognize  the  primary  need 
of  training  Chinese  youth  for  the  efficient  leader- 
ship of  a  modern  church.  Already  there  are  the 
beginnings  of  the  "Chinese  Christian  Church" 
which  is  wholly  independent  and  unconnected 
with  any  denominational  organization.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  Christian  community  has  been  much  im- 
proved by  the  granting  of  full  religious  toleration, 
in  a  law  of  May,  1916,  providing  that  "the  people  of 
the  Republic  of  China  shall  have  liberty  to  honor 
Confucius,  and  liberty  of  religious  worship,  which 
shall  be  unrestricted,  except  in  accordance  with 
law."  This  seemingly  brings  to  an  end  the  effort 
to  make  of  Confucianism  a  state  religion  and  to 
perpetuate  the  old  discriminations. against  Chris- 
tianity. 

The  statistics  for  1916  (China  Mission  Year- 
hook)  _may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 
Organized  congregations,  3,880;  communicants, 
268,652;  adherents,  526,108;  Sunday  school 
scholars,  165,282;  contributions,  $644,401  (Mex.); 
missionaries,  5,338;  Chinese  workers,  20,460; 
ordained  pastors,  764;  hospitals,  330.  The  num- 
bers of  the  foreign  workers  are  divided  among  the 
leading  churches  as  follows:  China  Inland  Mission, 
976;  Presbyterian,  943;  Methodist,  754;  Anglican, 
621;  Baptist,  534;  Lutheran,  385;  Congrega- 
tionalist,  284.  Henry  Kingman 

CHINA,  RELIGIONS  OF.— I.  Confucianism 
takes  its  name  from  Confucius  (q.v.).  It  is  a  sys- 
tem of  morals  engrafted  upon  the  nature  religion 
which  had  existed  in  China  from  times  primeval. 

1.  The  sacred  books  of  Confucianism  are  the 
five  Classics,  the  Shu  King,  or  "Book  of  History," 
the  Shi  King,  or  "Book  of  Poetry,"  the  /  King  or 
"Book  of  Changes"  (explanations  and  application  to 
purposes  of  divination  of  eight  enigmatic  diagrams), 
Ch'  un  Ts'iu  or  "Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,"  and 
the  Li  Ki  or  "Book  of  Rites."  All  of  these  except 
the  last  were  compiled  by  Confucius.  To  the 
five  Classics  four  books  are  added,  though  these 
are  of  a  less  authoritative  character.  They  are 
the  Lun  Yu  or  "Analects"  (memorabilia  of  Con- 
fucius compiled  by  his  pupils),  the  "Works  of 
Mencius"  (q.v.),  the  Ta  Hsiao  or  "Great  Learning," 
and  the  Chung  Yung  or  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean." 
These  were  compiled  or  written  by  disciples  or 
followers  of  Confucius. 

2.  Fundamental  conception. — ^The  Chinese  con- 
ceive the  universe  to  have  originated  by  generation 
from  two  souls  or  breaths  called  Yang  and  Yin, 
Yang  represents  light,  warmth,  productivity,  life, 
and  the  heavens;  and   Yin,  darkness,  cold,  death, 


and  the  earth.  Yang  is  subdivided  into  an  innum- 
erable number  of  good  spirits  called  shen;  Yin, 
into  numerous  evil  spirits  called  kwei.  Man's 
finer  qualities  come  from  his  shen;  his  passions  and 
coarser  qualities  from  his  kwei.  The  air  of  earth 
was  and  is  supposed  to  swarm  with  evil  spirits 
innumerable.  Such  religion  as  the  Chinese  had 
before  the  6th.  century  b.c.  consisted  in  the  endeavor 
to  propitiate  these  spirits.  At  the  basis  of  the 
Chinese  conception  of  life  lies  the  Tao,  or  the 
order  of  the  universe.  It  embraces  the  orderly 
revolution  of  the  seasons.  Closely  connected  with 
this  is  a  right  human  order,  Jin  Tao,  or  the  "Tao  of 
Man."_  There  was  a  proper  way  for  man  to  con- 
duct himself.  Indeed  the  smooth  working  of  the 
order  of  nature,  the  Tien  Tao,  depended  upon  how 
correct  human  order  was  followed  out  by  men. 
By  the  time  of  Confucius  this  had  led  to  the 
or^nization  of  a  definite  state  religion.  Con- 
fucius, while  animated  by  a  high  ethical  purpose 
was  in  no  sense  a  reformer.  He  reverenced  the 
order  of  nature  as  expressed  in  the  Chinese  empire 
and  religion.  Even  its  burdensome  customs,  such 
as  the  three  years'  mourning  for  the  death  of  an 
emperor,  which  suspended  all  business  and  even  the 
consummation  of  marriages,  were  regarded  by  him 
as  necessary  expressions  of  proper  feeling.  He 
endeavored  to  secure  in  Chinese  domestic  and 
political  life  the  observance  of  the  proper  forms, 
the  fostering  of  proper  feeling,  and  the  preservation 
of  ethical  standards.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
Confucianists,  therefore,  the  forms  of  Chinese  life 
have  been  crystallized.  The  Tao  of  Man  has  been 
thought  to  be  expressed  entirely  in  the  Classics. 
These  have  been  studied  to  the  neglect  of  all  unre- 
lated literature,  they  have  been  made  the  basis  of 
Chinese  education,  of  examinations  for  the  civil 
service,  and  their  teachings  have  been  dogmatically 
imposed  by  the  government  upon  the  nation.  This 
result  has  been  reached  by  gradual  steps. 

3.  Historical  development. — About  a  hundred 
y;ears  after  Mencius  the  Tsin  emperor,  Chih  Hwang- 
ti,  endeavored  to  destroy  the  literati  and  all  their 
books;  and  Confucianism  and  its  classics  came  near 
to  extermination  along  with  the  rest.  The  Tsin 
djrnasty  soon  gave  place,  however,  to  the  Han,  under 
which  the  teachings  of  Confucius  were  revived  and 
revered.  During  both  the  earlier  and  later  Han 
periods  (206  b.c.  to  220  a.d.)  Confucius  was  held  in 
high  honor.  In  1  a.d.  he  was  canonized  as  "Duke 
Ni,  the  all  complete  and  illustrious."  In  the  first 
part  of  the  Han  period,  however,  the  commentaries 
upon  Confucius  were  written  by  men  who  were  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  under  Taoist  influence,  and 
who,  in  the  judgment  of  later  generations,  cor- 
rupted the  teachings  of  the  master.  In  the  reign 
of  Wang  Mang  (6-23  a.d.)  some  books,  said  to  be 
more  ancient,  were  presented  to  the  government. 
These  differed  from  the  corrupted  commentaries. 
The  books  presented  were  said  to  have  been  dug  up. 
They  were  called  "Ancient  Literature";  the  com- 
mentaries "Modem  Literature."  In  57  a.d.  it 
was  ordained  that  sacrifices  should  be  offered  to 
Confucius.  In  165  a.d.  Confucianism  was  finally 
disentangled  from  Taoism  and  became  a  separate 
system. 

Confucianists  were  much  opposed  to  Buddhism, 
whose  monastic  orders  seemed  to  them  to  strike 
at  the  bases  of  Chinese  life.  Confucianism  glorified 
that  life  and  fostered  all  those  institutions  which 
had  been  developed  during  the  nation's  long  struggle 
for  existence.  In  spite  of  the  growth  of  Buddhism 
and  the  frequent  extension  to  it  of  imperial  favor, 
the  estimate  of  Confucius  rose  higher  and  higher  as 
time  passed.  In  492  a.d.  he  was  stA^led  "the 
venerable  Ni,  the  accomplished  Sage.''  In  609  a.d. 
it  was  directed  that  a  temple  to  him  should  be 


China,  Religions  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


S4 


erected  at  every  seat  of  learning.  In  659  he  was 
styled  "K'ung,  the  ancient  Teacher,  the  perfect 
Sage."  _  The  emperor  Yuan  Tsung  (713-766  a.d.) 
gave  him  the  title  "Accomplished  and  Sagacious 
King."  Cheng  Tsung  (1068-1086  a.d.)  advanced 
him  to  the  title  of  "Emperor." 

Chu  Hsi  (1130-1200  a.d.)  introduced  a  new 
departure  into  the  interpretation  of  the  Confucian 
classics.  He  refused  to  interpret  one  way  in  one 
passage  and  another  way  in  another.  His  influence 
was  accordingly  on  the  side  of  a  sober  interpretation 
of  the  Classical  books.  His  works  have  never  been 
translated  into  a  European  language  and  are  little 
known  in  the  West,  but  his  influence  seems,  on  the 
whole,  to  have  tended  toward  agnosticism.  In 
1907  the  late  Empress  Dowager  raised  Confucius 
to  the  first  grade  of  worship,  ranking  him  with 
Shang-ti,  the  Supreme  Spirit. 

4.  Pantheon,  temples  and  ritiuil. — The  divinities 
of  the  Chinese  state  religion,  which  Confucianism 
has  made  a  part  of  itself,  fall  into  three  classes. 

(1)  There  are  those  worshiped  by  the  Emperor — 
the  spirits  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  the  Imperial 
Ancestors,  and  the  gods  of  the  ground,  and  of  millet 
or  com.  On  the  night  of  the  winter  solstice  the 
Emperor  (or  President)  offers  the  most  important 
sacrifice  to  Heaven  in  a  temple  to  the  south  of 
Peking,  and  on  the  night  of  the  summer  solstice, 
to  the  Earth  in  a  temple  to  the  north  of  that  city. 
On  both  occasions  he  sacrifices  also  to  his  ancestors. 
Sacrifices  are  offered  to  corn  gods  and  gods  of  the 
ground,  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  in  a  park  to  the 
southwest  of  the  Tartar  city  either  by  the  President 
or  his  deputy.  (2)  Gods  of  the  middle  class  are 
the  sun,  and  various  famous  men  who  are  believed 
to  have  introduced  civilization,  such  as  Sheng 
Nung,  the  divine  husbandman,  and  Sien-ts'an, 
the  first  breeder  of  silk  worms.  In  this  class  of  gods 
many  rulers  of  the  past  are  worshiped;  also  Con- 
fucius, together  with  his  ancestors,  and  more  than 
seventy  exponents  of  his  doctrine.  In  this  class 
we  find  also  the  planet  Jupiter,  deities  of  clouds, 
rain,  wind,  and  thunder,  the  ten  principal  mountains 
of  the  empire,  five  ranges  of  hills,  etc.  (3)  A  third 
class  of  deities  is  worshiped  by  Mandarins.  This 
includes  the  physicians  of  olden  time,  a  star  in  the 
Great  Bear  which  is  regarded  as  the  patron  of 
Classical  studies,  the  Prince  of  the  north  pole, 
the  god  of  fire,  gods  of  walls  and  moats,  the  god  of  the 
eastern  mountains  (in  Shantung),  gods  of  water  and 
rain,  of  porcelain  kilns,  of  storehouses,  and  many 
others. 

In  the  time  of  Confucius  the  worship  of  the 
common  people  was  restricted  to  reverencing 
their  ancestors,  but  they  have  not  been  content  with 
this.  All  over  China  in  villages  and  other  localities 
they  now  have  temples  for  the  worship  of  mountains, 
streams,  rocks,  and  patron  divinities  of  all  sorts. 
Images  of  these  gods  exist  by  tens  of  thousands. 
The  altars  consist  of  two  or  more  tables,  on  which 
are  placed  wax  candles,  flower- vases,  and  pots  in 
which  sticks  of  incense  are  placed  to  burn.  These 
offerings  express  homage.  There  is  no  atoning 
sacrifice.  The  sacrifices  are  propiatory  rather  than 
expiatory. 

5.  Principles. — (1)  Foremost  among  the  prin- 
ciples of  Confucianism  is  reverence — reverence  for 
the  manifestations  of  the  Shen,  or  Soul  of  the 
universe,  i.e.,  reverence  for  the  chief  deities  men- 
tioned above,  and  for  ancestors  who  were  believed  to 
be  possessed  of  a  shen  kindred  to  that  of  the  universe; 
reverence,  too,  for  all  the  good  customs  and  insti- 
tutions  which   had   grown   up   in   China's   past. 

(2)  According  to  Confucianism  the  five  Classics 
contain  and  reveal  all  the  binding  principles  of  the 
Tao  of  man.  All  that  conflicts  with  these  is  to  be 
uprooted    and    discarded.    Confucianism,     when 


consistently  applied,  is  accordingly  dogmatic  and 
intolerant.  (3)  Sin  is  recognized,  but  its  punish- 
ment is  expected  in  this  life.  Reformation  from 
wrong-doing  is  required,  but  is  believed  to  be  within 
one's  own  power.  (4)  Confucius  was  a  formalist. 
His  power  of  self-control  was  admirable.  He  incul- 
cated a  rigid  code  of  honor  and  exhibited  urbanity  and 
courtesy.  In  these  respects  he  became  an  example  to 
his  followers.  Confucianism  has,  accordingly,  as  one 
of  its  principal  expressions,  an  elaborate  system 
of  etiquette  and  politeness.  (5)  Confucianism 
embraces  also  a  high  degree  of  ethical  teaching. 
Confucius  advocated  kindness,  rectitude,  decorum, 
wisdom,  and  sincerity.  He  does  not  employ  the 
word  "lie,"  but  he  lays  great  stress  upon  sincerity. 
His  motive  of  conduct  was  a  negative  form  of  the 
Golden  Rule:  "That  which  I  do  not  wish  others  to 
put  upon  me,  I  also  wish  not  to  put  upon  others." 
He  did  not,  however,  believe  in  forgiving  enemies, 
but  advocated  blood  revenge.  He  thought  that 
a  man  should  not  live  under  the  same  heaven  with 
the  murderer  of  his  father.  (6)  Confucianism 
regards  human  nature  as  essentially  noble.  _  It 
has  inculcated  loyalty  and  has  upheld  a  high  ethical 
standard,  and  has  thus  been  of  untold  benefit  to  the 
China  of  the  past.  In  spite  of  its  noble  standards, 
however,  it  seems  to  lack  the  ethical  power  to 
create  the  China  which  must  be,  if  that  land  is 
still  to  have  a  mission  in  the  world. 

The  overthrow  of  the  Empire  in  1912  inter- 
rupted for  a  time  the  state  religion  about  which 
Confucianism  had  entwined  itself,  but  in  1915 
Yuan  Shi  Kai,  then  President  of  the  Chinese 
Republic,  once  more  made  Confucianism  the 
religion  of  the  state. 

II.  Taoism  is  a  system  of  Chinese  thought  and 
practice  which,  after  existing  seven  hundred  years 
as  a  philosophy,  developed,  about  eighteen  hundred 
years  ago,  into  a  religion.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  Chinese  word  Tao,  "path,"  "road,"  "way." 
Early  Chinamen  spoke  of  l^ien  Tao,  "the  Way 
of  Heaven,"  contrasting  it  with  Jen  Tao,  "the 
Way  of  Man."  The  former  was  bright,  holy, right; 
the  latter,  dark,  perverse.  Then  omitting  T'ien 
they  employed  Tao  alone  to  denote  the  summum 
bonum.  Tao  is  a  word  which  eludes  the  trans- 
lator. It  seems  at  times  to  be  "Nature"  or  the 
"Way  the  Universe  goes."  Tao  was  reverenced  by 
all  the  early  Chinese,  and  forms  the  basis  of  both 
Confucianism  (q.v.)  and  Taoism. 

The  founder  of  Taoism  as  a  distinct  system  was 
Lao-tze,  who  was  born  about  600  b.c,  and  who 
hved  to  be  about  80  years  old.  He  is  beUeved  to 
be  the  author  of  the  Tao  Teh  Ching,  the  oldest  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Taoists.  He  lived  in  the 
midst  of  increasing  wealth  and  luxury,  and  advo- 
cated a  return  to  nature  and  the  simple  life.  To 
him  the  Tao  seemed  the  inexpressible  Infinite, 
greater  than  the  most  exalted  spirit.  To  come 
into  harmony  with  the  Tao  was  to  attain  all  virtue. 
This  harmony  was,  he  believed,  to  be  attained 
by  quietism,  living  according  to  nature,  self- 
effacement,  and  meditation.  Lao-tze  differed  radi- 
cally from  his  younger  contemporary,  Confucius. 
Confucius  taught  a  system  of  strict  etiquette;  he 
would  run  all  life  into  a  mould.  Lao-tze  would 
set  man  free  from  convention;  to  him  the  perfect 
man  was  the  primeval  man.  His  famous  saying: 
"The  Way  (Tao)  which  can  be  walked  is  not  the 
enduring  and  unchanging  Way  {Tao);  the  name 
that  can  be  named  is  not  the  enduring  and  unchan- 
ging Name,"  expresses  his  transcendentahsm. 

For  two  hundred  years  the  teachings  of  Lao-tze 
exerted  upon  Chinese  life  a  somewhat  undefined 
influence.  At  least  a  few  under  this  influence  had 
sought  through  asceticism  to  return  to  primitive 
holiness.     In  the  4th.  century  b.c,   Chuang-tze, 


85 


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China,  Religions  of 


Mith  a  literary  ability  greater  than  that  of  Lao-tze 
himself,  advocated  and  reinforced  the  philosophy 
of  the  great  founder.  He  held  the  punctilious 
Confucianists  up  to  ridicule  and  sought  to  commend 
the  teachings  of  Lao-tze.  Chuang-tze  possessed 
greater  power  of  pure  philosophic  thought  than 
any  other  Chinese  writer.  He  held  that  all  human 
perceptions  are  relative.  The  most  fundamental 
distinctions  of  our  thought  crumble  away  in  the 
hght  of  nature.  He  thus  sums  up  the  whole  duty  of 
man :  "Resolve  your  mental  energy  into  abstraction, 
your  physical  energy  into  inaction.  Allow  yourself 
to  fall  in  with  the  natural  order  of  phenomena, 
without  admitting  the  element  of  self."  The 
logical  deduction  from  this  teaching  was  that  all 
would  come  right,  if  man  does  nothing,  an  attitude 
that  did  not  appeal  to  great  numbers  of  practical 
Chinamen.  Chuahg-tze's  influence  did,  however, 
attract  a  following  and  by  the  next  century  the 
efforts  of  the  Taoists  to  live  in  accord  with  Nature 
had  led  them  to  dabble  in  various  doubtful  arts  in 
the  hope  of  discovering  Nature's  hidden  secrets. 
In  particular,  Taoists  had  come  to  believe  that  an 
island  in  the  Yellow  Sea  produced  a  plant  from 
which  the  elixir  of  life  could  be  made — an  elixir 
which  would  procure  immortality.  The  great 
Tsin  emperor,  Shih  Hwang-ti  (221-209  B.C.),  desir- 
ing this  elixir,  patronized  the  Taoists,  and,  when 
he  persecuted  the  Confucianists  and  destroyed  their 
books,  the  Taoists  were  spared.  For  the  same 
reason  the  Han  emperor  Wu-ti  (140-87  b.c.)  was  an 
ardent  supporter  of  the  Taoists.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  such  ideals  the  teachings  of  the  great 
thinkers,  Lao-tze  and  Chuang-tze,  while  nominally 
revered,  fell  into  the  background.  They  were 
understood  by  few.  The  Taoists  became  largely 
a  group  of  magicians. 

Taoists  and  Confucianists  were  not,  however, 
clearly  separated  from  one  another  until  the  2nd. 
century  a.d.  Under  the  later  Hans  the  efforts  of 
the  Confucianists  to  purify  the  teachings  of  their 
Master  from  Taoist  corruptions,  combined  with  a 
growing  self-consciousness  of  their  own,  as  well  as 
imitation  of  the  recently  introduced  Buddhism, 
helped  Taoism  to  become  a  real  religion  with  an  or- 
ganization wholly  its  own.  It  possessed  a  pantheon, 
doctrines  of  sanctity,  a  system  of  ethics  which  it  was 
said  would  lead  to  sanctity,  and  votaries,  saints, 
hermits,  teachers,  and  pupils.  In  165  a.d,  Chang 
Tao-ling  or  Chang  Ling,  a  man  regarded  as  a  saint 
and  described  as  a  miracle-worker,  a  distiller  of  the 
ehxir  of  life,  an  exorcist,  and  a  god-man,  claimed 
that  Lao-tze  had  appeared  to  him  and  commissioned 
him  to  become  patriarch  of  the  Taoists.  He  accord- 
ingly assumed  this  position,  and  his  descendants 
hold  it  to  the  present  day. 

In  rivalry  with  Buddhism,  Taoism  soon  developed 
a  monastic  order,  a  system  of  temples,  sacrifices,  and 
a  priesthood.  In  the  last  seventeen  hundred 
years  it  has  experienced  various  vicissitudes. 
Under  the  Ch'i  dynasty  (479-502)  temples  and 
monasteries  were  constructed  for  them  under 
imperial  patronage.  Under  the  Chin  dynasty 
(5.56-580  A.D.)  their  establishments  were  destroyed 
along  witJi  those  of  the  Buddhists,  while  under  the 
great  Tang  dynasty  (618-907  a.d.)  Taoism  was 
favored  to  such  a  degree  that  it  is  regarded  by 
some  as  the  state  religion  of  the  Tangs.  It  was 
also  favored  by  the  Sung  emperors  (906-1127), 
but  persecuted  by  the  Kin  dynasty  (1127-1235). 
Their  magic  arts  commended  them  to  the  Mongols 
so  that  under  the  Yuan  dynasty  (1260-1368)  they 
again  flourished.  Under  the  last  two  dynasties 
imperial  favor  has  varied  with  different  sovereigns. 

At  the  head  of  the  Taoist  pantheon  stands 
Lao-tze,  who  is  worshiped  under  the  title  San  tsing, 
"The   three   Pure   Ones" — a   title    given   him   in 


rivalry  to  Buddhism,  which  reverences  Buddha 
under  three  aspects  as  past,  present,  and  future. 
San  tsing  is  the  god  of  contemplation.  Yu  Hwang 
Shang-ti,  "the  precious  imperial  god,"  is  worshiped 
as  the  ruler  of  the  physical  universe.  He  controls 
human  affairs;  to  him  men  can  express  their 
hopes  and  griefs.  Magicians  and  alchemists  have 
added  other  deities.  The  earth  is  said  to  consist 
of  five  constituent  parts,  metal,  wood,  water,  fire, 
and  earth,  which  are  respectively  represented  in  the 
heavens  by  Venus,  Jupiter,  Mercury,  Mars,  Saturn. 
These  planets,  which  are  regarded  as  the  sublimated 
essences  of  these  earthly  things,  are  regarded  as  gods. 
Other  stars  are  deified.  The  Great  Bear  comes  in 
for  a  good  degree  of  worship,  one  part  of  it  being 
thought  to  be  the  palace  of  a  goddess,  Tow-mu, 
another  part  of  the  god  Kwei-sing.  The  god  of 
thunder,  the  spirit  of  the  sea,  the  mother  of  light- 
ning, the  king  of  the  sea,  the  lord  of  the  tide,  and 
many  other  spirits  are  worshiped.  Spirits  innumer- 
able which  preside  over  every  possible  calling  are 
also  invoked.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  wealth  and 
honor  are  discountenanced  by  the  great  Taoist  writ- 
ers, no  god  is  more  eagerly  worshiped  than  Tasi-shin, 
the  god  of  riches.  In  short,  Taoism  has  absorbed 
into  itself  any  popular  spirit  or  god  whom  the 
people  desire  to  worship. 

Taoist  temples  are  numerous.  In  the  principal 
hall  of  the  temple  stands  an  altar  and  a  shrine.  In 
the  shrine  is  a  venerable  figure  with  a  long  beard, 
with  folded  hands,  whose  features  reflect  the 
calm  of  contemplation.  Canton  in  1900  contained 
ten  such  temples.  The  priests  who  serve  in  these 
temples  practise  exorcism,  tell  fortunes,  and  prac- 
tise chronomancy,  i.e.,  they  tell  what  days  and 
times  are  favorable  or  unfavorable  for  any  and 
every  undertaking.  While  Taoist  monasteries 
were  once  numerous,  few  of  them  survive  to  the 
present.  Most  of  the  priests  now  mingle  freely 
in  the  common  life  of  their  fellows. 

All  this  organization  of  Taoism  is  the  result  of 
native  Chinese  opposition  to  Buddhism,  a  foreign 
religion.  It  has,  however,  never  appropriated  the 
Buddhistic  hopes  of  a  future  life.  Faithful  to  native 
Chinese  tendencies,  its  arts  and  teachings  are 
confined  to  matters  which  concern  the  present  life. 

For  centuries  Taoists  have  fostered  secret 
societies.  Sometimes  they  have  existed  for  the 
purpose  of  contemplation  or  for  the  cultivation  of 
mystic  arts,  such  as  exorcism.  Sometimes  they 
have  been  organized  for  political  purposes.  Some- 
times those  formed  for  other  reasons  have  been 
diverted  to  political  agitation.  Such  agitation 
usually  has  taken  the  form  of  opposition  to  the 
dynasty  of  the  time.  These  societies  have,  accord- 
ingly, frequently  been  prohibited  and  broken  up  by 
the  government.  One  of  the  latest  of  the  societies 
was  the  Boxers,  which  the  late  Empress  Dowager, 
Tsi  Thsi,  encouraged  as  a  means  of  ridding  China 
of  foreigners,  thus  precipitating  the  massacre  of 
the  year  1900. 

III.  Chinese  Buddhism. — Buddhism  (q.v.)  had 
had  a  history  of  five  hundred  years  in  India  before 
its  introduction  into  China.  The  first  authentic 
record  that  a  knowledge  of  Buddhism  reached 
China  comes  from  the  reign  of  Wu-ti  of  the  Han 
dynasty  (140-87  B.C.).  During  his  reign  the 
Chinese  penetrated  to  Tibet  and  the  Caspian,  and 
one  of  Wu-ti's  generals,  Chang-k'ien,  reported  to  the 
emperor  that  he  had  heard  that  in  India  they 
worshiped  a  divine  person,  Feu-to  (Buddha). 
Another  general,  Hu  Kui-ping,  saw  in  Pamir  a 
golden  image  of  the  same  person,  who  was  adored. 
Possibly  missionaries  also  followed  in  the  wake  of 
the  Chinese  armies,  for  in  6  B.C.  an  ambassador 
of  the  Massagatae  with  the  aid  of  a  Chinese  scholar 
translated  a  Buddhistic  book  into  Chinese. 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


86 


The  official  introduction  of  Buddhism  into 
China  dates,  however,  from  the  reign  of  Ming-ti, 
58-86  A.D.  The  faith  thus  introduced  was  what  is 
known  as  Mahayama  Buddhism.  It  was  in  many 
respects  quite  different  from  the  simple  faith  origi- 
nally taught  by  Gautama  as  well  as  from  that  which 
is  still  perpetuated  among  the  southern  Buddhists. 
Its  fundamental  tenets  were  still  that  existence  is  an 
evil,  that  individuals  are  doomed  to  successive 
reincarnations  until  they  become  sufficiently  per- 
fect to  attain  Nirvana  by  losing  their  individuality 
in  Tag^thata,  the  substantial  hypostasis  of  the 
universe,  and  that  the  way  to  attain  this  perfection 
was  the  Noble,  Eight-Fold,  Middle  Path.  But 
to  this  simple  faith  many  things  had  been  added. 
The  Buddha,  it  was  believed,  had  been  miracu- 
lously conceived  and  miraculously  born  without 
causing  pain  to  his  mother.  As  an  infant  he  had 
behaved  in  a  most  miraculous  way.  Daevas  (the  old 
gods)  had  rejoiced  at  his  birth;  they  had  attended 
him  throughout  life.  Into  the  system  of  belief  there 
had  been  introduced  a  goddess,  Abolokitesvara, 
known  in  China  as  Kwan-yin,  and  a  divine  being, 
Amitabha,  called  by  the  Chinese  Amita,  or  Mi-to. 
The  belief  in  Boddhisattvas  was  already  a  part 
of  it,  as  was  faith  in  heaven  and  hell  as  places 
of  temf>orary  sojourn  between  different  incarna- 
tions. 

This  form  of  Buddhism  had  developed  in  north- 
em  and  northwestern  India  among  Scythians  and 
other  tribes  who  had  come  into  India  by  way  of 
Parthian  empire,  and  had  been  profoundly  influ- 
enced by  ideas  originally  foreign  to  it. 

The  progress  of  Buddhism  in  China  was  at  first 
slow.  While  it  does  not  demand  that  all  who 
accept  it  shall  live  a  celibate  life,  it  does  hold  that 
such  a  life  is  the  most  perfect,  and  organizes  many 
monasteries  and  nunneries.  The  withdrawal  of 
people  from  active  married  life  was  contrary  to 
Chinese  ideals,  in  which  the  duty  of  being  economi- 
cally productive  and  of  begetting  children  to  main- 
tain perpetually  the  reverence  due  to  ancestors  had 
for  centuries  been  deeply  ingrained  into  the  national 
consciousness.  Both  Confucianism  and  Taoism 
(q.v.)  were  opposed  to  Buddhism  and  legal  impedi- 
ments were  employed  to  prevent  Chinese  from 
becoming  monks.^  For  more  than  two  cen- 
turies after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  the 
monastic  orders  were  kept  alive  by  the  influx  of 
foreign  monks.  After  the  beginning  of  the  later 
Tsin  dynasty  in  265  a.d.  the  opposing  influences 
weakened,  and  in  335  a.d.  an  imperial  decree  per- 
mitted the  Chinese  to  enter  the  monastic  orders. 
Many  monasteries  were  established  in  northern 
China  and  soon  nine-tenths  of  the  people  had  in  a 
sense  become  Buddhists.  Buddhism,  Confucian- 
ism, and  Taoism  were  not  mutually  exclusive  sys- 
tems, and  the  majority  of  the  Chinese  have  from 
that  time  counted  themselves  as  members  of  all 
three  faiths,  so  as  to  gain  whatever  benefits  each 
can  bring.  As  neither  Confucianism  nor  Taoism 
held  out  a  hope  of  a  future  life.  Buddhism  supplied 
at  this  point  a  real  lack.  Although  the  imperial 
favor  wavered,  one  emperor  favoring  Confucianism 
at  the  expense  of  Buddhism,  another  Taoism,  and 
another  veering  again  to  Buddhism,  and  although 
the  same  emperor  would  at  times  veer  from  one  faith 
to  another,  Buddhist  monks  multiplied  rapidly 
and  began  to  make  pilgrimages  to  India.  In 
.526  A.D.  Buddhidharma,  the  twenty-eighth  suc- 
cessor of  Gautama,  and  the  first  of  the  Buddhist 
patriarchs  to  come  from  India  to  China,  arrived 
and  from  that  time  China  became  the  seat  of  the 
Buddhistic  patriarchate.  In  819  a.d.  Hsien  Tsung, 
of  the  Tang  dynasty,  sent  commissioners  to  escort  a 
supposed  bone  of  the  Buddha  to  the  capital.  Great 
reverence  was  paid  to  the  relic.     A  Confucianist, 


Han  Yu,  wrote  a  strong  protest  against  the  whole 
procedure,  which  has  been  often  quoted. 

At  different  times  Chinese  emperors  undertook  to 
check  the  spread  of  Buddhism  by  means  of  perse- 
cution. While  these  for  a  time  were  vigorously 
pushed,  in  the  end  the  religion  proved  too  strong  to 
be  repressed. 

The  Hindu  conception  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls  has  never  taken  deep  root  in  China.  Chinese 
gods  and  spirits,  on  the  other  hand,  have  easily 
been  transformed  into  Buddhas  or  Boddhisattvas, 
and  the  phrase  "all  the  Buddhas"  has  become  in 
northern  Buddhism  almost  an  equivalent  to  "all 
the  spirits"  or  "all  the  gods."  In  addition  to  these, 
two  deities  of  northern  Buddhism  have  won  a  very 
large  place  in  the  Chinese  form  of  the  faith.  They 
are  Kwin-yin  and  Mi-to  (i.e.,  Amita  or  Amitabha). 
Kwan-yin  is  the  "goddess  of  mercy,"  who  is  believed 
to  descend  regularly  to  hell  to  release  spirits  bound 
there.  She  is  worshiped  now  by  a  ritual  which 
strikingly  resembles  a  Christian  liturgy.  Indeed  it 
is  believed  to  have  been  borrowed  from  Christianity. 
It  appears  to  have  reached  China  at  the  time  of  the 
Tang  dynasty  in  the  7th.  century  with  Nestorianism, 
and  to  have  been  adapted  in  the  time  of  the  Mings 
in  the  15th.  century. 

The  other  deity,  Mi-to  or  Amitabha,  is  a  kind 
of  Saviour  Buddha.  Originally  only  a  form  of 
Buddha,  he  has  become  in  the  minds  of  the  people 
practically  a  god.  He  is  believed  to  control  the 
tsing  tu,  or  "Pure  Land,"  a  Paradise  supposed  to 
be  situated  in  the  West,  to  gain  which  assures  per- 
petual bliss.  Gradually  there  has  grown  up  the 
doctrine  that  faith  in  Mi-to  combined  with  the 
repetition  of  his  name  will  insure  entrance  into  this 
Paradise.  Admission  to  that  "Pure  Land"  consti- 
tutes salvation.  As  a  result  of  this  doctrine 
Chinese  Buddhists  will  sit  for  hours  repeating  the 
word  Mi-to,  which  is  supposed  to  contain  the 
elixir  of  life,  and  to  contain  the  magic  power  which 
delivers  from  the  circle  of  transmigration.  It  thus 
happens  that  in  China  a  religion  of  faith  and  of 
ritual  repetitions  of  the  name  of  a  Saviour  has  been 
substituted  for  the  strenuous  ethical  endeavor 
taught  by  Gautama  which  constituted  primitive 
Buddhism. 

While  there  are  Chinese  who  have  nothing  to 
do  with  Buddhism,  it  may  truthfully  be  said  that 
Buddhism  has  penetrated  the  whole  of  Chinese 
life.  There  is  no  clearly  marked  line  of  distinction 
between  the  devotees  of  Buddhism  and  those  of  the 
other  religions  of  China.  The  great  majority  of 
the  people  are  on  friendly  terms  with  all  three.  In 
a  sense,  therefore,  all  China's  millions  may  be 
counted  as  Buddhists.  Buddhism  has  contributed 
to  Chinese  thought  an  eschatology  and  a  conception 
of  the  hereafter,  it  calls  its  devotees  to  attain  heaven 
and  escape  hell  by  frequent  invocations  of  Buddhas 
and  Boddhisattvas,  together  with  fastings  and 
pilgrimages,  and  it  encourages  the  leading  of  a  moral 
and  altruistic  life.  It  has  had  on  the  whole  an 
elevating  influence  on  Chinese  life. 

George  A.  Barton 

CHIVALRY.— The  system  of  knighthood  in  the 
age  of  feudalism  (10th.-14th.  century)  in  which 
knightly  honor  was  pledged  to  protect  women,  aid 
the  weak,  and  act  magnanimously  toward  a  van- 
quished foe.  Chivalry  was  recognized  by  the 
church  from  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  the  investi- 
ture of  the  knight  including  an  elaborate  church 
ceremony. 

CHOICE.— That  power  of  the  self  by  which  a 
selection  is  made  from  alternative  courses  of  action, 
things,  or  ends,  and  involving  a  comparison  of  rela- 
tive values.  Choice  is  ethical  when  the  selection 
involves  a  moral  evaluation  of  the  alternatives. 


87 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Christian  Science 


CHOIR. — In  most  well-ordered  religious  services 
of  the  ancient  world  the  people  responded  to  the 
priests  in  the  chanting  of  litanies,  or  a  trained 
choir  (chorus)  of  singers  followed  a  leader  or 
alternately  chanted  psalms.  The  early  Christian 
Church  continued  a  modified  synagogue  service  of 
psalm  chanting.  After  the  4th.  century,  especially 
in  monasteries,  we  hear  of  choirs  (schola  cantarum), 
who  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  church,  which 
place  is  also  called  choir  (from  chorus  or  corona  or 
chancel),  the  chorus  forming  a  circle  about  the 
altar,  separated  from  the  people  by  a  railing. 

J.  N.  Reagan 

CHRISM. — (1)  An  unguent  made  of  oUve  oil  and 
balm  used  as  an  anointing  substance  in  the  Or. 
and  R.C.  churches  at  baptism,  confirmation,  ordina- 
tion and  consecration  services.  Consecration  of  the 
chrism  is  performed  by  a  bishop  on  Maundy  Thurs- 
day. (2)  A  designation  sometimes  used  for  the 
olive  oil  employed  in  the  administration  of  extreme 
unction. 

CHRISMON. — A  monogram  formed  of  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  word,  Christos.  It 
appears  on  the  tombs  of  some  of  the  early  Christians. 

CHRIST. — See  Jesus  Christ;  Messiah. 

CHRISTADELPHIANS.— A  sect  founded  in 
1848  by  John  Thomas,  the  tenets  of  which  are 
millenarianism,  conditional  immortality,  anti-trini- 
tarianism,  and  churches  with  neither  organization 
nor  ministry.     Membership  (1919),  2,922. 

CHRISTENDOM.— That  part  of  the  world  in 
which  Christianity  is  the  dominant  reUgion. 

CHRISTENING.— The  ceremony  of  Christian 
baptism,  specifically  the  ceremony  when  an  infant  is 
baptized  and  named. 

CHRISTIAN. — Ideally  a  person  possessed  of  the 
moral  and  religious  character  of  Jesus  Christ.  In 
ordinary  usage,  however,  the  term  is  used  to  denote 
a  professed  follower  of  Christ  or  even  more  loosely 
one  who  is  associated  with  a  Christian  group  or 
nation;  i.e.,  not  a  Jew,  pagan  or  Mohammedan. 

CHRISTIAN  AND  MISSIONARY  ALLIANCE. 

— A  religious  movement  which  has  as  its  founder 
and  president  Albert  B.  Simpson.  In  1879  the 
International  Missionary  Alliance  and  the  Christian 
Alliance  were  separately  incorporated.  Later  these 
two  societies  united  in  the  Christian  and  Missionary 
Alliance.  The  national  headauarters  are  in  the 
tabernacle  at  8th  Avenue  ana  44th  Street,  New 
York,  and  at  Nyack  Heights  upon  the  Hudson, 
where  is  established  the  Nyack  Missionary  Institute, 
the  educational  center  of  the  Alliance  and  the 
official  residence  of  many  of  its  leaders.  It  main- 
tains in  New  York  City  various  homes  and  orphan- 
ages and  also  a  training  college.  Membership, 
9,625  (1919). 

Doctrinal  position. — The  rehgious  doctrines 
especially  prominent  in  the  Alliance  and  upon  which 
it  puts  constant  emphasis  are  Gospel  Evangelism, 
Personal  Holiness,  Divine  Heahng,  Baptism  by 
Immersion,  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ,  and  the 
Extension  of  Christianity  to  all  races  and  persons 
with  the  purpose  of  offering  salvation  to  every 
nation  and  individual  in  this  generation. 

Foreign  missions. — In  1887  at  a  convention  at 
Old  Orchard,  Maine,  the  AlUance  announced  its 
foreign  mission  policy.  Since  that  date  missions 
have  been  begun  in  Palestine,  three  provinces  in 
India,  six  provinces  in  China,  on  the  border  of  Tibet, 
Aunam,  Japan,  Philippine  Islands,  the  Soudan,  and 


the  Congo  in  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  and  in  three 
countries  in  South  America.  The  latest  mission 
reports  show  some  260  foreign  missionaries,  many 
of  whom  are  lay  workers,  engaged  throughout 
this  mission  field,  with  a  native  communicant  body 
of  about  7,000,  and  450  native  workers.  The 
Alliance  puts  unusual  emphasis  upon  conventions, 
national,  district,  and  local,  regular,  and  occasional 
as  the  means  of  promoting  its  evangehstic  and 
missionary  interests.  Leaders  in  the  Alliance  have 
not  been  especially  prominent  in  the  modern 
interdenominational  and  rehgious  movement. 

James  L.  Barton 
CHRISTIAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  ZION. 
— A  rehgious  body  organized  in  1896  by  John 
Alexander  Dowie,  laying  stress  on  faith-healing, 
abstinence  from  pork  and  tobacco,  and  cultivating 
a  strong  religious  community  life.  The  sect  is 
located  at  Zion  City,  111. 

CHRISTIAN  CONNECTION.— A  group  of 
Christians  organized  by  James  O'Kelly  (1735-1826) 
in  North  Carolina  with  tenets  similar  to  those  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ  (q.  v.). 

CHRISTIAN  ENDEAVOR,  YOUNG 
PEOPLES'  SOCIETY  OF.— See  Young  Peoples' 
Societies. 

CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE,  SOCIETY  FOR 
PROMOTING.— A  society  operated  by  the 
Church  of  England  to  publish  and  distribute  Bibles, 
Christian  literature  and  tracts.  It  dates  from  1698, 
and  has  been  a  great  missionary  agency  in  publish- 
ing books  in  various  languages. 

CHRISTIAN  REFORM  CHURCH.— A  body 
consisting  of  secessions  from  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  (q.  v.)  in  1822,  1857  and  1882.  Its 
strongest  schools  are  in  western  Michigan. 

CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE.— A  scientific  system 
of  metaphysical  or  spiritual  healing,  discovered  by 
Mary  Baker  Eddy  in  the  year  1866.  Christian 
Science  is  so  called  because  of  its  exact  and  scientific 
nature.  It  implies  a  correct  and  demonstrable 
knowledge  of  God;  a  systematized  and  formulated 
knowledge  of  the  divine  Principle  of  being,  which 
must  be  apphed  spiritually,  since  God  is  infinite 
Spirit.  It  is  Christian  because  it  explains  and 
unfolds  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  whose  knowledge 
and  apprehension  of  God  must  have  been  scientifi- 
cally correct,  hence  the  teachings  of  Jesus  are  at 
once  Christian  and  scientific. 

I.  Discoverer  and  Founder. — Mary  Baker 
Eddy,  the  Discoverer  and  Founder  of  Christian 
Science,  a  gentlewoman  of  culture  and  refinement, 
was  born  at  Bow,  near  Concord,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1821.  She  was  of  English  and  Scotch  descent. 
Her  ancestry  was  marked  by  sturdy  devotion  to 
Protestant  liberty  and  deep  rehgious  tendencies. 
Her  mother  was  especially  devout  and  spiritually 
minded.  Her  immediate  relatives  were  prosperous 
people  of  local  prominence.  She  received  a  liberal 
education,  mainly  under  tutors.  Her  favorite 
studies  were  natural  philosophy,  logic  and  moral 
science.  She  was  instructed  in  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Greek  by  her  brother,  a  graduate  of  Dartmouth 
College.  In  1903  she  was  made  an  honorary 
member  of  the  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. She  was  a  fluent  writer  on  ethical  and  moral 
subjects  and  for  a  time  earned  her  liveUhood  through 
her  literary  contributions  to  newspapers  and  other 
periodicals. 

As  a  child  Mrs.  Eddy  took  an  unusual  interest 
in  religious  subjects  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  she 
recovered  from  an  illness  by  turning  to  God  in 


Christian  Science 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


88 


prayer.  At  an  early  age  she  was  admitted  to 
membership  in  the  Congregational  Church  (Trini- 
tarian). Her  parents  had  been  members  of  that 
body  for  about  forty  years  and  she  retained  her  con- 
nection therewith  until  the  first  Christian  Science 
church  was  founded.  As  a  young  woman  she 
further  developed  and  afterward  maintained  an 
intense  interest  in  religious  and  metaphysical  sub- 
jects, including  mental  and  spiritual  causation. 

In  February  1866  she  sustained  an  injury  which 
was  pronounced  fatal  by  her  physician.  In  her 
extremity  she  turned  to  God,  called  for  her  Bible 
and  opening  it  at  the  ninth  chapter  of  Matthew, 
she  read  the  account  of  Jesus'  healing  of  the  man 
sick  of  the  palsy.  The  clear  realization  of  the 
healing  power  of  the  Christ  came  to  her  at  that  time 
with  such  illumination  and  conviction  that  she 
arose,  dressed  herself  and  walked  into  the  adjoining 
room,  every  trace  of  her  injury  having  disappeared. 
After  this  experience  she  retired  from  society  for 
about  three  years,  during  which  period  she  read 
little  but  the  Bible  and  finally  a  complete  revelation 
of  the  Science  of  the  teachings  of  Christ  Jesus 
unfolded  to  her  and  she  began  to  teach  and  practice 
this  Science  for  herself  and  others. 

II.  Textbook. — The  Christian  Science  text- 
book, Science  and  Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures, 
was  written  by  Mary  Baker  Eddy  during  the  years 
immediately  following  her  discovery.  It  was  first 
published  in  1875  and  was  revised  by  the  author  at 
various  times  until  1910  when  the  latest  change 
was  made.  This  book  contains  the  complete  state- 
ment of  Christian  Science,  defining  its  Principle  and 
rules,  with  the  elucidation  thereof.  The  prayerful 
study  of  this  book  has  not  only  healed  thousands 
of  its  readers,  but  it  has  enabled  them  to  heal 
others  and  so  made  it  possible  for  them  to  fulfill 
the  command  of  Christ  Jesus  to  "heal  the  sick." 
Science  and  Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures 
acknowledges  only  one  God  and  that  the  All-good. 
It  shows  Christ  Jesus  to  be  the  Way-shower,  who 
must  be  followed  in  every  act  of  Ufe  if  one  is  to 
merit  the  name  of  Christian.  It  awakens  each 
student  of  its  pages  to  the  awful  and  deceptive 
nature  of  sin  and  of  all  evil.  From  cover  to  cover 
it  stands  for  God  and  His  laws;  and  all  those  who 
love  this  book  are  turned  to  a  more  appreciative, 
consecrated,  and  intelligent  study  of  the  Bible.  It 
contains  eighteen  chapters,  with  the  following 
headings:  I.  Prayer;  II.  Atonement  and  Eucharist; 
III.  ^  Marriage;  IV.  Christian  Science  versus 
Spiritualism;  V.  Animal  Magnetism  Unmasked; 
VI.  Science,  Theology,  Medicine;  VII.  Physiology; 
VIII.  Footsteps  of  Truth;  IX.  Creation;  X.  Sci- 
ence of  Being;  XI.  Some  Objections  Answered; 
XII.  Christian  Science  Practice;  XIII.  Teaching 
Christian  Science;  XIV.  Recapitulation;  XV.  Gene- 
sis; XVI.  The  Apocalypse;  XVII.  Glossary; 
XVIII.  Fruitage. 

The  complete  list  of  the  published  writings  of 
Mary  Baker  Eddy  is  as  follows:  Science  and  Health 
vnth  Key  to  the  Scriptures;  The  People's  Idea  of 
God  (1886);  Christian  Healing  (1886);  Retro- 
spection and  Introspection  (1891);  Unity  of  Good 
(1891);  Rudimental  Divine  Science  (1891);  No  and 
Fes  (1891);  Church  Manual  (1895);  Miscellaneous 
Writings  (1883-1896) ;  Christ  and  Christmas  (1897) ; 
Christian  Science  versus  Pantheism  (1898);  Pulpit 
and  Press  (1895);  Messages  to  The  Mother  Church 
(1900,  1901,  1902);  Poems  (1910);  The  First 
Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  and  Miscellany  (1913). 

These  works  may  be  found  at  all  Christian  Sci- 
ence Reading  Rooms  and  at  most  Public  Libraries. 

III.  Church  Organization. — The  first  Chris- 
tian  Science  church  was  founded  by  Mrs.  Eddy  in 
1879  and  was  given  a  charter  by  the  Commonwealth 
of  Massachusetts.    In   1892  she  reorganized  her 


church  as  a  voluntary  religious  association.  The 
church  thus  organized  was  and  is  known  as  The 
First  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  in  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, or  as  it  is  more  frequently  called,  The 
Mother  Church.  The  headquarters  of  this  church 
were  established  in  Boston,  where  they  continue  at 
the  present  time.  The  organization  of  the  church 
and  formation  of  its  By-Laws  were  directly  under 
the  supervision  of  Mrs.  Eddy;  and  today  the 
Church  Manual,  as  given  by  her,  is  the  accepted 
and  duly  recognized  constitution  and  law  of  The 
Mother  Church. 

IV.  The  Tenets  op  the  Christian  Science 
Church. — The  reUgious  tenets  of  Christian  Science, 
as  formulated  by  Mrs.  Eddy,  are  as  follows: 

1.  As  adherents  of  Truth,  we  take  the  inspired 
Word  of  the  Bible  as  our  sufficient  guide  to  eternal 
Life. 

2.  We  acknowledge  and  adore  one  supreme  and 
infinite  God.  We  acknowledge  His  Son,  one 
Christ;  the  Holy  Ghost  or  divine  Comforter;  and 
man  in  God's  image  and  likeness. 

3.  We  acknowledge  God's  forgiveness  of  sin  in 
the  destruction  of  sin  and  the  spiritual  understand- 
ing that  casts  out  evil  as  unreal.  But  the  belief  in 
sin  is  punished  so  long  as  the  belief  lasts. 

_4.  We  acknowledge  Jesus'  atonement  as  the 
evidence  of  divine,  efficacious  Love,  unfolding  man's 
unity  with  God  through  Christ  Jesus  the  Way- 
shower;  and  we  acknowledge  that  man  is  saved 
through  Christ,  through  Truth,  Life,  and  Love  as 
demonstrated  by  the  Galilean  Prophet  in  healing 
the  sick  and  overcoming  sin  and  death. 

5.  We  acknowledge  that  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus 
and  his  resurrection  served  to  uplift  faith  to  under- 
stand eternal  Life,  even  the  allness  of  Soul,  Spirit, 
and  the  nothingness  of  matter. 

6.  And  we  solemnly  promise  to  watch,  and  pray 
for  that  Mind  to  be  in  us  which  was  also  in  Christ 
Jesus;  to  do  unto  others  as  we  would  have  them 
do  unto  us;  and  to  be  merciful,  just,  and  pure. 

Mary  Baker  Eddy 
_V.  Branches. — The  Mother  Church  has,  at 
this  date,  1920,  upwards  of  eighteen  hundred 
branch  churches  and  societies.  These  branches 
have  their  own  democratic  forms  of  government, 
subject  to  such  By-Laws  of  The  Mother  Church 
as  are  applicable  thereto.  These  churches  are 
formed  by  loyal  Christian  Scientists  in  their  own 
locaHties,  and  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the 
laws  of  the  states  in  which  they  are  organized. 
The  forming  of  a  branch  church  in  its  own  locality 
does  not  constitute  it  a  branch  of  The  Mother 
Church.  After  churches  are  formed  in  accordance 
with  the  state  laws  and  the  directions  given  in  the 
Mother  Church  Manual,  they  must  be  recognized 
by  The  Mother  Church  before  they  become  branches 
thereof.  The  affairs  of  The  Mother  Church  are 
administered  by  its  Board  of  Directors,  which 
according  to  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  is  a  body 
corporate,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  property, 
receiving  grants,  bequests,  etc. 

VI.  Church  Services. — The  Sunday  services 
are  conducted  by  a  First  and  Second  Reader, 
usually  a  man  and  a  woman.  Such  services  consist 
of  Scriptural  reading,  prayer,  and  the  singing  of 
hymns,  followed  by  the  reading  of  the  Lesson- 
Sermon  by  the  Readers.  The  Lesson-Sermon  is 
prepared  by  a  Committee  composed  of  Christian 
Scientists,  and  it  consists  of  selections  from  the 
Bible,  with  correlative  passages  from  the  Christian 
Science  textbook,  Science  and  Health  with  Key  to 
the  Scriptures.  These  Lesson-Sermons  are  issued 
quarterly  by  The  Christian  Science  Publishing 
Society.  The  same  form  of  service  is  followed 
and  the  same  Lesson-Sermon  used  in  all  Christian 
Science  churches  throughout  the  world. 


89 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Christian  Science 


The  midweek  services  consist  of  testimonial 
meetings  held  each  Wednesday  evening.  At  these 
meetings  there  is  reading  from  the  Bible  and  cor- 
relative passages  from  the  textbook,  also  prayer  and 
singing  of  hymns,  followed  by  the  giving  of  testi- 
monies by  members  of  the  congregation  of  healing 
from  sickness  and  sin. 

Sunday  Schools  are  conducted  in  connection 
with  The  Mother  Church  and  all  branch  churches, 
where  pupils  are  received  up  to  twenty  years  of  age 
and  instructed  in  the  simpler  meanings  of  the  truth 
concerning  Christian  Science. 

Communion  service  is  observed  in  the  branch 
churches  semi-annually,  but  no  communion  service 
is  held  in  The  Mother  Church.  Bread  and  wine 
are  not  used,  the  only  outward  ceremony  being 
the  kneeling  of  the  congregation  in  self-examination, 
silent  communion  with  God  and  prayer.  We  read 
in  Science  and  Health:  "Our  bread,  'which  Com- 
eth down  from  heaven,'  is  Truth.  Our  cup  is  the 
cross.  Our  wine  the  inspiration  of  Love,  the 
draught  our  Master  drank  and  commended  to 
his  followers."  "It  is  the  living  Christ,  the  practical 
Truth,  which  makes  Jesus  'the  resurrection  and 
the  life'  to  all  who  follow  him  in  deed.  Obeying 
his  precious  precepts, — following  his  demonstration 
so  far  as  we  apprehend  it, — ■  ....  at  last  we  shall 
rest,  sit  down  with  him,  in  a  full  understand- 
ing of  the  divine  Principle  which  triumphs  over 
death"  (pp.  35,  31). 

VII.  The  Officers  of  The  Mother  Church 
are  as  follows:  The  Pastor  Emeritus;  The  Chris- 
tian Science  Board  of  Directors;  President;  First 
Reader;  Second  Reader;  Clerk;  and  Treasurer. 
The  Christian  Science  Board  of  Directors,  in  conso- 
nance with  a  By-Law  of  the  Church  Manual,  is  a  self- 
perpetuating  body,  which  elects  the  other  officers 
annually,  with  the  exception  of  the  Readers,  who  are 
elected  by  the  Directors  for  a  term  of  three  years. 

The  financial  support  of  The  Mother  Church 
comes  from  its  Publishing  Society,  as  the  result  of 
sales  of  and  subscriptions  to  the  pubUcations  of  the 
Church;  also  from  a  per  capita  tax  of  one  dollar 
($1.00)  per  annum,  and  from  voluntary  contribu- 
tions from  its  membership.  (A  By-Law  prohibits 
the  numbering  of  the  membership  for  publication, 
so  that  no  statistics  regarding  the  number  of  Chris- 
tian Scientists  are  available.) 

VIII.  Church  Activities. — ^The  By-Laws  pro- 
vide for: 

a)  A  Board  of  Education,  under  whose  direction 
pupils  are  instructed  and  authorized  to  become 
teachers  of  Christian  Science.  The  number  of 
teachers  prepared  is  limited  to  one  Normal  class 
of  thirty  pupils  taught  once  in  three  years. 

b)  A  Board  of  Lectureship,  now  numbering 
twenty-three  members,  who  deliver  free  lectures 
on  the  subject  of  Christian  Science  under  the 
auspices  of  The  Mother  Church  and  of  the  branch 
organizations  throughout  the  world.  These  lectures 
are  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  misapprehensions 
in  regard  to  Christian  Science  and  for  presenting 
some  of  its  fundamental  teachings. 

c)  A  Committee  on  Publication,  with  head- 
quarters in  Boston,  has  representatives  in  all 
large  cities  where  Christian  Science  is  known  and 
practiced.  The  duty  of  these  committees  is  to 
correct,  in  a  Christian  manner,  impositions  on  the 
public,  in  regard  to  Christian  Science,  which  may 
appear  in  the  daily  press  or  in  circulated  literature  of 
any  sort. 

d)  Free  Reading  Rooms,  where  authorized  Chris- 
tian Science  literature  may  be  read  or  purchased, 
are  open  to  the  general  public  and  are  maintained 
by  all  Christian  Science  churches. 

e)  Teachers  of  Christian  Science  are  those  who 
have  been  granted  certificates  either  by  Mrs.  Eddy 


or  by  the  Board  of  Education  of  The  Mother 
Church,  authorizing  them  to  form  classes  and 
take  pupils  in  Christian  Science.  Only  one  class,  of 
not  more  than  thirty  pupils,  is  taught  yearly  by 
each  teacher. 

f)  Practitioners. — There  are  upwards  of  six 
thousand  practitioners  of  Christian  Science  in  this 
and  other  countries,  who  devote  their  entire  time 
to  the  healing  of  disease  and  sin.  They  are  usually 
those  who  have  taken  instruction  from  authorized 
teachers  and  are  qualified  to  do  the  healing  work. 
They  are  authorized  to  make  a  charge  for  their 
services  equal  to  that  of  reputable  physicians  in 
their  respective  localities.  A  classified  directory 
of  Christian  Science  teachers,  practitioners  and 
nurses  is  published  in  The  Christian  Science  Journal. 

g)  The  Christian  Science  Publishing  Society, 
operating  under  a  deed  of  trust  granted  by  Mrs. 
Eddy  and  conducted  under  the  provisions  of  the 
By-Laws,  publishes  the  current  literature  of  The 
Mother  Church.  The  following  are  the  periodicals 
which  it  issues:  (1)  The  Christian  Science  Journal, 
a  monthly  pubUcation ;  (2)  Christian  Science  Sentinel, 
a  weekly  publication;  (3)  Der  Herold  der  Christian 
Science,  a  monthly  publication,  in  German;  (4)  Le 
Heraut  de  Christian  Science,  a  monthly  publication, 
in  French;  (5)  The  Christian  Science  Monitor,  a 
daily  newspaper;  (6)  The  Christian  Science  Quar- 
terly, containing  the  Lesson-Sermons  for  use  in 
Christian  Science  churches  and  societies  and  issued 
quarterly. 

h)  The  Christian  Science  Benevolent  Associa- 
tion was  instituted  and  is  maintained  by  Christian 
Scientists  under  the  general  direction  of  The  Mother 
Church.  Its  property  is  situated  in  Brookline,. 
Massachusetts,  and  at  present  consists  of  an 
administration  building  and  two  dormitories.  It 
can  now  accommodate  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
guests.  The  object  of  this  institution  is  to  receive 
the  sick  and  injured  among  Christian  Scientists, 
who  come  for  restoration  to  health  and  for  recupera- 
tion; also  for  the  instruction  and  training  of 
nurses  (who  are  Christian  Scientists)  in  the  proper 
care  of  the  sick. 

IX.  Important  Terms. — Following  is  a  list 
of  some  of  the  important  terms  used  in  the  exposi- 
tion of  Christian  Science. 

Animal  magnetism  as  understood  in  Christian 
Science  represents  the  mesmeric  action  of  erroneous 
belief.  Christian  Science  is  the  very  antipode  of 
mesmerism,  hypnotism,  mental  suggestion,  or  any 
of  the  allied  occult  or  esoteric  influences.  Animal 
magnetism  is  the  synonym  for  all  evil,  and  represents 
the  erroneous  beliefs  and  false  concepts  of  humanity, 
individually  and  collectively.  "Animal  magnetism 
is  the  voluntary  or  involuntary  action  of  error  in 
all  its  forms;  it  is  the  human  antipode  of  divine 
Science."     (Science  and  Health,  p.  484.) 

Atonem£nt. — Atonement  as  understood  in  Chris- 
tian Science  is  defined  by  Mrs.  Eddy  in  Science  and 
Health  as  follows:  "Atonement  is  the  exemphfica- 
cation  of  man's  unity  with  God,  whereby  man 
reflects  divine  Truth,  Life,  and  Love.  .  .  .  .  It 
was  therefore  Christ's  purpose  to  reconcile  man 
to  God,  not  God  to  man.  Love  and  Truth  are 
not  at  war  with  God's  image  and  likeness.  Man 
cannot  exceed  divine  Love,  and  so  atone  for  himself. 
Even  Christ  cannot  reconcile  Truth  to  error,  for 
Truth  and  error  are  irreconcilable.  Jesus  aided 
in  reconciling  man  to  God  by  giving  man  a  truer 
sense  of  Love,  the  divine  Principle  of  Jesus'  teach- 
ings, and  this  truer  sense  of  Love  redeems  man 
from  the  law  of  matter,  sin  and  death,  by  the  law 
of  Spirit,— the  law  of  divine  Love"  (pp.  18-19). 

Baptism. — There  is  no  baptismal  ceremony  in 
the  Christian  Science  Church.  Baptism  is  con- 
sidered by  Christian  Scientists  to  be  the  spiritual 


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90 


experience  of  each  individual,  in  which  he  conse- 
crates himself,  through  purification  of  thought  and 
deed,  to  God's  service  and  makes  daily  progress  in 
his  journey  heavenward.  It  is  defined  in  Science 
and  Health  as  follows:  "Our  baptism  is  a  purifica- 
tion from  all  error."  "Purification  by  Spirit;  sub- 
mergence in  Spirit."  "The  baptism  of  Spirit, 
washing  the  body  of  all  the  impurities  of  flesh, 
signifies  that  the  pure  in  heart  see  God  and  are 
approaching  spiritual  Life  and  its  demonstration" 
(pp.  35,  581,  241). 

Christ. — Briefly  stated,  as  taught  in  Christian 
Science,  Christ  means,  "The  divine  manifestation 
of  God,  which  comes  to  the  flesh  to  destroy  incarnate 
error."  "Christ  expresses  God's  spiritual,  eternal 
nature.  The  name  is  synonymous  with  Messiah, 
and  alludes  to  the  spiritualitj^  which  is  taught,  illus- 
trated, and  demonstrated  in  the  life  of  which 
Christ  Jesus  was  the  embodiment."  (Science 
and  Health,  pp.  583,  333.)  "In  accordance  with  the 
Christian  Science  textbooks, — the  Bible,  and  Science 
and  Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures, — ^and  in 
accord  with  all  of  Mrs.  Eddy's  teachings,  members 
of  this  Church  shall  neither  entertain  a  belief  nor 
signify  a  belief  in  more  than  one  Christ,  even  that 
Christ  whereof  the  Scripture  beareth  testimony." 
(Church  Manual,  p.  42.) 

Error. — Error  as  understood  in  Christian 
Science  is  a  belief  in  that  which  is  untrue,  or  the 
state  of  consciousness  of  one  holding  to  such  belief; 
that  which  appears  to  be  but  is  not;  a  departure 
from  that  which  is  true.  "Error  is  a  supposition 
that  pleasure  and  pain,  that  intelligence,  substance, 
life,  are  existent  in  matter.  Error  is  neither  Mind 
nor  one  of  Mind's  faculties.  Error  is  the  contra- 
diction of  Truth.  Error  is  a  belief  without  under- 
standing. Error  is  unreal  because  untrue.  It  is 
that  which  seemeth  to  be  and  is  not."  (Science 
and  Health,  p.  472.) 

God. — The  teaching  of  Christian  Science  always 
starts  from  the  one  absolute  and  invariable  premise 
of  the  omnipresence,  omnipotence,  omniscience  of 
the  one  and  only  GOD,  and  it  renounces  all  that 
is  contrary  thereto  as  evil,  powerless,  untrue. 
God  is  defined  in  Science  and  Health  (p.  587),  as 
follows:  "The  great  I  AM;  the  all-knowing,  all- 
seeing,  all-acting,  all-wise,  all-loving  and  eternal; 
Principle;  Mind;  Soul;  Spirit:  Life;  Truth; 
Love;  all  substance;  intelligence. 

Healing. — The  great  difference  between  Chris- 
tian Science  and  other  religions  is  that  Christian 
Scientists  rely  entirely  upon  spiritual  means  for 
healing  the  sick  and  sorrowing,  as  well  as  the  sinful. 
This  healing  is  not  miraculous  but  is  divinely 
natural.  Disease,  being  a  mental  concept,  dis- 
appears with  the  introduction  of  spiritual  truth 
and  its  activities  in  the  thought  of  the  individual, 
and  this  is  the  result  of  the  teaching  and  practice 
of  our  Master  as  taught  in  the  Scriptures. 

Heaven. — Christian  Science  teaches  that  heaven 
is  not  a  locality  and  is  not  limited  to  experiences 
beyond  the  grave.  On  the  contrary,  Christian 
Science  accepts  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  that  "the 
kingdom  of  God  is  within  you."  The  definition  of 
heaven,  in /Science  and  Health  (p. 587)  is:  "Harmony; 
the  reign  of  Spirit;  government  by  divine  Princi- 
ple; spirituahty;  bUss;  the  atmosphere  of  Soul." 

Hell  is  defined  in  Science  and  Health  (p.  588),  as: 
"Mortal  belief;  error;  lust;  remorse;  hatred; 
revenge;  sin;  sickness;  death;  suffering  and  self- 
destruction;  self-imposed  agony;  effects  of  sin; 
that  which  'worketh  abomination  or  maketh  a  lie.' " 

Mortal  mind. — A  term  used  by  Christian 
Scientists  to  mean  "the  flesh  opposed  to  Spirit, 
the  human  mind  and  evil  in  contradistinction  to 
the  divine  Mind,  or  Truth  and  good"  (Science  and 
Health,  p.   114).     It  is  regarded  as  equivalent  to 


Paul's  "carnal  mind"  and  "fleshly  mind,"  that 
which  seems  to  be  but  which  has  no  real  or  substan- 
tial existence. 

Prayer. — Christian  Science  teaches  its  adherents 
to  obey  the  Golden  Rule  and,  in  so  doing,  to  obey 
the  laws  of  God  and  of  the  land.  Christian  Scien- 
tists endeavor  to  live  in  accordance  with  the  injunc- 
tion of  Paul  to  "pray  without  ceasing"  and  they 
know  that  they  have  prayed  aright  in  proportion  as 
their  prayers  are  answered.  The  first  chapter  in 
Science  and  Health  is  devoted  to  the  subject  of 
prayer  and  is  preceded  by  the  words  of  Christ  Jesus 
in  Mark  11:23-24  and  Matt.  6:8.  The  chapter 
opens  as  follows:  "The  prayer  that  reforms  the 
sinner  and  heals  the  sick  is  an  absolute  faith  that  all 
things  are  possible  to  God — a  spiritual  understanding 
of  Him,  an  unselfed  love."  Later,  on  the  same 
page,  are  found  these  words:  "Thoughts  unspoken 
are  not  unknown  to  the  divine  Mind.  Desire  is 
prayer;  and  no  loss  can  occur  from  trusting  God 
with  our  desires,  that  they  may  be  moulded  and 
exalted  before  they  take  form  in  words  and  in 
deeds."     (Science  and  Health,  p.  1.) 

(For  further  meanings  of  ethical  and  religious 
terms  as  used  in  Christian  Science  consult  the 
writings  of  Mary  Baker  Eddy,  with  Concordances, 
in  Christian  Science  Reading  Rooms  and  in  public 
libraries.) 

In  Miscellaneous  Writings  (p.  21)  Mrs.  Eddy 
writes:  "As  the  ages  advance  in  spirituality, 
Christian  Science  will  be  seen  to  depart  from  the 
trend  of  other  Christian  denominations  in  no  wise 
except  by  increase  of  spirituality." 

The  Christian  Science  Board  op  Directors 

CHRISTIAN  SOCIALISM.— The  effort  to  com- 
bine the  fundamental  aims  of  Socialism  with  the 
reUgious  and  .ethical  convictions  of  Christianity. 

It  was  inevitable  that  so  powerful  a  spiritual 
movement  as  modern  Socialism  would  react  on 
Christianity  and  produce  individuals  and  move- 
ments supporting  or  opposing  it.  But  these 
reactions  have  varied  widely. 

Where  the  conservative  European  Churches, 
Catholic  or  Protestant,  dominate  the  religious 
situation.  Socialism  has  been  anti-clerical  and  in 
the  main  anti-religious,  and  the  Churches  have 
opposed  it  as  godless,  destructive,  and  immoral. 
Their  concern  was  to  protect  the  masses  from 
Socialist  influences.  But  no  one  can  successfully 
oppose  SociaUsm  among  the  working  classes  with- 
out assenting  to  most  of  its  criticism  of  the  capital- 
istic social  order  and  outbidding  its  practical 
organizing  efforts.  Strong  and  sincere  religious 
personalities,  such  as  the  Catholic  Bishop  Ketteler 
and  the  Protestant  court  chaplain  Stoecker  in 
Germany,  and  Count  de  Mun  and  Marc  Sagnier  in 
France,  condemned  the  competitive  selfishness  of 
capitalism  in  the  name  of  Christ  and  demanded  a 
more  solidaristic  social  order.  Powerful  anti- 
socialist  organizations  of  workingmen,  and  even 
political  parties  were  thus  created  under  religious 
leadership.  They  have  combined  radical  and 
modern  aims  with  conservative  and  medieval 
interests  and  ideals.  Socialists  regard  this  kind  of 
"Christian  Socialism"  with  hostility,  believing  that 
its  main  aim  is  to  protect  the  church  rather  than 
to  free  the  people. 

In  Great  Britain,  Switzerland,  America,  and 
among  French  Protestants,  Christian  Socialism, 
being  frankly  democratic,  does  not  seek  to  hinder 
the  progress  of  Sociahsm  but  to  propagate  its  ideas 
within  the  Church.  Sharing  the  essential  con- 
victions of  Christianity  and  Socialism,  Christian 
Socialists  can  act  as  interpreters  and  mediators 
between  the  two.  The  early  "Christian  SociaUst" 
group,  formed  in  1848  under  the  leadership  of  F.  D. 


91 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Christianity 


Maurice,  Charles  Kingsley  and  J.  M.  Ludlow,  is 
well  known.  Since  1880  the  "Guild  of  St.  Matthew" 
and  the  "Christian  Social  Union"  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  nearly  all  the  wider  movements  of 
the  Free  Churches  have  proved  that  Christianity  in 
Great  Britain  has  been  deeply  affected  by  Christian 
Socialism.  In  America  we  have  had  no  organized 
movements  of  equal  popular  strength,  but  the 
spread  of  diluted  Socialist  ideas  among  religious 
leaders  has  been  one  of  the  most  fruitful  religious 
influences  of  the  last  forty  years. 

The  phrase  "Christian  SociaUsm"  was  formerly 
used  in  a  loose  way  to  designate  any  radical  social 
sympathies.  To-day  those  who  apply  it  to  them- 
selves indicate  that  they  accept  at  least  the  sub- 
stance of  the  Socialist  platform.  But  Christian 
Socialism  is  not  a  mere  echo  of  orthodox  Socialism. 
Its  Christian  spirit  creates  a  distinctive  conscious- 
ness. It  is  a  pecuhar  genus  of  Socialism.  The 
Christian  sense  of  the  sanctity  of  life  and  personality 
and  of  the  essential  equality  of  men  re-enforces  the 
SociaUst  condemnation  of  the  present  social  order. 
The  religious  belief  in  the  fatherhood  of  God,  in 
the  fraternal  solidarity  of  men,  and  in  the  ultimate 
social  redemption  of  the  race  through  Christ  lends 
reUgious  qualities  to  the  Socialist  ideals. 

At  the  following  points  it  is  in  conscious 
antagonism  against  tendencies  prevailing  within 
the  Socialist  movement:  (1)  It  sets  a  positive 
religious  faith  against  the  materialistic  philosophy 
which  SociaUsm  has  inherited  from  its  European 
beginnings.  (2)  It  believes  in  the  value  and  social 
possibiUties  of  the  churches.  (3)  It  lays  stress  on 
religious  regeneration  as  a  factor  in  the  salvation 
of  society.  (4)  It  accepts  "economic  determinism" 
as  a  chief  factor  in  social  evolution,  but  asserts  the 
reality  and  independent  power  of  spiritual  forces. 
(5)  It  recognizes  the  influence  of  social  environment, 
but  still  asserts  the  moral  responsibility  of  the  indi- 
vidual. (6)  It  stands  for  the  sanctity  of  the  family 
and  the  radical  Christian  attitude  on  the  question 
of  mtoxicants.  Walter  Rauschenbusch 

CHRISTIAN  SOCIAL  UNION.— An  association 
of  Christian  Socialists  organized  in  England  in  1889 
under  the  leadership  of  Bishop  Gore,  Canon  Scott 
Holland,  and  others,  aiming  to:  (1)  secure  the 
authority  of  Christian  law  in  social  matters;  (2) 
study  the  application  of  Christian  ideals  to  current 
social  and  economic  problems;  (3)  hold  up  Jesus 
Christ  as  the  enemy  of  social  wrong,  and  the  master 
of  love  and  righteousness. 

CHRISTIAN  UNION— See  Union,  CmjRCH. 

CHRISTIAN  UNION  CHURCHES  (more  accu- 
rately INDEPENDENT  CHURCHES  OF  CHRIST 
IN  CHRISTIAN  UNION).— An  interdenomina- 
tional body  organized  in  the  U.S.  in  1863  primarily 
to  protest  against  the  preaching  of  politics  or  the 
emphasizing  of  doctrinal  differences.  Member- 
ship 13,692  (1919). 

CHRISTIAN  YEAR  or  CHURCH  YEAR.— The 
calendar  of  religious  celebrations  to  be  observed  in 
the  Christian  church. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  churches 
the  year  begins  with  the  first  Sunday  in  Advent, 
which  is  so  dated  as  to  give  four  Advent  Sundays 
before  Christmas.  Other  calendar  festivals  are 
Epiphany,  Easter,  Ascension  Day,  and  Whitsunday, 
the  various  Sundays  being  numbered  according  to 
their  distance  l>efore  or  after  one  of  these  Sundays. 

CHRISTIANITY.— The  religion  which  is  the 
outgrowth  of  the  life  and  work  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
centers  about  his  personaUty. 


Christianity  as  a  religion  is  more  than  its 
teachings  and  institutions.  It  is  a  reUgious- 
historical  movement  from  which  teachings  and 
institutions  have  emerged  in  group  life,  i.e.,  the 
churches.  As  a  religion  it  illustrates  the  structural 
laws  which  condition  all  religious  development 
generally.  It  did  not  begin  as  a  completed  system 
of  doctrines,  or  a  thoroughly  standardized  body  of 
practices,  but  in  a  group  confessing  faith  in  its 
Founder.  What  it  is  has  been  developed  from  what 
it  was,  and  this  process  is  stiU  in  progress.  Not 
even  Buddhism  shows  a  larger  variety  of  form  than 
does  Christianity,  the  religion  which  has  become 
the  dominant  religion  in  Europe,  the  two  Americas, 
and  Australasia,  and  is  markedly  extending  its 
influence  in  both  Asia  and  Africa. 

I.  History. — ■ 

1.  Historical  Origins. — Christianity  as  an  inde- 
pendent religion  had  its  rise  in  the  group  of  Jews 
who  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  Christian  era 
accepted  Jesus  of  Nazareth  as  Christj^  that  is,  as 
the  one  whom  God  had  empowered  by  His  resident 
spirit  to  become  the  savior  of  His  people  and  the 
estabhsher  of  His  kingdom  (see  Jesus  Christ). 
This  definition  illustrates  how  thoroughly  Jewish 
was  the  movement  in  its  original  stages.  So  far 
as  we  know  only  Jews  were  to  be  found  among 
the  immediate  followers  of  Jesus.  They  accepted 
him  as  the  one  who  would  fulfiU  their  national 
reUgious  hopes.  After  his  death  they  preached 
his  resurrection  and,  without  abandoning  the 
worship  of  the  temple  or  the  customs  of  pious  Jews 
of  their  day,  awaited  his  return  from  heaven  for 
the  establishment  of  the  messianic  kingdom.  In  the 
meantime  they  undertook  to  live  according  to  the 
teaching  which  he  had  given  them.  Thus  this  early 
group  perpetuated  not  only  many  of  the  hopes  and 
practices  of  their  Jewish  contemporaries  and  their 
Hebrew  progenitors,  but, unconsciously ,  also  elements 
of  earlier  Semitic  religions  which  had  been  absorbed 
by  the  Hebrews  (see  Kingdom  of  God;  Messiah). 

Yet  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  thmk  of  primitive 
Christianity  as  a  form  of  religious  syncretism. 
Various  similarities  which  have  been  pointed  out 
between  the  early  Christian  hopes  and  those  of 
other  nations  are  not  independent  elements  appro- 
priated and  combined  in  a  system.  They  are 
rather  the  fruitage  of  the  complex  religious  life 
from  which  the  Jewish  religious  life  of  the  1st. 
century  sprang.  The  early  Christians  were  not 
conscious  of  any  form  of  syncretism.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  they  even  knew  the  historical  pedigree 
of  their  most  characteristic  hope.  The  significant 
fact  is  not  the  conceptions  which  they  used  to 
express  the  value  of  Jesus,  but  rather  that  in  the 
midst  of  a  definite  historical  situation  they  recog- 
nized Jesus  as  more  than  a  prophet,  as  the  divinely 
endued  Savior.  That  they  should  use  current 
conceptions  in  such  an  evaluation  was  inevitable. 
The  precise  content  of  their  messianic  conception, 
while  not  without  great  influence  in  later  Christian- 
ity, in  many  particulars  turned  out  to  be  less  sig- 
nificant than  the  fact  that  through  it  the  early 
Christians  made  Jesus  central  in  their  reUgious  Ufe. 

This  simple  Jewish  evaluation  of  Jesus  as  Christ 
was  almost  immediately  supplemented  by  other 
reUgious  conceptions  which  came  not  from  Hebrew 
but  from  Greek  life.  The  group  of  those  who 
accepted  Jesus  as  Christ  soon  became  propagandists 
among  non-Jewish  people.  Of  these  propagandists 
we  know  little  or  nothing,  except  of  Paul  and  his 
immediate  associates.  Western  Christianity  is 
largely  the  outgrowth  of  his  activity.  Thanks  to 
his  preaching,  the  cities  on  the  northern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  soon  contained  groups  of  Christians 
who  were  not  predominantly  Jewish.  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christians  believed  that  Jesus  who  had 


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been  put  to  death,  and  had  gone  to  heaven  would 
soon  return  as  conqueror  of  the  world  and  saviour 
of  those  who  acknowledged  him  as  their  Lord.  For 
the  early  Greek,  as  for  some  modern  Christians, 
literalness  carried  no  intellectual  difficulties.  But 
as  time  passed  and  Jesus  did  not  return,  confidence 
in  the  immediate  fulfillment  of  the  hope  weakened, 
and  the  tendency  became  marked  to  expect  the 
parousia  in  a  general  way  and  to  center  attention 
upon  the  rescue  of  men  from  the  power  of  death. 
Thus  by  the  end  of  the  1st.  century  these  Christian 
groups  or  churches  seem  to  have  lost  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  the  expectations  of  an  imminent 
return,  and  to  have  given  themselves  to  a  practical 
and  philosophical  explanation  of  that  faith  and  hope 
which  the  gospel  of  the  risen  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
provided. 

How  far  this  group  movement  was  born  of  eco- 
nomic protest  and  purposes  is  not  easy  to  state  with 
accuracy.  That  Christians  were  ready  to  share  their 
possessions  with  each  other  seems  clear  from  the 
account  of  Acts  (2:44,  45;  4:34,  35),  but  such 
generosity  was  charity  rather  than  economic  com- 
munism. There  is  no  evidence  that  the  primitive 
Christians  ever  attempted  or  taught  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  economic  life.  Their  sense  of  the  immi- 
nence of  the  return  of  the  Messiah  made  economic 
programs  superfluous. 

2.  Influence  of  Hellenism. — The  expansion  of  the 
Christian  movement  into  an  independent  and  well- 
rounded  religion  was  the  result  of  its  expansion 
among  non-Jewish  peoples.  Its  further  develop- 
ment was  very  largely  set  by  the  Greek  culture  in 
which  practically  all  of  its  new  members  had  been 
reared.  Their  religious  needs  led  to  the  revaluation 
of  their  acquired  faith.  With  their  restless  philo- 
sophical temperament  and  with  the  current  beUef, 
born  of  the  mystery  religions,  that  salvation  was  to 
be  accomplished  by  the  impact  of  the  divine  essence 
upon  the  human  essence,  it  was  inevitable  that 
Hellenistic  Christians  should  seek  doctrinal  pre- 
cision and  guard  it  against  all  forms  of  interpre- 
tation not  in  accordance  with  what  were  regarded  as 
the  beliefs  of  the  original  or  apostolic  Christians. 
Beginning  with  the  rise  of  the  Stoic-Platonic  con- 
ception of  the  Word  (Logos)  as  an  equivalent  in 
Hellenism  for  the  Messiah  in  Jewish  thought,  the 
new  religion  rapidly  acclimated  itself  to  the  non- 
Jewish  world  into  which  it  had  successfully  entered. 
From  the  2nd.  century  to  the  5th.  the  movement 
began  to  develop  a  number  of  characteristics  which 
were  to  survive  the  destruction  of  the  nations  and 
civilization  from  which  it  sprang.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  characteristics  are: 

(1)  The  development  of  groups  (churches), 
more  or  less  affiliated,  possessed  of  a  sense  of 
catholicity  or  universality  as  distinct  from  the 
beliefs  of  groups  more  under  the  control  of  cosmo- 
logical  and  theosophical  influences  (see  Gnosti- 
cism; Docetism;  and  Heresy)  from  which  sprang 
novel  interpretations  of  the  original  Christian 
faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God.  See  Catholic. 
Heresies  were  the  occasion  of  theology  which  was 
apologetic  before  being  systematic. 

(2)  Authoritative  literature. — The  Old  Testa- 
ment was  from  the  earliest  days  regarded  as  divinely 
inspired,  but  there  soon  developed  a  collection  of 
other  writings  claiming  Apostolic  authorship  and 
so  possessing  an  inspiration  which  put  them  on  a  par 
with  the  Old  Testament.     See  Canon  (Biblical)  . 

(3)  The  rise  of  the  Bishop  who  was  at  once  the 
champion  and  expounder  of  the  generally  accepted 
and  therefore  true  Christian  doctrine,  and  the  head 
of  his  Christian  group.  He  was  also  regarded  as 
possessing  priestly  character. 

(4)  The  development  of  authoritative  doctrines 
(see  II  below),  by  successive  synods  or  other  assem- 


blies of  Christians.  These  synods  attempted  to 
express  correctly  in  current  philosophical  and 
religious  terms  the  significance  of  their  inherited 
faith.  These  efforts  gave  rise  to  endless  controversy 
especially  between  the  theologians  of  the  two  great 
cities  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria,  but  resulted  in 
ecumenical,  i.e.,  catholic  dogma  concerning  God 
and  Christ. 

(5)  Catholic  Christianity  has  been  commonly 
considered  a  process  of  Hellenizing  the  earher  beliefs. 
It  might  with  equal  justice  be  described  as  the 
result  of  the  Christianizing  of  Hellenism.  The 
process,  however  described,  was  inevitable  as  men 
possessed  of  the  civilization  of  Greece  and  Rome 
undertook  to  co-ordinate  their  faith  with  their 
culture.  They  did  not  consciously  seek  to  modify 
their  inherited  faith  but  rather  to  seek  effective 
interpretation  of  the  original  formulas  of  those  who 
accepted  Jesus  as  the  Christ  and  expected  him  to 
return  to  do  his  Messianic  work.  Theological 
development,  which  began  in  the  middle  of  the 
2nd.  century  with  the  defense  of  original  confessions 
of  faith,  preserved  intact  and  without  serious 
modification  the  ancient  formulas  which  we  know 
first  in  the  old  Roman  symbol,  the  main  ancestor  of 
the  Apostles'  Creed  (q.v.). 

(6)  The  growing  regard  for  the  mystery  religions 
laid  new  emphasis  upon  the  simple  practices  which 
characterized  the  original  group  of  Christians, 
namely,  the  bath,  or  the  baptism,  and  the  common 
memorial  meal.  By  the  second  or  third  generation 
these  two  rites  had  begun  to  acquire  a  significance 
of  their  own  as  an  expression  of  regeneration  and  of 
immortality  due  to  the  impartation  of  the  divine 
nature.  As  the  Christian  religion  developed  a 
priestly  class,  its  members  increasingly  were  beheved 
to  have  the  sole  power  of  administering  these  sacra- 
ments in  such  way  as  to  assure  their  blessings  to 
the  recipient.  Conditions  for  participating  in  the 
Lord's  Supper  were  also  developed,  and  the  life  of  the 
church  was  increasingly  centered  around  the  two  sac- 
raments. So  important  did  baptism  appear  that  from 
the  2nd.  century  onward  it  seems  to  have  been  admin- 
istered not  only  by  immersion  but  by  pouring  -and 
sprinkling,  and  its  recipients  were  not  only  adults 
who  could  make  personal  profession  of  faith  but 
also  infants  for  whom  some  adult  spoke.  Gradually 
the  number  of  sacraments  increased  until  seven  were 
recognized.  The  precise  date  at  which  this  develop- 
ment was  reached  is  not  to  be  fixed.  See  Sacra- 
ments. 

(7)  Christianity  from  the  start  has  been  a 
religion  of  moral  ideals,  although  these  ideals  have 
generally  been  those  recognized  by  the  existing 
social  order.  There  is  no  clear  indication  that  the 
early  church  undertook  to  transform  the  Roman 
Empire  as  such,  but  its  recognition  of  the  worth 
of  personality  indirectly  affected  such  social  insti- 
tutions as  slavery,  treatment  of  criminals,  and 
marriage.  The  church,  however,  was  not  interested 
in  developing  a  public  opinion  or  patriotism  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  withstand  the  assaults  of  the  north- 
ern peoples,  and  the  moral  idealism  of  the  church 
suffered  in  the  general  collapse  of  the  empire 
born  of  economic  and  military  decadence. 

3.  Christianity  the  religion  of  European  civilizo/- 
tion. — At  the  start  this  new  religion  was  only  a 
humble  member  of  the  large  group  of  oriental 
cults  seeking  recognition  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
It  had,  however,  very  decided  advantages  over 
them  all.  Like  the  Jewish  religion  it  was  theistic, 
bu.t  it  was  not  ethnic  and  did  not  demand  acceptance 
of  the  Hebrew  cult.  It  promised  salvation  by  the 
union  of  the  divine  and  the  human,  but  was  opposed 
to  all  forms  of  polytheism.  It  taught  strongly 
immortality  and  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  but 
did  not  undertake  to  accomplish  this  in  the  way  of 


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Christianity 


the  mysteries.  It  was  universal  but  did  not,  like 
philosophy,  make  morality  the  exclusive  property 
of  the  intellectuals.  It  had  its  vision  of  a  better 
world,  but  unUke  Platonism  and  Stoicism  it  was 
anchored  to  a  definite  historical  person,  and  was 
thus  prevented  from  becoming  a  mere  system  of 
thought.  It  taught  the  forgiveness  of  God,  but 
unlike  all  religions  of  its  time  did  not  undertake 
to  placate  the  Deity  by  sacrifices,  since  He  had 
revealed  Himself  as  Saviour.  If  to  these  char- 
acteristics there  be  added  an  admitted  zeal  for 
converts,  philanthropy,  morality,  and  a  certain 
degree  of  economic  democracy,  together  with  a 
popular  reputation  for  the  abihty  to  work  miracles, 
it  will  not  be  difficult  to  see  how  Christianity  in 
the  Roman  Empire  had  the  elements  which  in- 
evitably made  towards  leadership  in  the  religious 
field. 

This  leadership  was  gained,  however,  only  after 
severe  struggle.  The  rise  of  the  worship  of  the 
Roman  emperor  brought  the  new  movement  into 
direct  conflict  with  the  state.  For  nearly  three 
hundred  years  this  conflict  continued  with  inter- 
mittent but  increasingly  grave  and  extensive  perse- 
cution. By  the  4th.  century,  however,  so  far  had  it 
spread  that  Constantino  saw  that  the  Christians 
constituted  a  group  with  political  power  not  to  be 
ignored,  and  with  his  triumph  over  his  rivals  Chris- 
tianity, already  a  licensed  religion,  became,  though 
not  strictly  speaking  the  sole  religion  of  the  state,  the 
religion  of  the  emperor.  From  Constantine's 
time,  the  development  of  the  church  was  materially 
affected  by  politics. 

This  situation,  commonly  regarded  as  the  con- 
quest of  the  Roman  Empire  by  Christianity,  was 
quite  as  truly  a  Romanization  of  Christianity. 
The  institutional  life  of  the  Empire  gave  great 
impetus  to  the  development  of  church  organization. 
The  Bishop  became  a  municipal  figure  if  not  an 
official.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  political 
methods  and  organization  should  be  appropriated 
by  the  church.  This  process  continued  for  cen- 
turies, and  after  the  disintegration  of  the  Roman 
Empire  resulted  in  a  transcendentahzed  Roman 
Empire  called  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It 
is,  however,  noteworthy  that  this  shaping  power  of 
the  imperial  social  mind  was  not  clearly  felt  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  empire  where  social  affairs  had 
become  very  largely  static.  Even  before  the  fear- 
ful destruction  wrought  by  the  Arabian  invasion, 
the  organization  of  the  Eastern  church  was  never 
as  systematized  as  that  of  the  West,  and  had  pro- 
gressed but  slightly  beyond  the  results  gained  by 
the  process  of  Hellenization.  The  lack  of  political 
and  social  development  furnished  no  stimulus  for 
the  East  to  make  progress  theologically  or  institu- 
tionally. The  break  between  the  two  halves  of  the 
empire  was  complete  by  the  9th.  century  and  ran 
along  the  line  of  cleavage  between  the  eastern  and 
western  history.  Thereafter  CathoHc  Christianity 
existed  in  two  great  branches,  the  Eastern  being 
little  affected  by  the  progress  of  the  modern  world 
and  the  Western  or  Roman  being  a  distinct  element 
in  that  progress.  In  addition  to  these  main 
branches  were  the  Armenian,  Coptic,  Nestorian, 
and  Maronite  churches. 

4.  The  effect  of  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. — 
This  was  seen  in  (1)  pessimism  as  to  human  nature, 
expressed  by  Augustine  in  his  teaching  as  to  sin; 

(2)  the  fixing  of  secondary  elements  on  the  religion, 
e.g.,  asceticism,  worship  of  images,  reverence  for 
martyrs,  hagiology,  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary; 

(3)  the  growth  of  power  on  the  part  of  the  bishops, 
especially  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  because  of  the 
collapse  of  other  social  control. 

5.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  the  Middle 
Ages. — (1)   The  development   of  an  imperialistic 


church  was  furthered  by  the  Romanization  of  the 
Christian  movement.  Centralization  in  church 
affairs  grew  steadily.  The  Bishop  of  Rome  already 
regarded  as  the  successor  of  the  Apostle  Peter,  from 
many  other  causes  (forged  Donation  of  Constantine, 
Pseudo-Isidorean  Decretals,  economic  and  political 
needs,  alliance  of  the  Franks  with  papacy,  persistent 
conviction  that  _  the  Roman  Empire  continued) 
inherited  such  imperial  power  as  survived  the 
calamities  of  the  period  between  Romulus  Augustus 
and  Charlemagne.  Thereafter  for  several  centuries 
an  effort  was  made  to  unify  and  Christianize 
Europe  under  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (q.v.),  in 
which  Emperor  and  Pope  both  were  to  represent 
Jesus  Christ  as  Lord. 

(2)  The  effect  of  the  social  changes  which  ga/e 
rise  to  the  civiHzation  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  also 
seen  in  the  development  of  the  religion.  The  crea- 
tive social  mind  of  Europe  from  the  9th.  to  the 
12th.  century  was  feudal.  The  break-up  of  the 
state  organization  established  by  Rome,  together 
with  the  incursion  of  armed  foreigners  who  held  their 
land  in  military  tenure,  and  especially  the  attempt 
to  build  social  solidarity  on  the  basis  of  reciprocal 
obligations  between  classes,  all  reappear  in  the 
religious  life  of  the  time.  The  most  significant  illus- 
tration of  such  influence  is  to  be  seen  in  the  significa- 
tion given  the  death  of  Christ  by  Anselm  (q.v.). 
The  feudal  system  also,  however,  involved  the 
church  in  a  long  struggle  to  decide  who  should 
invest  the  bishop  with  his  office  and  the  land  which 
constituted  the  episcopal  estate  under  the  current 
political  theory  as  to  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
Both  Pope  and  emperor  could  claim  to  possess  that 
right.  The  struggle  ended  with  compromise  con- 
tained in  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (1122)  accord- 
ing to  which  the  bishop  received  his  investiture 
for  his  temporaUties  from  the  emperor  and  for  his 
spiritual  benefice  from  the  Pope. 

(3)  Primitive  eschatology  was  transformed  into 
a  well-rounded  system  of  future  rewards  in  heaven, 
future  punishments  in  hell,  and  future  penitential 
cleansing  in  purgatory.  At  the  same  time  the  con- 
ception of  salvation  was  modified  to  meet  this 
readjusted  eschatology,  and  morality  was  increas- 
ingly made  an  ecclesiastical  interest. 

(4)  Penitential  systems,  in  large  measure  due  to 
the  influence  of  Irish  ecclesiastics,  had  an  effect  in 
developing  the  church  life.  Penance  became 
systematized,  and  the  ascetic  quality  of  the  reUgion 
became  thoroughly  fixed  in  a  desire  to  save  the  soul 
by  the  mortification  of  the  body.  From  this  atti- 
tude of  mind,  reinforced  as  it  was  by  the  fear  of  hell, 
there  sprang  a  vast  development  of  monasticism. 
Monastic  estabUshments  appeared  over  the  entire 
western  Europe,  where  they  became  not  only  the 
home  of  those  who  sought  salvation  by  retiring  from 
worldly  lives  and  pleasures,  but  also  the  centers  of 
culture,  and  increasingly  of  learning. 

(5)  Early  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  sacraments 
were  increased  in  number,  the  original  two,  baptism 
and  Lord's  Supper,  being  supplemented  by  the 
sacraments  of  marriage,  confirmation,  ordination, 
penance,  and  extreme  unction.  The  mass  became 
increasingly  regarded  as  a  true  sacrifice  performed 
at  the  altar.  To  partake  of  the  bread  and  the 
wine  was  to  partake  of  the  real  body  and  blood  of 
Jesus  into  which  the  substance  of  the  elements  had 
been  transformed  in  the  miracle  of  the  mass.  See 
Transubstantiation.  Furthermore,  during  the 
Middle  Ages  the  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  clergy  and  the  laity  was  very  sharply  drawn, 
and  the  church  identified  increasingly  with  the  body 
of  the  clergy. 

(6)  The  intellectual  life,  increasingly  stimulated 
by  scholasticism  and  the  foundation  of  universities, 
was  primarily  concerned  in  assimilating  the  classical 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


94 


heritage  in  so  far  as  it  survived.  This  intellectual- 
ism  was  subject  to  the  control  of  the  church  and 
completed  the  systematization  of  church  beliefs. 

6.  The  rise  of  nationalistic  Christianity. — The 
transformation  of  Europe  through  the  economic 
development  which  began  with  the  rise  of  cities  in 
the  12th.  century,  together  with  the  collapse  of  the 
feudal  system,  resulted  in  the  rise  of  nationalities 
with  monarchs  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term. 
This  transformation  in  the  western  world  was 
accompanied  by  wide-spread  restlessness  at  the 
control  of  the  Roman  Church,  which  had  for  cen- 
turies been  not  only  the  ecclesiastical,  but  also  a 
pohtical  institution.  In  consequence  of  this  new 
social  experience,  the  Christians  of  the  lands  which 
had  not  become  thoroughly  Romanized  broke  from 
those  of  the  territory  whose  civilization  had  been 
built  up  on  the  Roman  plan,  and  organized  inde- 
pendent state  churches.  The  Bible  was  by  them 
taken  as  the  sole  basis  of  authority.  This  move- 
ment, which  was  not  a  break  with  Catholic  theology, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  affected  the  ideas  of  the  church, 
is  commonly  known  as  the  Reformation.  Under  the 
guidance  of  such  profoundly  reUgious  men  as  Luther, 
Zwingli,  Calvin,  and  the  English  and  Scottish  Re- 
formers, these  new  churches  carried  forward  a  con- 
ception of  reUgion  which  freed  northern  Christians 
from  dependence  upon  the  Roman  Church  and  em- 
phasized the  immediacy  of  the  soul's  relation  with 
God  and  justification  by  faith  alone.  Secondary 
Christianity  which  had  come  to  play  so  large  a  role 
in  Mediaeval  Christianity  was  largely  abandoned. 

7.  Modern  developments. — Thus  Christianity  as 
the  rehgion  of  Western  Europe  in  the  16th.  century 
passed  into  a  new  phase  and  began  that  process  of 
social  differentiation  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
modern  religious  world  order.  At  present  the 
Christian  movement  may  be  roughly  classified  into 
the  groups  of  those  who  hold  to  the  one  Catholic 
church  (in  turn  broken  into  three  general  groups 
of  the  Roman,  the  Greek,  and  the  Anglican  Catho- 
lics) and  the  group  of  so-called  Protestant  sects 
(although  the  term  is  by  no  means  a  happy  one) 
including  those  Christians  who  holding  to  the 
Lordship  of  Jesus  and  endeavoring  to  embody  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  older  Christianity, 
have  segregated  themselves  into  self-determining 
groups.  Many  of  these  groups  are  the  survivals  of 
the  state  churches  founded  in  the  16th.  century. 
This  period  of  disunion  was  very  marked  during  the 
17th.  and  18th.  centuries,  and  reached  its  climax  in 
the  19th.  century.  Recently  there  has  set  in  a  reac- 
tion away  from  excessive  group-individualism,  and 
there  are  strong  tendencies  toward  co-operation  and 
federation  of  the  more  significant  denominations. 
See  Church;  Federation  op  Churches;  Church 
Union.  There  is  also  a  very  widespread  non- 
ecclesiastical  Christianity  that  finds  expression  in 
individuals. 

II.  Chief  Doctrinal  Content. — 
Doctrinally  Christianity  is  the  most  complete 
of  all  the  world's  reUgions.  It  has  shown  itself 
adaptable  not  only  to  the  Semitic  civilization  from 
which  it  sprang  and  the  classical  in  which  it  was 
first  developed,  but  also  to  the  more  highly  devel- 
oped industrial  civiUzation  of  western  Europe. 
It  is  at  the  present  time  making  decided  gains 
among  peoples  of  Asia,  and  has  thus  become  the 
most  widely  diffused  and  influential  of  all  religious 
movements  of  history.  This  extraordinary  develop- 
ment has  been  due  not  only  to  the  efficiency  in  its 
organization  resulting  from  its  appropriation  of 
the  experience  of  a  virile  civilization  and  its  adoption 
of  the  agencies  most  effective  in  successive  stages 
of  political  development,  but  also  to  the  funda- 
mental teachings  which  characterize  the  movement 
and  which  are  capable  of  being  institutionalized  in 


so  great  a  variety  of  ways.  From  each  of  the 
dominant  social  minds  which  have  shaped  Western 
civihzation  have  sprung  not  only  characteristic 
needs,  but  also  a  genetic  succession  of  doctrines. 

The  origin  of  these  doctrines  lies  in  the  revelation 
contained  in  the  Bible,  supplemented  in  Roman 
Catholicism  by  tradition  and  the  decisions  of  the 
church  councils  (now  of  the  Pope,  speaking  ex 
cathedra)  and  interpreted  by  the  Fathers. 

Orthodoxy  as  an  inherited  and  continuously 
expanded  system  is  to  be  traced  back  to  the  faith 
and  beliefs  of  the  earliest  Christian  groups.  Other 
reUgious  movements  have  been  induced  by  Chris- 
tianity, and  others  evolved  by  way  of  opposition 
to  the  growing  mass  of  authoritative  group  beliefs; 
but  their  influence,  so  far  as  it  has  been  extended 
beyond  the  immediate  membership  of  some  non- 
orthodox  group,  has  been  chiefly  felt  through  their 
modification  of  those  fundamental  beliefs  which  the 
generic  history  of  the  movement  has  perpetuated. 
These  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 

1.  The  Bible. — ^To  all  bodies  of  Christians  the 
Bible  is  of  prunary  importance.  Through  it 
comes  the  wisdom  of  revelation  as  distinguished 
from  that  of  nature.  All  creeds  and  confessions  of 
faith  claim  to  be  the  exposition  of  its  contents.  The 
Bible  has  been  treated  in  a  great  variety  of  ways 
ranging  from  practical  bibliolatry  to  the  rationalism 
of  the  early  19th.  century.    See  Bible  ;  Inspiration. 

2.  Theism. — Because  of  its  loyalty  to  the  Bible, 
no  form  of  Christianity  has  consciously  been 
pantheistic  or  polytheistic.  It  has  always  opposed 
anything  approaching  a  mechanistic  or  impersonal 
view  of  the  universe.  This  theistic  view  was  his- 
torically grounded  in  the  Hebrew  religion  and 
under  the  influence  of  the  Graeco-Roman  mind  was 
developed  into  the  general  conception  of  trinitarian- 
ism,  the  essence  of  which  is  that  the  one  divine 
substance  exists  in  three  personae:  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit;  that  is  to  say,  Christianity  teaches 
that  one  God  comes  into  actual  personal  relations 
with  nature  and  man.  It  should  be  added  that 
personae  does  not  mean  individuals  but  is  a  term 
derived  from  the  Roman  courts,  in  which  the  same 
individual  might  appear  in  various  personae,  that 
is  characters;  e.g.,  in  one  law  suit  he  might  be  a 
father  and  in  another  case  son.  See  Trinity; 
Creed. 

3.  Jesus,  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Lord, 
the  Saviour. — All  these  terms  have  essentially  the 
same  content,  although  springing  from  different 
social  conceptions  and  national  hopes.  The  com- 
mon element  in  them  all  was  expressed  in  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451  a.d.) 
which  recognizes  in  the  historic  individual,  Jesus 
Christ,  a  divine  nature  consubstantial  with  God 
the  Father  and  a  human  nature  consubstantial 
with  us,  joined  without  confusion  in  one  person. 
The  exact  relation  of  the  two  natures  Catholic 
Christianity  never  was  able  to  state  in  a  dogma. 
This  Christology  has  been  successively  attacked 
and  defended.  Those  opposed  to  it  have,  however, 
generally  recognized  the  uniqueness  of  Jesus  as  a 
divine  example  and  saviour.  The  defense  of  the 
doctrine  has  largely  consisted  in  the  restatement 
from  some  assumed  philosophical  positionof  the 
elements  of  the  historic  Christology.  See  "Chris- 
tology;  Socinianism;  Arianism;   Unitarianism. 

4.  The  church. — Christianity  hke  aU  genuine 
religions  has  had  its  social  group,  the  church.  The 
largest  variations  in  the  content  of  the  Christian 
doctrine  are  to  be  found  in  the  field  of  ecclesiology. 
On  the  one  hand  are  those  who  hold  that  the  Chris- 
tian community  is  the  sole  channel  of  grace  which 
makes  salvation  possible,  and  such  salvation  is 
limited  to  membership  in  the  true  church.  On  the 
other  hand  are  those  who  hold  that  a  church  is  a 


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Christians  of  St.  John 


voluntary  grouping  of  those  who  have  experienced 
regeneration.  All  groups,  however,  unite  in  holding 
that  the  church  exists  not  only  for  the  maintenance 
of  worship  and  religious  instruction,  but  also  for  the 
observance  of  the  sacraments,  the  two  universally 
recognized  being  those  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper.     See  Church. 

5.  Sin  and  the  need  of  divine  salvation. — Since  his 
day,  the  doctrine  of  sin  as  organized  by  Augustine 
has  been  the  point  of  departure  of  the  entire  doc- 
trine of  salvation.  According  to  this  doctrine  based 
upon  that  of  Paul,  the  race  was  created  perfect  with 
the  abihty  to  choose  the  good  as  well  as  the  evil. 
By  Adam's  fall,  this  original  nature,  while  not 
destroyed,  was  so  corrupted  that  evil  impulses 
enslaved  the  will,  so  that  until  the  nature  has  been 
regenerated  by  the  Holy  Spirit  the  will  is  incapable 
of  choosing  the  good,  although  free  so  to  do.  The 
emphasis  of  this  doctrine  has  naturally  led  to  the 
insistence  upon  good  works  following  regeneration. 
In  many  cases  these  demands  were  standardized 
into  penitential  discipline,  which  has  sometimes 
served  to  restrain  moral  development  along  social 
lines. 

6.  The  Atonement,  the  death  of  Christ  as  a  factor 
in  the  revelation  of  the  divine  forgiveness. — Chris- 
tianity sets  forth  God  as  loyal  to  both  love  and  law. 
The  ethical  problem  of  how  he  could  forgive  the 
sinner  and  yet  maintain  his  moral  order  did  not 
bulk  in  theological  thinking  until  the  time  of 
Anselm  (q.v.).  Since  that  day  the  freedom  of  God  to 
love  has  been  repeatedly  set  forth  as  made  possible 
by  the  satisfaction  which  Jesus  by  his  hfe  and  death 
rendered  to  God 's  dignity  or  his  punitive  j  ustice  or  the 
sovereignty  of  law.  There  is,  however,  no  catholic 
doctrine  of  the  atonement  comparable  with  that  of 
the  Trinity.  The  religious  significance  of  the  death 
of  Christ  has  been  set  forth  in  various  ways  (e.g., 
vindication  of  law,  substitutionary  punishment, 
representative  repentance,  condemnation  of  sin, 
moral  influence).  The  persistent  value  of  all  such 
theories  has  been  the  exposition  of  the  ethical 
character  of  God's  love.  The  idea  of  the  death  of 
Christ  as  a  sacrifice,  in  which  his  value  was  expressed 
in  New  Testament  times,  has  been  perpetuated  both 
in  church  teaching  and  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (qv.).    See  Atonement. 

7.  Morality. — The  history  of  Christian  moraUty 
shows  the  development  which  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
religion  as  a  whole.  At  the  start  it  was  hardly 
more  than  that  of  current  Judaism.  In  the  course  of 
time,  however,  the  church  itself  began  the  develop- 
ment of  its  own  customs  which  were  intended  to 
set  forth  the  new  mores  of  the  life  which  was  born 
of  the  divine  spirit.  The  church  has  been  a  labora- 
tory of  social  progress,  and  the  moral  ideals  of  the 
Christian  groups  have  always  been  in  advance  of 
society  at  large,  although  seldom  so  far  in  advance 
as  to  question  the  presuppositions  of  a  contemporary 
social  order.  Thus  in  New  Testament  times  there 
was  no  query  into  the  moral  justice  of  slavery, 
which  had  always  been  a  part  of  the  social  order. 
But  Christianity  has  none  the  less  always  insisted 
upon  the  maintenance  of  moral  standards  so  far  as 
organized,  and  in  consequence  of  its  recently  devel- 
oped interest  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus  has  moved  along 
very  decidedly  idealistic  lines  in  the  application  of 
the  principles  of  Jesus  to  the  social  order. 

8.  Missionary  zeal. — The  conviction  that  they 
have  had  the  only  authoritative  revelation  of  God 
and  the  only  assured  way  of  salvation  has  always 
spurred  Christians  to  an  extension  of  their  faith. 
This  missionary  zeal  is  something  more  than  a 
mere  desire  for  proselj^ting.  The  Christian  church 
has  regarded  itself  as  possessed  of  a  knowledge  of 
the  way  of  salvation,  which  it  was  under  sacred  obli- 
gation to  share  with  the  world  at  large,  that  others 


might  also  be  saved  from  the  consequence  of  the 
original  sin  which  has  affected  all  human  hfe.  In 
later  days  among  Protestants  the  eschatological 
motive,  if  not  weakened,  has  been  at  least  supple- 
mentea  by  the  social,  ethical  motive  of  sharing 
with  those  who  have  a  partial  knowledge  the 
full  content  of  the  blessings  of  the  deeper  knowledge 
of  God  and  his  salvation  to  be  seen  in  Jesus  Christ. 
III.  Modern  Tendencies  op  Christianity. — 
Just  because  the  Christian  reUgion  is  not  static 
but  is  a  movement  embracing  .social  and  cultural, 
as  well  as  strictly  religious  ideals,  it  partakes  today 
of  the  great  characteristics  of  the  modern  period. 

1.  The  Christian  doctrine  to  a  considerable 
extent  is  being  reinterpreted  from  the  point  of  view 
of  modern  science.  See  Science  in  Its  Relation 
to  Theology.  That  there  is  opposition  to  such 
reinterpretation  cannot  be  denied,  especially  from 
those  who  feel  that  the  philosophical  and  scientific 
world- view  which  found  expression  in  various 
dogmas  of  the  church  is  an  essential  part  of  such 
dogmas,  and  from  those  who  insist  upon  a  literalistic 
use  of  the  Bible.  But  the  last  hundred  years  have 
seen  a  very  decided  movement  on  the  part  of 
representatives  of  the  leading  Christian  groups 
towards  the  acceptance  of  the  results  of  scientific 
discovery.  See  Modernism.  At  the  present  time 
among  modernists  the  issue  is  less  that  of  such 
appropriation  with  consequent  readaptation,  than 
the  fundamental  struggle  with  the  impersonal  and 
mechanistic  interpretations  of  the  universe  and 
man's  place  therein. 

2.  The  Christian  movement  is  also  being  in- 
creasingly revaluated  from  the  point  of  view  of 
different  philosophical  systems.  The  historic  doc- 
trines embodied  to  very  large  degree  elements  both  ' 
of  Platonism  and  AristoteUanism.  The  rise  of  new 
philosophical  systems  has  naturally  led  to  restate- 
ments of  fundamental  values  in  addition,  as  in  the 
task  of  answering  the  objections  of  those  who  hold  to 
purely  utilitarian  or  impersonal  views  of  the  world, 
especially  with  a  philosophy  of  efficiency  and  force 
to  which  Nietzsche  gave  such  vigorous  expression. 

3.  The  place  of  Christianity  in  a  democratic 
world  order  is  yet  to  be  fully  determined.  The 
fact  that  any  democracy  as  represented  by  Anglo- 
American  pohtical  history  is  to  such  a  large  extent 
the  outgrowth  of  church  hfe  justifies  the  hope 
that  Christianity  will  be  as  significant  in  the  grow- 
ing democracy  as  it  was  in  the  imperialism  of  Rome 
and  the  nationalities  of  Europe  and  America.  i|"^ 
Simultaneously,  the  conception  of  God  as  immanent  J  ^ 
in  nature  and  history  resulting  from  a  personal; 
interpretation  of  the  forces  of  the  cosmos  given  us 
by  science,  finds  helpful  analogies  in  the  developing 
conception  of  authority  as  immanent  in  democratic; 
society.  _  At  the  same  time  there  exists  a  definite 
and  serious  problem  in  the  fact  that  the  church, 
both  in  its  organization  and  in  its  theological  con- 
cepts once  embodied  and  championed  monarchy. 
The  democratizing  of  such  teaching  and  conceptions 
will   require  no   small  wisdom.     A  large  element 

of  hope  in  the  situation  lies  in  the  fact  that  religious 
leaders  are  emphasizing  the  hfe  and  teaching  of 
Jesus  rather  than  precision  in  theological  formulas. 
Loyalty  to  Jesus  Christ  is  certain  to  develop  atti- 
tudes which  will  not  only  conserve  the  fundamental 
values  of  the  inherited  doctrines  and  institutions, 
but  will  also  stimulate  humanity  to  organize  a 
Christian  democracy  which  will  give  rather  than 
merely  demand  justice.  Shailer  Mathews 

CHRISTIANS.— See  Disciples  of  Christ. 

CHRISTLA.NS  OF  ST.  JOHN.— A  designation 
of  the  Mandaeans  (q.v.),  due  to  their  honoring 
John  the  Baptist. 


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96 


CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS.— The  desig- 
nation of  the  Nestorians  in  India,  who  hold  to  the 
tradition  of  Thomas'  apostolic  mission  to  India. 

CHRISTMAS  AND  CHRISTMAS  CUSTOMS. 

— The  festival  of  Christ's  Nativity,  now  celebrated 
on  Dec.  25,  and  the  center  of  a  large  number  of 
popular  customs,  some  of  pagan  origin. 

1.  The  date. — No  feast  of  the  Nativity  seems  to 
have  been  observed  previous  to  the  4th.  century, 
except,  perhaps,  by  the  Basilidians,  who  may  have 
held  it  on  Jan.  6  or  Feb.  19-20.  The  earUest  evi- 
dence of  its  celebration  (Ephraem  Syrus,  — 373) 
points  to  Jan.  6  (now  restricted  to  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany).  Why  this  date  was  chosen  is  thus  far 
uncertain  (see  Epiphany),  but  as  Jan.  6  was  also 
the  feast  of  the  baptism  of  Christ,  there  was  danger 
lest  Adoptianist  heresies  creep  in,  and  Christ's  divine 
nature  be  held  from  his  baptism  rather  than  from 
his  Incarnation,  especially  as  Luke  3:23  was 
sometimes  held  to  imply  that  he  was  baptized  on 
his  thirtieth  birthday.  Accordingly  the  feast 
was  shifted  to  Dec.  25.  This  was  first  done  by 
Pope  Liberius  in  353-54  (less  probably  by  Pope 
Marcus  in  336),  and  from  Rome  the  observance 
spread  to  the  East.  It  was  introduced  at  Constanti- 
nople between  378  and  388;  at  Antioch  by  388; 
in  Cappadocia  by  383;  at  Alexandria  between  400 
and  432  (here  it  is  definitely  stated  that  the  date 
had  previously  been  Jan.  6) ;  at  Jerusalem  certainly 
by  635  (perhaps  by  425-58;  about  385  it  was  still 
Jan.  6);  in  Asia  by  387;  in  Armenia  the  old  date 
still  prevails. 

2.  Reasons  for  the  date. — These  are  of  two  kinds: 
(a)  based  on  a  "plan  of  the  ages"  and  (6)  drawn  from 
the  Gospels. 

(a)  The  "Plan  of  the  Ages." — According  to  the 
De  Pascha  Computus,  the  first  day  of  creation  was 
March  25,  and  as  Christ  is  the  Paschal  Lamb  born 
1548  years  after  the  Exodus,  his  nativity  must 
have  been  at  Passover  of  that  year,  i.e.,  March  28, 
the  date  of  creation  of  the  sun.  If,  however,  March 
25  be  taken  as  the  first  day  of  creation,  and  if 
"nativity"  be  regarded  as  referring  to  Christ's 
conception,  the  day  of  his  birth  would  naturally 
be  Dec.  25. 

(b)  The  Gospels. — By  a  faulty  exegesis  of  the 
story  of  Zacharias  in  Luke,  chap.  1  it  is  deduced  that 
John  the  Baptist  was  conceived  after  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (in  that  year  in  Sept.),  so  that  Christ's 
conception  would  be  in  March,  and  his  nativity 
in  Dec.  It  is  also  possible,  though  not  proved, 
that  the  view  that  the  Crucifixion  of  the  "Paschal 
Lamb"  took  place  on  March  25,  the  date  of  his  con- 
ception and  of  the  beginning  of  creation  may  later 
have  influenced  the  choice  of  Dec.  25  for  the  feast  of 
the  Nativity. 

3.  Influence  of  paganism. — The  fixing  of  Dec. 
25  by  the  "plan  of  the  ages"  caused  the  feast  to 
coincide  with  the  Mithraic  festival  in  honour  of  the 
"birthday  of  the  unconquered  sun,"  i.e.,  the  end 
of  the  winter  solstice;  and  this  coincidence  was 
furthered  by  the  association  of  Christ  with  the  sun. 
All  this  was  doubtless  accidental,  though  good  use 
was  made  of  it  when  it  became  known.  Some  have 
sought  to  connect  the  Roman  feast  of  the  Saturnalia 
with  Christmas,  but  this  was  held  on  Dec.  17 
and  was  totally  different  both  in  spirit  and  in  origin. 
Much  of  the  merriment  characterizing  the  SaturnaUa 
has,  however,  been  transferred  to  Christmas,  notably 
the  giving  of  gifts,  feasting,  and  games.  The  more 
important  non-Christian  customs  connected  with  the 
festival  are  Teutonic  in  origin.  The  Yule-feast 
was  celebrated  about  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice, 
and  from  this  came  the  yule-log,  Christmas  cakes 
(the  survival  of  a  sacrifice  for  good  crops  in  the 
coming  year),  etc.    At  this  time  the  spirits  of  the 


dead  were  also  supposed  to  revisit  the  earth,  and  in 
Scandinavia  there  are  still  distinct  traces  of  this 
behef.  The  mistletoe,  probably  a  Celtic  feature 
and  not  connected  with  a  solstitial  feast,  perhaps 
represents  the  vegetation-spirit  invoked  to  bless  the 
coming  year;  the  Christmas-tree  is  a  German 
importation  of  relatively  recent  date. 

L.  H.  Gray 

CHRISTOLOGY.— The  doctrinal  exposition  of 
the  nature  of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  his  redemptive 
work. 

Christology  is  a  religious  valuation  of  Jesus  as 
saviour  of  men,  furnishing  a  theological  theory  con- 
cerning the  redemptive  work  of  Christ,  and  formu- 
lating assertions  concerning  the  metaphysical 
nature  of  Christ.  The  following  are  typical 
theories. 

1.  Messianic  Christology. — Primitive  Christians 
shared  the  Jewish  conception  that  salvation  involves 
national  deUverance,  which  was  to  be  consummated 
through  a  divinely  authorized  and  empowered 
deliverer.  The  word  "Christ"  properly  means 
"anointed"  for  this  end.  The  question  in  Acts  1 :6, 
"Lord,  dost  thou  at  this  time  restore  the  kingdom 
to  Israel?"  indicates  this  Jewish  expectation. 
Jesus,  as  the  divinely  sent  saviour,  must  fulfil  this 
messianic  hope.  Since  he  had  not  established  the 
kingdom  during  his  hfe,  the  great  consummation 
was  to  be  awaited  in  the  near  future.  Behef  in 
Jesus  as  Messiah  was  grounded  on  the  supernatural 
attestation  of  his  mission  during  his  life,  his  triumph 
over  death,  his  ascension  to  the  right  hand  of  God, 
and  his  future  coming  in  glory  to  usher  in  the  mes- 
sianic kingdom.  The  Apostles'  Creed  represents 
this  interpretation,  mentioning  virgin  birth,  passion 
and  death,  resurrection,  ascension,  session  at  God's 
right  hand,  and  future  coming  to  judge  the  living 
and  the  dead.  These  items  have  usually  been 
retained  in  subsequent  Christologies,  even  when  a 
different  interest  appears. 

2.  Logos  Christology. — When  Christianity  passed 
to  the  Hellenistic  world,  it  encountered  a  different 
conception  of  salvation.  Here  the  idea  of  an  all- 
pervading  control  of  the  universe  by  divine  Reason 
(Logos)  rather  than  that  of  a  cosmic  catastrophe 
was  dominant.  ReUgious  salvation  consisted,  ac- 
cording to  the  Stoics,  in  "Hving  according  to  the 
Logos."  A  Christian  Hellenist,  therefore,  would 
naturally  value  Christ  in  terms  of  the  divine  Logos. 
Justin  Martyr  identified  Jesus  with  the  Logos, 
thereby  makmg  him  the  eternal  divine  being  who 
inspired  prophets  and  philosophers  and  who  ap-" 
peared  personally  in  Jesus.  Since  the  Logos 
also  is  the  organizing  divine  force  in  the  cosmos, 
participation  of  the  Logos  Christ  in  the  work  of 
creation  was  affirmed  by  Origen  and  others.  But 
since  Hellenic  thought  made  a  sharp  contrast 
between  the  material  cosmos  and  the  immaterial 
divine  spirit,  the  Logos,  who  participated  actively 
in  creation,  was  defined  as  subordinate  in  nature  to 
the  immutable  God.  This  subordination,  inevi- 
table when  cosmic  problems  were  foremost,  was  the 
central  affirmation  of  Arianism. 

3.  Incarnation  Christology. — Hellenistic  reUgious 
thinking  made  a  sharp  distinction  between  the 
flesh,  which  was  considered  the  source  of  evil,  and 
the  spirit,  which  Unked  man  to  God.  To  over- 
come the  flesh  and  give  full  dominion  to  the  spirit 
was  essential  to  salvation.  The  apostle  Paul  set 
forth  the  doctrine  of  redemption  through  the 
mystical  union  of  the  Christian  with  Christ, 
whereby  Christ,  the  divine  Spirit,  so  took  pos- 
session of  man  that  the  flesh  lost  its  dominion. 
When  this  ideal  was  translated  into  Hellenistic 
terms,  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  corruptible 
"essence"  of  human  nature.  In  order  to  overcome 
this  corruption,  a  metaphysical  transformation  by 


07 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Chucius  (Chu  Hsi) 


the  power  of  divine  "essence"  was  believed  to  be 
necessary.  In  the  Nicene  Christology  Christ  is  sav- 
iour because  he  is  "consubstantial  (of  identical 
metaphysical  nature)  with  the  Father.  By  assum- 
ing human  nature  he  brought  the  divine  transform- 
ing "essence"  into  vital  contact  with  human  nature, 
thereby  deifying  it.  The  Nicene  Creed  affirms  the 
metaphysical  deity  of  Christ  and  his  genuine  in- 
carnation. Subsequent  Christological  controversies 
were  due  to  attempts  to  define  exactly  the  relation 
between  these  two  metaphysically  contradictory 
"natures"  in  one  historical  person,  Jesus.  See 
Apollinarianism  ;  Nestorianism  ;  Eutychian- 
ism;  Chalcedon,  Council  of;  Monophysitism; 
m  onothelitism . 

In  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  to  this  day,  the 
incarnation  Christology  is  dominant.  It  finds  its 
practical  completion  in  the  sacraments  of  the 
church,  whereby  the  saving  potency  of  the  divine 
essence  is  mediated  to  needy  man.  It  is  funda- 
mental to  the  sacramental  system  of  Roman  Catholi- 
cism, and  through  rituahstic  usage  has  entered 
profoundly  into  the  devotion  of  Western  Christian- 
ity. The  transmutation  of  the  elements  of  the 
eucharist  in  the  Mass  is  a  repetition  of  the  miracle 
of  the  incarnation. 

4.  Atonement  Christology. — In  the  Latin  church 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  salvation  was  interpreted 
primarily  in  terms  of  reconciliation  between  God  and 
the  sinner  who  merits  divine  condemnation.  The 
saviour  must  be  one  who  can  propitiate  God  and 
make  pardon  possible.  Christ  thus  becomes  the 
mediator  between  God  and  man,  rendering  to  God 
such  atoning  work  as  will  enable  God  to  forgive. 
As  man,  Jesus  is  able  to  act  and  speak  on  man's 
behalf;  as  divine  he  can  offer  the  infinite  efficacy 
of  his  atoning  work  for  all  mankind.  For  fuller 
details,  see  Atonement. 

6.  Revelation  Christology. — Luther  made  assur- 
ance of  God's  favor  central  in  salvation.  Such 
assurance  springs  from  a  revelation  of  the  gracious 
attitude  of  God.  While  this  is  secured  partly  by 
trust  in  the  promise  of  God  in  the  Bible,  and  partly 
by  the  reassuring  effect  of  the  sacraments,  it  is 
potently  and  personally  effective  in  the  revelation 
of  God's  loving  purpose  in  the  life  and  the  death  of 
Jesus.  While  Luther  never  questioned  the  truth 
of  the  Chalcedonian  Christology,  and  while  in  his 
doctrine  of  the  communicatio  idiomatum  (q.v.)  he 
employed  the  scholastic  conception  of  essence,  his 
interest  nevertheless  lay  in  securing  God's  favor- 
able attitude  rather  than  in  an  impartation  of  the 
divine  "nature."  Thus  in  Protestantism  the  theo- 
logical discussion  of  the  "natures"  of  Christ  has 
been  for  the  most  part  a  mere  scholastic  perpetua- 
tion of  traditional  controversies.  In  recent  times 
there  is  a  general  frank  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  Chalcedonian  formula  employs  concepts  quite 
foreign  to  modern  religious  interests,  and  that  a 
vital  Christology  is  not  to  be  derived  from  this 
exposition  of  Greek  metaphysics. 

Schleiermaeher,  in  accordance  with  this  vital 
interest,  defined  the  significance  of  Jesus  in  terms  of  a 
perfect  God-consciousness.  Jesus  was  the  Great 
Mystic  whose  conscious  life  was  one  with  the  life 
of  God.  This  God-consciousness  was  unique, 
imderived  from  any  human  sources,  and  consti- 
tuted an  inherent  divinity  in  him. 

Tlw  Ritschlian  theology  (q.v.)  defined  the 
significance  of  Jesus  exclusively  in  terms  of  revela- 
tion-value. In  the  personal  life  of  the  historical 
Jesus  God's  loving  attitude  toward  men  is  revealed. 
In  Jesus  alone  do  we  find  an  absolutely  convincing 
manifestation  of  divine  love.  Jesus  is  divine  in 
the  sense  that  God  meets  us  in  him;  but  the  meta- 
physical conception  of  a  divine  "nature"  is  repudi- 
ated as  being  inadequate  to  express  Jesus'  real  power. 


During  the  19th.  century  the  human  limita- 
tions of  the  historical  Jesus  were  made  evident  by 
historical  study.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the  so- 
called  Kenosis  Christology  to  do  justice  to  these  while 
conserving  the  traditional  doctrine  of  the  essentially 
divine  nature  of  Jesus.  This  found  expression 
in  the  doctrine  that  in  becoming  man  the  divine 
Christ  laid  aside  (kenosis)  his  divine  attributes, 
reassuming  them  at  the  resurrection.  In  the  human 
life  of  Jesus,  therefore,  there  is  latent  or  potential 
divinity.  We  may  thus  worship  Jesus  as  God.  His 
self-abnegation  or  humiliation  is  the  revelation  of  the 
utter  self-giving  of  God  in  his  purpose  to  save  men. 

A  more  rationalistic  form  of  revelation  Chris- 
tology is  found  in  Socinianism  and  in  Unitarianism, 
where  the  teachings  and  the  life  of  Jesus  are  por- 
trayed as  truly  representative  of  God's  will,  but  the 
metaphysical  puzzles  connected  with  the  doctrine 
of  a  divine  "nature"  are  set  aside.  Jesus  is  a 
genuinely  human  person  exceptionally  endowed  by 
God  to  teach  and  live  the  truth. 

When,  as  is  the  case  with  much  modern  Protes- 
tant thinking,  the  valuation  of  Jesus  consists  in 
estimating  his  rehgious  experience,  his  faith  in  God, 
his  communion  with  God,  his  growing  apprehen- 
sion of  his  mission,  and  his  human  consecration 
to  that  mission  even  to  the  point  of  death,  there  is 
no  second  concept,  such  as  Messiah,  or  Logos,  or 
pre-existent  divine  nature,  with  which  to  equate 
Jesus.  The  logical  problems  connected  with  the 
older  Christology  thus  disappear,  and  the  signifi- 
cance of  Jesus  is  set  forth  directly  in  terms  of 
his  experience  of  God.  He  reveals  God  to  us. 
He  enables  us  to  trust  God.  He  initiates  in  us  a 
life  of  communion  with  God.  He  evokes  our 
worshipful  adoration.  Such  are  the  conceptions 
which  in  these  Christologies  take  the  place  of  the 
former  metaphysical  discussion.  See  Jesus  Christ. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

CHRISTOPHORUS— Pope  903-904. 

CHRYSOSTOM,  JOHN  (.344-407).— The  great- 
est of  ancient  preachers,  a  brilliant  pupil  of  the 
pagan  Libanius  in  Antioch,  a  lawyer,  then  a  monk 
(367),  deacon  (381),  presbyter  (386),  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (397).  His  puritan  attacks  on 
court  luxury  gave  opportunity  to  his  ecclesiastical 
rival,  Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  to  conspire  with 
the  Empress  Eudoxia  for  his  banishment  (403). 
Restored  to  appease  the  people,  he  was  again 
exiled  to  Armenia  (404)  and  in  407  to  the  Caucasus, 
dying  from  the  final  hardships.  As  a  theologian  he 
illustrates  the  grammatical  exegesis  and  practical 
ethical  emphasis  of  the  Antioch  school. 

F.  A.  Christie 

CHTHONIAN  DEITIES.— See  Earth  Gods. 

CHUANG-TSE.— A  Chinese  religious  phi- 
losopher of  the  later  4th.  century  B.C.  He  is  best 
described  as  an  absolute  idealist,  developing  the 
system  of  intuitive  mysticism  of  Lao-tse  (q.v.). 
The  Tao  is  the  ultimate  reality.  This  impersonal 
spiritual  Absolute  gives  rise  to  God  and  the  trans- 
formations of  being  we  know  as  the  phenomenal 
world.  Man's  true  self  and  the  Tao  are  one. 
Hence  not  works  of  charity,  nor  duty,  nor  intellec- 
tual knowledge  but  intuition  only  is  the  way  to  the 
real  knowledge  of  reality  and  to  the  complete  life. 
He  says:  "Repose,  tranquility,  stillness,  inaction — ■ 
these  are  the  levels  of  the  universe,  the  ultimate 
perfection  of  Tao."  Subjective  and  objective  are 
one,  the  world  of  appearances  and  man's  life  are 
embraced  in  the  obliterating  unity  of  Tao.  (Also 
Chuang-tze.)     See  China,  Religions  of. 

CHUCIUS  (CHU  HSI)  (1130-1200  a.d.).— A 
Chinese    philosopher    and    commentator    on    the 


Chuntokyo 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


sacred  classics.  He  is  the  chief  representative  of 
the  influential  Sing-li  philosophy.  It  has  the 
appearance  of  dualism  but  the  rational  or  spiritual 
is  always  supreme.  The  "Great  Ultimate"  is  Li, 
the  universal  principle  or  reason  which  acts  upon 
another  principle  KH,  a  material  base,  to  produce 
the  cosmos.  Under  the  influence  of  Li  are  differ- 
entiated heaven  (yang),  earth  (yin),  and  the  phe- 
nomenal world  composed  of  the  five  elements.  The 
rational  principle  constitutes  the  law  or  order  of 
nature  and  is  the  intelligent,  moral  nature  of  man. 
True  moral  life  consists  in  obedience  to  this  inner 
spiritual  nature  which  partakes  of  the  universal 
reason.  There  is  no  recognition  of  a  personal 
God,  spirits,  miracles  or  immortality. 

CHUNTOKYO.— See  Korea,  Religions  op. 

CHURCH  (CHRISTIAN).— An  organized  group 
of  baptized  believers  in  Jesus  Christ  which  exists  for 
the  purpose  of  worship,  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments,  the  maintenance  of  preaching,  and 
reUgious  and  moral  education. 

In  the  New  Testament  we  see  the  rise  of  the 
societies  of  those  who  in  various  places  had  accepted 
the  Gospel  and  professed  themselves  through 
baptism  as  the  loyal  followers  of  Jesus.  These 
groups  in  their  early  stages  had  very  little  organiza- 
tion beyond  the  elders  or  bishops,  who  seem  to 
have  been  sometimes  appointed  by  an  apostle. 
They  were  Jewish  and  did  not  undertake  to  main- 
tain a  religious  life  independent  of  the  Jewish 
faith  as  institutionalized  in  the  temple  and  syna- 
gogue. As  the  movement  gathered  members  who 
were  not  Jews,  it  became  increasingly  independent 
from  Judaism,  and  the  groups  came  to  be  known 
from  their  dominant  quality  as  Christians,  those 
who  believe  in  Christ.  The  organization  of  the 
early  Gentile  churches  was  very  simple,  but  by  the 
end  of  the  1st.  century  the  bishop  seems  to  have 
gradually  acquired  pre-eminence,  both  as  the  one 
who  was  the  guardian  of  the  true  teaching,  and  as 
the  special  representative  of  God  to  the  church 
over  which  he  presided. 

Economic  forces  may  have  assisted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  these  groups,  but  it  is  inaccurate  to  speak 
of  them  as  proletarian.  Doubtless  the  majority  of 
their  members  were  slaves  and  poor  workingmen, 
but  these  early  churches  also  contained  those_  who 
possessed  wealth  and  social  standing.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  collegia  (bodies  somewhat  resembling 
the  later  guilds)  was  also  felt,  but  the  prevailing 
motives  leading  to  membership  were  religious  rather 
than  economic.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they 
were  communistic. 

The  centuries  which  immediately  followed  the 
death  of  the  apostles  saw  these  communities  scat- 
tered around  the  Mediterranean  basin  growing 
into  closer  relationships  with  one  another.  It  was 
natural  that  the  churches  in  the  smaller  cities 
should  gradually  group  themselves  around  churches 
in  some  metropolis,  and  it  was  also  natural  that  in 
such  grouping  the  lines  of  the  Roman  imperial 
administration  should  be  followed.  Thus  there 
sprang  up  the  metropolitan  bishoprics,  of  which  the 
chief  in  the  east  were  Alexandria,  _  Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  Ephesus,  and  later  Constantinople;  and 
in  the  west  Rome.  These  large  metropolitan 
churches,  however,  were  not  united  into  a  complete 
organization,  although  ecumenical  councils  were 
held  which  supposedly  represented  the  entire  body 
of  churches.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  no 
council  had  any  fair  representation  of  the  more 
distant  churches. 

By  the  3rd.  century  we  can  see  the  development 
of  the  idea  of  the  Catholic  church,  of  Catholic 
dogma,  of  the  power  of  the  bishop,  of  an  authorita- 


tive canon  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  Roman  church  in  the  West. 
Catholic  Christianity  involves  all  of  these  ideals 
with  the  exception  that  the  eastern  Catholics  do 
not  recognize  the  primacy  of  the  Roman  church. 

The  history  of  the  church  after  the  separation 
of  the  eastern  and  western  halves  of  the  empire 
is  one  of  little  progress  among  the  churches  in 
the  east,  and  very  decided  development  among 
the  churches  of  the  west.  See  Christianity.  The 
churches  of  the  west,  both  consciously  and  under 
the  leadership  of  Rome,  gradually  evolved  a  sort 
of  transcendentalized  Roman  Empire,  which  like 
its  predecessor  centered  around  Rome,  and  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  preserved  many  of  the 
significant  elements  of  the  Roman  empire.  But 
orthodox  Christianity  in  both  the  east  and  the  west 
insisted  that  salvation  was  possible  only  through 
the  work  of  the  Catholic  church,  to  which  alone  was 
given  charge  of  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments. 

The  Middle  Ages  saw  in  the  west  a  noteworthy 
attempt  to  establish  a  conjunction  of  the  church 
and  state  in  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  but  despite 
the  power  of  such  popes  as  Gregory  VII.  and 
Innocent  III.,  the  rivalry  of  emperors  and  popes  as 
well  as  of  bishops  and  feudal  lords  made  the  effort 
unsuccessful.    See  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Roman  Catholic 
conception  of  the  church  was  completed  (except 
that  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  speaking  ex 
cathedra  was  not  made  dogma).  This  conception  is 
in  brief: 

"A  body  of  men  united  together  for  the  profes- 
sion of  the  same  Christian  faith  and  by  participa- 
tion in  the  same  sacraments,  under  the  governance 
of  local  pastors,  more  especially  of  the  Roman 
Pontiff,  sole  Vicar  of  Christ  on  Earth." 

The  government  of  this  church  is  determined 
by  Christ,  through  the  Apostles  and  their  suc- 
cessors, and  upon  the  regularity  of  their  appoint- 
ment depends  the  vahdity  of  the  sacraments. 
In  consequence  of  this  divine  establishment,  the 
Roman  Catholic  theologians  regard  the  church 
as  superior  to  civil  power  whenever  there  arises 
dispute  over  matters  of  religious  character. 

With  the  rise  of  the  new  national  movements 
in  Europe  there  appeared  groups  of  Christians 
who  broke  with  the  imperial  idea  and  organized 
state  churches,  each  with  its  own  development  of 
the  great  theological  system  which  had  grown  up 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  These  state  churches  in 
turn  attempted  to  control  the  religious  thought  and 
life  of  the  various  states  in  which  they  were  organ- 
ized, and  in  consequence  soon  found  themselves 
forced  to  take  action  against  those  who  were 
regarded  by  them  as  heretical.  On  the  continent 
of  Europe  the  state  churches  as  a  rule  succeeded 
until  very  recent  times  in  maintaining  a  high  degree 
of  conformity.  In  England,  however,  where  the 
political  history  was  more  democratic  than  on  the 
continent,  the  attempt  to  enforce  conformity 
met  with  increasing  opposition.  A  succession  of 
groups  especially  in  England  separated  themselves 
from  the  established  church,  and  gave  rise  to  various 
non-conforming  churches.  These  in  turn  tended  to 
subdivide  until  there  developed  today's  general 
situation  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
In  America  the  democratic  spirit  has  not  only  for- 
bidden the  existence  of  a  state  church,  but  has 
brought  about  absolute  freedom  in  religious  organi- 
zations, and  the  conception  of  the  church  as  a 
unit  has  disappeared  in  denominations. 

Through  all  this  process  of  subdivision,  how- 
ever, the  fundamental  function  of  a  church  is  main- 
tained.    The  church  carries  on  worship,  rehgious 


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Church  of  England 


and  moral  education,  and  the  administration  of 
sacraments  with  whatever  value  they  may  be 
thought  to  contain.  Churches  of  all  sorts  main- 
tain a  ministry,  members  of  which  have  special 
functions  which  are  recognized  by  most  states,  but 
who  are  not  of  uniform  status,  varying  according  to 
the  conceptions  of  any  given  church  from  priests 
to  laymen  chosen  to  preach. 

Speaking  generally,  therefore,  there  is  at  the 
present  time  a  two-fold  conception  of  the  church. 
One  holds  that  there  is  a  Cathohc  church  and  that 
this  should  be  co-extensive  with  organized  Chris- 
tianity. On  the  other  side  is  the  view  of  those  who 
hold  that  a  church  is  strictly  a  local  body,  and 
that  the  true  unity  of  the  church  is  one  of  spirit- 
ual fellowship  with  Christ.  See  Christianity; 
Bishop;    Deacon.  Shailer  Mathews 

CHURCH  ARMY. — An  organization  in  con- 
nection with  the  Church  of  England,  founded  by 
Rev.  Wilson  Carhle,  1882,  which  conducts  (1)  evan- 
geUstic  work  through  lay  workers  among  the 
unemployed  and  deUnquent  classes,  (2)  social  work 
in  the  form  of  labor  homes,  employment  bureaus, 
lodging  houses,  cheap  food  depots,  old  clothes' 
depots,  dispensaries  and  an  extensive  emigration 
system. 

CHURCH  CONGRESS.— An  annual  conference 
of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  Church  of  England  to 
discuss  rehgious  and  ethical  questions. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.— The  church  estab- 
lished in  England  with  relations  to  the  state  deter- 
mined by  parliament  since  the  breach  with  Rome  at 
the  Reformation. 

1.  Origin  and  continuity. — Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Britain  at  least  as  early  as  the  3rd. 
century,  probably  from  Gaul,  and  was  then  of  the 
oriental  rather  than  the  Roman  type.  The  com- 
ing of  the  English,  driving  the  Britons  before  them, 
almost  extinguished  it  in  the  South;  but  it  con- 
tinued to  flourish  in  the  North  until  the  British 
Church,  after  some  differences,  coalesced  with  the 
missionary  church  which  Augustine  had  introduced 
in  the  year  597.  There  is  difference  of  opinion 
among  polemical  writers  on  the  question  of  the 
continuity  of  the  church  in  spite  of  successive 
national,  theological,  and  constitutional  changes. 
The  Anglo-CathoUcs  (q.v.)  maintain  its  identity 
throughout  primitive,  mediaeval  and  modern  times, 
while  some  Protestants  (e.g.,  Schaff)  confine  the 
title  "Church  of  England"  to  the  period  subsequent 
to  the  settlement  under  Henry  VIII.  This  ques- 
tion is  metaphysical  rather  than  historical,  for  it 
turns  on  the  nature  of  identity.  There  has  been 
continuity  in  much  of  the  doctrine  and  discipUne 
as  well  as  in  the  religious  life  of  Christianity  in 
England  from  the  first;  so  that  the  Roman  Cathohc, 
Anglican,  Methodist,  and  Nonconformist  churches 
of  today  may  all  be  regarded  as  more  or  less  suc- 
cessors to  the  Mediaeval  Church,  like  the  divisions 
of  a  river  at  its  delta.  But  the  Anglican  Church 
holds  the  cathedrals,  parish  churches,  and  other 
ecclesiastical  national  property,  including  tithes, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Roman  Cathohcs, 
deviates  least  from  ancient  custom. 

2.  Establishment. — After  the  breach  with  Rome 
under  Henry  VIII. ,  again  under  Elizabeth,  the 
church  which  was  always  more  or  less  connected 
with  the  state,  came  under  its  direct  control, 
acknowledging  the  sovereign  as  its  "Supreme 
Governor."  The  Prayer  Book  with  its  doctrine  and 
ritual  has  been  authorised  by  parUament  and  can- 
not be  altered  without  that  authority.  The  bishops 
and  some  other  church  dignitaries  are  appointed 
nominally  by  the  sovereign,  really  by  the  prime 


minister.  The  church  courts  are  subordinate  to 
law  courts  of  the  civil  government.  The  clergy 
enjoy  the  fruits  of  the  tithes,  except  where  these 
have  been  ahenated,  and  also  of  lands  and  other 
properties  now  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  "Ecclesi- 
astical Commissioners,"  a  board  of  officials  under 
the  state  authority.  Most  of  the  bishops  have 
seats  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  ranks  as  the  first  subject  in  the  realm, 
above  all  the  nobility.  In  the  coronation  of  the 
King,  and  other  state  functions,  such  as  that  of 
Chaplain  of  the  House  of  Commons,  it  is  only  clergy 
of  the  Church  of  England  who  conduct  the  requisite 
rehgious  services. 

3.  Order  and  administration. — The  Anglican 
church  is  Episcopal  in  its  government,  recogniz- 
ing the  three  orders  of  bishop,  presbyter  (or  priest), 
and  deacon.  There  are  two  archbishops,  one  at 
Canterbury  and  the  other  at  York.  The  arch- 
bishops preside  at  convocations  of  the  clergy  in  their 
respective  provinces,  but  the  establishment  has 
deprived  the  convocations  of  legislative  power  and 
transferred  it  to  ParUament.  England  is  geo- 
graphically divided  into  parishes,  the  incumbents  of 
which  have  the  rights  and  duties  of  "corporations," 
so  that  it  may  be  said  that  the  unit  of  the  church  is 
the  parish,  rather  than  the  diocese.  The  presenta- 
tion to  hvings  is  in  the  hands  of  patrons,  most  of 
whom  are  laymen  and  land-holders,  although 
bishops,  universities,  and  other  bodies  have  the 
presentation  of  some  of  them.  Under  the  "Enabling 
Act,"  1920,  new  powers  of  self-management  are 
conferred.  A  National  Assembly  has  been  consti- 
tuted and  the  laity  admitted  to  mcreased  responsi- 
bility. Church  matters  are  to  be  managed  by  the 
parochial  Council  elected  by  an  annual  church  meet- 
ing of  parishioners  who  are  members  of  the  C.  of  E. 

4.  Ritual. — The  ritual  of  the  Church  of  Elng- 
land  is  laid  down  in  the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer," 
as  last  revised  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  according 
to  which  the  worship  is  conducted  liturgically. 
The  rubric  and  prayers  are  based  on  pre-reformation 
forms  of  service,  largely  modified  by  Protestant 
divines  so  as  to  exclude  distinctively  Roman  Catholic 
doctrines  and  practices.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  large 
latitude  is  observed,  the  "advanced,"  or  "ritualistic," 
or  "cathohc"  clergy  reverting  in  a  considerable 
degree  to  ancient  practices,  while  the  "Evangelical" 
clergy  adhere  to  simpler  forms  of  worship,  although 
all  use  the  same  Prayer  Book. 

5.  Doctrine. — The  authorized  doctrine  of  the 
Church  of  England  is  that  of  the  whole  content  of  the 
Prayer  Book,  but  it  is  more  especially  defmed  by 
the  39  Articles  and  the  homilies.  The  articles  were 
based  on  the  Augsburg  Confession  and  are  due  to 
Lutheran  influence,  that  of  Melanchthon  in  par- 
ticular, but  somewhat  modified  by  Calvinism  of  a 
mild  type.  They  base  their  authority  on  Scripture 
and  the  three  Creeds.  Anghcan  divines  of  the  17th. 
century  and  later  have  also  attached  some  author- 
ity to  the  Church  Fathers  of  the  first  four  centuries. 
In  point  of  fact  the  clergy  enjoy  great  hberty  of 
belief  and  teaching,  the  Evangelicals  holding  by  the 
Articles  and  taking  the  Bible  as  almost  their  sole 
authority,  while  the  Anglo-Catholics  make  more 
of  the  ritualistic  part  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  revive 
ideas  and  practices  formally  repudiated  as  Roman. 
Some  of  the  latter  also  accept  principles  known  as 
"Broad  Church"  both  in  bibhcal  criticism  and  in 
regard  to  political  and  social  questions.  There 
are  some  High  Church  sociahsts. 

6.  Communicants. — All  baptized  citizens  of  the 
nation  who  have  undergone  the  rite  of  confirmation 
by  their  bishop  have  a  right  to  come  to  the  com- 
munion in  their  own  parish  or  district  church  unless 
inhibited  by  the  incumbent  for  immoral  conduct. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  many  clergy  admit  to  the  rite 


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100 


persons  who  come  from  other  denominations. 
Some  keep  a  roll  of  communicants  whom  they 
endeavor  to  meet  in  private  from  time  to  time. 
But  this  is  a  voluntary  arrangement  and  not 
universal.  It  may  be  said  that  practically  the 
communion  is  open.  Therefore  it  is  impossible  to 
furnish  any  statistics  of  the  communicants  in  the 
AngUcan  church  corresponding  to  the  members  of  a 
Free  church.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  esti- 
mate the  number  by  counting  the  attendance  at 
the  Easter  Communion;  but,  though  this  is  by 
far  the  best  attended  occasion,  necessarily  some 
habitual  attendants  would  not  be  present.  A  rough 
calculation  suggests  that  the  communicants  in  the 
Church  of  England  are  about  equal  in  number  to 
those  of  the  Nonconformist  churches. 

7.  Synods. — The  two  convocations — of  Canter- 
bury and  York — meet  to  advise  legislation  for  the 
church,  which,  however,  can  only  be  enforced  by 
ParHament.  Diocesan  synods  discuss  their  own 
local  affairs  and  deal  with  practical  questions  of 
church  work  and  the  spiritual  concerns  of  the 
diocese.  They  have  no  administrative  power. 
The  "Church  Congress"  is  a  voluntary  association 
meeting  annually  to  hear  addresses  and  engage  in 
discussions  on  the  religious  problems  of  the  time. 
Once  every  ten  years  a  Pan-Anglican  synod  is 
assembled,  representative  of  all  branches  of  the 
AngUcan  church  throughout  the  world.  This 
also  is  wholly  voluntary  and  advisory.  Actual 
administrative  authority  rests  locally  with  the 
parish  clergy  acting  through  the  Councils  mentioned 
above.  No.  3,  and  in  the  several  dioceses  with  their 
bishops. 

8.  Finance. — The  main  support  of  the  clergy 
is  derived  from  the  tithes  which  are  rent  charges 
on  all  the  land  of  the  country,  where  they  have  not 
been  commuted  by  a  capital  payment.  The  holder 
of  the  "great  tithes,"  i.e.,  tithes  of  corn,  hay,  and 
wool,  is  designated  "rector"  of  his  parish.  At  the 
Reformation,  tithes  of  parishes  which  had  been  held 
by  the  monasteries — amounting  to  about  one-third 
of  the  whole — were  given  to  court  favourites  and 
other  laymen  as  private  property,  an  action  known 
as  "the  great  pillage."  The  new  holders  of  these 
tithes  became  "lay  rectors,"  and  the  spiritual 
charge  of  the  parishes  concerned  was  given  to 
clergy  who  were  therefore  called  "vicars."  Thus 
it  has  come  about  that  the  clergyman  of  one  parish 
is  a  "rector,"  and  the  clergyman  of  another  a 
"vicar."  In  addition  to  the  tithes  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  clergy  and  other  church  expenses  there 
are  properties,  chiefly  in  land,  administered  by  the 
ecclesiastical  commissioners,  moneys  from  "Queen 
Anne's  Bounty,"  various  local  endowments,  pew 
rents  in  some  churches,  and  offertories  at  the 
services. 

9.  Education. — The  higher  education  is  mainly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Church  of  England,  although 
there  are  some  nonconformist  and  undenominational 
schools.  Most  of  the  secondary  schools  receiving 
government  grants  are  under  pubUc  control  and 
undenominational.  In  the  early  19th.  century 
the  Church  of  England  provided  elementary  schools, 
commonly  known  as  "National  Schools,"  in  which 
it  gave  its  own  type  of  religious  teachings,  and  at 
the  same  time  "British  Schools"  were  provided  by 
the  supporters  of  undenominational  religious  teach- 
ings. The  Education  Act  of  1870  created  school 
boards  for  building  and  maintaining  schools  all 
over  the  country  at  the  pubUc  expense  except  that  a 
small  charge  was  made  on  the  parents.  In  1876 
school  attendance  was  made  compulsory,  and 
in  1891  free.  At  the  same  time  grants  of  public 
funds  were  made  to  the  managers  of  the  Church  of 
England  and  other  denominational  schools.  In 
1902   in   London  and    1903   in    the   country  the 


"Provided" — that  is  the  AngUcan  and  other  denomi- 
national schools — were  granted  an  equal  share  of 
aid  from  the  rates  with  the  Non-Provided  or 
Council  Schools.  These  acts  gave  rise  to  "passive 
resistance"  on  the  part  of  people  who  refused  to 
pay  rates  for  reUgious  teaching  of  which  they 
disapproved.  Walter  F.  Adeney 

CHURCH  OF  GOD.— The  title  assumed  by 
several  independent  reUgious  bodies  holding  to 
precise  doctrinal  views  which  prevent  them  from 
desiring  feUowship  with  the  larger  denominations. 
The  most  important  with  membership  (in  1919)  are 
the  Church  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ  (Adventist)  (3,457 
members);  the  Church  of  God  (Dunkers)  (929 
members) ;  the  Church  of  God  (EvangeUstic) 
(12,012  members) ;  the  Church  of  God  and  Saints 
of  Christ  (a  colored  body)  (3,311  members);  the 
Church  of  God  as  Organized  by  Christ  (227  mem- 
bers) ;  the  Church  of  God  in  N.  A.,  General  Elder- 
ship (doctrinally  similar  to  the  Dunkers)  (25,847 
members). 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND.— The  Episcopal 
church  in  Ireland  which  was  the  established  state 
church  until  1871  when  it  was  disestabUshed  under 
the  "  Irish  Church  Act." 

CHURCH  OF  THE  LIVING  GOD.— A  smaU 
sect  of  colored  Christians  in  the  United  States, 
comprising,  in  1919,  two  smaller  bodies — Chris- 
tian Workers  for  Fellowship  (13,050  members) ; 
and  General  Assembly,  Apostolic  (1,000  mem- 
bers). 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.— The  Presbyterian 
church  in  Scotland  which  was  made  the  established 
church  by  the  Act  of  Union  of  1707. 

CHURCH  OF  THE  BRETHREN.— See  DuN- 

EARDS. 

CHURCH  OF  THE  NEW  JERUSALEM.— See 

New  Jerusalem,  Church  of. 

CHURCH  FEDERATION.— The  process  of 
bringing  together  local  or  denominationally  organ- 
ized bodies  of  Christians.  Such  federation  differs 
from  organic  union  in  that  the  federating  bodies 
maintain  their  respective  existence.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  local  churches,  the  members  constituting  the 
constituent  bodies  may  receive  members  as  of  their 
own  faith  and  order  and  make  contributions  to  their 
respective  denominational  work,  although  arrange- 
ments vary  in  the  different  local  federated  churches. 
Federation  of  local  reUgious  groups  is  most  com- 
monly to  be  found  in  small  towns  where  the  compe- 
tition between  a  considerable  number  of  Protestant 
churches  has  been  deemed  expensive  financiaUy  and 
inefficient  spiritually. 

In  a  somewhat  more  general  sense,  it  is  customary 
to  speak  of  the  church  federations  of  different  towns. 
By  this  is  meant  the  co-operation  of  the  different 
denominations  under  more  or  less  organized  central 
management  in  certain  tasks,  generally  evangeUstic 
or  social.  It  is  more  common,  however,  to  speak 
of  such  co-operating  bodies  as  Federal  Councils  or 
Church  Federations.  See  Federal  Council  of 
THE  Churches  of  Christ  in  America. 

Shailer  Mathews 

CHURCH  GOVERNMENT.— The  theory  and 
practice  of  ecclesiastical  organization.  See  also 
Pastoral  Theology;  Minister  and  Ministry; 
Order;  Bishops;  Priests;  Deacons. 

There  are  essentially  three  forms  of  church 
government  in  use,  each  claiming  to  follow  the 
primitive  practice. 


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1.  Episcopal. — It  is  held  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment recognizes  three  orders  of  the  clergy:  (1) 
Deacons,  who  are  generally  young  men  serving 
a  kind  of  apprenticeship  and  limited  in  authority 
even  when  in  charge  of  a  church.  (2)  Priests,  the 
clergy  in  charge  of  parishes,  exercising  large  powers, 
(3)  Bishops,  having  oversight  of  a  considerable 
number  of  parishes,  the  entire  district  being  known 
as  a  diocese.  The  bishops  have  the  sole  right  of 
ordination  and  of  confirmation.  See  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church;  Greek  Orthodox  Church;  Church 
OP  England. 

The  Anglican  church,  the  Roman  and  Greek 
CathoUc,  and  other  of  the  eastern  churches  have  a 
superior  rank  (not  order)  known  as  the  Metropolitan 
or  Archbishop,  who  has  wider  territorial  jurisdiction 
and  governs  a  number  of  dioceses  generally  com- 
prised in  a  major  poUtical  unit.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic church  completes  the  hierarchical  system  with 
the  pope,  who  is  the  ruler  of  the  entire  church. 

A  modified  form  of  episcopacy  is  maintained  by 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  churches  in  the  United 
States,  in  which  a  body  of  bishops  is  elected  to 
supervise  the  work  of  the  denomination,  each  bishop 
being  assigned  from  time  to  time  to  the  oversight  of 
certain  groups  of  churches.  But  he  has  no  diocesan 
allocation  nor  do  the  bishops  constitute  a  separate 
order  of  clergy. 

2.  Presbyterial. — This  is  an  attempt  to  reproduce 
the  practices  of  the  New  Testament  churches  in 
which  there  was  a  plurality  of  elders.  Distinction 
is  made  between  the  teaching  elder,  who  is  now  the 
ordained  minister  and  preacher,  and  the  ruling 
elders  who  are  laymen  selected  by  the  congregation 
for  their  ability  in  leadership.  They  together  con- 
stitute the  Session  and  decide  matters  of  eccle- 
siastical business.  The  whole  denomination  is 
organized  in  a  series  of  ecclesiastical  bodies  having 
legislation  and  judicial  powers,  the  Presbytery,  the 
Synod,  and  the  General  Assembly.     See  Presby- 

TERIANISM. 

3.  Congregational. — 'Upon  the  theory  that  each 
local  church  is  a  self-governing  institution,  all 
matters  are  settled  by  the  vote  of  the  members. 
Preachers  are  ordained  as  ministers  but  have  no 
governmental  authority.  Deacons  are  elected  from 
the  laity  as  associates  of  the  minister  in  the  spiritual 
leadership  of  the  congregation.  Congregational 
churches  are  loosely  organized  into  associations, 
conventions,  congresses,  etc.,  but  retain  complete 
independence.  See  Congregationalism;  Inde- 
pendency. Theodore  G.  Scares 

CHURCH  ORDER  .—The  ecclesiastical  consti- 
tution of  a  German  state,  which  usually  makes  a 
statement  of  the  agreement  of  the  State  church  with 
the  Lutheran  Confessions,  followed  by  various 
ecclesiastical  regulations. 

CHURCH  PEACE  UNION.— An  organization 
consisting  of  a  board  of  trustees  founded  and 
endowed  with  two  miUion  dollars  by  Andrew 
Carnegie,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  interest  the 
churches  in  international  peace.  Its  office  is  at 
70  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

CHURCH  REGISTER.— A  church  book  which 
may  be  a  book  of  liturgies,  or  of  accounts,  but 
usually  designating  the  book  in  which  are  registered 
baptisms,  marriages,  funerals,  births,  removals,  and 
sometimes  records  of  discipline. 

CHURCH  UNION.— See  Union,  Church. 

CHURCH  WARDEN.— In  the  Episcopal 
churches  in  the  British  Empire  and  the  United 
States,  a  lay  official  whose  duties  are  the  care  of  the 


church  and  church  prop^rldy,;  >  the  ,  provisi3n«  pf 
necessities  for  the  services  and  tne'  maintenance  of 
order.  "       , ,   ;      :  .    v,    ,  -  . 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN.— The  ceremony  of 
thanksgiving  after  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  genesis 
of  which  was  the  Levitical  purification  ceremony 
(Lev.  12:6). 

CHURCHYARD.— (1)  The  enclosed  piece  of 
ground  adjacent  to  a  church;  (2)  technically,  the 
burial  ground  within  the  enclosure. 

CIBORrUM. — (1)  An  arch  canopy,  supported 
by  four  pillars,  over  an  altar.  (2)  A  vessel  contain- 
ing the  host. 

CIRCUIT.— See  Station. 

CIRCUMAMBULATION.— The  practice  of 
walking  around  an  object  or  person  (usually  three 
times).  When  the  circuit  is  made  sun-wise  it 
indicates  respect,  loyalty  and  reverence.  The 
opposite  circuit  is  of  ill-omen  and  when  deliberately 
done  indicates  ill-will  and  disrespect.  The  prac- 
tice differs  from  the  magic  circle  in  that  there 
seems  to  be  no  idea  of  protecting  the  object  involved. 
It  was  especially  common  among  the  Hindus,  Celts 
and  Greco-Romans  though  found  also  in  America 
and  among  the  Semites.  While  no  certain  state- 
ment can  be  made  as  to  its  origin  it  is  probable  that 
it  is  connected  with  the  observation  of  the  movement 
of  the  sun. 

CIRCUMCISION.— A  ritualisticaUy  significant 
surgical  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  male 
prepuce,  or  two  operations  on  the  female  genitals. 
The  custom  of  practicing  circumcision  is  almost 
universal,  except  among  non-Semites  in  America, 
Europe  and  Asia.  It  was  known  and  observed 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  Hebrews,  the 
Mohammedans,  some  American  Indians,  and  some 
African  and  Polynesian  peoples.  There  are  many 
surgical  methods  of  performing  the  rite,  which  var}^ 
from  the  above  definition,  but  their  purposes  on  the 
whole  are  substantially  the  same. 

1.  Subjects  of  circumcision. — The  age  at  which 
the  rite  was  performed  was  almost  always  immedi- 
ately before  or  at  puberty;  but  among  the  Hebrews 
it  was  set  for  male  children  on  the  eighth  day  after 
birth.  Abraham  and  his  household  were  circum- 
cised as  adults,  except  Ishmael,  when  Yahweh's 
covenant  was  established  (Gen.  17:23-27).  When- 
ever a  foreigner  wished  to  join  with  Israel  in  the 
observance  of  the  passover  (Exod.  12:48),  or  to 
intermarry  with  Israelites,  he  was  obliged  to  be 
circumcised  (Gen.  34:14-24).  It  was  a  reproach 
for  an  Israelite  to  remain  uncircumcised  (Josh.  5:9). 
Extra-Israelitish  peoples  such  as  the  Philistines 
were  called  "the  uncircumcised"  (I  Sam.  31:4; 
Judg.  14:3). 

2.  Reasons  for  circumcision. — Though  circum- 
cision was  a  distinctive  mark  of  Jews,  it  was  re- 
stricted among  nearly  every  other  people  to  certain 
classes,  e.g.,  among  ancient  Egyptians,  priests  and 
warriors  had  to  accept  the  rite;  in  Madagascar 
today  circumcision  is  required  of  a  soldier  or  an 
official.  In  the  early  church  the  Judaizers  declared 
it,  and  the  Gentiles  denied  it,  as  a  necessary  pre- 
requisite for  church  membership;  and  in  the 
council  the  Gentiles  won  their  case  (Acts  15:1,  5, 
28,  29).  Among  some  peoples  the  legal  and  social 
status  of  a  man  is  conditioned  on  circumcision,  as 
among  the  Turks  and  Malays.  Some  African 
tribes  exclude  the  uncircumcised  from  society,  and 
admit  no  one  either  to  their  councils  or  to  the  rights 
of  inheritance  unless  he  has  submitted  to  the  rite. 


Circumcision,  Feast  of  the    A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


102 


Tl 


■3.'  Theories  of-iki  vrigin. — These  are  numerous. 


he  more  plausible  theories  are:  (1)  a  sanitary 
))i*oviis6h,-'"(3X  a'prepfi^tio^  for  marriage,  (3)  con- 
8e?!rit,'on  o'  the  generaiive*^owers,  (4)  a  condition  of 
social  and  legal  standing,  (5)  a  tribal  distinction, 
(6)  initiation  into  a  Hebrew  community,  (7)  mark 
of  Israel's  covenant  relation  to  Yahweh,  (8)  sacri- 
fice to  a  tribal  deity.  Female  circumcision  is  rarely 
connected  with  any  religious  observance. 

Ira  M.  Price 
CIRCUMCISION,  FEAST  OF  THE.— A  festival 
observed  on  Jan.    1st.  in  commemoration  of  the 
circumcision  of  Jesus. 

CISTERCIANS.— A  R.C.  monastic  order,  also 
known  as  the  Grey  or  White  Monks,  dating  from 
1098  when  Robert,  a  Benedictine,  founded  a  monas- 
tery at  Cistercium.  Rapid  development  ensued 
because  of  the  influence  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
(q.v.),  whence  members  of  the  order  are  often 
known  as  Bernardines.  A  rigid  observance  of  the 
Benedictine  rule  was  prescribed.  From  the  12th. 
to  the  15th.  centuries  the  Cistercians  were  most 
numerous  and  influential.  The  rise  of  the  mendi- 
cant orders  involved  the  decline  of  Cistercian 
influence.  There  still  exist  about  100  monasteries 
of  the  order. 

CITY-GOD. — A  deity  who  was  regarded  as  the 
patron  deity  of  a  particular  city  as  Athena  over 
Athens. 

CITY  MISSIONS.— The  term  is  used  in  a 
technical  sense  to  signify  the  organized  co-operative 
activity  of  a  group  of  churches  usually  of  the  same 
communion  of  a  city,  or  of  a  city  and  its  suburbs, 
along  educational,  philanthropic,  ecclesiastical,  or 
rehgious  hues. 

City  Missions  are  differentiated  from  the  work 
of  an  individual  city  church,  in  that  there  are  repre- 
sentative of  a  group  of  churches,  ideally  all  the 
churches  of  a  given  communion  of  a  city  and  its 
suburbs;  from  Home  Missions  in  being  municipal 
rather  than  national  in  its  field  of  service;  and  from 
Church  Federations  in  that  they  are  usually 
denominational,  though  often,  broadly  cathoUc 
in  spirit  and  non-sectarian  in  much  of  the  work 
which  they  undertake. 

In  some  denominations  the  term  has  not 
acquired  this  technical  meaning.  In  others  it  is 
used  in  a  more  restricted  sense  to  refer  only  to  cer- 
tain ministries  of  mercy,  ameliorative  efforts  in  be- 
half of  the  poor  or  unfortunate,  particularly  in 
public  institutions.  This  is  frequently  its  use  in 
the  Episcopal  Church.  In  Lutheran  usage  Inner 
Mission  (q.v.)  has  about  the  same  connotation  as 
City  Missions,  as  here  defined,  and  City  Missions  is 
used  in  the  narrow  sense  to  include  only  benevolent 
or  charitable  work. 

City  Mission  organizations  have  grown  out  of  a 
certain  municipal  consciousness  and  attendant 
sense  of  community  responsibility — the  recogni- 
tion that  there  are  social  problems  peculiar  to  great 
cities  which  will  not  yield  to  rural  methods  of 
treatment.  Poverty,  irrehgion  and  social  dis- 
content are  bred  in  the  laissez  faire  atmosphere 
which  has  been  carried  over  from  country  village 
into  the  complex  growing  city  where  economic 
well-being  and  respectabiUty  on  the  one  hand  and 
misery  and  crime  on  the  other,  each  seeks  its  own 
place  and  where  the  checks  and  restraints,  and  the 
individual  sense  of  the  obHgations  of  neighborliness 
of  the  country  village  may  not  be  found.  The 
necessity  of  organized  social  effort  to  meet  pecuUar 
city  conditions  is  now  being  recognized.  Success  in 
City  Missions  is  dependent  upon  the  desire  and 
ability  of  the  churches  of  a  given  communion  to 


associate  in  co-operative  undertakings  in  behalf  of 
the  rehgious  hfe  of  the  city. 

Denominational  City  Mission  organizations 
began  to  come  into  being  about  fifty  years  ago  in 
response  to  that  social  compunction  which  found 
expression  a  few  years  later  in  organized  charity 
and  social  settlements  and  still  later  in  the  social 
service  of  the  municipahty  itself.  The  entrance  of 
other  agencies  into  the  field  has  modified  from  time 
to  time  the  distinctive  task  of  the  denominational 
City  Mission  organization. 

The  evolution  of  City  Missions  during  the  past 
generation  has  been  essentially  as  follows:  in 
palUative  and  remedial  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  very 
poor  whose  physical  needs  are  now  met  to  an  increas- 
ing degree  by  the  municipahty  or  by  special  chari- 
table organizations:  in  redemptive  effort  to  reach 
the  "fallen,"  the  "down  and  out,"  the  "Flotsam  and 
Jetsam"  of  society  especially  through  Rescue  Halls 
and  Homes  which  are  now  quite  largely  on  an  inter- 
denominational basis;  in  churching  new  communi- 
ties that  the  institutions  of  rehgion  may  be  kept 
up  to  the  requirements  of  rapidly  growing  com- 
munities, although  such  church  activity  occupies 
a  relatively  smaller  part  of  the  attention  of  the 
City  Mission  organizations  in  the  older  and  larger 
cities  than  formerly;  in  Americanizing  and  Chris- 
tianizing new-Americans  especially  through  the 
mother-tongue  of  a  particular  people,  largely  a 
development  of  recent  years;  in  checking  the 
rout  of  the  churches  from  communities  where  they 
are  most  needed  but  where  self-support  is  imprac- 
ticable and  local  leadei'ship  inadequate — a  work 
which  many  City  Mission  organizations  have  not 
yet  undertaken.  Several  denominations  are  spend- 
ing considerable  sums  in  organized  City  Mission 
work. 

These  are  the  tasks  of  denominational  City 
Mission  organizations,  undertaken  in  the  attempt 
to  objectify  the  principles  taught  by  Jesus  Christ 
and  to  reincarnate  his  spirit  in  intimate,  direct, 
social,  educational,  and  philanthropic  ministries. 
Through  interdenominational  City  Mission  Coun- 
cils or  Church  Federations  "the  twin  sins  of  over- 
lapping and  neglect"  in  City  Mission  work  are 
being  overcome  and  in  a  few  instances  two  or  more 
denominations  have  been  brought  into  definite 
co-operation.  When  Church  Federations  shall 
have  become  more  effective  certain  ministries 
performed  by  City  Missions  will  be  undertaken 
in  a  larger  fellowship.        Charles  Hatch  Sears 

giVA.    See  Shiva. 

CLAIRAUDIENCE,  CLAIRVOYANCE.— Terms 

connected  with  spirituahsm  (q.v.),  indicating 
power  to  hear  and  to  see  disembodied  spirits  of  the 
dead. 

CLARENDON,  ASSIZE  OF.— See  Assize  op 
Clarendon. 

CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF.— See 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon. 

CLARKE,  JAMES  FREEMAN  (1810-1888).— 
Influential  American  Unitarian  preacher  and 
scholar,  who  interpreted  religion  in  a  broad  cos- 
mopohtan  spirit  and  was  interested  in  applying 
Christianity  to  social  problems,  e.g.,  the  slavery 
problem.  His  best  known  work  is  Ten  Great 
Religions. 

CLARKE,  WILLIAM  NEWTON  (1841-1912).— 
American  Baptist  theologian;  an  influential  expo- 
nent of  liberal  orthodoxy,  giving  to  traditional 
doctrines  spiritual  interpretations  consistent  with 


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Clergy 


modern  knowledge.  His  literary  style  was  charm- 
ing and  his  writings  spiritually  inspiring.  His  most 
important  works  are  Outline  of  Christian  Theology, 
and  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  God. 

CLASSIS. — In  certain  Reformed  churches,  an 
ecclesiastical  court,  comprising  ministers  and  ruling 
elders,  corresponding  to  a  Presbyterian  presbytery 
and  having  a  status  between  a  consistory  and 
synod. 

CLASS-MEETING.— A  feature  of  Methodism 
whereby  a  congregation  is  divided  into  groups  or 
classes,  each  with  a  class-leader  who  has  the  over- 
sight of  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  members  of  his 
class.  The  meetings  of  the  class  are  designed  to 
promote  rehgious  development  and  to  give  oppor- 
tunity for  maintaining  discipUne. 

CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN.— See  Defilement 
AND  Purification. 

CLEANTHES.— Stoic  philosopher  of  the  3rd. 
century  b.c;  successor  to  Zeno  as  leader  of  the 
school.  A  magnificent  hymn  to  Zeus  reveals  his 
religious  power.     See  Stoicism. 

CLEMENT.— The  name  of  14  popes  and  2  anti- 
F>opes. 

Clement  //.- Pope,  1046-1047. 

Clement  I II. —Fope,  1187-1191. 

Clement  I  v.— Pope,  1265-1268. 

Clement  V. — Pope,  1305-1314,  removed  the 
papal  seat  to  Avignon,  1309. 

Clement  VI. — ^Pope,  1342-1352,strove  for  unity 
with  the  Armenian  church;  proclaimed  a  crusade 
in  1343. 

Clement  VII. — Antipope,  d.  1394.  His  elec- 
tion in  1378  in  opposition  to  Urban  VI.  began 
the  great  schism  in  the  west. 

Clement  F//.— Pope,  1523-1534,  had  been 
practically  papal  administrator  under  Leo  X.,  but 
was  himself  a  weak,  narrow  pope.  He  made  no 
strong  effort  to  deal  with  the  Reformation,  and 
during  his  reign  the  schism  between  the  English 
and  Roman  churches  occurred. 

Clement  F///.— Antipope,  1425-1429. 

Clement  VIII.— Pope,  1592-1605,  obtained  the 
readmission  of  Jesuits  who  had  been  expelled  from 
France.  During  his  pontificate  the  revised  edition 
of  the  Vulgate  was  completed  and  Catholic  litera- 
ture expanded.  Giordano  Bruno's  execution  was 
in  his  reign. 

Clement  IX.— Pope,  1667-1669. 

Clement  Z.— Pope,  1670-1676. 

Clement  XI. — Pope,  1700-1721,  a  scholar,  and 
man  of  letters;  promulgated  the  Bull,  Unigenitus 
in  1713  against  Jansenism. 

Clement  XII. — Pope,  1730-1740,  sought  reunion 
with  the  Greek  church;  encouraged  art  and  litera- 
ture. 

Clement  XIII.— Pope,  1758-1769. 

demerit  A7F.— Pope,  1769-1774,  sigticd  the 
brief  in  1773  by  which  the  Jesuit  order  was  dis- 
solved. 

CLEMENT  OF  ALEXANDRIA  (ca.  a.d.  150- 
215). — Pupil  of  Pantaenus  and  teacher  of  Origen, 
leading  Christian  scholar  and  writer,  head  of  the 
catechetical  school  at  Alexandria.  A  convert 
from  paganism,  Clement  was  widely  read  in  Greek 
as  well  as  Christian  and  Jewish  literature,  and 
exhibited  remarkable  hospitahty  to  truth  wherever 
he  found  it.  He  sought  to  relate  Christianity  to 
the  best  elements  in  philosophy  and  in  this  way 
did  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  Christian  theology. 
His  principal  works  were  The  Hortatory   Address 


to  the  Greeks,  The  Tutor,  The  Miscellanies,  Who 
is  the  Rich  Man  that  can  be  Saved?  and  the  (now- 
lost)  Outlines.  He  left  Alexandria  in  a.d.  203  and 
died  between  a.d.  211  and  216. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 
CLEMENT  OF  ROME  (ca.  a.d.  40-97).— The 
third  head  of  the  Roman  church,  author  of  Epistle 
of  the  Church  at  Rome  to  the  Church  at  Corinth, 
written  about  a.d.  95  to  restore  order  in  the  Corin- 
thian church,  in  which  opposition  to  the  authority 
of  the  church  officers  had  developed. 

CLEMENTINE   LITERATURE.— Writings 

ascribed  to  Clement  of  Rome,  purporting  to  repre- 
sent Petrine  teaching  as  Clement  was  said  to  be  a 
disciple  of  Peter.  The  hterature  includes  the  so- 
called  Second  Epistle  of  Clement,  two  Epistles  on 
Virginity,  the  Epistle  to  James,  the  Homilies  and 
Recognitions,  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

CLERGY. — A  group  within  the  Christian 
Church  particularly  appointed  and  usually  ordained 
to  conduct  public  worship,  administer  the  sacra- 
ments, and  carry  on  in  general  the  work  of  the 
church.    See  Order,  Holy. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  early  Christian  Churches 
had  no  clergy  and  laity,  but  all  Christians  possessed 
equal  privilege  in  the  presence  of  approach  to  God, 
although  differing  according  to  the  divinely  dis- 
tributed gifts.     See  Charismata. 

On  the  basis  of  these  gifts  were  officials  whose 
business  was  the  spiritual  development  and  educa- 
tion of  others  in  the  local  groups  of  Christians. 
These  came  to  be  known  as  Bishops  or  Presbyters, 
and  Deacons,  as  well  as  Apostles,  Teachers,  and 
Evangehsts.  By  the  2nd.  century,  the  influence 
of  the  Old  Testament  priesthood  and  the  universal 
priesthood  in  the  Graeco-Roman  world  resulted 
in  the  separation  of  those  performing  specific 
duties  in  the  church  from  the  rest  of  the  church 
members,  and  they  began  to  assume  character- 
istic dress,  insignia,  and  the  powers  of  priests.  As 
the  CathoUc  churches,  both  Greek  and  especially 
the  Roman,  developed,  the  distinction  between  the 
clergy  and  others,  that  is,  the  laity  increased.  The 
clergy  came  to  be  regarded  as  constituting  an  order, 
entrance  to  which  was  conditioned  upon  the  divine 
election  through  the  church  and  the  possession  of 
grace  transmitted  through  the  succession  of 
Bishops  from  the  Apostles.  Privileges  were  ac- 
corded them  by  the  Roman  Emperor  and  through 
the  Middle  Ages  they  constituted  an  estate  distinct 
from  that  of  the  nobiUty  on  the  one  side  and  the 
town's  people  on  the  other.  They  were  exempt 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  laity  and  were  possessed 
of  various  other  privileges.  They  were  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  higher  clergy,  including  all 
Bishops  and  Priests;  and  the  lower  clergy,  includ- 
ing acolytes,  exorcists  and  other  minor  officials. 
In  the  Roman  Cathohc  Church,  the  clergy  is  still 
further  divided  into  the  regular  clergy  or  monks 
who  are  in  holy  orders,  and  the  secular  clergy,  which 
includes  the  priests  who  have  parishes  and  are  not 
in  any  monastic  order. 

In  the  Protestant  churches,  the  position  of  the 
clergy  with  relation  to  other  church  members 
varies  somewhat.  In  the  Anglican  Church,  the 
holy  orders  are  preserved  and  the  clergy  are  regarded 
as  priests.  In  the  Lutheran,  Reformed,  Metho- 
dist, Baptist  and  other  dissenting  religious  bodies, 
there  is  no  recognition  of  orders  beyond  the  official 
act  of  appointing  a  man  (or  woman  in  certain 
denominations),  to  serve  as  minister  and  pastor. 
Generally  such  persons  are  formally  inducted  into 
office  after  examination.  Like  ministers  in  holy 
orders  they  are  regarded  in  law  as  possessing  certain 
legal  rights,  as,  for  example,  of  celebrating  marriage, 


Clericalism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


104 


but  in  the  eyes  of  the  churches  are  simply  laymen 
set  apart  for  the  performance  of  certain  duties  in 
the  furtherance  of  the  church  life. 

Shailer  Mathews 

CLERICALISM.— The  pohcy  of  controUing 
and  administering  the  essential  functions  of  social 
and  pohtical  life  by  the  clergy  as  officials  of  the 
divinely  authorized  church. 

Clericahsm  is  an  extreme  form  of  ecclesiasticism, 
distrusting  and  discrediting  all  secular  forms  of 
social  organization.  Starting  from  the  belief 
that  the  church  is  the  supreme  authority  ordained 
by  God,  clericalism  is  inclined  to  sacrifice  all  other 
considerations  to  that  of  ecclesiastical  supremacy. 
Since  modern  social  and  political  life  has  developed 
so  largely  on  the  basis  of  religious  freedom,  clerical- 
ism has  been  regarded  as  an  obstructive  force,  and 
the  name  has  received  a  sinister  meaning.  If, 
however,  the  premises  of  ecclesiasticism  be  admitted, 
clericahsm  is  only  an  especially  consistent  way  of 
securing  the  supremacy  of  the  church. 

CLERKS  REGULAR.— The  name  given  by  the 
R.C.  church  to  clerics  who  are  engaged  in  the  regular 
clerical  duties  and  at  the  same  time  conform  to  the 
rule  of  a  community. 

CLOISTER. — Originally,  the  enclosing  wall  of 
a  rehgious  house;  then,  the  monastery  within  the 
enclosure;  latterly,  the  quadrilateral  area  within 
a  rehgious  house  about  which  the  buildings  are 
grouped,  and  which  is  customarily  provided  with  a 
covered  ambulatory  connecting  the  various  buildings. 

CLOVIS  (ca.  466-511).— King  of  the  Franks, 
who  married  Clotilda,  a  Burgundian  Christian 
princess.  By  her  influence  Clovis  was  baptized  as 
a  Christian,  Christmas  496,  and  with  him  3000 
Franks.  He  became  the  protector  of  the  church, 
and  in  511  convoked  the  council  of  Orleans. 

CLUNY,  CONGREGATION  OF.— A  R.C.  order 
presided  over  by  the  abbot  of  the  monastery  at 
Cluny.  The  Cluny  Monastery  was  founded  in  910 
by  William  I.  the  Pious.  From  910  to  1157  Cluny 
was  ruled  by  a  succession  of  strong  men,  and  was 
the  mainspring  of  religious  vitality  in  Europe. 
Several  Benedictine  houses  adopted  the  manner  of 
life,  hence  the  name  Cluniac  Benedictines.  But 
the  order  is  in  every  respect  independent.  The  rise 
of  the  Cistercians  and  mendicant  orders  effected  the 
decadence  of  the  Cluny  order,  which  had  become 
wealthy  and  had  lost  its  religious  zeal.  It  was  dis- 
solved in  1790. 

COCCEITJS,  JOHANNES.— Theologian,  born, 
Bremen,  August  9,  1603,  died,  Leyden,  1669.  In 
1650,  after  a  distinguished  career  he  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  at  Leyden.  He  published  works 
on  the  Hebrew  language  and,  more  important,  a 
treatise  upon  theology  in  which  he  set  forth  the 
so-called  Covenant  or  Federal  Theology  (q.v.). 

CODEX — A  manuscript  in  book  form  of  large 
round  characters  (uncial);  used  particularly  in 
New  Testament  manuscripts. 

CODEX  ALEXANDRINUS.— A  5th.  century 
Greek  parchment  manuscript,  so  called  from  having 
once  belonged  to  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria. 
It  contains  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  and  the 
Epistles  of  Clements   in   a  text  of  moderate  worth. 

CODEX  AMIATINUS.— See  Amiatintjs,  Codex. 

CODEX  BEZAE. — A  6th.  century  parchment 
manuscript    so    called    from    having    belonged    to 


Theodore  De  Beze  (Beza)  from  1562-81.  It  con- 
tains the  gospels  (Matt.,  John,  Luke,  Mark),  the 
end  of  III  John  (Latin  only),  and  most  of  Acts 
in  Greek  and  Latin.  Its  text  is  the  erratic  type 
known  as  Western.  It  is  now  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge. 

CODEX  EPHRAEMI  RESCRIPTUS.— A  5th. 
century  parchment  manuscript  in  uncial  letters, 
originally  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
in  Greek,  but  becoming  dilapidated  and  probably 
faded  by  the  12th.  century.  Many  leaves  of  the 
parchment  were  lost  and  the  rest  reinscribed  with  a 
Greek  version  of  treatises  of  Ephraem  the  Syrian, 
so  that  the  manuscript  now  contains  various  scat- 
tered portions  of  its  original  contents,  mostly  of 
the  New  Testament,  in  a  text  curiously  mixed. 

CODEX  SINAITICUS.— A  4th.  century  parch- 
ment manuscript  of  great  textual  excellence  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  in  Greek,  found  by 
Tischendorf  at  St.  Catherine's  Convent,  Mt. 
Sinai,  in  1859,  and  including  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, now  somewhat  fragmentary,  certain  apoc- 
ryphal writings;  and  with  the  New  Testament, 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  part  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Hernias. 

CODEX  VATICANUS.— A  4th.  century  parch- 
ment manuscript  (so  called  from  having  belonged 
since  the  end  of  the  15th.  century  to  the  Vatican 
Library),  containing  except  for  a  few  gaps,  espe- 
cially at  the  beginning  and  end,  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  in  Greek,  in  a  text  of  remarkable 
excellence. 

COLERIDGE,  SAMUEL  TAYLOR  (1772-1834). 
— English  poet  and  philosopher,  who  exercised  a 
wide  influence  on  religious  thinking  early  in  the 
19th.  century.  Under  the  stimulus  of  German 
idealistic  philosophy  he  expounded  rehgion  on  the 
basis  of  moral  and  rational  principles  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  appeal  to  external  authority, 
and  thus  aided  in  the  vitalizing  and  liberalizing  of 
Christian  ideals. 

COLIGNY,  GASPARD  DE  (1519-1572).— 
French  admiral  and  Huguenot  leader;  strove  to 
obtain  religious  hberty;  was  killed  in  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew's  day  (q.v.). 

COLLECT.— (1)  A  brief  prayer,  frequently 
only  one  sentence,  supphcating  for  some  one 
specific  blessing.  (2)  In  the  Roman  or  AngHcan 
liturgies,  the  prayer  which  comes  before  the  reading 
of  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  for  the  day,  so  designated 
because  it  epitomizes  or  collects  their  teaching. 

COLLECTIVISM.— See  Socialism. 

COLLEGE,  APOSTOLIC— Coite^ium  in  Roman 
law  meant  a  group  of  persons  co-operating  in  a 
common  task.  Hence  the  application  to  the 
apostles  of  Jesus,  conceived  as  an  authoritative 
body. 

COLLEGE    OF    CARDINALS. -In    the    R.C. 

church  the  council  or  senate  which  is  composed  of 
six  cardinal  bishops,  fifty  cardinal  priests  and 
fourteen  cardinal  deacons.  The  cardinals  elect  the 
pope,  continue  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
during  an  interregnum,  and  act  as  the  papal  advisory 
body.     Also  called  the  Sacred  College. 

COLLOQUY  OR  COLLOQIUM.— (1)  An  in- 
formal conference  for  the  discussion  of  theological 
matters,    where    there    are    points    of    differencQ. 


105 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Comte,  August 


(2)  A  term  formerly  used  for  classis  or  presbytery 
in  the  Reformed  Genevan  church. 

COLUMBA,  SAINT  (521-597).— Irish  monk. 
From  563  he  was  a  missionary  to  the  Scots  and 
Picts,  and  Abbot  of  lona. 

COLUMBAN,  SAINT  (543-615).— Irish  monk, 
who  preached  in  France,  Switzerland  and  Italy.  He 
was  a  classical  scholar  and  writer. 

COMFORT.— That  which  conduces  toward  a 
condition  of  freedom  from  physical  or  psychical 
pain  or  toward  the  satisfaction  of  a  felt  need. 
ReHgion  is  variously  conceived  as  a  source  of  com- 
fort through  fellowship  with  God. 

COMMANDMENTS.— (1)  In  the  Hebrew 
rehgion,  see  Decalogue.  (2)  Of  the  Roman 
church,  six  commandments,  including  observance 
of  mass  and  church  festivals,  of  the  fasts,  of  auricular 
confession,  of  communion  at  least  once  a  year, 
preferably  at  Easter,  support  of  pastors  and  observ- 
ance of  church  regulations  in  marriage.  (3)  In  the 
Greek  church,  nine  precepts  are  demanded  of  the 
faithful. 

COMMENIUS. — See  Bohemian  Brethren. 

COMMISSIONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL.— In  the 
R.C.  church  ecclesiastical  bodies,  estabUshed  by 
canon  law  for  the  exercise  of  specific  offices  com- 
mitted to  them,  either  ecclesiastical  or  theological. 

COMMUNICATIO  IDIOMATUM.— "Com- 
munication of  the  attributes";  in  Lutheran  theology 
the  statement  of  the  Christological  doctrine  which 
declares  that  the  properties  of  either  nature  may 
be  transmitted  to  the  other  in  the  divine-human 
Christ.  The  doctrine  was  employed  to  support  the 
theory  of  the  omnipresence  of  Christ's  human  nature 
in  connection  with  the  eucharist. 

COMMUNION.— (1)  An  interchange  of  reli- 
gious thought  and  emotion.  (2)  The  ordinance  of 
the  Lord's  supper  or  the  celebration  of  it.  (3)  A 
group  or  sect  of  Christians,  holding  to  a  common 
doctrinal  or  ecclesiastical  standard,  as  the  AngUcan 
communion.  (4)  In  the  R.C.  church,  an  antiphon 
recited  by  the  priest  after  the  ablutions  following 
the  celebration  of  mass. 

COMMUNION,  HOLY.— See  Lord's  Supper. 

COMMUNION    OF    SAINTS.— One    of    the 

affirmations  of  faith  expressed  in  the  Apostles' 
Creed.  In  Catholicism  it  is  interpreted  to  mean  a 
spiritual  fellowship  including,  not  only  believers 
on  earth,  but  also  the  souls  in  purgatory  and  the 
saints  in  heaven.  Real  reciprocity  is  possible 
between  individuals  in  this  all-inclusive  sphere. 
Living  persons  may  benefit  those  who  have  departed, 
and  may  invoke  aid  from  the  saints.  In  Protestant- 
ism the  conception  is  usually  so  explained  as  to 
exclude  definite  deeds  or  rites  directed  toward  the 
departed. 

COMMUNION     WITH     THE     DEAD.— See 

Necromancy. 

COMMUNION  WITH  THE  DEITY.— See 
Mysticism;  Prayer;  Sacrifice. 

COMMUNISM. — A  theory  of  social  and  eco- 
nomic organization  which  substitutes  for  the  right 
of  private  property  ownership  by  the  community 
and  distributes  products  of  labor  equally  among 


individuals.  Communism  thus  differs  from  Marxian 
sociahsm  which  holds  to  collective  ownership  of 
capital. 

'  Communistic  experiments  have  always  been 
more  or  less  in  evidence  since  primitive  civiUzation 
and  communistic  programs  have  been  elaborated 
by  many  writers  since  Plato.  Most  notable  among 
such  writers  in  modern  times  have  been  Babeuf 
during  the  French  Revolution,  Robert  Owen, 
Lenine.  Various  attempts  at  communism  have 
been  made  by  mendicant  orders,  reUgious  bodies 
hke  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  (13th.  century), 
Adamites  in  Bohemia  (15th.  century),  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Munster,  Moravians,  Shakers. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  primitive  Jerusalem 
church  practiced  communism,  but  such  a  descrip- 
tion is  misleading.  The  society  was  not  economic 
and  their  "having  things  in  common"  was  rather 
a  form  of  excessive  voluntary  charity  doubtless 
due  to  their  expectation  of  the  immediate  return 
of  Christ.  Shailer  Mathews 

COMPACTATA. — An  agreement  consummated 
at  the  Council  of  Basel,  Nov.  1536,  by  which  recalci- 
trant Bohemians  were  accorded  the  right  to  adminis- 
ter the  Communion  in  both  kinds,  assured  of  a 
paore  strict  exercise  of  discipline  over  the  clergy 
especially  in  respect  to  temporalities,  and  guaranteed 
a  more  generous  provision  of  preaching  by  compe- 
tent priests. 

COMPARATIVE  RELIGION.— A  method  of 
studying  reUgions  which  consists  of  gathering  from 
world-wide  sources  apparently  similar  forms, 
beliefs  and  customs  and  presenting  them  under 
certain  static  groupings  or  rubrics  arranged  in  a 
supposed  order  of  development.  Its  chief  service 
to  the  religious  sciences  was  to  show  the  necessity 
of  a  better  method.  All  broad  generalizations 
were  abandoned  when  students  came  to  realize 
that  every  religion  and  every  religious  form  and 
belief  must  be  studied  in  its  own  peculiar  cultural 
and  genetic  setting.    See  Science  of  Religion. 

COMPLACENC  Y.— Self-satisfaction.  In 
theology,  satisfaction  with  or  approval  of  a  person 
or  object  on  account  of  its  inherent  virtue.  Love 
of  complacency,  e.g.,  that  of  God  for  Christ  has  been 
contrasted  with  love  of  compassion,  e.g.,  that  of 
God  for  sinners. 

COMPLIN.— The  last  R.C.  canonical  hour, 
so-called  since  the  6th.  century.  As  Prime  was 
the  monks'  morning  prayer.  Complin  was  their 
night  prayer.  It  consists  of  the  General  Confession, 
Absolution,  three  psalms,  the  hymn  "Te  lucis 
ante  terminum,"  the  canticle  "Nunc  demittis," 
and  oration.  It  is  sometimes  sung  as  the  evening 
service  in  Church  instead  of  Vespers. 

COMPROMISE.— (1)  An  adjustment  of  a  dis- 
agreement by  means  of  mutual  concessions  on  the 
part  of  the  parties  concerned.  When  such  an 
adjustment  involves  the  rehnquishment  of  prin- 
ciples, it  may  become  unethical.  Hence  (2)  popu- 
larly, action  which  throws  suspicion  on  one's 
ethical  motives.  (3)  In  ecclesiastical  law,  the 
transfer  of  a  legal  right,  as  the  right  of  nomination 
to  a  benefice;  or  the  commitment  of  the  right  of  elec- 
tion by  the  college  of  cardinals  to  a  sub-committee. 

COMTE,  AUGUST  (1798-1857).— French  phi- 
losopher, the  founder  of  Positivism  (q.v.).  His 
chief  works  were  the  Positive  Philosophy,  the 
Positive  Polity,  the  Posilivist  Catechism,  and  the 
Subjective  Synthesis.  The  religious  expression  of 
his  system  is  the  Religion  of  Humanity  in  which 


Conception 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


106 


collective  humanity  is  worshiped  as  the  "Great 
Being,"  and  an  elaborate  ritual  is  enjoined  embody- 
ing various  successive  consecrations  of  the  inoi- 
vidual  to  service  for  humanity. 

CONCEPTION,    THE    IMMACULATE.— See 

Immaculate  Conception. 

CONCEPTUALISM.— A  logical  theory  ex- 
pounded by  Abelard  (q.v.)  as  a  mediating  position 
between  nominahsm  and  realism,  which  stated 
that  concepts  or  general  ideas  have  an  existence  in 
the  mind  though  there  is  no  correlative  existence  in 
reaUty,  and  that  these  concepts  are  the  instru- 
ments of  knowledge. 

CONCLAVE.— (1)  A  meeting  of  a  group  of 
persons  in  secrecy  or  privacy.  (2)  The  sacred 
college  of  cardinals,  especially  when  assembled  for 
the  election  of  a  pope.  (3)  Also  the  apartment  in 
which  the  cardinals  convene  which  is  kept  locked 
until  the  election  is  complete,  a  custom  dating 
from  1274. 

CONCORD,  BOOK  OF.— The  collective  docu- 
ments of  the  Lutheran  confession,  comprising  the 
Apostles',  Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds,  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  the  Apology  of  the  same,  the 
Schmalkald  Articles,  the  Large  and  Small  Cate- 
chisms of  Luther  and  the  Formula  of  Concord. 

CONCORD,  FORMULA  OF.— The  most  com- 
plete of  the  Lutheran  confessions,  promulgated  in 
1580  with  a  view  to  uniting  the  various  parties 
within  Lutheranism  who  had  become  embittered  by 
doctrinal  dissension.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
Epitome  and  the  Solid  Declaration,  each  of  twelve 
sections,  the  first  making  a  statement  of,  and  the 
second  giving  the  argument  for,  Lutheran  doctrines. 
See  Confession  of  Faith. 

CONCORDANCE.— An  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment of  the  words  used  in  any  work,  especially  the 
Bible,  showing  all  the  passages  in  which  each  occurs. 
This  was  first  done  for  the  Latin  Vulgate  in  a.d.  1244. 
There  are  excellent  concordances  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  Hebrew  (Davidson,  Bagster,  Mandelkern) 
and  in  Greek  (Hatch-Redpath)  and  of  the  New 
Testament  in  Greek  (Moulton-Geden).  _  The  his- 
toric concordance  of  the  EngUsh  Bible  is  that  of 
Alexander  Cruden  (first  ed.,  1738)  but  Young's 
Analytical  Concordance  (1879-84)  and  Strong's 
Exhaustive  Concordance  (1894)  are  more  modern 
EngUsh  works.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

CONCORDAT. — A  formal  agreement  or  treaty 
between  some  sovereign  and  the  Pope  of  Rome 
intended  to  formulate  a  decision  as  to  the  disputed 
rights  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  sover- 
eign's country. 

The  oldest  of  such  agreements  is  the  Concordat  of 
Worms  (September  23,  1122)  drawn  between  Henry 
V.  and  Pope  Calixtus,  by  which  there  was  ended  the 
so-called  War  of  Investiture. 

Perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  such  Concordats 
is  that  drawn  by  Napoleon  I.  and  Pius  VII.  (1801). 
The  chief  provisions  of  the  seventeen  articles  of 
this  agreement  were  those  making  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  amenable  to  civil  regulations,  the 
relinquishing  the  Church's  claims  to  property  sold 
during  the  Revolution,  assuring  it  support  from 
the  State,  and  reducing  the  number  of  bishops. 
This  Concordat  remained  in  force  until  its  repeal 
by  the  French  Republic  in  1905. 

Concordats  have  been  made  by  practically  all 
European  nations.  The  most  important  were 
those  with  Bavaria  (1817),  Prussia  (1821),  other 


German  states  (1824-39),  Austria  (1855,  repealed 
1870),  Spain  (1523,  1640,  1737,  1753,  1851,  1860, 
1904).  Shailer  Mathews 

CONCUBINAGE.— Cohabitation,  legally  sanc- 
tioned or  not,  of  a  man  and  woman  not  vaUdly 
married  (see  Ne  Tbmere).  Such  cohabitation  was 
countenanced  in  the  O.T.  as  well  as  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  even  among  Christians 
till  the  Middle  Ages,  though  clandestine  marriage 
was  condemned  as  early  as  the  time  of  Ignatius 
Martyr.  From  the  time  the  Catholic  Church 
began  to  impose  celibacy  on  the  clergy,  any  cleric's 
cohabitation  with  a  woman  was  considered  con- 
cubinage. 

CONCUPISCENCE.— Inordinate  sexual  pas- 
sion, which  Augustine  and  various  R.C.  theologians 
considered  evidence  of  the  depravity  of  human 
nature.  Aquinas  and  other  scholastic  writers 
employed  the  term  to  connote  sensuous  desire  in 
the  broader  sense. 

CONCURSUS.— (1)  The  doctrine  of  Augustine 
and  Calvin  that  man,  previous  to  his  fall,  was  pre- 
served in  spiritual  perfection  by  the  aid  of  God. 
(2)  The  theory  of  the  co-operation  of  God  or  the 
First  Cause  with  second  causes  in  the  processes  of 
nature  and  history. 

CONDIGNITY.— A  scholastic  term  indicating 
that  with  supernatural  aid  man  may  Uve  in  such  a 
way  as  to  merit  eternal  life.  Used,  in  contrast  to 
congruity  (q.v.)  which  denotes  a  natural  capacity 
for  meritorious  Uving. 

CONDITIONAL  IMMORTALITY.— The  view 
that  immortality  is  not  possessed  by  all  by  virtue 
of  their  humanity,  but  that  it  is  possible  only  for 
those  who  have  acquired  certain  spiritual  powers 
and  characteristics  due  to  divine  salvation.  See 
Future  Life,  Conceptions  of. 

CONDUCT.— Activity  or  behavior  judged  by 
moral  or  social  standards,  and  thus  rendering  a 
person  liable  to  approval  or  disapproval.  See 
Ethics. 

CONFERENCE.— In  Protestant  churches,  an 
assembly  of  ministers  or  laymen  or  both  for  dis- 
cussion or  deliberation  concerning  matters  of  church 
business  or  theology.  In  the  R.C.  church  the  name 
applies  to  a  conference  of  priests.  In  Methodist 
polity  it  designates  the  official  assemblies  of  the 
church,  e.g.,  the  General  Conference. 

CONFESSION.— The  acknowledgment,  either 
publicly  or  privately  to  a  person  entitled  to  hear,  of 
sinful  or  criminal  action. 

In  the  Hebrew  religion  an  annual  confession  was 
required  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  by  the  chief 
priest,  whereat  individuals  were  also  enjoined  to 
confess.  In  the  New  Testament  confession  is 
enjoined,  although  only  occasionally  mentioned. 
With  the  development  of  church  discipline,  con- 
fession became  recognized  as  a  means  of  securing 
remission  of  post-baptismal  sins,  and  the  church  pre- 
scribed penance  (q.v.)  whereby  the  penitents  could 
accompUsh  reconciliation.  Today  the  R.C.  church 
demands  the  confession  of  "mortal"  sins.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  confess  "venial"  sins  although  reli- 
gious devotion  may  lead  the  penitent  voluntarily  to 
do  so.  The  canonical  age  for  beginning  confession  is 
seven.  In  the  Eastern  church  confession  is  obliga- 
tory. The  Lutheran  and  Anglican  churches  teach 
that  public  confession  and  absolution  suffices, 
although    auricular    confession    is    still   practised 


107 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Confession  of  Faith 


among   certain   adherents   of   the   High   Anglican 
Church.     See  Confessional. 

CONFESSION  OF  FAITH.— A  formal  and 
systematic  organization  of  the  religious  beUefs  of 
a  Christian  group  for  defining  its  purpose  and  de- 
termining its  membership. 

The  term  is  also  used  for  the  simple  avowal  of 
faith  in  God  or  Christ,  and  in  this  sense  is  antecedent 
to  the  organization  of  what  may  properly  be  called 
a  creed.  In  a  more  particular  sense  martyrs  were 
said  to  be  confessors  in  that  they  testified  pubUcly 
to  their  faith  in  Jesus  through  their  death. 

Technically  speaking  confessions  of  faith  differ 
from  the  creeds  in  that  they  belong  to  particular 
groups  rather  than  to  Christians  generally,  include 
more  than  is  regarded  as  indispensable  for  salvation, 
and  are  not  used  in  pubUc  worship.  In  most  cases 
they  have  been  the  result  of  controversy  born  of 
the  separation  of  some  more  or  less  dissatisfied 
group  from  a  parent  body,  and  are  intended  to  make 
plain  the  position  of  the  newly  formed  group  in 
distinction  from  that  of  the  body  from  which  it 
separated. 

Generally  speaking,  however,  confessions  as 
distinct  from  the  creeds  are  the  result  of  the  Refor- 
mation and  the  consequent  organization  of  State 
Churches  and  subsequent  independent  groups. 
They  have  been  made  a  basis  for  church  discipline, 
and  naturally  were  carried  into  very  considerable 
detail.  Various  divisions  both  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  have  also  issued  confessions. 

I.  The  Greek  Church. — While  the  Greek 
Church  has  never  drawn  up  a  creed  beyond  those 
of  the  Ecumenical  Councils,  under  various  cir- 
cumstances different  sections  of  the  church  have 
set  forth  in  some  detail  their  teaching.  The  first 
of  these  is  that  drawn  up  in  1453  by  Gennadius  at 
the  request  of  Sultan  Mohammed  II.  It  contains 
twenty  articles  and  seven  arguments  for  the  truth 
of  Christianity.  After  the  Reformation  period 
Greek  confessions  were  made,  some  of  them  hke 
that  of  Cyril  Lucar  (1629)  in  favor  of  the  Calvinist 
position,  while  others  like  that  of  Peter  Mogilas 
(1640-43)  are  opposed  to  Protestantism.  The 
latter  work  together  with  the  Answers  of  Jeremiah 
(1576)  and  the  Confession  of  Dositheus  (1672) 
constitute  the  authoritative  standards  for  the 
orthodox  doctrine,  although  the  Full  Catechism  of 
Philaret  _  has  replaced  the  confession  of  Peter 
Mogilas  in  Russia. 

Other  eastern  churches  have  issued  a  number 
of  confessions  approving  or  rejecting  various  doc- 
trinal developments  in  the  Greek  or  Roman  churches. 

II.  The  Roman  Church. — The  Roman  Cathohc 
Church  issued  in  1564  a  Profession  of  the  Tridentine 
Faith  which  was  made  authoritative  through  all  the 
church.  It  consists  of  twelve  articles  which  explain 
the  creeds,  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  various  other  teachings  of  the  Roman  Church. 
The  Roman  Catechism  (1566)  is  less  a  confession 
than  a  syllabus  intended  to  assist  the  clergy  in  their 
teaching.  Other  summaries  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
doctrine  appeared  during  the  16th.  and  17th. 
centuries. 

The  most  important  modern  formulations  by 
the  Roman  Cathohc  Church  are  doubtless  the 
Syllabus  of  Errors  issued  by  Pius  IX.  in  1864,  which 
gave  in  compact  form  the  various  modern  opinions 
which  had  been  condemned  by  the  Pope;  the 
Decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council  issued  in  1870  which 
set  forth  the  fundamental  position  of  the  church 
regarding  the  Catholic  faith;  and  the  Papal  Syllabus 
of  Pius  X.  in  1907  which  set  forth  the  position  of 
the  church  relative  to  modernism. 

III.  The  Various  Bodies  of  Protestants, 
while  almost  without  exception  accepting  the  gen- 


eral position  of  the  ecumenical  creeds,  have  pub- 
lished frequently  in  very  considerable  detail  their 
theological  positions. 

1.  Early  dissenting  confessions. — The  oldest  of 
the  important  confessions  is  doubtless  that  of 
the  Waldenses  (the  14th.  century  and  possibly 
ear  her),  as  well  as  a  number  of  other  confessions 
issued  subsequently  by  the  same  group,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  that  of  the  Waldensian  Con- 
fession in  1655,  reaffirmed  in  1855.  In  1431 
appeared  the  Confessio  Taboritarum  which  set 
forth  the  extreme  position  of  the  Hussites.  This 
in  turn  was  followed  by  thirty-four  Bohemian  con- 
fessions of  faith,  perhaps  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  so-caUed  First  Bohemian  Confession 
presented  to  George,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg  in 
1532  (resived  in  1535),  and  the  Second  Bohemian 
Confession  (1575)  in  which  both  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists  agreed.  It  was  addressed  to  Maxi- 
milian II. 

2.  Lutheran  confessions. — Among  the  Lutherans 
there  have  been  a  series  of  confessional  pubUcations. 
In  1529  appeared  the  fifteen  articles  of  the  Marburg 
Conference  drawn  up  by  Luther  and  intended  to 
define  the  position  of  the  German  reformers  as 
over  against  that  of  Zwingh.  The  Marburg  Articles 
were  later  enlarged  and  presented  to  the  Lutheran 
princes  _  as  the  Seventeen  Articles  of  Schwabach. 
These  in  turn  were  followed  by  the  Articles  of 
T organ  (1530),  also  put  out  by  Luther  and  Melanch- 
thon.  In  1530  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  Melanchthon 
in  the  name  of  the  reformers  drew  up,  and  the 
Saxon  elector  and  other  German  princes  presented 
to  Charles  V.  the  great  confession  which  was  to 
become  the  basis  of  Lutheranism.  This  Augsburg 
Confession  is  in  two  parts.  In  the  first  the  chief 
doctrinal  positions  of  the  Lutherans  are  stated  in 
twenty-one  articles,  and  in  the  second  part  is  the 
condemnation  in  seven  articles  of  abuses  in  the 
Roman  Church.  This  confession  was  subsequently 
modified  by  Melanchthon  in  1540,  the  edition  being 
known  as  the  Variata,  in  which  there  is  a  movement 
towards  formulas  regarding  the  Lord's  Supper  which 
would  not  be  too  hostile  to  the  Calvinists. 

During  the  pohtical  and  ecclesiastical  struggles 
of  the  16th.  and  17th.  centuries  the  Lutheran 
churches  produced  a  number  of  doctrinal  statements, 
of  which  the  most  important  probably  is  the  Formula 
of  Concord  (q.v.),  which  appeared  in  1577  as  the 
successor  of  several  other  attempts  at  unity.  This 
Formula  of  Concord  became  authoritative  in  most 
of  the  German  states,  but  as  the  theological  con- 
troversy did  not  cease  it  was  followed  by  the  Nassau 
Confession  (1578)  which  was  crypto-Calvinist 
(q.v.).  This  was  opposed  by  the  Saxon  Visitation 
Articles  (1586).  Lutheran  confessions  have  also 
been  drawn  up  by  the  churches  of  Denmark, 
Poland,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary.  American  Luther- 
ans accept  the  Augsburg  Confession,  generally 
preferring  the  unchanged  form. 

3.  Refor7ned  Confessions. — The  earhest  reformed 
confession  was  the  Sixty-seven  Articles  of  Zurich 
issued  by  ZwingU  in  1523.  These  correspond 
in  a  way  to  the  theses  of  Luther,  but  served  more 
directly  as  a  basis  for  subsequent  confessional 
formulas.  In  1532  a  Synod  at  Berne  issued  a 
voluminous  statement,  which  was  intended  to 
give  direction  and  content  to  preaching  of  the 
pastors.  In  1530  Zwingh  issued  a  confession  of 
faith  to  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  in  1531  his  Brief 
and  Clear  Exposition  of  Christian  Faith  to  Francis  I. 
of  France. 

Other  early  reformed  confessions  were  those  of 
East  Friesland  (1528)  and  the  Four  Cities  (Tetra- 
politana)  drawn  up  for  presentation  to  Charles  V. 
at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  Subsequently  various 
cities  hke  Basel,   Miihlhausen,   Lausanne,   Zurich 


Confession  of  Faith 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


108 


issued  confessions.  In  1536  appeared  at  Basel  the 
First  Helvetic  Confession,  one  of  the  grand  docu- 
ments of  reformed  faith.  In  1552  was  issued  the 
Confessio  Rhaetica  which  attempted  to  give  some 
sort  of  imity  to  the  Protestant  movement  in  Switzer- 
land. In  1566  appeared  the  Second  Helvetic  Con- 
fession drawn  up  by  Henry  Bullinger,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Protestant  confessions.  It  consists 
of  thirty  chapters  and  covers  the  entire  field  of 
theological  and  ecclesiastical  interest. 

The  Calvinist  confessions  of  faith  resemble 
fundamentally  the  Zwinglian,  but  present  the  re- 
formed faith  from  the  point  of  view  of  Calvin's 
system.  The  number  of  these  confessions  is  large 
and  some  are  of  national  import.  Many  of  them 
are  the  product  of  State  churches,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  them  being  the  Gallican  Confession  (1559); 
Helvetic  Consensus  Formula  (1675);  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism  (1563);  the  Belgic  Confession  (1561); 
the  Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  (1619)  which  organ- 
ized the  five  points  of  Calvinism  in  opposition 
to  the  Arminians  (see  Five  Articles);  the  Scotch 
Confession  (1560);  and  the  Westminister  Confession 
(1646^7).  This  last  confession  was  first  submitted 
to  ParUament  December  1646  without,  and  in  April 
1647  with  proof  texts.  It  consists  of  thirty-tlu-ee 
chapters  each  with  several  subdivisions.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  most  complete  presentation  of  the  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine.  With  the  Westminster  Confession 
should  be  joined  the  Larger  and  the  Shorter  Catechism 
which  reproduce  the  general  teaching  of  the  Confes- 
sion in  catechetical  form.  The  Westminster  Confes- 
sion has  been  adopted  by  the  Presbyterian  churches 
throughout  England  and  America,  and  has  never 
been  seriously  modified,  although  in  1902  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  the  United  States  of  America 
passed  a  Declaratory  Statement  regarding  certain 
of  its  articles,  particularly  those  dealing  with  phases 
of  theological  thought  more  characteristic  of  the 
17th.  than  of  the  20th.  century.  The  United  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  America  and  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  have  issued  their  own  some- 
what modified  editions  of  the  Westminster  Confession. 

Space  will  not  permit  a  detailed  discussion  of 
confessions  of  other  Calvinist  groups.  It  will  be 
enough  to  mention  a  few  of  the  most  important. 

c)  Congregational  Confessions. — Browne's  State- 
ment of  Congregational  Principles  (1582)  was  issued 
in  the  form  of  a  catechism.  ^  Congregationalism 
issued  a  number  of  local  confessions,  in  London  and 
Amsterdam,  and  New  England.  Of  these,  perhaps  the 
Cambridge  Platform  of  Church  Doctrines  (1648)  is 
the  most  important  for  New  England,  and  the  Savoy 
Declaration  (1658)  for  Great  Britain.  The  Congrega- 
tional denomination  in  America  at  the  present  time 
has  no  authoritative  confession,  but  the  National 
Council  of  Congregational  Churches  issued  in  1865 
a  Declaration  of  Faith  in  some  detail.  This  was 
followed  by  the  Oberlin  Declaration  of  1871,  the 
creed  drawn  up  by  a  body  of  twenty-five  com- 
missioners in  1883,  a  Union  Statement  issued  in 
1906,  and  the  Kansas  City  Creed  in  1913. 

6)  Baptist  churches  have  never  had  an  authorita- 
tive creed  but  have  drawn  up  a  number  of  con- 
fessions of  faith  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
relations  in  Associations.  Not  to  mention  the 
earUer  confessions  of  the  Anabaptists  and  the 
Mennonites  which  probably  won  considerable 
numbers  in  the  16th.  and  17th.  centuries,  the  oldest 
Baptist  confession  is  that  of  the  Seven  Churches  in 
London  which  appeared  in  1644.  From  that  time 
on  the  great  movement  of  Baptist  churches  was 
Calvinistic  in  theology.  The  Philadelphia  Con- 
fession which  was  adopted  in  1742  as  the  basis  of 
the  Philadelphia  Association  is  practically  the 
Westminster  Confession  modified  to  meet  the  Bap- 
tist position  relative  to  the  sacraments  and  the 


church.  The  New  Hampshire  Confession  was  issued 
in  1833  and  is  more  generally  used  in  the  north  than 
the  Philadelphia  Confession.  Its  Calvinism  is  not 
so  extreme  as  that  of  the  latter.  Free-will  Baptist 
churches  have  issued  various  declarations  and  con- 
fessions setting  forth  the  Arminian  rather  than  the 
Calvinistic  theology. 

4.  Anglican  Confessions. — After  the  separation 
of  the  Church  of  England  from  Rome,  under  Henry 
VIII.,  the  King  issued  in  1536  Ten  Articles,  which 
did  not  oppose  the  Catholic  doctrines,  although 
somewhat  under  the  influence  of  Lutheranism. 
The  following  year  appeared  the  Institute  of  a 
Christian  Man,  or  Bishops*  Book  in  which  purga- 
tory was  repudiated  and  salvation  declared  to 
depend  solely  on  the  merits  of  Christ.  In  1539 
appeared  the  Six  Articles,  which  attached  a  heavy 
penalty  of  violation  of  the  Cathohc  doctrines. 
The  King's  Book,  1543,  repudiated  the  Pope,  but 
again  reaflfirmed  the  Catholic  doctrine.  The  First 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  authorized  in  1549 
and  is  Lutheran  as  regards  the  Lord's  Supper. 
From  that  time  on  the  process  of  reformation  moved 
toward  the  Calvinistic  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
In  1553  the  Catechism^  and  the  Forty-two  Articles 
of  Religion  were  submitted  to  the  clergy  for  sub- 
scription. In  the  reaction  imder  Mary,  the  gains 
made  by  the  reformed  faith  were  temporarily  lost. 
On  the  accession  of  EMzabeth,  the  church's  doctrine 
was  pubhshed  in  the  Catechism  in  1570,  and  in  1571 
appeared  a  revision  of  the  Articles  of  Faith,  known 
as  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  These  Thirty-nine 
Articles  and  the  Prayer  Book  are  the  doctrinal 
basis  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  England  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America.  Because  of  their  history  they  repre- 
sent no  single  theological  movement,  but,  unlike 
the  confessions  of  both  the  Lutheran  and  the 
Reform  Churches,  are  susceptible  of  wide  variety 
in  interpretation.  Speaking  generally,  however, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  tend 
to  express  a  more  Calvinistic  point  of  view  than 
does  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

5.  Methodist  Articles. — The  Arminian  move- 
ment organized  its  beliefs  most  effectually  in  the 
famous  protest  which  led  to  the  Synod  of  Dort 
(q.v.).  Among  the  early  Methodist  Churches  the 
fundamental  standards  of  doctrine  consisted  of 
John  Wesley's  Notes  on  the  New  Testament  and 
the  first  series  of  his  sermons.  Mr.  Welsey  never 
repudiated  the  Prayer  Book  or  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  his  work 
was  never  predominantly  theological.  In  conse- 
quence the  Methodist  movement  lays  emphasis 
more  upon  immediate  experience  of  God  and 
has  always  been  less  interested  in  formal  orthodoxy 
than  in  the  spreading  of  the  Gospel  and  the  con- 
version of  sinners. 

When  the  Methodist  Church  was  organized 
in  America,  a  convention  was  held  in  Baltimore, 
December  24,  1784,  and  at  that  time  the  first  Disci- 
pline of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  adopted. 
This  Discipline  constitutes  one  element  of  the  theo- 
logical confession  of  the  Methodist  Church  which 
also  includes  Wesley's  sermons,  his  Notes  on  the  New 
Testament,  twenty-five  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of 
the  Church  of  England,  which,  however,  were 
revised  so  as  to  remove  all  possibility  of  a  rituaUstic 
interpretation  in  the  Anglican  or  Roman  sense. 

Various  branches  of  the  Methodist  Church,  such 
as  the  Methodist  Protestant  and  the  Free  Methodist 
have  their  own  articles  of  faith,  but  speaking 
generally  they  differ  more  as  regards  church  organi- 
zation than  doctrine.  Shailer  Mathews 

CONFESSIONAL.— Properly  an  enclosed  seat 
where  the  priest'  hears  confession  through  a  grill 


109 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Confucius 


without  touching  the  other  person.  The  word 
covers  also  what  goes  on  in  the  confessional,  namely 
confession,  and  the  sacrament  of  penance  (q.v.). 

Many  points  in  the  early  history  of  confession 
are  controverted.  Originally  pubUc  and  for  grave 
offences,  penance  developed  along  lines  of  safety, 
secrecy  and  universaUty.  Annual  confession  has 
been  required  in  the  West  since  the  Fourth  Council 
of  the  Lateran  (1215),  and  is  preUminary  to  the 
Easter  duty  of  receiving  Holy  Communion.  Annual 
confession  is  a  minimum  demand,  supplemented  in 
those  parishes  which  -urge  daily  communion  by 
advice  to  confess  ordinarily  once  a  week. 

The  Protestant  reformers  made  private  confession 
oi^tional,  and  usually  substituted  therefor  a  public 
general  confession.  Under  the  leadership  of  E.  B. 
Pusey  private  confession  has  been  revived  in  many 
parishes  of  the  Anglican  communion  since  the 
middle  of  the  19th.  century.  The  attempt  to 
make  confession  and  absolution  (q.v.)  prerequisites 
to  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist  in  the  Church  of 
England  is  unauthorized. 

Advantages  claimed  for  confession  include  a 
new  beginning,  self-knowledge,  contrition,  humility, 
sincerity,  and  the  modern  tendency  to  consult  the 
expert.  Protestants  say  that  the  confessional  is  not 
required  by  Scripture,  lessens  the  power  of  self- 
direction,  destroys  moral  autonomy,  and  makes 
possible  a  secret  and  ultimately  foreign  control  in 
private  and  in  poUtical  affairs.  If  the  priest  as 
judge  gives  the  benefit  of  the  ethical  doubt  (see 
Probabilism),  there  is  danger  of  lowering  the 
standard. 

Roman  legislation  punishes  solicitation  within 
the  confessional,  and  ordinarily  invaUdates  the 
absolution  of  a  partner  in  guilt.  Civil  law  safe- 
guards the  secret  of  the  confessional. 

W.  W.  Rockwell. 

CONFESSIONALISM.— The  disposition  to 
exalt  a  creed  or  a  confession  of  faith  as  the  standard 
of  Christian  faith. 

CONFESSOR.— (1)  In  the  ancient  church,  a 
martyr  or  one  who  confessed  his  faith  in  the  face  of 
persecution.  (2)  An  appellation  bestowed  on  cer- 
tain holy  men  of  the  past,  as  Edward  the  Confessor. 
(3)  A  R.C.  priest  who  has  power  to  administer  the 
sacrament  of  penance. 

CONFIRMATION.— A  word  of  two-fold  signifi- 
cance: (1)  In  the  Roman  Cathohc,  Greek,  Lutheran, 
Anglican,  and  other  churches  it  is  an  initiatory 
rite,  consisting  of  the  imposition  of  hands  and 
prayer  by  bishop,  priest,  or  pastor,  implying  a 
strengthening  of  the  soul  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

In  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches  it  is  the  second 
of  the  sacraments  (q.v.),  administered  by  anointing 
with  holy  chrism  in  conjunction  with  a  formula 
of  consecration.  It  imprints  an  indelible  mark 
upon  the  recipient's  soul.  In  the  Greek  church  it 
follows  baptism  in  the  same  service,  in  the  Roman 
church  after  an  interval  of  about  ten  years.  In 
the  Protestant  churches  employing  the  rite  it  is  post- 
poned until  the  fourteenth  or  sixteenth  year  when 
the  candidate,  after  instruction  in  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  and  the 
simple  duties  connected  with  the  church,  renews 
for  himself  the  baptismal  vows  assumed  by  his 
sponsors,  and  is  now  prepared  for  full  communion. 
What  exact  divine  gift  is  conveyed  in  confirmation 
is  a  question  which  receives  various  answers. 

(2)  Confirmation  signifies  also  the  assent  of 
constituted  authorities  by  which  the  election 
of  bishops  is  ratified  by  the  church. 

C.  A.  Beckwith 

CONFITEOR.— A  formula  of  General  Con- 
fession,   so-called   from   the   beginning   word,    "I 


confess  to  Almighty  God,"  etc.  In  the  early 
Antiochene  and  Alexandrine  liturgies,  the  celebrant 
began  the  Mass  with  such  a  G.C.  It  is  found  in 
the  Roman  Missal  since  the  11th.  century,  and  is  in 
present  R.C.  frequent  use. 

CONFLICT  OF  DUTIES.— See  Duty. 

CONFORMITY.— In  countries  such  as  Eng- 
land and  Germany  where  there  is  a  state  church, 
adherence  to  that  church.    See  Non-Conformity. 

CONFRATERNITIES.— Religious  brother- 
hoods or  associations  in  the  R.C.  church,  usually 
composed  of  laymen  who,  with  ecclesiastical  sanc- 
tion, undertake  some  philanthropic,  educational 
or  religious  work.  The  earliest  type  was  the 
monastic  brotherhood  of  England  in  the  8th. 
century.  Modern  confraternities  are  a  devel- 
opment of  mediaeval  trade  guilds  which  were 
under  the  patronage  of  a  saint.  See  Catholic 
Societies. 

CONFUCIANISM.— See  China,  Religions  of. 

CONFUCIUS  (K'UNG-FU-TSE)  (551-478 B.C.). 
— One  of  the  most  renowned  teachers  of  China. 
Living  in  the  period  of  distress  when  the  ancient 
feudalism  was  breaking  down  he  devoted  his 
energies  to  the  task  of  bringing  peace  to  the  empire. 
His  life  was  comparatively  uneventful.  He  held, 
with  distinction,  public  offices  in  his  native  state 
and  was  an  itinerant  advisor  of  neighboring  prov- 
inces but  finding  the  rulers  unwilling  to  follow  his 
suggestions  he  retired  from  public  life  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  collection  and  editing  of  the  ancient 
records  with  the  purpose  of  showing  how  the 
virtuous  rulers  of  the  past  had  secured  peace  and 
prosperity  to  China.  He  died  defeated  and  dis- 
couraged by  the  apparent  futility  of  all  his  efforts 
to  help  his  native  land.  Over  two  centuries  later 
the  Han  dynasty  recognized  the  value  of  his  political 
philosophy  and  exalted  him  to  the  position  of 
teacher  of  China  which  he  has  held  for  over  two 
thousand  years. 

His  system  is  typical  of  the  naturalism  of  Chinese 
thought.  Heaven,  nature  and  man  are  a  solidarity 
in  which  every  unit  must  perform  its  own  peculiar 
function  to  secure  the  harmony  of  the  whole. 
Virtue  is  natural  and  human  nature  is  good.  With 
families  properly  ordered  through  self-control  and 
knowledge  the  states  would  be  properly  governed. 
The  emperor  should  be  a  sage  appointed  by  Heaven 
because  of  his  virtue  whose  example  and  correct 
performance  of  duty  would  keep  the  whole  realm 
of  human  affairs  in  harmony  with  the  cosmic  order 
under  the  control  of  Tien,  Heaven  or  Destiny. 
Peace  and  equihbriura  in  human  life  are  secured 
by  each  member  of  the  social  whole  knowing  and 
doing  the  duty  belonging  to  his  status.  Evil 
is  a  disturbance  of  order  and  is  overcome  by  a 
return  to  propriety.  Duty  is  elaborated  on  the 
basis  of  the  five  relationships  of  ruler  and  subject, 
parent  and  child,  husband  and  wife,  elder  and 
younger  brother,  friend  and  friend.  The  supreme 
virtue  is  jin,  humanity  or  benevolence  which  seems 
to  include  justice,  courage,  love,  loyalty,  reverence, 
filial  piety  and  righteousness.  It  is  explained  in  Con- 
fucius' words:  "Jiii  is  to  love  all  men"  and  "Do  not 
do  to  others  what  you  would  not  wish  done  to 
yourself."  He  laid  great  stress  upon  knowledge 
but  it  was  the  pragmatic  knowledge  of  social 
duties  and  how  to  perforin  them.  He  was  agnostic 
regarding  the  supernatural,  indifferent  to  the 
rites  of  religion,  spirits,  prayer  and  immortality. 
The  supreme  blessedness  and  the  complete  life  are 
this-worldly  and  to  be  found  by  faithful  performance 


Congregation 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


110 


of  social  duties  in  whatever  status  the  individual 
is  found.  "The  holy  man  is  the  incarnation  of 
righteousness  in  the  service  of  humanity . ' '  (Knox . ) 
As  a  professed  conservative  Confucius  looked 
back  to  the  good  old  ways  of  the  peaceful  past 
when  the  rulers  of  China  acted  as  the  earthly 
embodiment  of  the  cosmic  law  and  were  examples 
to  men.  Two  great  results  followed  from  this 
emphasis  after  the  Han  dynasty — the  classics 
became  the  sacred  books  of  public  education  and 
the  divine  right  of  virtuous  rulers  was  established. 
The  sage  himself  was  exalted  to  divine  rank  and 
has  through  the  centuries  received  both  public 
and  private  worship.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

CONGREGATION.— (1)  An  assembly  of 
people,  whether  organized  or  not,  for  worship  and 
religious  instruction.  (2)  Under  the  Levitical 
law,  the  whole  assembly  of  Israel.  (3)  In  the  R.C. 
church  (a)  a  committee  of  high  clerics  charged 
with  the  conduct  of  church  business,as  the  congre- 
gation of  cardinals,  (b)  a  committee  of  bishops  in 
a  conference  which  arranges  the  agenda,  (c)  a 
religious  order  bound  by  a  common  rule,  but  not  by 
vows.  (4)  The  name  given  the  whole  Scotch 
Reforming  party  in  the  second  half  of  the  16th. 
century,  their  leaders  being  known  as  the  "Lords 
of  the  Congregation." 

CONGREGATIONAL  SINGING.— Singing  in 
which  the  whole  assembled  congregation  partici- 
pates; an  element  of  worship  common  to  the  history 
of  Christianity,  although  the  council  of  Laodicea 
(4th.  century)  forbade  it. 

CONGREGATIONALISM.— As  a  form  of 

church  polity  this  is  defined  by  two  principles: 

(1)  autonomy  of  the  local  church;  (2)  the  right 
and  duty  of  fellowship  with  sister  churches.  Chief 
churches  sharing  the  same  general  _  features  are 
Congregationalists,  Baptists,  the  Christian  connec- 
tion, Disciples  of  Christ,  Unitarians,  and  Universal- 
ists.  More  specifically  the  term  designates  the 
history  and  activity  of  the  first  mentioned  of  these 
Christian  bodies. 

1.  English  Congregationalism. — 1.  Origin 
and  History. — After  several  "Separatist"  and 
"Puritan"  movements,  beginning  in  1526,  Robert 
Brown  formed  a  church  in  Norwich  (1580).  Soon 
after,  other  churches  were  organized  at  Gloucester, 
Bury  St.  Edmunds,  London,  and  Gainsborough 
(1602),  and  Scrooby  (1606).  The  two  last  emi- 
grated to  Amsterdam  in  1606  and  1608  respectively 
— the  Scrooby  church  removing  again  to  Leyden  in 
1609.  With  varying  fortunes  of  toleration,  perse- 
cution, and  again  of  toleration,  under  the  "Act  of 
Toleration"  (1688),  the  Separatists  of  Great 
Britain  who  became  Congregationahsts  gradually 
attained  independence.  The  distinctive  features 
of  their  history  are  (1)  the  definition  of  their  poUty 
and  doctrine  in  distinction  from  the  Presbyterians; 

(2)  the  leavening  of  their  reUgious  life  by  experi- 
ence derived  from  the  Methodist  revival;  (3)  a 
modification  of  individualistic  in  favor  of  a  social 
temper,  resulting  in  denominational  consciousness, 
municipal  reform,  and  missionary  extension. 

2.  Fellowship  and  Missions. — Fellowship  is 
fostered  by  County  Unions,  the  Congregational 
Union  of  Scotland  (1812),  of  Ireland  (1829),  of 
England  and  Wales  (1833)  with  its  Declaration  of 
Faith  (declaratory  only).  Foreign  missionary  work 
is  under  two  societies,  the  London  Missionary 
(1795)  and  the  Colonial  Missionary  (1836);  its 
insular  work  is  under  the  Church  and  Home 
Missionary  societies.  Churches  in  Great  Britain 
and  her  dependencies  number  about  six  thousand 
with  membership  of  about  seven  hundred  and 


ifty  thousand.     There  are  eight  training  schools  for 
theological  students. 

II.  Congregationalism  on  the  Continent. — 
There  are  a  few  Congregational  churches  in  Ger- 
many, Hungary,  Norway,  Poland,  Portugal, 
Switzerland.  Holland  has  nearly  a  score  of  free 
churches,  Sweden  more  than  a  thousand  with  over 
one  hundred  thousand  members. 

III.  Congregationalism  in  America. — 
1.  History. — ^A  portion  of  the  "separatist"  of 
Scrooby  church  at  Leyden  emigrated  to  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  in  1620,  and  were  designated  as  "Pilgrims." 
The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colonists — "Puritans" — ■ 
who  left  England  (1628)  for  religious  reasons,  yet 
with  no  intention  of  rupture  with  the  mother 
church,  influenced  by  the  Plymouth  church  founded 
Congregational  churches  in  Salem  (1629),  Boston 
(1630),  and  in  neighboring  towns  before  1640.  Two 
other  colonies  went'  out  from  these:  the  Connecti- 
cut colony  under  Thomas  Hooker  (1634-1636),  the 
New  Haven  colony  under  John  Davenport  (1638). 
In  the  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  Bay  colonies 
until_  1664  and  1693  respectively  suffrage  was 
restricted  to  church  members.  In  the  early  identi- 
fication of  church  and  state  arose  the  "Half- Way 
Covenant"  (q.v.)  by  which  for  more  than  a  century 
many  "unregenerate"  persons  were  reckoned  as 
church  members.  By  1700  Congregational  churches 
had  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  of  New  England. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  19th.  century,  by  an  arrange- 
ment with  the  Presbyterian  church,  few  churches 
were  organized  west  of  the  Hudson  river;  this 
agreement  was  dissolved  in  1852  and  the  formation 
of  Congregational  churches  rapidly  increased, 
mostly  in  the  northern  states,  until  (1918)  they 
number  6,050  with  808,415  members. 

2.  Fellowship. — This  is  expressed  in  local  coun- 
cils, conferences  (semi-annual),  state  associations 
(annual),  the  national  council  (biennial),  and  an 
international  council  (occasional).  There  are  also 
ministerial  associations.  In  the  past  twenty- 
five  years  great  gains  have  been  made  in  co-operative 
activity,  interest  in  social  reforms,  centrahzing 
control  of  missionary  organizations,  and  defining 
a  denominational  consciousness.  The  chief  agent 
in  this  movement  has  been  the  National  Council 
which  is  composed  of  representative  delegates  of 
the  churches.  Its  aim  is  to  foster  the  unity  of  the 
churches  and  to  promote  their  common  interests  and 
work  in  national  "international  and  interdenomina- 
tional relations." 

3.  Missions. — The  missionary  interests  of  the 
denomination  are  cared  for:  in  foreign  fields  by 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  (1810);  in  the  home  field  through  the 
Congregational  Education  Society  (1816),  the 
Congregational  Home  Mission  Society  (1826); 
the  Congregational  Sunday  School  and  Pubhshing 
Society  (1832);  the  American  Missionary  Associa- 
tion (1846);  the  Congregational  Building  Society 
(1853);  and  the  Congregational  Board  of  Minis- 
terial Relief  (1907). 

4.  Theology  and  Creeds. — Three  types  of  the- 
ology have  appeared:  (1)  the  Colonial,  to  about 
1750 — Calvinistic;  (2)  The  New  England  theology 
(q.v.)  from  1750  to  1900 — Calvinistic,  modified  by 
Arminianism;  (3)  transition  to  the  historical  and 
scientific  method.  Corresponding  to  these  types, 
creedal  expressions  have  been  formulated:  (1)  the 
Cambridge  Synod  (1648)  and  the  Savoy  Declara- 
tion (1680),  embodying  substantially  the  West- 
minster Confession;  (2)  the  Burial  Hill  Confession 
(1865)  and  the  Commission  Creed  (1883);  (3)  the 
Kansas  City  Creed  (1913). 

6.  Controversies. — Several  controversies  have 
disturbed  the  churches:  (1)  the  witchcraft  delusion 
(1688-1692);'  (2)  the  Half- Way  Covenant  (q.v.); 


Ill 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Conscience 


(3)  the  New  England  theology  (q.v.);  (4)  the 
Universalist  and  Unitarian  controversy  (1780-1825) ; 
(5)  the  controversy  over  Horace  Bushnell  (1842- 
1870);  (6)  the  Andover  controversy  (1882-1893). 
6.  Education. — CongregationaUsm  has  from  the 
first  fostered  education,  founding  Harvard  College 
(1636)  and  Yale  College  (1701),  following  these 
with  more  than  forty  other  colleges  and  universities, 
eight  theological  seminaries  in  the  United  States, 
besides  many  colleges  and  seminaries  in  foreign 
lands,  C.  A.  Beckwith 

CONGRESSES. — Assemblies  or  conferences  of 
representative  persons  for  purposes  of  deliberation 
and  discussion.  The  name  Church  Congress  is 
given  to  such  gatherings  of  the  Church  of  England 
or  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  the  U.S.A. 
Catholic  Congresses  are  R.C.  gatherings,  usually 
national  in  character.  Such  religious  congresses 
usually  make  ecclesiastical  or  theological  pronounce- 
ments for  the  body  which  they  represent. 

CONGRUISM.— The  theory  that  the  effective- 
ness of  the  divine  grace  is  conditioned  by  the 
co-operation  of  the  recipient. 

CONGRUITY.— (1)  A  term  in  scholastic  the- 
ology indicating  the  natural  capacity  of  man  to 
acquire  merit,  in  contrast  to  the  merit  achieved  by 
supernatural  aid  (condignity,  q.v.). 

(2)  The  later  scholastic  doctrine  that  human 
nature  has  of  itself  a  meritorious  fitness  for  the 
grace  of  God,  and  is  able  to  perform  certain  lower 
ethical  actions. 

CONNEXIONALISM.— The  name  of  a  rather 
loosely-defined  poUty.  Occasionally,  since  the 
middle  of  the  18th.  century,  a  group  of  ecclesiastical 
units,  more  closely  interrelated  through  some 
form  of  general  authority,  than  is  admissible  in  a 
purely  congregational  poUty,  has  been  called  a 
Connexion.  This  term  has  been  used  to  designate 
a  circle  of  societies,  hke  that  under  the  headship 
of  John  Wesley,  which  lacked  the  status  of  a  church 
proper.  Quite  as  frequently,  however,  it  has  been 
incorporated  into  the  title  of  an  independent 
church.  Thus  we  are  referred  to  the  New  Con- 
nection of  General  Baptists,  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion,  and  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Con- 
nexion. H.  C.  Sheldon 

CONON.— Pope,  686-687. 

CONSALVI,  ERCOLE  (1757-1824).— Italian 
cardinal  and  statesman ;  secretary  of  the  conclave  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution,  and  secretary 
of  state  to  Pius  VII.  He  proved  his  ability  as  a 
diplomat  and  organizer  in  securing  the  restitution 
of  and  in  reorganizing  the  States  of  the  church. 

CONSANGUINITY.— The  term  applied  to  all 
blood-relationships,  whether  hcit  or  illicit,  as 
distinguished  from  affinity,  an  artificial  relation- 
ship created  by  adoption,  sponsorship,  or  inter- 
marriage (excluding  that  between  the  married 
persons).  More  comprehensive  than  affinity  is 
kinship,  which  may  be  established  by  common 
membership  in  a  clan  or  other  similar  group.  The 
American  anthropologist,  L.  H.  Morgan,  was  the 
first  to  show  that  among  various  peoples,  such 
as  the  Red  Indians,  the  AustraUans,  and  the  Poly- 
nesians, degrees  of  relationship  are  distinguished, 
not  as  ties  between  individuals,  but  as  ties  between 
social  classes  or  generations.  Even  where  con- 
sanguinity is  recognized,  it  may  count  for  little  or 
nothing  unless  socially  ratified.  Rivers  instances 
the  case  of  the  polyandr«us  Todas  of  India,  among 


whom  a  ceremony  performed  during  pregnancy 
determines  which  of  the  husbands  of  the  mother  is 
to  be  considered,  for  all  social  purposes,  as  the 
father  of  the  child.  Consanguinity,  then,  is  not 
necessarily  the  decisive  factor  in  the  formation  of 
relationships.  Too  close  consanguinity  is  an  impedi- 
ment to  marriage  according  to  various  religious  and 
civil  regulations.    See  Marriage. 

HuTTON  Webster 

CONSCIENCE.— The  perception  of  moral  dis- 
tinctions accompanied  by  the  feeling  of  jiersonal 
obligation  to  do  what  is  morally  right. 

There  is  no  more  elusive  word  in  the  vocabulary 
of  ethics.  The  actual  existence  of  the  sentiment 
of  moral  obhgation  is  admitted  as  a  fact  of  experi- 
ence; but  the  explanations  and  applications  of  this 
sentiment  are  so  various  as  to  cause  perplexity. 

I.    Historical  Conceptions  op  Conscience. — 

1.  The  religious  conception  of  an  invisible  and 
mysterious  power  or  presence  watching  over  the 
enforcement  of  what  is  morally  right  is  characteristic 
of  primitive  thinking.  Tribal  or  family  obUgations 
are  thus  surrounded  by  the  dread  of  what  may  occur 
if  these  are  not  fulfilled.  Conscience  is  developed 
when  the  sense  of  inner  obUgation  binds  one.  It  is 
frequently  thought  of  as  the  voice  of  God  in  the  soul. 
Socrates  spoke  of  the  demon  within  him  whose 
guidance  he  must  foUow.  Many  Christian  teachers 
have  regarded  conscience  as  a  divinely  implanted 
faculty. 

2 .  The  scholastic  definition  distinguished  between 
synderesis  (by  which  is  meant  a  general  recognition 
of  the  authority  of  moral  law),  and  consdentia, 
which  acknowledges  the  duty  of  specific  acts  of 
moral  obedience.  Out  of  this  distinction  arose 
Catholic^  casuistry  (q.v.)  which  dealt  with  "cases 
of  conscience,"  i.e.,  the  discussion  of  duty  in  con- 
crete instances  where  circumstances  are  pecuUar. 

3.  Intuitionist  theories  assume  conscience  to 
be  an  innate  faculty  of  moral  judgment.  Some 
exponents  have  gone  so  far  as  to  regard  conscience 
as  inherently  capable  of  determining  what  is  right 
in  each  instance.  Conscience  would  thus  be  in- 
faUible.  Others  have  held  to  a  general  native 
sense  of  moral  obhgation,  but  have  admitted  that 
conscience  must  be  educated  like  any  other  faculty 
of  judgment.     See  Moral  Sense. 

4.  Empirical  theories  seek  to  explain  conscience 
as  the  acquired  knowledge  that  certain  acts  or 
attitudes  are  visited  with  disapproval  and  punish- 
ment, while  others  are  approved  and  rewarded. 
When  the  fact  of  social  sympathy  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration, this  acquired  knowledge  may  come 
by  emotional  and  imitative  processes,  so  that  its 
rational  character  may  be  lost  sight  of  because  of  the 
power  of  emotion.  It  may  seem  like  a  divine 
inward  voice;  but  its  genesis  can  be  traced  in 
human  experience. 

II.    The  Principal  Facts. — 

1.  The  existence  of  a  feeUng  of  obUgation  is 
undeniable.  Such  feehng  is  indispensable  to  high- 
minded  Hving.  The  great  loyalties  which  we 
admire  presuppose  it.  It  is  desirable  that  a  man 
should  feel  uneasy  in  the  presence  of  duty  unfulfilled, 
and  that  he  should  feel  pleasure  at  duty  performed. 
This  is  the  fact  of  conscience.  Why  mankind  should 
be  so  constituted  as  to  experience  this  feeling  is  no 
more  and  no  less  mysterious  than  is  the  reason  for 
any  other  emotional  reaction. 

2.  So  far  as  the  content  of  conscience  is  con- 
cerned, it  seems  to  be  largely  the  product  of  social 
sympathy  and  social  regulation.  The  child,  both 
by  sympathetic  imitation  and  as  a  result  of  dis- 
cipline, is  emotionally  and  mentally  committed  to 
certain  attitudes.  Thus  the  precise  dictates  of 
conscience  differ  widely  among  different  social 
groups.    For   example,    blood   feuds   are   almost 


Conscientiousness 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


112 


religiously  sacred  in  some  communities,  and  are 
vigorously  condemned  in  others. 

3.  The  recognition  of  imperfections  in  existing 
moral  standards  suggests  a  higher  morality  than 
that  of  prevaihng  custom.  The  conscience  of  a 
particularly  earnest  and  thoughtful  individual  may 
lead  to  a  defiance  of  existing  customs  in  the  interest 
of  an  ideal.  In  such  a  case  conscience  points 
beyond  mere  social  sympathy,  suggesting  religious 
loyalty  to  a  higher  order. 

4.  A  religious  interpretation  of  life  brings 
conscience  into  relation  with  the  divine  wUl,  and 
thus  invests  the  loyalties  of  morality  with  super- 
human significance. 

Popular  questions  concerning  conscience  should 
be  answered  in  the  light  of  the  facts.  Since  the 
content  of  our  moral  consciousness  is  demonstrably 
derived  from  experience,  conscience  is  not  infallible. 
Conscience  not  only  may  be  educated;  it  is  always 
the  product  of  education.  A  man  ought  always 
to  foUow  conscience,  but  ought  equally  to  make 
sure  that  he  does  not  identify  conscience  with 
a  mere  inherited  emotion  which  his  reason  criticizes. 
The  recognition  of  the  empirical  character  of  moral 
judgments  would  obviate  the  dogmatic  stubborn- 
ness of  many  "conscientious  objectors."  In  any 
case  "conscience"  should  not  be  so  isolated  as  to 
prevent  the  modifications  of  moral  ideas  which 
enlarging  experience  ought  to  bring. 

Gerald  Birnet  Smith 

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS.— Loyalty  to  the  dic- 
tates of  conscience,  or  faithfulness  to  duty. 

CONSECRATION.— The  religious  act  or  cere- 
mony of  separating,  dedicating,  or  setting  apart  as 
sacred  certain  persons,  animals,  places,  objects,  and 
times.  Among  primitive  peoples  certain  persons 
and  objects  being  considered  as  set  apart  for  sacred 
purposes,  were  tabu  (q.v.)  or  dangerous.  The 
means  of  consecration  are  varied,  including  the  direct 
work  of  the  god  or  consecrating  agency,  unusual 
meteorological  occurrences,  participation  in  a 
sacrifice  or  sacrament,  the  saying  of  charms,  blow- 
ing, laying-on  of  hands,  branding  or  singeing  a 
person,  the  use  of  names,  and  the  tying  on  of  amu- 
lets, talismans,  etc.  In  the  Christian  religion 
consecration  ceremonies  are  connected  with  the 
dedication  of  persons  to  holy  offices,  elements  used 
in  the  sacraments,  church  buildings  and  utensils, 
and  burial  grounds.  Analogously  consecration 
is  used  of  any  solemn  dedication  such  as  to  one's 
country  or  to  a  cause. 

CONSENSUS  PATRUM.— The  collective  and 
unanimous  teaching  of  the  Church  Fathers  of  the 
first  five  centuries  of  the  Christian  era;  one  of  the 
sources  of  authoritative  Catholic  doctrine. 

CONSENT,  AGE  OF.— See  Age  of  Consent. 

CONSEQUENCE  .—The  results  of  a 
line  of  conduct  in  distinction  from  the  conduct 
itself.  UtiHtarianism  (q.v.)  is  an  ethics  of  conse- 
quences, evalucuting  conduct  in  terms  of  results. 

CONSILIA  EVANGELICA.— EvangeUcal  Coun- 
sels; in  R.C.  ethics,  the  designation  of  certain 
stringent  moral  ideals  based  on  the  New  Testament 
and  commended  to  those  who  seek  especial  hoHness 
in  distinction  from  commands  that  are  obhgatory 
on  all  Christians.  The  distinction  appears  in  the 
writings  of  TertulUan,  Cyprian  and  Ambrose,  but 
was  finally  formulated  by  Thomas  Aqmnas. 

CONSISTORY.- An  ecclesiastical  coxirt: 
(1)  The  papal  consistory  consists  of  the  college 
of  cardinals  over   which   the   pope   presides   and 


convenes  for  formal  ratification  of  measures. 
(2)  The  Dutch  Reformed  consistory  corresponds 
to  the  session  in  Presbyterian  polity.  (3)  The 
French  Reformed  consistory  corresponds  to  the  pres- 
bytery in  a  presbyterial  body.  (4)  The  Lutheran 
consistory  is  officially  appointed  by  the  state.  (5)  An 
Anglican  consistory  has  jurisdiction  in  a  diocese. 

CONSOLATION.— (1)  The  alleviation  of  sor- 
row or  disappointment;  used  also  to  denote  the 
agencj'  or  the  act  of  bringing  consolation,  reUgion 
being  frequently  an  agency.  (2)  A  compensation  for 
loss  or  sacrifice.  The  evening  meal  of  Monks  was 
decreed  by  the  synod  of  Angers  (453)  to  be  a  conso- 
lation for  the  loss  of  sisters,  mothers  and  friends. 

CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF  (Nov.  5,  1414— 
Apr.  22,  1418). — The  second  and  possibly  the  most 
important  of  the  various  so-called  reforming  Coun- 
cils of  the  15th.  century.  It  was  summoned  by 
Pope  John  XXIII.  and  the  Emperor  Sigismund  to 
consider  the  reform  of  the  Church,  to  end  the 
schism  between  the  rival  Popes,  and  to  pass  on  the 
teaching  of  John  Huss  with  the  attendant  disorders 
in  Bohemia.  The  Council  deposed  two  of  the 
rival  Popes — John  XXIII.  and  Benedict  XIII. 
The  third  pope  Gregory  XII.  abdicated.  The 
Council  decided  that  Popes  were  amenable  to 
Councils,  and  that  the  latter  should  be  summoned  at 
regular  periods.  Cardinal  Oddo  Coloma  was  elected 
Pope  as  Martin  V.  John  Huss  was  condemned  and 
burned  July  6, 1415,  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  May  30, 
1416.  This  action,  however,  failed  to  end  the  reli- 
gious controversies  in  Bohemia.  The  efforts  of  the 
Council  to  reform  the  Church  were  defeated  by  the 
higher  clergy,  especially  the  Cardinals.  Such 
suggestions  for  reforms  as  were  adopted  or  recom- 
mended were  ignored  by  Martin  V.  See  Basel, 
Council  op.  Shailer  Mathews 

CONSTANCY.— Steadiness  or  immutabihty  of 
motives  or  conduct.  The  ethical  task  is  to  develop 
constancy  in  right  modes  of  thought  and  action, 
and  in  opposition  toward  evil. 

CONSTANTINE.— Roman  Emperor,  306-337, 
was  converted  to  Christianity,  312,  He  granted 
the  Christians  freedom  of  religion  by  the  so-called 
Edict  of  Milan,  313.  By  his  order  the  council  of 
Nicaea  convened  in  325.  During  the  post-Nicene 
Arian  controversy  and  in  deahng  with  the  Nova- 
tians,  Donatists,  and  others,  his  pohcy  was  to  pre- 
serve by  an  opportunist  policy  the  undivided  church. 

CONSTANTINE. — The  name  of  two  popes: 

Constantine  I. — Pope  708-715. 

Constantine  II. — Pope  767-768 ;  a  layman  before 
his  election  by  a  faction;  not  recognized  by  Catholic 
authorities  as  a  legitimate  pope. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,    COUNCILS    OF.— The 

First  Council  of  Constantinople  (2nd,  ecumenical) 
in  381  re-affirmed  the  Nicene  formula  and  re-dealt 
with  the  Arian  controversy.  It  established  four 
doctrinal  canons  which  were  accepted  by  the  Roman 
and  Greek  churches,  and  three  disciplinary  canons 
which  were  accepted  only  by  the  Greek  church. 

The  Second  CouncU  (5th.  ecumenical)  in  553 
and  the  Third  Council  (6th.  ecumenical)  in  680-81 
dealt  with  the  Monothelite  controversy.  The 
Fourth  Council  (8th.  ecumenical)  869-70  dep9sed 
Photius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  decided 
that  Constantinople  should  be  the  first  of  the  four 
eastern  patriarchates.  See  Trinity;  Arianism. 
Councils  were  also  held  at  Constantinople  in  692 
and  754,  the  latter  of  which  condemned  the  use  of 
images  in  churches.  Shailer  Mathews 


113 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Conversion 


CONSTANTINOPOLITAN  CREED.— The  for- 
mula supposedly  adopted  by  the  Council  held  in 
Constantinople  in  381.  This  Decree  became  widely 
known  as  the  Nicene  Creed,  because  it  was  regarded 
as  expressing  the  views  of  the  Council  of  Nicaea 
held  in  325.  There  has  been  considerable  specula- 
tion as  to  whether  the  Nicene  Creed,  so-called, 
however,  is  really  the  formula  adopted  by  the 
Council  of  381.  In  the  absence  of  precise  records, 
it  is  probable  that  this  matter  will  always  be  one  of 
conjecture.  The  Creed  is  very  similar  to  the 
Baptismal  Confession  used  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem. 

Shailer  Mathews 

CONSTITUTIONS  OF  CLARENDON.— A 
body  of  laws  promulgated  at  the  Assize  of  Clarendon 
(q.v.)  by  Henry  11.  of  England  in  1164  in  his 
struggle  with  Thomas  Becket  (q.v.),  defining  the 
spheres  of  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 

CONSTITUTIONS,  PAPAL.— Enactments  of 
the  pope  of  Rome,  which  the  church  beUeves  to  be 
obligatory  for  those  involved. 

CONSUBSTIANTIATION.— A  term  appUed 
to  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
according  to  which,  after  the  words  of  institution, 
the  substantial  body  and  blood  of  Christ  become 
sacramentally  united  with  the  bread  and  wine 
which  remam  unchanged,  the  union  subsisting 
only  until  the  purpose  of  the  consecration  has  been 
fulfilled. 

CONTEMPLATION.— Concentrated  medita- 
tion; a  means  employed  for  the  attainment  of  the 
highest  good  in  certam  types  of  mysticism  such  as 
Buddhism,  the  Yoga  school  of  Hinduism  and 
certain  R.C.  orders. 

CONTEMPT.— An  attitude  of  despising,  often 
expressing  itself  as  an  unsocial  ethical  or  religious 
attitude  toward  an  object  or  person  considered  as 
inferior. 

CONTENTMENT.— A  mental  state  of  satis- 
faction or  quiescence.  When  induced  either  by 
moral  or  religious  experience,  it  is  regarded  as 
highly  commendable. 

CONTINENCE.— Self-restraint  in  regard  to 
the  passions  and  appetites,  especially  sexual  passion, 
as  in  cehbacy;  an  ideal  emphasized  in  monasticism 
as  conducive  to  purity  of  hfe. 

CONTINGENCY.— Possibihty  of  an  occurrence 
not  predictable  by  any  rule.  The  Scholastic  phi- 
losophers used  the  term  for  what  is  accidental 
in  contrast  with  what  is  logically  necessary. 

CONTRITION.— In  R.C.  theology,  repentance 
springing  from  the  highest  motive,  viz.,  the  love  of 
God  and  genuine  sorrow  for  sin;  contrasted  with 
attrition  (q.v.).     See  Penance. 

CONTUMACY.— Contempt  of  authority.  In 
EngUsh  law  contempt  of  the  ecclesiastical  court  is 
punished  by  a  writ  de  contumace  capiendo,  this 
statute  taking  the  place  of  the  older  custom  of 
excommunication. 

CONVENT. — The  word  has  two  meanings: 
(1)  a  reUgious  commvmity  of  men  or  of  women 
viewed  in  its  corporate  capacity;  (2)  the  buildings 
occupied  by  such  a  community. 

Strictly,  "convent"  is  used  of  a  branch  of  a 
religious  order,  not  of  part  of  the  more  flexible  form 
of  organization  called  a  congregation.  Popularly 
the  word  is  restricted  to  female  rehgious,  though  it  is 


perfectly  proper  to  speak  of  a  convent  of  men. 
In  this  article  the  term  will  be  taken  in  its  popular 
sense. 

1.  Rise  of  convents. — The  Egyptian  Pachomiua 
(died  346),  who  instituted  the  first  Christian  monas- 
tic rule,  put  a  nunnery  under  the  charge  of  his 
sister.  The  word  nun  is  from  the  Coptic,  signifying 
"clean,  pure."  Under  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil  con- 
vents of  women  were  founded  in  the  East,  and 
particularly  under  that  of  St.  Benedict,  in  the 
West. 

2.  Enclosure. — Not  all  nuns  are  "enclosed," 
i.e.,  forbidden  to  leave  the  grounds  of  their  con- 
vents. The  French  Revolution  and  conditions  of 
work  in  Protestant  countries  have  brought  about 
widespread  relaxations  of  the  ancient  enclosure, 
which  had  restricted  the  social  work  of  nuns  very 
largely  to  keeping  boarding-schools. 

3.  Immuring. — In  ancient  Rome  vestals  who 
lapsed  from  virginity  were  buried  aUve,  and  under 
the  older  canon  law  fallen  nuns  were  to  be  "im- 
mured." This  means  "shut  up  within  four  walls" 
(close  confinement) ;  the  punishment  of  burial  alive 
is  said  to  be  legendary. 

4.  Abuses. — Rumors  have  led  to  demands  for 
the  state  inspection  of  convents.  The  machinery 
of  the  Roman  church  is  adequate  to  remedy  abuses. 
The  rule  that  nuns  must  be  given  two  or  three  times 
a  year  the  opportunity  to  confess  to  a  priest  other 
than  their  regular  confessor  gives  opportunity  for 
the  denunciation  of  malfeasants  in  office. 

W.  W.  Rockwell 
CONVENTICLE.— (1)  A  private  or  secret 
meeting  for  worship.  Conventicles  were  held  in 
the  early  church  and  in  the  schools  of  WycUf. 
(2)  In  Great  Britain,  the  meetings  of  dissenters 
from  the  established  church.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  thousands  of  Scotch  Covenanters  were 
fined  or  imprisoned  for  attending  conventicles. 

CONVENTICLE  ACT.— An  act  passed  (1664) 
against  persons  in  greater  numbers  than  four,  of 
sixteen  years  and  upward,  attending  services  "in 
other  manner  than  is  allowed  by  the  Liturgy." 
A  third  offense  was  punished  by  deportation  from 
the  realm  for  seven  years.  A  second  act  (1670) 
lessened  the  penalties  of  the  ear  Her  enactment  but 
imposed  fines  upon  officials  for  neglect  in  enforcing 
the  statute.  Severe  persecution  therefore  fol- 
lowed until  in  1672  the  king  interposed  his  dispens- 
ing power  by  granting  to  the  nonconformists 
licensed  meeting  places  for  worship  and  such  preach- 
ing as  was  not  derogatory  to  the  Established 
Church.  Roman  Catholics  were  permitted  to  meet 
only  in  their  homes.  In  1673  Parliament  dis- 
annulled the  king's  declaration  of  indulgence  but 
passed  a  "ReUef  Bill"  permitting  worship  to  non- 
conformists who  took  the  Oaths  of  Supremacy  and 
Allegiance  and  subscribed  to  the  doctrinal  articles 
of  the  Estabhshed  Church.  This  continued  to  be 
the  status  of  nonconformist  worship  until  in  1812 
the  Conventicle  Act  was  repealed. 

P.  G.  Mode 

CONVENTUALS.— A  branch  of  the  R.C. 
religious  order  of  Franciscans  (q.v.),  dating  as  a 
separate  order  from  1517.  Sometimes  they  are 
called  "Black  Franciscans,"  from  the  color  oi  their 
garb.     They  number  about  2,000. 

CONVERSION.— Changing  or  causing  to 
change  from  one  state  or  condition  to  another; 
transformation.  Broadly,  a  thoroughgoing  change 
either  of  nature  or  function.  A  converted  man  is 
a  man  profoundly  altered  in  moral  disposition  or  in 
mental  attitude. 

In  Ethics,  conversion  describes  a  radical  change 
of  moral  character;  involving  motives,  aims,  ideals; 


Conviction  of  Sin 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


114 


a  changing  from  an  evil  or  indifferent  to  an  earnest 
moral  attitude. 

In  religion,  conversion  involves  this  moral  change 
with  some  impUcation  of  the  divine  power  that  has 
wrought  the  change.  Religiously,  conversion  is  a 
radical  spiritual  and  moral  change,  commonly 
attending  a  change  of  belief,  and  involving  pro- 
foundly altered  spirit  and  conduct,  "a  change  of 
heart.  The  conversions  of  Paul  and  of  Augustine 
are  striking  examples. 

Historically,  the  experience  is  associated  with 
various  religions.  Moreover,  in  a  more  general 
sense  it  may  be  applied  to  a  social  group  as  well  as  to 
an  individual.  The  more  familiar  meaning  refers 
to  individual  conversion  in  the  Christian  sense. 

Conversion  was  conceived  by  the  older  theo- 
logians as  a  "work  of  grace,"  a  specific,  miraculous 
divine  act  by  which  a  man  was  brought  from  a 
condition  of  eimaity  toward  God  into  a  state  of 
salvation.  By  some  sacramental  or  other  duly 
authenticated  agency,  the  radical  change  was  accom- 
plished, and  the  man  henceforth  had  a  "new  heart" 
which  was  both  guarantee  and  source  of  the  trans- 
formed hfe.  Commonly,  conversion  was  regarded 
as  an  instantaneous  occurrence  in  which  the  miracle 
of  transformation  occurred,  though  the  adjustment 
of  the  whole  hfe  to  the  inner  change  might  be 
gradual. 

Modern  theology  describes  conversion  in  terms  of 
the  laws  of  ethical  and  rehgious  transformations. 
The  divine  power  which  effects  the  change  is 
regarded  as  operating  not  lawlessly,  but  by  social, 
psychological  and  ethical  laws  which  it  is  the  task 
of  scientific  study  to  trace  and  set  forth.  The  fact 
of  rehgious  and  ethical  awakening  is  a  matter  of 
common  experience.  The  manner  of  conceiving 
the  change  and  of  effecting  the  conversion  is  a 
field  in  which  rehgious  psychology  must  speak  with 
authority.  See  Regeneration;  Holy  Spirit;  Sal- 
vation. Herbert  A.  Youtz 

CONVICTION  OF  SIN.— An  inward  sense 
of  personal  sinfulness  such  as  leads  to  genuine 
repentance. 

This  experience  of  guilt  in  the  sight  of  God  has 
been  characteristic  of  some  of  the  spiritual  leaders 
in  Christianity,  notably  Paul,  Augustine,  and 
Luther.  It  has  been  emphasized  in  evangehstic 
preaching  in  America  during  the  18th.  and  19th. 
century,  as  the  indispensable  condition  of  salvation 
by  grace.  While  there  are  instances  of  Christian 
experience  which  do  not  involve  this  profound  sense 
of  sin,  it  is  nevertheless  a  typical  feature  in  many 
conversions.     See  Sin;  Repentance. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

COPE. — A  semicircular  cloak  used  in  the  R.C. 
Church  as  a  liturgical  vestment  on  ceremonial, 
but  not  on  sacerdotal,  occasions. 

COPTIC  CHURCH.— The  native  Egyptian 
church  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Greeks 
and  other  churches  of  Egypt.  While  Coptic  tra- 
dition traces  an  unbroken  succession  of  patriarchs 
from  the  1st.  century  on,  it  is  probable  that  Chris- 
tianity did  not  reach  the  native  Egyptians  much 
before  the  end  of  the  2nd.  century,  and  the  Coptic 
church  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  had  a  separate 
existence  until  by  the  adoption  of  Eutyches'  doc- 
trine of  the  single  nature  of  Christ,  Coptic  Chris- 
tianity diverged  from  Catholic  beUef.  The  rejection 
of  the  Eutychian  doctrine  by  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  (a.d.  451),  was  not  accepted  by  the  Copts 
who  adhered  to  the  Monophysite  doctrine.  The 
Coptic  church  has  maintained  itself  through  the 
Moslem  occupation  of  Egypt  and  still  constitutes  a 
small  fraction  (nearly  700,000)  of  the  population. 
Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 


CORD,  CONFRATERNITIES  OF  THE.— R.C. 

associations,  the  members  of  which  wear  a  cord  or  a 
cincture  in  commemoration  of  a  saint,  or  as  a  S3Tnbol 
of  purity. 


CORNELIUS.— Pope,     251-253; 
martyred  by  the  emperor  GaUius. 


exiled     and 


CORONATION. — A  ceremony  whereby  a  mon- 
arch is  inaugurated  in  office,  so-called  from  the 
placing  of  the  crown  on  the  head.  In  O.T.  history 
kings  were  anointed  by  the  priest  and  crowned. 
Wlien  Europe  became  Christian  a  religious  liturgy 
was  arranged  for  coronation  ceremonials.  In  the 
struggle  for  papal  domination,  the  claim  was  that  the 
Emperor  must  be  crowned  by  the  pope,  a  custom 
broken  by  Napoleon. 

CORPORAL. — A  piece  of  linen  spread  over  the 
altar  when  the  Eucharist  is  handled. 

CORPORATION  ACT  OF  1661.— An  act  pro- 
mulgated by  the  Enghsh  parhament  compeUing  all 
members  of  municipal  bodies  to  receive  the  Holy 
Communion  in  the  Anglican  form.  The  act  was 
suspended  from  1689,  but  not  abohshed  until  1769. 

CORPUS  CHRISTL— A  R.C.  festival  in  honor 
of  the  Real  Presence  in  the  Eucharist,  observed  on 
Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday,  originating  with 
Robert,  Bishop  of'Li^ge,  1246  and  becoming  ecu- 
menical in  1264  by  a  bull  of  Urban  IV. 

CORPUS  DOCTRINAE.— The  designation  of 
certain  16th.  century  collections  of  doctrinal 
formulas  put  forth  as  representative  statements  of 
specific  types  of  faith  or  of  churches,  especially  the 
Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  collections.  With  the 
Formula  of  Concord  (q.v.),  the  importance  of 
other  Lutheran  collections  declined. 

CORRECTION.— The  act  or  process  of  rectifica- 
tion or  discipline  (q.v.),  designed  to  remove  a  wrong 
or  an  error. 

COSMOGONY  AND  COSMOLOGY.— Cos- 
mogony means  the  birth  of  the  world,  and  cosmology 
the  description  of  the  world  (or  universe,  the  kos- 
mos),  but  both  words  are  now  apphed  to  the  vari- 
ous theories  which  have  been  advanced  concerning 
the  origin  of  things.  Cosmogony  is  more  usually 
applied  to  the  mythological  explanations,  cos- 
mology to  the  more  philosophical. 

When  men  began  to  inquire  how  the  world  in 
which  they  found  themselves  came  to  be  they  gave 
the  answer  either  in  terms  of  external  nature  or  in 
terms  of  human  experience.  Thus  it  was  possible 
to  say  that  the  process  was  like  the  revival  of  vege- 
tation after  the  deadness  of  winter,  or  that  it  was 
hke  the  building  of  a  hut  which  the  man  knew  to 
result  from  his  own  exertions.  In  the  latter  case 
there  must  be  a  Creator;  in  the  former  this  was 
not  so  essential,  but  the  tendency  of  the  mind  to 
personify  forces  external  to  itself  is  so  inveterate  that 
the  most  mechanical  of  early  theories  does  assume 
the  existence  of  the  gods.  This  however  only 
pushes  the  inquiry  further  back  for  the  question 
of  the  origin  of  the  gods  themselves  was  soon  raised. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the  Chaos  and  Night 
which  some  of  the  Greeks  placed  at  the  beginning 
was  first  conceived  of  as  personal  or  not.  Some 
mythologies  posit  a  cosmic  egg  from  which  the 
world  developed. 

Since  the  forces  of  the  world  are  often  in  conflict 
many  cosmogonies  describe  rival  and  contending 
gods,  like  the  Titans  against  Zeus.  Parallel  to 
this  is  the  Babylonian  myth  according  to  which  the 


115 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Councils  (Buddhist) 


watery  chaos  personified  as  a  monster,  Tiamat  by 
name,  is  conquered  by  Marduk,  representing  the 
ordered  universe.  The  bodj^  of  the  defeated  Tiamat 
furnished  the  material  out  of  which  the  world  con- 
sists. Her  body  was  split  into  halves,  the  lower 
making  the  earth,  the  upper  the  vault  of  the 
sky.  Elsewhere  we  meet  a  similar  conception, 
according  to  which  the  earth  is  the  body  of  a  giant, 
the  rocks  being  his  bones,  the  vegetation  his  hair,  the 
streams  his  veins.  Again  Heaven  and  Earth  are 
husband  and  wife,  and  all  animate  beings  are  their 
offspring. 

Where  a  creator  god  is  credited  with  the  making 
of  the  universe  he  is  not  always  thought  to  be  the 
unique  One  or  even  one  of  the  more  important 
divinities.  He  might  be  one  of  the  smaller  animals 
or  even  an  insect.  An  American  Indian  myth  tells 
how  the  muskrat  brought  up  mud  from  the  bottom 
of  the  primeval  ocean  and  thus  created  the  dry  land. 
Apparently  the  idea  of  a  creatio  ex  nihilo  is  not 
readily  grasped  by  primitive  man.  The  Hebrew 
account  in  its  earUest  form  does  not  affirm  creation 
in  the  strict  sense.  It  assumes  a  desert  land  already 
in  existence  but  without  animals  or  plants.  The 
creation  is  likened  to  the  work  of  the  cultivator  who 
redeems  the  desert  by  watering  and  planting  it. 
The  other  Hebrew  account  (Gen.  1)  seems  to  start 
with  a  watery  chaos  on  which  the  Almighty  exer- 
cises his  skiU.  In  this  (priestly)  account  we  see  the 
product  of  a  strong  religious  faith  working  on  ma- 
terial originally  mythological.  This  material  was 
probably  borrowed  from  Babylonia.  But  the 
Hebrew  writer  rigidly  excluded  every  polytheistic 
allusion,  and  he  avoided  anthropomorphism,  making 
each  act  of  the  drama  proceed  from  a  spoken  word; 
God  spake  and  it  was  done;  he  commanded  and  it 
stood  fast.  In  this  account  moreover  we  discover 
an  evolutionary  element;  the  successive  acts  of 
creation  form  an  ascending  scale  culminating  in 
man.  These  acts  are  now  brought  into  the  six 
days  of  the  week,  in  order  that  the  sanctity  of  the 
Sabbath  may  be  emphasized  by  the  divine  example. 

In  modern  times  cosmogony  takes  the  form  of 
some  theory  of  cosmic  evolution  in  which  physical 
forces  shape  the  universe  in  accordance  with  scien- 
tifically ascertainable  laws.     See  Evolution. 

H.  P.  Smith 

COUNCIL  OF  BASEL.— See  Basel,  Coun- 
cil OF. 

COUNCILS  AND  SYNODS.— AssembUes  repre- 
senting Christians  of  some  locality  in  which  decision 
is  made  relative  to  the  doctrine  or  administration 
of  the  group  represented. 

The  difference  between  the  Council  and  the 
Synod  is  not  easy  to  draw,  possibly  the  most  strik- 
ing difference  being  that  the  latter  is  more  local 
than  the  former. 

Councils  are  by  no  means  Umited  to  Christians, 
for  the  history  of  Buddhism  abounds  in  records 
of  the  meeting  of  representative  persons  to  deal 
with  heresy  or  undertake  to  organize  correct  views 
to  be  held  by  the  clergy  and  their  fellows. 

Christianity,  as  a  religion  of  a  group,  has  almost 
from  its  inception  held  meetings  in  which  matters 
of  policy  or  belief  were  decided.  The  earliest  of 
such  meetings  is  the  so-called  Council  of  Jerusalem 
held  for  the  purpose  of  adjusting  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Pauline  and  the  Jewish  group  of  Christians. 

1.  The  Ecumenical  Councils. — These  are  seven 
in  number  and  were  never  thoroughly  ecumenical. 
Their  membership  was  composed  largely  of  eastern 
clergy  with  only  a  few  from  the  west.  These 
councils  are: 

a)  The  First  Council  of  Nicaea  (325)  which 
formulated  the  belief  in  the  consubstantiabihty 
of  the  Son  with  the  Father. 


h)  The  First  Council  of  Constantinople  (381) 
which  restated  the  position  of  Nicaea  and  con- 
demned ApolUnarianism  (q.v.). 

c)  The  First  Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  which 
condemned  Nestorius  and  aproved  the  use  of  the 
term  "Mother  of  God"  (q.  v.). 

d)  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  which 
declared  the  presence  of  two  natures  in  the  one 
person  Christ. 

e)  The  Second  Council  of  Constantinople  (553) 
which  condemned  the  Three  Chapters  (q.v.). 

/)  The  Third  Council  of  Constantinople  (680- 
681)  which  condemned  Monothelitism  (q.v.). 

g)  The  Second  Council  of  Nicaea  (787)  which 
favored  the  use  of  images. 

The  Fourth  Council  of  Constantinople  (869-70) 
is  sometimes  reckoned  as  an  eighth  ecumenical 
council. 

It  will  appear  that  the  ecumenical  councils  did 
not  proceed  far  in  the  development  of  the  funda- 
mental beliefs  as  contained  in  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

The  R.C.  church  lists  twenty  councils  as  ecumeni- 
cal, but  those  not  mentioned  above  were  wholly 
composed  of  R.C.  clergy. 

2.  A  very  large  number  of  other  councils,  how- 
ever, were  held  dealing  with  various  questions  which 
arose  in  the  church.  In  fact  the  entire  history  of 
the  early  church  might  be  said  to  be  found  in  the 
development  of  a  group  of  authoritative  beliefs  as 
organized  in  councils  and  synods.  It  would  be 
impossible  in  the  space  at  our  disposal  to  give  any 
account  of  the  decisions  of  these  councils  in  detail. 
It  is,  however,  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  11th.  century  councils  showed  very  decided 
intention  to  reform  the  church,  especially  the  morals 
of  the  clergy"  the  12th.  century  councils  were  con- 
cerned largely  with  the  relations  of  the  papacy 
with  the  church  and  with  the  development  of  the 
dogmas  of  transubstantiation  (4  Lateran  1215); 
the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  attempted  unsuccess- 
fully to  end  the  schism  between  the  Greek  and  the 
Latin  churches;  the  councils  of  the  15th.  century 
including  those  of  Pisa  (q.v.),  Constance  (q.v.), 
and  Basel  (q.v.),  were  largely  concerned  with  the 
reforming  of  the  administration  of  the  church.  In 
the  period  of  the  Reformation  the  most  important 
R.C.  council  was  that  of  Trent  (q.v.)  which  was 
convoked  1542-1563  for  the  purpose  of  under- 
taking reform  both  of  the  matters  of  administration 
and  of  doctrine  in  view  of  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation  (q.v.).  The  Vatican  Council  held  in 
1869-1870  defined  the  dogma  of  papal  infalhbility. 

The  Protestant  groups  have  also  held  innumer- 
able councils  and  synods  for  the  purpose  of 
correcting  heresy  or  working  out  reforms.  Most 
Protestant  bodies  have  such  meetings  with  more  or 
less  authority  holding  sessions  at  regular  intervals. 
These  are  generally  known  as  conventions,  confer- 
ences, or  associations.  In  American  practice  the 
word  Council  commonly  is  used  for  meetings  called 
for  special  decisions  while  Synod  is  used  as  an 
official  designation  for  the  authoritative  body  of 
some  definite  territory.  Shailer  Mathews 

COUNCILS  (BUDDHIST).— There  is  evidence 
of  a  succession  of  councils  held  in  the  early 
centuries  of  Buddhism  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
serving the  law  and  discipline  of  the  movement  but 
confident  assertion  regarding  them  is  impossible 
at  present.  The  first  three  are  the  best  attested. 
(1)  A  coimcil  held  at  Ragagriha  under  KaSyapa  in 
447  B.C.  when  the  law  (dhamma)  and  discipline 
(j)inaya)  were  established  with  the  assistance  of 
Ananda  and  Upali.  (2)  A  council  at  Vai^ali  in 
377  B.C.  which  decided  regarding  certain  practices 
of  monks  of  that  place  not  provided  for  by  the  law. 
(3)  A  council  at  Pataliputra  under  Asoka  about 


Counsel  of  Perfection 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


116 


242  B.C.  which  had  the  character  of  real  ecclesiastical 
authority  backed  by  the  king.  The  authority  of 
most  of  the  Buddhist  councils  came  from  the  con- 
sensus of  elderly  saints  who  claimed  to  preserve 
the  original  tradition  of  Buddha. 

A.  EtrSTACE  Hatdon 

COUNSEL  OF  PERFECTION.— See  Consilia 

EVANGELICA. 

COUNTER-REFORMATION.— A  term  com- 
monly applied  to  the  reaction  in  the  R.C.  church 
against  the  Protestant  Reformation,  which  had 
aroused  serious-minded  men  to  the  painful  con- 
sciousness of  widespread  depravity  and  urgent 
demand  of  reformation  of  both  clergy  and  laity. 

The  reforming  activity,  which  had  already  begun 
with  Catholic  princes  like  William  IV.  of  Bavaria, 
continued  for  a  hundred  years,  from  the  middle  of 
the  16th.  to  the  middle  of  the  17th.  century,  with 
the  twofold  aim  of  reclaiming  those  who  had 
abandoned  the  church  for  Protestantism  and  of  cor- 
recting the  abuses  which  had  brought  on  the 
Reformation.  Prominent  among  the  men  who 
gave  themselves  to  the  task  were:  Ignatius, 
Canisius,  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  and  other  Jesuits; 
Philip  Neri,  Cardinal  Baronius,  and  other  Ora- 
torians,  by  their  sincerity  in  preaching  and  writing; 
Vincent  de  Paul  by  his  congenial  active  charity; 
missionaries  like  the  Franciscan  Fidelis  of  Sigmar- 
ingen;  Bishops  like  Francis  de  Sales,  Charles 
Borromeo,  Otto  of  Walburg,  Hosius  of  Ermland. 
Juhus  Echter  alone,  it  is  said,  brought  back  more 
than  62,000  Protestants  to  Roman  communion. 

The  authoritative  procedure  began  with  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  of  cardinals  by  pope 
Paul  III.  to  carry  out  the  programme  drawn  up 
by  cardinals  Contarini,  Morone,  and  Caraffa  in 
1537.  The  Inquisition,  generally  under  zealous 
Dominicans,  effectively  stopped  the  spread  of  the 
new  faith  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands. The  crowns  of  France  and  Bavaria  were 
strenuous  in  maintaining  the  discipline  "cujus 
regio  illius  religio."  The  persecution  of  the  Hugue- 
nots, culminating  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Night  (1572),  was  an  effect  of  their  zeal. 
Austria,  despite  the  tolerant  inclination  of  Maxi- 
milian II.,  persistently  withstood  the  Reformation. 

In  its  effort  to  correct  the  abuses  which  had 
brought  on  the  Reformation,  the  R.C.  church  con- 
vened its  bishops  in  numerous  synods  and  enacted 
disciplinary  decrees  for  the  reform  of  the  clergy  and 
laity.  The  most  important  by  far  was  the  Council 
of  Trent  (1545-1563)  (q.v.) .  Besides  anathematizing 
the  teachers  and  teachings  of  Protestantism,  the 
council  enacted  "reformatory  decrees"  providing 
for  more  efficient  methods  in  teaching  Catholic 
theology  and  philosophy  (Session  5),  more  exact 
seminary  discipline  (S.  23,  c.  18),  more  frequent 
diocesan  synods  (S.  24),  insisting  on  the  duty  of 
residence, of  bishops  and  pastors  (SS.  6  and  23), 
simplicity  of  clerical  dress  and  life  (SS.  14  and  25), 
frequent  diocesan  and  parochial  visitation  (S.  6), 
regulation  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  (S.  7),  care 
in  the  ordination  and  installation  of  clerics  (S.  21), 
restoration  of  monastic  discipline  (S.  25),  and 
correction  of  the  misuse  of  excommunication  (S.  25). 
To  protect  the  faithful  from  dangerous  reading  it 
drew  up  the  Index  librorum  prohibitorum^  and 
provided  a  safe  guide  in  Catholic  doctrine  m  the 
Catechismus  Romanus.  The  "Inquisition"  was  to 
be  more  vigilant  and  exercise  its  power  under  the 
bishop  in  each  diocese.  The  professio  fidei  triden- 
tina  was  to  be  required  of  all  CathoUcs.  Pius  V. 
unflinchingly  executed  the  laws  of  Trent.  Gregory 
XIII.  was  kinder  than  Pius  and  his  reform  ran 
smoother,  but  withal  quite  as  effectively.  It  was  a 
relief  when  Sixtus  V.  happily  turned  the  attention 


of  Catholics  to  literature  and  art,  incidentally,  as  it 
were,  introducing  reform  in  the  study  of  Scripture, 
in  Canon  Law,  and  in  Liturgy,  which  has  perhaps 
more  than  anything  else  brought  about  concord 
and  proper  understanding  of  devotional  practices — 
the  point  whence  the  Reformation  started.  So 
thorough  and  far-reaching  was  the  reformatory 
work  of  the  Council  of  Trent  that  the  church  has 
since  that  time  done  little  more  than  apply  and 
enforce  its  decrees,  which,  with  slight  modification, 
are  still  in  force.  J.  N.  Reagan 

COURAGE. — One  of  the  cardinal  virtues  in 
Greek  and  in  mediaeval  Christian  ethics.  It 
denotes  in  Greek  philosophy  the  capacity  of  a  man 
to  control  impulses  and  to  subordinate  emotions  in 
the  interest  of  the  rational  end  prescribed  by  wis- 
dom. Christian  moralists  emphasized  the  fearless 
fortitude  of  martyrs  and  saints  and  the  persistent 
turning  away  from  temptations.  In  modern  times 
the  term  is  employed  in  the  military  sense  of  fear- 
lessly facing  danger,  and  in  a  social  sense  of  reso- 
lutely facing  disapproval  of  others  or  personal 
disadvantage  for  the  sake  of  loyalty  to  principles. 
See  Virtues  and  Vices. 

COURTS,  ECCLESIASTICAL.— Congregational 
action  on  internal  disputes  and  moral  offenses  soon 
developed  the  Bishop's  Court  which  obtained  fixed 
procedure  when  synodal  legislation  came  (4th. 
century).  Constantine  (321)  allowed  episcopal 
courts  to  arbitrate  in  civic  cases  belonging  to 
state  courts.  This  soon  ceased,  but  the  mediaeval 
Bishop's  Court  dealt  with  testaments  and  contracts, 
infraction  here  being  sin.  The  appeal  from  the 
bishop  is  to  the  archbishop,  the  highest  tribunals 
being  three  Roman  courts:  The  Sacred  Penitentiary, 
The  Sacred  Roman  Rota,  The  ApostoUc  Synatura. 
Protestant  procedure  varies  with  the  denomination. 
The  Presbyterian  courts  are  the  session,  the  presby- 
tery, the  synod,  the  General  Assembly.  Methodism 
provides  a  judicial  committee  with  an  appeal  to 
conferences.  F.  A.  Christie 

COUVADE. — ^A  custom  among  certain  primitive 
peoples  of  putting  the  father  to  bed  after  the  birth 
of  a  child,  in  recognition  of  paternal  obligation. 

COVENANT. — ^Any  formal  and  solemn  agree- 
ment between  two  individuals  or  two  groups  or 
between  individuals  or  groups  and  a  god  or  gods. 
The  covenant  is  usually  sealed  by  means  of  symbol- 
ism. In  covenants  between  men  the  purposes 
include  the  adoption  of  a  stranger  into  a  tribe,  the 
making  of  peace  between  enemies,  the  production 
of  kinship  relationship  or  of  friendship  or  of  identity 
of  interests,  and  the  founding  of  an  alHance;  and 
the  covenant  is  symbolized  by  mutual  drinking, 
infusion  or  smearing  of  blood  as  in  the  blood- 
covenant  (q.v.),  by  an  interchange  of  names,  gar- 
ments, weapons  or  utensils,  or  by  a  common  meal. 
In  covenants  between  men  and  deities  the  rehgious 
ceremonial  is  the  symbol  which  expresses  an 
exchange  of  duties,  worship  or  gifts  from  men  in 
return  for  some  boon  from  the  god.  The  commoner 
symbols  of  such  covenants  are  eating  the  sacrificial 
meal,  ceremonies  in  which  the  blood  of  the  sacrificial 
victim  is  the  vehicle,  and  totemistic  rites.  Some- 
times meteorological  phenomena  are  regarded  as 
covenant-signs,  as  the  rainbow  in  Gen.  9 :  16 
Covenants  constituted  important  factors  in  the 
reUgion  of  Israel,  and  an  important  development 
of  Protestant  theology  was  based  on  the  concep- 
tion of  a  covenant  between  God  and  man.  See 
Covenant  Theology; 

COVENANT  OF  WORKS;  COVENANT  OF 
GRACE. — See  Covenant  Theology. 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Creed" 


COVENANT  THEOLOGY  or  FEDERAL 
THEOLOGY.— A  type  of  theology  in  which  the 
relations  of  God  and  man  are  presented  under  the 
form  of  a  covenant  or  contract  (Joedus) . 

The  theologian  Johannes  Cocceius  (q.v.)  is 
commonly  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this  type  of 
theology.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  conception  of 
God's  relations  to  man  under  the  form  of  a  contract 
was  not  unknown  to  writers  before  him,  although 
he  may  fairly  well  be  said  to  have  given  the  theology 
its  first  systematic  form. 

According  to  the  covenant  or  federal  theology, 
God  is  represented  as  having  estabUshed  two  cove- 
nants with  man;  the  first,  or  Covenant  of  Works, 
was  made  with  Adam,  the  representative  of  the 
human  race.  This  covenant  promised  Ufe  and 
happiness  as  a  reward  for  obedience  and  death  as 
the  penalty  of  disobedience.  This  covenant  of 
works  Adam,  again  as  representative  of  the  human 
race,  broke,  and  thus  brought  upon  humanity  the 
penalty  of  death.  God  then  subsequently  made  a 
second  covenant  or  Covenant  of  Grace  with  Christ, 
the  representative  of  his  people.  According  to  this 
new  covenant,  the  promise  was  made  of  salvation  to 
those  who  believed  in  Jesus  Christ.  The  covenant 
of  grace  includes  various  subordinate  covenants 
as:  that  of  Redemption  made  between  God  and 
Christ  that  God  should  give  Christ  spiritual  seed; 
the  Abrahamic  as  declared  to  Abraham  and  his 
descendants. 

The  Covenant  theology  thus  starts  from  the 
general  point  of  view  of  Calvin.  By  it,  the  covenant 
of  grace  exists  only  between  those  elected  by  God 
for  salvation.  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God  and  acts 
for  those  for  whom  he  was  to  be  the  representative 
and  head.  To  this  end,  he  became  incarnate  in 
order  to  unite  the  deity  with  humanity,  thus  becom- 
ing the  federal  head  of  the  elect  humanity.  For 
them  he  suffered,  making  expiation  for  those  whom 
he  represented. 

It  is  significant  that  this  type  of  theology  has 
not  found  wide  acceptance  except  among  those 
reformed  churches  which  belong  to  countries  in 
which  the  idea  of  the  covenant  in  poUtical  affairs  is 
more  or  less  familiar.  The  Council  of  Trent 
especially  condemned  the  Covenant  theology. 

Shailer  Mathews 

COVENANTERS.— A  party  holding  to  the 
principles  of  the  Reformed  church,  originating  in 
Scotland,  and  playing  an  important  part  in  the 
Scottish  and  English  history  of  the  17th.  century. 
In  1557  and  again  in  1581  these  "godly  bands" 
covenanted  to  resist  the  encroaching  of  the  Catholic 
church.  In  1638  there  was  a  renewal  of  the  cove- 
nant of  1581  in  opposition  to  the  attempt  of 
Charles  I.  and  Laud  to  foist  the  English  Uturgy 
on  Scotland.  In  1643  the  leaders  of  the  English 
parUament,  after  defeat  in  the  civil  war,  entered 
into  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  (q.v.)  with 
the  Scots  for  the  establishment  of  the  Reformed 
church  in  both  countries  in  return  for  miUtary 
help.  The  Covenanters  dominated  Scottish  politi- 
cal life  from  1638  to  1651,  but  were  weakened  with 
Cromwell's  victory,  and  lost  their  power  with  the 
accession  of  Charles  II. 

COVERDALE,  MILES  (1488-1568).— English 
translator  of  the  Bible;  was  at  first  a  priest,  then 
an  Austin  friar,  afterwards  converted  to  Protestant- 
ism. His  translation  was  the  first  complete  Bible 
pubhshed  in  English  (1535.) 

COVETOUSNESS.— Inordinate  desire  for  the 
acquisition  and  possession  of  anything. 

COWARDICE.— An  attitude  of  shrinking  from 
hardship  or  danger  such  as  to  lead  one  to  evade 


duty  when  it  involves  discomfort  or  peril.  Coward- 
ice is  thus  essentially  anti-social  and  in  times  of 
great  social  need,  e.g.,  in  war,  is  readily  seen  to  be 
contemptible.  In  less  dramatic  ways  it  insidiously 
prevents  a  positive  espousal  of  moral  ideals  and 
thus  contributes  to  the  breaking  down  of  social 
morality.    See  Courage. 

COWL. — (1)  A  cloak  with  a  hood  attached  or 
simply  the  hood  of  such  a  cloak,  used  by  the  monks 
of  certain  R.C.  orders. 

COWPER,  WILLIAM  (1731-1800).— EngUsh 
poet  and  hymn-writer;  joint  author  with  John 
Newton  of  the  Olney  hymns,  1779. 

CRANMER,  THOMAS  (1489-1556).— First 
Protestant  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  was  the  main- 
stay of  Henry  VIII.  in  the  separation  of  the 
EngUsh  church  from  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the 
leader  of  the  reformation  movement  in  England, 
repudiating  celibacy,  pilgrimages,  masses  for  the 
dead,  and  prayers  to  the  saints.  The  First  and 
Second  Prayer-books  of  Edward  VI.  and  the 
Forty-two  articles  were  chiefly  his  work.  Even- 
tually he  was  burnt  at  the  stake  for  his  Protestant 
views  during  the  temporary  reversion  to  Roman 
Catholicism  in  the  reign  of  Mary. 

CREATION.— See  Cosmogony. 

CREATIONISM.— (1)  The  doctrine  that  the 
origin  of  the  material  universe  is  due  to  a  creative 
act  of  God,  usually  regarded  as  opposed  to  the 
evolutionary  hypothesis.  (2)  The  doctrine  that 
every  human  being  begins  life  with  a  new  soul 
especially  created  by  God,  as  opposed  to  traducian- 
ism  (q.v.). 

CREED. — The  statement  of  fundamental  reli- 
gious beUefs  which  the  group  holding  them  regards 
as  essential  to  salvation,  or  in  a  looser  sense  any 
formulation  of  beUefs.  The  Christian  creeds  as 
distinct  from  confessions  of  faith  are  held  by  Chris- 
tians generally  and  are  used  in  public  worship. 

A  creed  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term  is 
usually  Umited  to  the  Christian  rehgion.  Elements 
of  beUef  are,  of  course,  to  be  found  in  other  reUgions, 
notably  in  the  Four  Noble  Truths  of  Buddhism. 
The  Christian  reUgion,  however,  is  the  only  one  in 
which  there  has  been  any  authoritative  formulation 
of  faith  as  the  basis  of  membership  in  an  organiza- 
tion, conditioning  the  right  to  be  a  member  of  a 
given  reUgious  group. 

In  a  wider  sense  it  is  possible  to  find  creeds  in 
most  of  the  great  reUgions,  especially  after  they 
have  come  in  contact  with  the  Christians  or  have 
been  brought  into  conflict  with  some  other  reUgion. 

1.  The  Apostles'  Creed,  whose  evolution  through 
the  old  Roman  Creed  or  Rule  of  Faith  (q.  v.) 
can  be  traced  from  at  least  the  beginning  of  the 
2nd.  century,  is  the  oldest  Christian  creed.  It 
doubtless  found  its  origin  in  some  baptismal  formula 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  summary  of  what  the 
early  church  believed  was  fundamental  in  Christian- 
ity. It  is  to  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  Apostles' 
Creed  makes  no  reference  to  the  love  of  God,  any 
theory  of  atonement,  or  Christian  moraUty. 

2.  The  Nicene  Creed,  so-called,  is  supposed  to 
be  that  adopted  by  the  Council  of  Nicene  325  a. p. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  creed  which  is 
commonly  used  in  the  churches  as  the  Nicene 
Creed  is  one  probably  adopted  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  (381).  It  is  impossible,  however, 
to  get  at  the  correct  form  of  the  creed  adopted  at 
Constantinople,  even  in  Ught  of  its  being  quoted  in 


Cremation 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


118 


Chalcedon  in  451.  It  has  been  claimed  by  many 
that  the  Nicene-Constantinopolitan  creed  was  that  of 
CjtH  of  Jei'usalem,  but  these  questions  thus  opened 
are  not  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  scholars. 
Essential  elements  of  this  creed  are:  "We  believe  in 
one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  son  of  God,  begotten  of 
the  Father,  only  begotten,  that  is  of  the  substance 
of  the  Father,  God  of  God,  light  of  light,  very  God 
of  very  God,  begotten  not  made,  of  one  substance 
with  the  Father,"  etc.,  the  central  words  of  which 
may  be  said  to  be  "begotten"  and  "of  one  sub- 
stance." The  Nicene  Creed  also  contains  anathe- 
mas upon  those  who  differ  from  its  formula. 

3.  The  Creed  of  Chalcedon  (451)  was  adopted 
for  the  purpose  of  setthng  disputes  concerning  the 
person  of  Jesus.  This  creed  organized  the  doc- 
trine of  the  incarnation.  Its  essential  phrases, 
added  to  the  Nicene  formula,  are  "We,  then,  follow- 
ing the  holy  Fathers,  all  with  one  consent,  teach 
men  to  confess  one  and  the  same  Son,  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  the  same  perfect  in  Godhead  and 
also  perfect  in  manhood;  truly  God  and  truly  man, 
of  a  reasonable  soul  and  body;  consubstantial  with 
the  Father  according  to  the  Godhead,  and  con- 
substantial  with  us  according  to  the  Manhood;  in 
all  things  Uke  unto  us,  without  sin;  begotten  before 
all  ages  of  the  Father  according  to  the  Godhead, 
and  in  these  latter  days,  for  us  and  for  our  salvation ; 
born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Mother  of  God,  accord- 
ing to  the  Manhood;  one  and  the  same  Christ,  Son, 
Lord,  Only-begotten,  to  be  acknowledged  in  two 
natures,  inconfusedly,  unchangeably,  indivisibly, 
inseparately;  the  distinction  of  natures  being  by 
no  means  taken  away  by  the  union,  but  rather  the 
property  of  each  nature  being  preserved,  and  con- 
curring in  one  Person  and  one  Subsistence,  not 
parted  or  divided  into  two  persons,  but  one  and 
the  same  Son,  and  only  begotten,  God  the  Word, 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  as  the  prophets  from  the  be- 
ginning (have  declared)  concerning  him,  and  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself  has  taught  us,  and  the 
Creed  of  the  Holy  Fathers  has  handed  down  to  us." 

4.  The  Athanasian  Creed  {Symbolum  Quicunque) 
was  attributed  to  Athanasius  but  it  is  now  held 
generally  that  this  is  incorrect.  It  seems  rather 
to  represent  a  theological  atmosphere  of  the  Latin 
churches  in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  North  Africa.  It 
was  never  adopted  by  the  Greek  church  in  its  pre- 
cise form.  The  probability  is  that  it  arose  in  the 
churches  of  Gaul  or  North  Africa  and  developed 
by  use  until  perhaps  the  beginning  of  the  9th.  cen- 
tury. It  is  very  probably  composed  of  two  parts, 
possibly  with  separate  authors,  a  damnatory  clause 
in  the  middle  indicating  the  point  of  junction.  On 
the  matter  of  authorship,  however,  there  is  no 
uniformity  of  opinion.  While  in  its  present  form 
it  does  not  date  from  earher  than  the  9th.  century, 
in  its  essence  it  probably  was  used  for  centuries 
before  that  time.  Whatever  or  whenever  it  may 
have  originated,  the  Athanasian  Creed  found  its 
way  into  the  use  of  the  western  church.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  it  seems  to  have  been  used 
generally  for  morning  services,  mostly  in  Advent 
and  Lent.  Of  late  years  its  use  has  been  restricted 
in  the  Anglican  church  pretty  largely  to  certain 
festivals,  like  Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States 
omits  the  Athanasian  Creed  from  the  prayer  book. 
It  was  held  in  high  respect  by  Protestant  theologians 
of  the  Reformation  period,  being  formally  adopted 
by  the  Augsburg  Confession.  Whatever  ritual 
use  is  made  of  the  creed,  however,  it  undoubtedly 
represents  the  trinitarian  position  in  its  most  uncom- 
promising form.  Shailer  Mathews 

CREMATION.— See  Death  and  Funeral 
Practices. 


CRESCENT.— The  visible  part  of  the  moon  in 
its  first  or  last  quarter,  the  symbol  on  the  Turkish 
standard.  Hence  metaphorically,  the  Turkish 
power,  or  Muhammadanism  itself. 

CRIME.— See  Penology. 

CRIOBOLIUM. — A  ceremony  performed  in  con- 
nection with  the  cult  of  the  Great  Mother,  Cybele 
and  Attis.  The  ram  whose  blood  was  allowed  to 
fall  upon  the  devotee  was  consecrated  to  Attis 
and  served  the  same  purpose  as  the  blood  of  the 
bull  in  the  taurobolium  (q.v.). 

CRITICISM,  BIBLICAL,  HIGHER,  TEXTUAL, 
LOWER. — See  Biblical  Criticism. 

CROMLECH. — A  circular  enclosure  formed 
by  large  standing  stones  set  some  distarce  apart 
within  which  the  dead  were  buried  in  prehistoric 
times.  The  burial  places  within  are  often  marked 
by  cairns,  dolmens,  or  mounds  so  that  it  is  probable 
that  the  large  enclosure  was  a  place  intended  for  the 
observance  of  rites  connected  with  the  cult  of  the 
dead.  These  stone  circles  are  found  in  France, 
Norway  and  the  British  Isles.  The  best  known 
example  is  Stonehenge. 

CROMWELL,  OLIVER  (1599-1658).— Lord 
Protector  of  England,  a  supreme  example  of 
Puritan  faith  in  the  divine  guidance  and  of  Puritan 
hatred  of  political  or  rehgious  tyranny  joined  with 
a  narrow  conception  of  liberty.  As  the  Lord's 
warrior  against  Charles  I.  he  recruited  his  troops 
from  men  who  fought  only  for  religious  faith, 
chiefly  Independents  opposed  like  himself  both  to 
monarchy  and  the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism. 
His  stern  zeal  created  the  Irish  problem  by  his 
ruthless  slaughter  of  captives,  suppression  of 
CathoUcism,  and  division  of  estates  among  his 
soldiers.  As  head  of  the  state  his  poUcy  was  to 
maintain  a  state  church  with  Puritan  worship 
tolerating  non-conformists  only  of  a  Puritan  type. 
Personally  in  sympathy  with  complete  toleration 
he  protected  Jews  and  liberated  imprisoned  Quakers. 

F.  A.  Christie 

CROSIER. — An  ecclesiastical  ornament,  dis- 
tinctive of  a  bishop.  It  is  in  form  a  shepherd's 
staff,  symbolical  of  pastoral  authority.  It  may  have 
been  a  Christian  adaptation  of  the  Roman  augur's 
lituus,  or  originally  simply  the  elder's  haculum. 
Its  present  form  and  significance  date  from  the 
5th.  century. 

CROSS. — A  figure  made  by  the  intersection  of 
two  or  more  hnes  transversely.  The  cross  as  an 
instrument  was  frequently  made  of  wood,  and  in 
ancient  times  was  put  to  two  uses,  as  a  mystic  or 
rehgious  symbol  and  as  an  instrument  of  punish- 
ment. 

As  a  rehgious  symbol  it  appears  in  pre-Christian 
times  among  the  Egyptians,  Indians,  Chinese,  Budd- 
hists and  Europeans.  Its  use  was  widespread  among 
American  Indians.  The  significance  was  either  as  a 
symbol  of  the  four  winds,  associated  with  the  four 
points  of  the  compass,  or  as  emblematic  of  the  active 
and  passive  elements  in  nature,  or  as  a  phallic  symbol, 
or  as  an  emblem  of  Thor's  hammer,  symbohzing 
destruction.  As  an  instrument  of  punishment  and 
a  consequent  emblem  of  suffering,  the  cross  is  pre- 
Christian,  but  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  attached  to 
it  new  significance  for  Christians.  From  the  time 
of  Constantine  it  has  been  the  recognized  symbol 
of  the  Christian  rehgion.  The  "Holy  Cross"  has 
its  special  churches,  and  so-called  fragments  have 
been  venerated.  It  has  been  placed  on  flags  and 
ensigns,   in  heraldic  devices,   upon  churches  and 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Crusades,  Th» 


ecclesiastical  utensils.  It  is  carried  in  ecclesiastical 
processions  and  used  as  a  personal  ornament  by 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries  and  others.  The  watch- 
word of  the  Crusades  was  "to  take  the  cross." 
The  making  of  the  "sign  of  the  cross"  as  a  ceremony 
implying  devotion  and  truthfulness  is  of  early  origin, 
as  appears  from  the  writings  of  Tertullian  and 
Augustine.  The  performance  of  healings  and  other 
miracles  through  the  employment  of  the  cross  is 
evidence  of  the  magical  purposes  to  which  it  was 
put.  The  stress  placed  on  the  significance  of  the 
death  of  Jesus  in  Christianity  has  led  to  the  use  of 
the  word  "cross"  as  a  synonym  for  atonement  (q.v.) 
and  sometimes  for  the  Christian  reUgion.  The 
cross  continues  to  be  a  sign  of  suffering  and  of  work 
done  in  sympathy  with  an  alleviation  of  suffering, 
e.g.,  the  Red  Cross  Society  (q.v.). 

A.  S.  WOODBTJRNE 

CROSS-ROADS,  BURIAL  AT.— At  one  time 
the  method  of  disposition  of  the  bodies  of  suicides 
and  executed  criminals.  An  ancient  Teuton 
practise  was  to  offer  human  sacrifices,  frequently 
criminals,  on  altars  erected  at  cross  roads.  Hence 
the  origin  of  the  earUer  Christian  practise  of  burial. 

CRUCIFIX. — A  cross  with  an  image  of  the 
crucified  Jesus.     See  Symbols. 

CRUCIFIXION.— (1)  The  infliction  of  the  death 
penalty  by  means  of  naiUng  or  binding  the  victim 
to  or  impaling  him  on  a  cross;  a  mode  of  capital 
punishment  employed  in  many  oriental  countries. 
(2)  The  death  of  Jesus  Christ  on  the  cross  at 
Calvary. 

CRUELTY.— The  deliberate  infliction  of  suffer- 
ing and  pain.  Modern  legislation  aiming  at  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  those  unable  to  protect 
themselves  such  as  children,  defectives,  and  animals, 
is  evidence  of  a  growing  humanitarianism. 

CRUSADES,  THE.— A  warlike  episode  in  the 
relations  between  the  eastern  and  western  half  of 
the  Mediterranean  world  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  characterized  by  military  invasions  of 
Palestine  by  Christian  armies. 

The  lure  of  the  Levant  was  strong  in  western 
Europe  as  the  11th.  century  approached  its  end. 
This  was  due  to  general  cultural  superiority  of 
long  standing,  but,  like  all  else  in  the  mediaeval 
world,  it  took  on  religious,  theological  color:  the 
Holy  Land,  the  Holy  Sepulchre  loomed  large  in 
men's  minds.  Meanwhile  social  and  economic 
distress  was  prevalent  at  home.  Feudal  dis- 
organization, the  incipient  disaggregation  of  the 
Germanic  Roman  Empire,  the  birth  throes  of 
national  developments,  famines,  etc.,  weighed 
heavily,  especially  on  the  lower  strata  of  society. 
The  schism  between  Rome  and  the  Byzantine 
Church  was  a  recent  wound  on  the  body  politic  of 
Christendom,  still  keenly  felt  on  occasion,  and  not 
yet  appearing  so  hopeless  as  a  few  centuries  later. 
The  most  distinctly  mediaeval  institution  of  western 
Europe,  the  papacy,  had  arrived  with  Gregory  VII. 
(Hildebrand)  nearly  or  quite  at  its  apogee.  In  it, 
as  in  the  heart  of  western  Christendom,  met  more 
information  about  and  concern  for  all  the  things 

t'ust  mentioned,  than  in  any  other  individual  or 
)ody  of  men  in  Europe. 

East  of  the  Mediterranean  the  Seljuk  Turk 
invasion,  followed  by  speedy  conversion  and 
absorption  into  the  Mohammedan  world,  had  caused 
a  brief  but  forceful  revival  of  the  conquering  power 
of  Islam,  especially  in  the  direction  of  Byzantium. 
The  pressure  of  this  thrust  helped  to  create  new 
difficulties  and  disorders  on  the  northern  frontiers 


of  Byzantium.  The  lapping  waves  of  its  floodtide 
disturbed  Jerusalem,  also,  and  added  to  the  plaints 
of  pilgrims  from  the  West. 

On  request  for  aid  from  Byzantium,  Gregory 
VII.  had  planned  a  project  very  like  the  later 
Crusades,  a  campaign  led  by  himself,  to  safeguard 
Byzantium's  frontier,  to  gain  control  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  and  incidentally  to  effect  a  reunion  of 
the  churches.  The  project  was  dropped  when 
Gregory  presently  involved  himself  in  political 
difficulties  at  home.  Not  long  after  his  death 
the  great  French  Cluniac  Urban  II.  in  a  happier 
collocation  of  similar  circumstances  set  in  motion 
the  first  Crusade.  The  most  distinctly  mediaeval 
institution,  as  was  fitting,  had  set  on  foot  the 
most  characteristically  mediaeval  movement. 
(The  connection  of  Peter  the  Hermit  with  the 
origination  of  the  crusading  idea  is  a  legend.) 

It  was  a  magnificent  concept.  Without  jeopard- 
izing his  dignity  by  attempted  personal  leadership 
Urban  quietly  asserted  the  supremacy  of  the 
papacy  over  all  Christendom.  Disunited  Europe 
was  to  be  imified  in  a  great  movement  against  a 
common  foe.  The  economic  distress  of  western  Eur- 
ope would  be  alleviated,  the  Byzantine  Empire  saved 
and  perhaps  reconstituted,  the  Byzantine  church 
reunited  with  Rome,  the  holy  places  of  Christian 
origins  be  brought  under  Christian,  more  par- 
ticularly papal,  rule.  And  thus  a  splendid  begin- 
ning would  be  made  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Christian  civitas  Dei  on  the  earth.  The  similarity  of 
this  program  with  that  of  the  Moslem  holy  war 
QihcLd)  is  striking. 

By  unusual  good  fortune,  fitiding  the  power  of 
resistance  of  the  Moslem  world  at  its  lowest  ebb, 
this  first  expedition,  despite  poor  organization  and 
inefficient  equipment  and  leadership,  gained  its 
most  tangible  objective,  possession  of  Jerusalem, 
July  1099.  How,  by  a  more  or  less  constant  stream 
of  reinforcements,  now  and  again  reaching  the 
dimensions  of  an  expedition  similar  to  or  greater 
than  the  first  (some  count  seven,  others  twelve, 
etc.),  Jerusalem  remained  more  or  less  securely  in 
Christian  hands  for  almost  exactly  100  years 
(with  interruption),  and  some  strips  of  the  Syrian 
coast  were  held  about  a  century  longer,  cannot  be 
told  in  detail.  The  more  important  and  well  known 
of  these  expeditions  are:  the  one  generally  known 
as  the  third  Crusade,  led  by  jFrederick  I.  Barba- 
rossa  of  Germany,  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  and 
Richard  I.,  Lionheart,  of  England;  the  crusade  of 
Frederick  II.  (the  last  powerful  Hohenstaufen) , 
who,  though  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  gained 
by  diplomacy  what  could  not  be  got  by  force  of 
arms,  possession  of  Jerusalem  for  a  brief  space; 
the  crusades  of  St.  Louis  of  France,  out  of  the 
second  (and  last)  of  which  grew  a  crusade  of  interest 
and  importance  to  readers  of  the  EngHsh  tongue, 
that  of  Edward  I.  of  England.  As  for  the  other 
purposes  with  which  the  Crusades  were  begun: 
the  economic  distress  of  Europe  was  relieved  at 
least  temporarily,  perhaps  in  a  measure  permanently, 
by  the  fostering  of  trade  and  commerce;  the  papacy 
in  and  with  the  crusading  movement  attained  its 
greatest  power,  but  presently,  having  overstrained 
it,  saw  it  begin  to  slip  away;  the  Byzantine  church 
was  more  seriously  estranged  than  ever  before; 
the  Byzantine  empire  was  hastened  on  its  way  to 
destruction,  making  room  for  that  counterthrust 
of  Islam  against  Europe,  which  is  properly  called 
the  Ottoman  Empire  (improperly  Turkey,  or 
Turkey  in  Europe).  It  was  under  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  (1198-1216),  apparently  at  the  zenith  of 
its  glory  and  power,  that  the  degeneration  and  rapid 
decay  of  the  crusading  idea  set  in.  The  crusading 
movement  was  diverted  from  war  against  non- 
Christians  in  and  for  the  Holy  L^-ud  to  warlike 


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movements  against  the  schismatic  Greeks  of  Con- 
stantinople; against  heretical  Albigenses  in  the 
south  of  France;  against  non-Christian  peoples  on 
the  eastern  frontiers  of  Germany;  against  an 
insubordinate  Christian  prince,  John  Lackland  of 
England.  The_  "crusade"  against  the  Hohen- 
staufen  ended,  indeed,  in  the  complete  destruction 
of  this  dynasty;  but  it  marks,  also,  the  distinct 
decline  of  papal  sovereign  power  of  the  mediaeval 
type,  and  no  effective  crusading  movement  was 
thereafter  actually  started  on  its  way  to  the  Holy 
Land. 

To  name  precise  moral  or  religious  values 
created,  gained,  established,  enhanced  or  dimin- 
ished in  whole  or  in  part  by  the  Crusades  is  a 
very  difficult  perhaps  an  impossible  task.  That 
cultural  elements,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent, 
many  rather  intangible,  must  have  filtered  in  from 
the  East,  goes  without  saying.  Begun  with  an 
avowedly  fanatical  purpose,  these  movements  had 
a  way  of  leaving  a  fair  number  of  their  devotees 
more  broadminded  in  the  end.  Something  like 
an  historic  outlook  on  life  and  the  world  was 
attained  by  mediaeval  Europe.  Luxuries  became 
necessities;  the  standard  of  living  was  perceptibly 
raised.  Some  countries,  e.g.,  Germany,  were 
imfavorably  influenced  in  their  development;  in 
some,  Italy,  England,  evil  and  good  effects  are 
fairly  well  balanced  against  each  other.  A  few 
benefited  distinctly.  Spain  was  helped  in  its 
efforts  to  throw  off  African  (Moorish)  overlordship. 
France  during,  and  in  considerable  measure  through 
the  Crusades  developed  into  a  great,  well  ordered, 
nation;  its  historic  claims  in  the  Levant  are  of  this 
mediaeval  time  and  type.  M.  Sprengling 

CRYPT. — ^A  hidden  vault  or  subterranean 
chamber;  specifically  those  in  the  catacombs  used 
for  burial,  and  those  under  certain  churches  em- 
ployed as  cemeteries,  chapels,  confessionals. 

CRYPTO-CALVINISM.— An  opprobrious  term 
used  in  the  16th.  century  to  denote  a  Calvinistic 
conception  held  by  certain  Lutherans  in  regard  to 
the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 

CRUX  ANSATA. — An  Egyptian  cross  with  a 
loop  handle,  bearing  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
sandal  cord  called  in  Egyptian  by  the  same  name. 
Whatever  its  origin,  it  has  been  to  the  Egyptian 
and  eastern  Semitic  world  the  symbol  of  life  or  of 
life-giving  power.  Similar  forms  are  found  in 
India  and  America. 

CUCHULAIN. — In  Irish  mythology,  the  name 
of  a  cycle  of  romances,  centering  in  a  sun-hero  of 
the  same  name. 

QUDRAS. — See  Sttdras. 

CUDWORTH,  RALPH  (1617-1688).— English 
philosopher,  most  renowned  of  the  Cambridge 
Platonists  His  chief  reUgious  and  ethical  doctrine 
was  based  upon  a  priori  principles,  viz.,  the  reaUty 
of  a  supreme  intelUgence  and  of  a  spiritual  world, 
the  eternal  reaUty  of  moral  ideas,  and  the  reahty  of 
moral  freedom. 

CULT. — The  system  of  beliefs  and  practices 
pertaining  to  a  particular  social  group  or  specific 
divinity.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  cult  of  Dionysus, 
the  cult  of  Osiris. 

Each  of  the  great  gods  of  Greece  had  his  own 
cult  and  there  was  in  fact  a  local  cult  for  Zeus  in 
each  main  center  of  his  worship.  These  cults 
of  any  one  god  disclose  resemblances  just  as  the 
character  and  legends  ascribed  to  him  m  different 


places  have  a  family  likeness.  It  is  also  noticeable 
that  the  cults  of  the  various  deities  among  a  given 
people  show  marked  kinship.  Thus  the  bright, 
humanized  deities  of  all  the  Greek  cults  stand  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  dark,  grotesque  gods  of 
Hinduism.  As  a  cult  is  a  system  of  rites  and 
beliefs  so  a  religion  like  the  Egyptian  or  Christian 
religion  comprehends  within  the  stages  of  its 
development  and  within  its  differing  sects  a  variety 
of  cults.  The  word  cult,  in  common  usage,  tends 
to  be  applied  to  the  more  primitive  and  less  familiar 
types  of  religion.  We  hear  of  strange  cults  and 
oriental  cults. 

Durkheim  has  emphasized  not  only  the  fact  that 
the  cult  is  a  system  of  diverse  rites,  festivals  and 
ceremonies,  but  that  they  reappear  periodically. 
For  example  one  speaks  of  marriage  rites  but  not 
of  a  marriage  cult,  of  rites  of  birth  but  not  of  a  cult 
of  the  new-born  child.  He  makes  much  of  this  in 
the  criticism  of  animism  as  a  stage  of  religion, 
holding  that  there  is  no  cult  of  ancestor  worship 
among  the  Australians  but  only  rites  of  burial 
and  mourning.  The  primitive  cult  as  Durkheim 
expounds  and  illustrates  it  in  terms  of  the  Australian 
tribes  includes  a  negative  and  a  positive  side. 
The  negative  cult  includes  the  tabus — interdictions. 
These  interdictions  restrain  the  uninitiated  from 
touching  the  sacred  objects  used  in  the  ceremonials; 
from  touching  blood,  a  corpse,  and  sacred  food 
objects.  They  prohibit  the  sight  of  certain  things 
and  speech  under  certain  circumstances.  In 
connection  with  such  tabus  the  negative  cult 
includes  means  of  overcoming  such  barriers. 
Among  these  are  abstinences,  unctions,  lustrations 
and  benedictions.  Ascetic  practices  are  common. 
The  rites  are  often  cruelly  painful.  The  positive 
cult  includes  ceremonies  to  insure  the  prosperity 
of  the  animal  or  vegetable  species  serving  the 
clan  as  totems.  These  totems  are  their  sacred 
objects,  their  deities.  The  very  life  of  their  gods 
are  felt  to  depend  upon  the  enactment  of  the  cult. 
These  sacred  beings  are  subject  to  the  rhythm  of 
renewal  and  decay.  Vegetation  dies  every  year 
and  many  animals  perish.  Man  is  no  disinterested 
spectator  of  these  changes.  His  life  depends 
upon  them  and  he  therefore  seeks  to  help  them. 
He  sheds  his  blood  for  them  in  the  rites,  he  imitates 
the  processes  of  their  production  to  make  them 
thrive.  Such  performances  are  magical  in  char- 
acter and  show  that  the  group  ceremonies  of 
religion  as  well  as  the  black  arts  of  private  persons 
are  full  of  magic.  The  difference  between  the 
magic  of  individuals  and  the  public,  ceremonial 
magic  of  religion  is  that  the  latter  is  more  power- 
ful and  is  directed  toward  the  welfare  of  men  and 
gods. 

The  cult  is  thus  seen  to  be  more  than  a  dramatic 
representation  of  the  processes  of  growth  in  nature 
or  human  life.  It  is  the  very  means  of  growth  for 
gods  and  men.  "The  gods  would  die  if  their  cult 
were  not  rendered."  Jane  Harrison  has  made 
the  same  interpretation  in  Greek  religion  and  has 
traced  the  origin  of  the  god  Dionysus  to  the  cult 
which  pertains  to  him.  This  she  regards  as  typical 
and  supports  this  view  from  parallels  in  other 
peoples.  These  views,  which  are  shared  by  other 
scholars,  have  given  a  new  meaning  to  religious 
cults.  They  are  held  to  furnish  an  understanding 
of  the  natural  origin  and  development  of  religion 
and  of  the  birth  of  the  gods  in  the  social  conscious- 
ness generated  by  the  performance  of  the  cult. 

The  cult  is  complex.  It  involves  not  only  the 
performance  of  the  rites  but  the  myths  or  beliefs 
which  accompany  the  same.  In  primitive  stages 
the  action  and  external  details  are  more  fundamental 
and  persistent  than  the  beliefs  or  myths.  Correct- 
ness   in    ceremonial    minutiae    is    more    carefully 


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guarded  and  more  easily  observed  than  individual 
beliefs.  In  fact  this  is  the  case  throughout  the 
higher  stages  of  the  religions  of  civilized  man. 
The  cult  reflects  in  interesting  ways  the  activities 
and  interests  of  the  people  among  whom  it  arises. 
The  central  objects  in  it  are  likely  to  be  the  features 
of  the  environment  which  are  of  most  concern  in 
practical  life.  Frequently  these  are  the  staple 
food  objects,  animals  among  hunters,  cereals  among 
agriculturalists.  The  bear  is  sacred  to  the  Ainu 
and  the  center  of  his  cult.  Rice  for  the  Malay, 
maize  for  the  American  Indian,  the  sheep  for 
ancient  Hebrews,  the  Nile  and  the  Sun  for  the 
Egyptians,  their  Emperors  for  the  Chinese  and  the 
Romans,  held  their  main  interest.  In  all  of  these 
peoples,  however,  there  were  many  centers  of 
sacredness  and  a  consequent  variety  of  cults.  It  is 
possible  in  many  cases  to  trace  modifications  of  the 
cult  under  the  influence  of  conquest  and  migration. 
Meal  and  wine  appear  in  the  Hebrew  ritual  after 
they  enter  Canaan  where  they  became  tillers  of  the 
soil  and  vine  growers.  Other  changes  occur  in 
the  manner  of  observing  the  cult.  At  first  all 
members  of  the  group,  at  least  all  initiated  males, 
participated.  Later  it  was  performed  by  selected 
individuals  for  the  group.  A  striking  instance  of 
this  is  seen  in  the  official  cult  of  China  in  which  the 
emperor  and  the  officials  maintained  elaborate 
ceremonials  which  were  intended  to  take  the  place 
of  the  local  cults.  Changes  also  occur  by  transfer 
of  cults  through  contacts  of  cultures  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  spread  of  Buddhism  in  China  and  Japan. 

Edward  S.  Ajmes 

CULTURE  EPOCHS.— The  name  given  to  the 
great  stages  in  the  development  of  the  human  race. 
The  term  is  often  used  in  connection  with  the  theory 
that  the  individual  in  his  growth  from  infancy  to 
adulthood  actually  passes  through  the  cultural 
stages — primitive,  savage,  barbarian,  semi-civihzed — 
through  which  the  race  has  passed. 

The  theory  of  recapitulation  has  had  a  great 
influence  on  education.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
the  child  should  be  given  the  stimuli  corresponding 
to  the  culture  epoch  in  which  he  was  at  a  given  time. 
This  theory  is  now  severely  criticized. 

Theodore  G.  Scares 

CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 
— A  sect  of  Presbyterians  which  separated  from 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.S.A.  in  1810. 
Owing  to  a  great  revival  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
the  demand  for  ministers  necessitated  the  ordina- 
tion of  men  of  inferior  educational  standards  which 
led  to  dissension  and  separation.  The  synod  drew 
up  a  confession  of  faith  in  1816  which  was  a  modi- 
fied Calvinism,  rejecting  predestination,  Umited 
atonement  and  original  sin.  In  1906  a  re-union 
with  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.S.A.  was 
consummated,  though  nearly  half  the  membership 
refused  to  participate  in  the  union.     See  Presby- 

TERIANISM. 

CUNYATA. — See  Buddhism,  sec.  III. 

CURATE. — (1)  A  minister  or  priest  who  is 
an  assistant  to  the  rector  or  vicar  of  a  parish. 
(2)  Canonically,  a  holder  of  a  benefice  who  was 
responsible  for  the  "cure"  of  souls.  Cf.  the  French 
cur^. 

CURE  OF  SOULS. — A  phrase  used  in  the  R.C. 
and  Anglican  churches  to  designate  the  spiritual 
care  of  members  of  a  congregation  by  the  clergy. 

CURIA. — The  usual  term  for  the  "curia  Ro- 
mana,"  or  system  of  officials  who  comprise  the 
papal  government.  See  Pope;  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 


CURIALISM. — An  attitude  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  exalting  the  papal  authority  as  supreme. 

CURSING. — See  Blessing  and  Cursing. 

CUSTOM. — A  norm  of  voluntary  action  that 
has  been  developed  in  a  social  group.  Custom  is  to 
be  distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  hahit,  which 
is  a  relatively  persistent  mode  of  activity  in  the 
individual,  and  on  the  other  hand  from  usage, 
which  is  a  mere  "folkway,"  or  "social  habit, 
without  the  normative  character  of  custom.  Cus- 
tom is,  therefore,  a  habit  which  has  become  com- 
mon to  a  social  group  and  more  or  less  sanctioned 
by  it. 

Custom,  being  built  upon  the  basis  of  acquired 
habit,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist  in  the  lower 
animals,  but  it  is  all  important  in  human  social 
evolution,  which  proceeds  largely  by  the  method 
of  accumulating  and  modifying  acquired  habits 
in  individuals.  Thus  custom  is  the  basis  of  both 
law  and  morality  in  human  society,  while  primitive 
religion  concerns  itself  mainly  with  the  maintenance 
of  custom.  Custom  is  also  the  basis  of  cultural 
and  historical  continuity  in  human  groups,  although 
tradition  (the  handing  down  through  oral  or  written 
language  of  knowledge,  standards,  and  values) 
plays  an  equal  part,  being  indeed  essentially  the 
more  subjective  side  of  custom  in  the  group. 
Sumner  caUs  customs  mores. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 

CYBELE. — ^A  Phrygian  goddess  whose  cult 
spread  widely  in  Asia  Minor  and  around  the 
Mediterranean  during  the  Greco-Roman  period. 
She  is  the  symbol  of  the  fruitful,  all-producing 
earth  while  her  consort  Attis  represents  the  vege- 
tation which  grows,  dies  and  is  reborn.  Emascu- 
lated priests  performed  the  wild  ceremonies  of  the 
cult  which  absorbed  that  of  many  other  similar 
deities  in  the  empire  and  developed  elaborate  mys- 
teries giving  hope  and  assurance  of  resurrection 
to  the  individual  initiate.  See  Mother  God- 
desses;  Mystery  Religions. 

CYCLE. — The  conception  of  a  cycle  or  "Great 
Year"  of  time  marked  dramatically,  at  the  beginning 
by  the  entrance  of  a  new  order  of  being,  in  its 
middle  by  a  characteristic  development,  and  at  the 
close  by  a  more  or  less  cataclysmic  finale  wiping 
out  all  that  has  passed  and  completing  the  tale, 
has  been  developed  independently  in  several  centers 
of  civilization.  Its  foundations  in  virtually  all 
cases  are  two:  first,  a  notion  of  periods  or  ages, 
in  cosmogony  and  in  culture  history,  that  is,  a 
doctrine  of  Ages  of  the  World,  such  as  the  classical 
division  of  world-history  into  a  Golden,  Silver, 
Bronze,  and  Iron  Age;  and  second,  calendric 
computations  resulting  in  a  "Calendar  Round" 
or  cycle  of  nameable  dates,  at  the  end  of  which 
the  series  must  be  begun  anew.  Commonly,  the 
cosmogonical  and  culture-history  myths  belong  to 
an  older  stratum  of  speculation.  As  soon  as  there 
is  sufficient  progress  in  astronomy  to  give  mensur- 
able series  of  years  the  calendric  cycles  are  dis- 
covered, and  as  these  eventually  assume  vast 
proportions,  they  are  naturally  conceived  of  as 
the  measures  of  the  older  mythic  cycles.  The  most 
frequent  basis  for  the  computation  of  cycles  is 
the  discovery  of  the  synodic  periods  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  According  to  the  Egyptian  notion,  the 
Sothic  cycle  represented  the  recurrence  of  the  New 
Year's  day  of  their  civil  year  of  365  days  and  their 
astronomical  year  of  365|  days  upon  the  same 
date,  which  took  place  at  the  end  of  1460  astro- 
nomical years.  The  Babylonians  computed  a  great 
cycle  of  about  33,000  years,  its  beginning  and  end 
being  marked  by  the  appearance  of  all  the  planets  in 


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122 


the  same  zodiacal  sign.  The  Maya  of  Yucatan 
computed  a  cycle  of  nearly  the  same  length,  based 
upon  the  recurrence  of  day-signs  in  orders  deter- 
mined by  various  calendric  factors.  But  of  all 
such  cycles  the  vastest  are  those  computed  by 
the  Hindus,  the  sum  of  the  years  of  the  four  ages 
of  a  "Day  of  Brahm"  reaching  the  vast  period  of 
4,320,000  years,  while  the  corresponding  "Night 
of  Brahm"  endures  through  a  thousand  times  this 
number.  H.  B.  Alexander 

CYNICS.— A  school  of  Greek  philosophers 
originating  between  Socrates  and  the  Stoics.  They 
emphasized  the  freedom  of  the  human  will  and 
absolute  individualism  in  morals.  Morality  must 
be  in  ultimate  harmony  with  reason.  Their  indi- 
vidualism was  a  denial  and  neglect  of  social  virtues. 
The  dog  was  popularly  regarded  as  their  emblem, 
their  name  coming  from  that  source  or  quite  as 
probably  from  the  Cynosarges,  their  Athenian 
place  of  meeting.  They  are  important  as  the 
forerunners  of  Stoicism.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Roman  Empire  the  word  had  not  gained  the  oppro- 
brium later  associated  with  it.  Epictetus  uses  cynic 
as  the  description  of  the  true  philosopher. 

CYPRIAN  OF  CARTHAGE  (ca.  200-258).— 
Bishop  of  Carthage,  martyr  and  saint  in  the  R.C. 
calendar.  Cyprian's  contribution  to  Catholic  thought 
was  his  formulation  of  the  doctrine  of  the  one 
church,  the  sole  ark  of  salvation,  bound  by  one 
united  episcopate  of  apostolic  succession,  a  doc- 
trine developed  in  opposition  to  Novatianism(q.v.) 
with  reference  to  the  treatment  of  those  who  had 
lapsed  during  the  Decian  persecution.     He  favored 


toleration  and  the  readmission  of  penitents. 
Through  his  influence  both  religion  and  ethics 
were  ecclesiastically  standardized  and  the  primacy 
of  Rome  was  greatly  advanced. 

CYRENAIC— A  post-Socratic  school  of  Greek 
philosophy  founded  by  Aristippus  of  Cyrene, 
whose  main  tenet  was  positive  hedonism.  Aris- 
tippus held  that  prudence  discriminates  between 
pleasures  and  guides  to  ethical  conduct. 

CYRIL  AND  METHODIUS.— Two  brothers 
who  were  "apostles  to  the  Slavs";  Cyril  died  869 
and  Methodius  885.  Cyril  invented  the  Slavonic 
script,  and  the  brothers  translated  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  certain  portions  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Slavonic.  They  also  began  the  use  of  Slavonic 
for  certain  portions  of  the  liturgy. 

CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA  (376-444).— Bishop 
of  Alexandria  and  Church  Father,  a  noted  dogmatic 
theologian  and  defender  of  orthodoxy,  and  champion 
of  a  Christology  that  insisted  on  two  natures  but 
one  person  in  Christ.  He  made  regrettable  use 
of  his  power  in  the  persecution  of  Jews,  heretics  and 
pagans,  was  the  chief  opponent  of  Nestorius  (q.v.), 
and  the  power  behind  the  strife  in  which  Hypatia 
was  murdered. 

CYRIL  OF  JERUSALEM  (ca.  315-386).— 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  defended  the  Nicene  creed 
during  the  Arian  controversy  as  a  result  of  which  he 
was  twice  deposed  and  reinstated.  His  strength 
as  a  pastor  is  evidenced  by  his  great  work  addressed 
to  catechumens. 


DAEVA.— See  Deva. 

DAGDA. — An  agricultural  god  of  the  Irish 
Celts,  called  "Good  God,"  "Creator,"  "Lord  of 
Great  Kjiowledge."  He  had  power  over  the 
supplies  of  corn,  milk  and  fruit.  His  cauldron 
was  always  a  source  of  plenty.  He  is  probably 
the  Irish  god  of  fertility  corresponding  to  the 
under-world  Dis-Pater  oi  the  continental  Celts. 
See  Danxt. 

DAGOBA.— See  Stupa. 

DAGON. — A  Phihstine  god,  perhaps  the  princi- 
pal deity,  probably  a  god  of  agriculture.  He  was 
worshiped  in  parts  of  Phoenicia  and  in  Babylonia. 

DAIBUTSU. — Colossal  images  of  Buddhas  found 
in  Japan.  The  two  most  notable  are  that  of  Nara 
erected  about  750  a.d.  and  that  of  Kamakura 
dedicated  in  1252  a.d.  They  are  both  seated 
figures  and,  respectively,  53  feet  and  49  feet  7  inches 
in  height. 

DAI  NICHL— The  Absolute  in  the  Shingon 
Buddhism  of  Japan  around  which  all  things,  real 
and  phenomenal,  center.  Dai  Nichi  is  Buddha 
as  the  ultimate  truth  or  reality.  By  the  common 
people  it  is  identified  with  the  sun  and  so  with 
Amaterasu,  the  sun-goddess  of  the  old  nature 
religion  of  Japan. 

DAITYAS. — Demonic  enemies  of  the  gods  in 
Vedic  religion,  the  progeny  of  a  goddess,  Diti, 
and  of  similar  nature  to  the  Danavas  and  Asuras. 

DAKHMA. — Towers  in  which  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  are  exposed  to  be  devoured  by  birds  according 
to  the  Parsi  custom. 


DALE,  ROBERT  WILLIAM  (1829-1895).— 
Enghsh  Congregational  divine  and  theologian, 
who  took  an  active  part  in  political  and  educational 
affairs.  He  was  a  noted  preacher  and  a  strong 
administrator.  His  best  known  theological  work 
was  The  Atonement  in  which  he  modified  the  doc- 
trine of  penal  satisfaction  in  the  direction  of  a 
mystical  doctrine  of  vicarious  suffering. 

DALMATIC. — A  loose  garment  worn  by  deacons 
of  the  R.C.  church  over  the  alb  and  cassock  when 
celebrating  high  mass. 

DAMASUS. — The  name  of  two  popes. 

Damasus  I. — Pope,  366-384;  was  zealous  in 
discovering  and  adorning  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs; 
encouraged  the  preparation  by  Jerome  of  the 
Vulgate  edition  of  the  Bible. 

Damasus  II. — Pope,  July  17-Aug.  9,  1048. 


DANAVAS. 

gion. 


-A  class  of  demons  in  Vedic  reli- 


DANCING. — Dancing  includes  all  bodily  move- 
ments of  an  artistic  character,  as  distinct  from  those 
which  are  merely  useful  like  running,  or  communica- 
tive like  gestures. 

1.  Significance  of  dancing. — The  dance  is  a  uni- 
versal human  expression  of  powerful  emotions,  such 
as  social  joy  or  reUgious  exaltation.  As  an  art  it 
combines  two  modes  of  esthetic  enjoyment.  The 
spectators  see  the  plastic  movements  as  so  many 
swiftly  changing  pictures;  the  participants  feel  the 
rhythm  of  music.  Among  civilized  people  dancing 
has  become  merely  a  frivolous  amusement,  but 
among  unciviUzed  folk  it  has  often  a  serious  mean- 
ing. Grosse  emphasizes  the  social  importance  of 
dancing  for  small  primitive  groups,  the  members  of 


123 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Deaconess 


which  meet  in  amity  and  move  rhythmically  in 
accord.  As  a  school  of  "soHdarity,"  it  has  doubt- 
less been  a  noteworthy  factor  in  the  evolution  of 
culture. 

2.  Mimetic  and  formal  dancing. — The  mimetic 
dance  is  histrionic  rather  than  saltatory.  Those 
who  take  part  are  usually  men ;  they  wear  masks  and 
costumes  to  represent  animals,  ancestors,  or  deities, 
and  they  act  out  a  narrative,  legendary  or  historical. 
Such  a  dance  has  often  a  magical  character,  as  in  the 
buffalo  dance  of  the  Plains  Indians.  Here  the 
performers  represented  buffaloes  and  reproduced 
the  scenes  of  a  buffalo-hunt,  with  the  idea  that  the 
real  animals  would  thereby  be  attracted  to  the 
neighborhood  of  the  camp.  Magical  pantomime 
of  this  sort  forms  the  germ  of  the  drama,  as  devel- 
oped, for  instance,  by  Greeks,  Japanese,  and  Hindus. 
The  formal  dance  does  not  attempt  to  enact  any- 
thing; it  is  purely  saltatory.  There  are,  of  course, 
intermediate    instances. 

3.  Varieties  of  dancing. — Both  mimetic  and 
formal  dances  may  be  classified,  according  to  their 
place  in  primitive  life,  as  festive,  ritual,  warhke, 
hunting,  courting,  matrimonial,  funereal,  and  the 
Uke.  Of  these,  the  ritual  or  sacred  dances  have 
lingered  longest  in  the  higher  religions.  Christi- 
anity retained  the  dance  in  its  rites  as  late  as  the 
8th.  century  a.d.  Hutton  Webster 

DANTE,  ALIGHIERI  (1265-1321).— Dante's 
poetry  and  prose  mirror  not  only  the  life  of  his 
native  Florence  but  the  whole  mediaeval  civihza- 
tion  of  his  time.  His  first  poetic  effort,  the  Vita 
Niuwa,  allegorizes  the  Beatrice  lost  to  his  love  into 
an  image  of  divine  truth.  Having  (served  his  city 
in  war  and  government  in  troubled  times  he  was  a 
victim  of  factional  strife  and  in  banishment  (1302  ff.) 
endured  privations  in  Paris  and  North  Italy  till  he 
found  refuge  finally  (1317)  with  the  ruler  of  Ra- 
venna. Living  in  exile,  an  enthusiastic  Ghibelline  he 
hoped  for  the  regeneration  ofltaUan  life  by  the 
restoration  of  the  German  imperial  authority. 
This  inspired  his  De  Monarchia  (1317)  which  argues 
that  the  peace  needed  for  human  welfare  can  be 
offered  only  by  a  universal  monarch  elevated 
above  all  possibility  of  envy  and  greed.  The  im- 
perial power  is  directly  instituted  by  God  and  not 
by  the  pope.  God's  wiU  fulfils  itself  by  both  state 
and  church.  The  monarch  secures  man's  earthly 
happiness,  the  pope  reveals  the  path  to  enjoyment 
of  God.  The  Divine  Comedy,  the  fruit  of  his  last 
years,  is  a  poetic  description  of  the  three  realms  of 
Hell,  Purgatory  and  Paradise,  an  intricate  allegory 
reflecting  the  theology  and  cosmology  of  the 
scholastics  and  a  series  of  judgments  upon  men 
and  events.  This  powerful  image  of  the  mediaeval 
society,  history,  and  thought  reveals  also  the  wrest- 
ling of  a  great  heart  with  the  problem  of  human  life. 

F.  A.  Christie 

DANU. — The  mother  of  the  gods  in  the  ancient 
religion  of  the  Irish  Celts.  She  is  probably  an 
underworld  figure  and  hence  an  Earth-mother, 
symbol  of  fertility.  Certain  traditions  point 
to  a  cult  of  human  sacrifice  connected  with  her. 
She  is  giver  of  wealth  and  plenty. 

DARWINISM.— See  Evolution. 

DASYTJS  (DASUS).— Names  applied  to  the 
darker-skinned  peoples  of  India  conquered  by  the 
invading  Aryans.  The  words  have  the  double 
meaning  of  enemy  and  slave. 

DAVIDSON,  ANDREW  BRUCE  (1831-1902).— 
Scottish  theologian.  He  was  an  authority  on 
the  Hebrew  language,  and  a  pioneer  in  Great  Britain 
ip  the  field  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  and  criticism. 


his  influence  being  always  on  the  side  of  theological 
moderation. 

DEACON. — One  of  the  mmor  officers  in  the 
church. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  diakonos, 
servant,  and  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  office 
originated  in  the  employment  of  persons  to  perform 
certain  services  for  members  of  the  church.  Some 
have  identified  these  origins  with  the  appointment 
of  the  seven  (Acts  6:1-6),  but  the  term  deacon  is 
not  there  used.  In  the  course  of  time,  groups  of 
similar  officials,  usually  seven  in  number,  appeared 
in  various  churches  throughout  the  Roman  Empire. 
Their  chief  office  seems  to  have  been  to  care  for  the 
poor  and  the  sick. 

At  the  present  time,  deacons  are  to  be  found  in 
aU  forms  of  organized  Christianity. 

1.  In  the  Cathohc  Church  (Roman,  Greek  and 
AngUean)  the  deacons  are  the  lowest  of  the  three 
sacred  orders.  They  have  the  rights  and  duties  of 
the  priest  except  those  of  pronouncing  absolution 
from  sin  and  consecrating  the  elements  in  the 
eucharist. 

2.  In  the  Lutheran  Churches,  deacons  are 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  clergy,  or  as  recog- 
nized workers  in  some  form  of  charity.  They  are 
not  ordained  as  preachers  and  so  are  not,  strictly 
speaking,  pastors.  There  is  also  a  tendency 
among  Lutherans  to  build  up  fraternities  of  deacons 
who  become  social  service  workers  of  the  Inner 
Mission  (q.v.). 

3.  In  the  Reformed  Churches,  the  deacon  is  an 
assistant  of  the  pastor  and  is  chosen  by  the  church 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period.  His  chief  duty  is  the 
administration  of  charity  and  the  general  oversight 
of  the  spiritual  interest  of  the  body  of  the  church. 
In  Presbyterian  Churches  deacons  are  sometimes 
ordained,  but  they  are  not  members  of  the  govern- 
ing body  of  the  local  church.  In  churches  of  the 
Congregational  order,  the  deacons  are  chosen  and 
appointed  for  the  general  administration  of  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  church  and  have  care  of 
the  poor  among  its  members. 

4.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  the 
deacons  are  regarded  as  an  order  (in  so  far  as  the 
Methodist  church  recognizes  orders)  in  that  they 
are  elected  and  ordained.  Their  duties  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  the  ordained  minister,  except  that 
they  are  not  pastors.     See  Order,  Holy. 

Shailer  Mathews 
DEACONESS.— A  woman  official  in  the  church 
in  general  co-ordinate  with  the  Deacon. 

In  the  early  church  the  activity  of  women  led  to 
the  recognition  of  some  of  them  as  a  class  with 
peculiar  duties.  These  were  known  at  first  as  "the 
widows,"  but  by  the  4th.  century,  if  not  earlier,  they 
were  known  as  deaconesses.  Their  chief  duties 
were  to  minister  to  the  women  of  the  church  as  a  class 
of  assistants  to  the  deacon.  In  some  cases,  they 
seem  to  have  been  ordained,  but  apparently  did  not 
administer  baptism  or  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  Protestant  Churches  have  usually  had  some  form 
of  woman  official  whose  business  it  is  to  care  for  sick 
women  and  perform  other  duties  which  it  is  not 
desirable  for  the  deacons  to  perform.  They 
are  chosen  by  the  churches,  but  strictly  speaking 
are  not  regarded  as  an  order. 

Of  late  years,  there  has  been  a  very  decided 
development  of  deaconess's  work  in  the  Lutheran, 
Reformed  and  Episcopal  Churches.  In  America, 
there  is  a  marked  development  of  the  deaconess's 
work  especially  among  the  Methodists.  Candidates 
are  licensed,  given  probationary  work  and  training 
for  two  years,  and  after  passing  an  examination  are 
admitted  into  the  office.  Thereafter,  they  usually 
wear    a    uniform    dress.    The    other    Protestant 


Deae  Matres 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


124 


denominations  are  establishing  institutions  for  the 
training  of  women  who,  whether  known  as  deacon- 
esses or  not,  have  for  their  chief  duties  the  care 
of  religious  work  among  women  and  children  and  the 
ministry  to  the  poor.  Shailer  Mathews 

DEAE  MATRES. — Mother-goddesses,  Earth- 
Mothers,  whose  cults  appear  in  the  pre-Christian 
era  in  the  Germanic  and  Celtic  provinces  of  the 
Roman  empire;  also  called  Matronae  and  worshiped 
in  triads. 

DEAN. — ^A  clergyman  in  the  Roman  and 
AngUcan  churches  who  is:  (a)  chief  official  in  a 
cathedral  or  collegiate  church ;  (6)  the  assistant  to 
a  bishop  in  matters  spiritual  and  temporal;  (c)  a 
minister  with  pastoral  duties  who  acts  as  deputy  of  a 
bishop  or  archdeacon,  as  a  rural  dean;  (d)  the  dean 
of  the  arches  presides  over  an  ecclesiastical  court  in 
England. 

DEATH  AND  FUNERAL  PRACTICES 
(PRIMITIVE).—  !.  Explanation  of  death.  —  Like 
birth,  initiation,  and  marriage,  death  is  one  of  the 
four  great  events  in  the  life  of  man.  Naturally  it 
is  viewed  with  peculiar  awe,  and  many  attempts 
are  made  to  explain  it.  _  It  is  regarded  as  the  result 
of  disobedience  to  a  divine  command,  or  of  a  curse, 
or  of  a  whim  or  careless  act  of  some  animal,  or 
of  revenge,  etc.  In  any  event  primitive  man  holds 
it  to  be  unnatural.  It  may  be  due  to  the  permanent 
escape  of  the  soul  (temporary  escape  merely  caus- 
ing illness),  or  to  the  direct  act  of  a  supernatural 
being,  or  (most  usually)  to  witchcraft  (q.v.). 

2.  Treatment  of  the  dying. — In  view  of  the  fear 
attaching  to  death  we  occasionally  find  practices 
which  savour  to  us  of  cruelty.  The  dying  may  be 
abandoned,  lest  he  take  the  living  with  him  to 
the  realm  of  the  dead,  or  he  may  even  be  buried 
aUve.  Here  economic  considerations  may  also  play 
a  part,  in  view  of  the  frequent  difficulty,  in  savage 
civiUzation,  of  providing  even  for  the  living  and 
healthy;  what  was  once  a  common  necessity  may 
have  become  stereotyped  as  a  custom.  Frequently 
the  dying  man  ia  removed  from  his  house  or  from  his 
bed,  and  in  the  latter  case  he  is  often  laid  on  straw, 
etc.  The  underlying  motive  seems  to  be  fear  of 
death,  and  removal  from  the  bed  is  apparently  a 
modification  of  the  older  removal  from  the  house, 
this  being  substantiated  by  the  burning  of  the 
straw,  thus  paralleling  the  frequent  destruction  of  a 
house  in  which  death  has  occurred.  Since  at 
death  the  soul  is  believed  to  leave  the  body  perma- 
nently (not  temporarily,  as  in  dreams  and  often  in 
illness),  efforts  are  sometimes  made  to  keep  the 
soul,  as  by  inhaling  the  last  breath  or  by  calling 
upon  it  to  return. 

3.  Between  death  and  funeral. — Since  due  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  the  escape  of  the  soul, 
windo\vs  are  often  opened  (sometimes  only  for  a 
short  time,  lest  the  spirit  return),  or  a  hole  made  in 
the  house.  Food  and  drink  are  frequently  prepared ; 
and  the  dead  man's  bees,  cattle,  trees,  etc.,  are  in- 
formed of  his  decease  and  are  sometimes  put  in 
mourning,  i.e.,  they  are  disguised  so  that  the  spirit 
wiU  be  unable  to  take  them  with  him.  Wailing  and 
dirges,  ■occasionally  even  destruction  of  property, 
are  practically  universal.  Apart  from  natural  grief, 
these  ceremonies,  particularly  when  repeated  on  set 
occasions,  seem,  in  most  cases,  intended  to  placate 
the  dead  by  showing  the  poignancy  of  sorrow  which 
his  decease  has  caused.  Before  the  final  disposal 
of  the  corpse  it  is  usually  washed  or  painted,  and 
dressed,  in  its  best  attire  and  with  its  ornaments, 
etc.;  the  eyes  are  closed  (perhaps  to  prevent  the 
ghost  from  seeing) ;  and  the  body  is  placed  in  the 
position  (squatting  or  prone)  which  it  is  finally  to 


take,  although  occasionally  the  corpse  is  seated  in 
state.  During  the  time  between  this  toilet  and  the 
funeral  the  corpse  is  usually  watched  night  and  day, 
either  on  the  chance  that  the  wizard  who  has  caused 
the  death  may  be  caught,  or  to  guard  the  dead 
body  or  its  soul  from  demons,  or  because  it  is  still  a 
member  of  the  household,  or  to  protect  the  living 
against  danger  of  being  snatched  away  in  sleep 
(when  the  soul  readily  leaves  the  body)  by  the 
ghost.  Where  these  "wakes"  are  associated  with 
merriment,  they  seem  to  be  parallel  with  funeral- 
games,  etc.  (see  Sec.  7).  Naturally,  as  being  a  thing 
of  dread,  death  imposes  on  the  survivors  pollution 
of  varying  extent  and  manifold  taboos.    See  Wake. 

4.  Disposal  of  the  corpse. — The  object  of  the 
funeral  rites  is  (a)  to  give  rest  to  the  dead  and  (6)  to 
free  the  survivors  from  the  pollution  of  death.  Cer- 
tain categories  are,  however,  excluded  from  these 
rites,  especially  infants  and  young  children;  those 
uninitiated  in  tribal  or  religious  rites;  slaves  and 
the  very  poor;  those  who  die  evil  deaths,  as  by  sui- 
cide, by  lightning  or  other  manifestation  of  divine 
anger,  by  drowning,  by  ordeal  (q.v.),  by  certain 
diseases,  e.g.,  leprosy  or  smallpox;  women  dying  in 
childbed;  debtors;  executed  criminals;  and  those 
guilty  of  such  offenses  as  sacrilege  or  treason.  On 
the  other  hand,  holy  men  and  kings,  being  exempt 
from  various  usual  restrictions  and  being  bound 
by  certain  special  obligations,  often  have  funeral 
rites  widely  divergent  from  those  of  ordinary  folk. 

The  corpse  is  disposed  of  in  several  ways:  by 
cannibalism  (q.v.),  usually  with  a  view  to  acquiring 
th  desirable  c[ualities  of  the  deceased;  exposure  on 
the  ground  or  in  trees,  usually  in  unfrequented  places ; 
disposal  in  caves,  casting  into  water,  frequently 
with  the  belief  that  water  forms  a  barrier  which 
prevents  the  ghost  from  returning;  inhumation; 
preservation  in  the  house,  probably  that  the  spirit 
may  still  remain  in  his  home  and  with  his  family; 
cremation,  often  to  deprive  the  dead  of  all  his  earthly 
habitation,  thus  severing  him  completely  from  the 
living  and  uniting  him  with  the  departed;  and 
mummification,  closely  akin  to  house-disposal. 
Occasionally  the  corpse  is  bound  or  mutilated  in 
such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  ghost  from  returning 
to  distress  the  living. 

6.  The  grave. — As  being  the  home  of  the  dead, 
the  grave  is  often  fitted  out  with  much  elegance. 
Graves  may  be  either  scattered  or  grouped;  they 
may  contain  many  corpses  or  only  one;  their  in- 
mates are  interred  in  various  positions,  often 
crouching  in  the  lower  civiHzations;  strict  rules  are 
often  observed  as  to  the  direction  of  the  head  of  the 
corpse;  the  dead  body  frequently  has  the  protection 
of  a  coffin,  whether  of  wood,  pottery,  wicker-work, 
or  hide;  and  the  shape  of  the  grave  varies  according 
to  definite  customs.  Very  frequently  the  grave 
contains,  besides  the  corpse,  the  bodies  of  his  wives, 
slaves,  favorite  animals,  etc.,  slain  to  serve  him  in  the 
other-world,  as  well  as  food  and  drink,  and  imple- 
ments of  various  kinds,  whether  whole,  or  "killed" 
(i.e.  made  of  his  own  status)  by  being  broken,  or 
in  miniature  models,  etc. ;  and  also  various  articles 
which  have  been  polluted  by  contact  with  the 
corpse. 

6.  The  funeral. — The  lapse  of  time  between 
death  and  the  disposal  of  the  corpse  varies  widely; 
in  regard  to  choice  of  time  of  day  for  such  disposal 
S3rmpathetic  magic  often  plays  a  part.  In  general 
funeral  rites  show  a  mixture  of  fear  and  affection. 
Thus  the  corpse  is  frequently  taken  from  the  house 
in  an  unusual  way  (e.g.,  through  a  hole  broken 
for  the  occasion);  eflforts  are  made  to  confuse  the 
ghost  so  that  it  may  be  unable  to  find  its  way  back 
to  its  earthly  home,  or  various  obstacles  are  placed 
along  the  road  by  which  the  dead  body  has  been 
carried;  and  the  spirit  may  be  bluntly  told  that  its 


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presence  is  no  longer  desired.  The  funeral  is  char- 
acterized by  manifestations  of  grief,  often  of  an  ex- 
cessive degree.  Where  blood  is  shed  in  these  rites  and 
caused  to  fall  on  the  corpse  or  on  the  grave,  and 
where  hair  is  similarly  cut,  the  intention — in  part 
at  least — seems  to  be  the  wish  to  have  a  corporeal 
bond  of  union  with  the  departed,  as  in  the  converse 
desire  to  have  a  lock  of  hair  or  some  trinket,  etc., 
of  the  deceased.  Where  fires  or  hghts  are  burned 
before  or  during  the  funeral,  the  intention  may  be 
either  to  help  the  spirit  by  warmth  and  Hght,  or  to 
keep  the  ghost  away.  While  returning  from  the 
funeral  various  means  are  often  adopted  to  prevent 
the  spirit  of  the  deceased  from  following  the  mourn- 
ers; and  on  reaching  home  they  purify  themselves 
from  the  pollution  of  death,  especially  by  fumigation 
and  bathing. 

7.  Funeral  feasts  and  games. — Before  or  after  the 
funeral  it  is  very  customary  to  hold  feasts,  of  which 
the  departed  is  beUeved  to  partake;  and  in  some 
instances  these  feasts  are  of  the  nature  of  farewells 
to  him.  The  wide-spread  custom  of  funeral  com- 
bats and  games  seem  in  origin  to  be  intended  to  drive 
the  ghost  away,  while  at  least  some  of  the  dances  are 
designed  to  awaken  the  procreative  instinct  in  antag- 
onism to  death. 

8.  Mourning  and  tabus. — Death  imposes  on  the 
survivors  a  wide  variety  of  tabus,  abstinences,  muti- 
lations, etc.  Very  frequently  there  is  a  reversal 
of  the  ordinary  garb — e.g.,  black  instead  of  white — 
apparently  as  a  form  of  sympathy  with  the  dead  and 
to  denote  that  the  persons  wearing  it  are  under  a 
special  tabu  which  is  the  reverse  of  everyday  exist- 
ence, just  as  death  is  the  reverse  of  life.  The  dura- 
tion of  these  tabus  varies  extremely.  Not  only 
individuals,  but  houses,  and  even  villages,  require 
purification;  or  the  house  and  belongings  of  the 
deceased  may  be  destroyed.  In  particular  the  name 
of  the  dead  man,  as  being  an  essential  part  of  him 
may  be  tabu. 

9.  Second  funeral. — Among  many  peoples  the 
corpse  is  taken  up  after  a  longer  or  shorter  interval, 
and  then  receives  its  final  disposition,  this  being  the 
custom  especially  where  the  spirit  is  beUeved  to 
remain  near  the  corpse  till  all  the  flesh  has  decayed. 
Very  often  this  ceremony  is  so  held  that  it  may  be 
performed  simultaneously  for  large  numbers  of  dead. 
The  bones  may  then  be  buried  or  may  be  kept  in 
the  houses  of  the  survivors.  The  motives  seem  to  be 
the  final  severance  of  the  spirit  from  the  hving  and 
his  admission  to  fuU  rank  in  the  other-world,  or  (in 
the  latter  case)  provision  for  a  place  for  him  to  visit 
or  to  reside  in  his  earthly  abode. 

10.  Effigies. — Very  often  effigies  of  the  departed 
are  made.  In  some  cases  these  are  mere  memorials, 
but  frequently  they  are  intended  as  abodes  of  the 
spirit.  L.  H.  Gray 

DEATH  AND  FUNERAL  PRACTICES 
(DEVELOPED).— I.  Classical  Feriod.— The 
Greeks  held  funeral  solemnities  to  be  religious. 
Upon  death,  the  eyes  were  closed  by  a  near  relative. 
The  cori)se  was  washed  in  hot  water  and  anointed, 
clothed  in  white  and  laid  on  a  couch.  Around 
this  friends  raised  loud  laments,  or  hired  mourners 
took  this  part  accompanied  on  the  flute.  The 
bereaved  tore  out  their  hair  to  strew  on  the  corpse. 
Funeral  rites  lasted  for  three,  or  even  seven  days 
and  more.  Either  burning  or  burial  was  practiced. 
The  body  was  borne  on  a  bier  to  the  funeral  pyre, 
upon  which  were  placed  objects  dear  to  the  deceased, 
even  animals.  Sacrifices  were  slain,  while  attend- 
ants wailed  and  chanted  during  the  burning.  ^  The 
flames  were  put  out  by  pouring  some  sacred  liquid 
over  them.  Charred  bones  and  ashes  were  gathered 
into  an  urn  to  be  buried  or  entombed.  A  funeral 
repast  ended  the  ceremonies. 


The  Romans  practiced  both  burial  and  burning 
from  early  times.  A  distinguished  man's  funeral 
was  pre-announced  by  a  herald,  and  burial  expenses 
were  defrayed  by  the  city.  The  funeral  cortege 
was  made  up  (1)  of  hired  mourners,  (2)  of  bearers  of 
ancestral  images  kept  in  the  home-hall,  (3)  relatives 
clad  in  black,  (4)  then  of  players,  dancers,  mimics, 
one  of  them  imitating  the  deceased's  words  and 
actions,  (5)  of  the  corpse  borne  on  men's  shoulders, 
(6)  this  was  followed  by  a  crowd  of  both  sexes.  A 
noble  citizen's  cortege  came  through  the  Forum, 
that  the  body  might  lie  in  state  before  the  rostrum 
where  "a  eulogy"  was  pronounced  by  a  relative, 
friend,  or  magistrate  appointed  by  the  Senate. 
Women  as  well  as  men  were  honored  by  an  official 
"eulogy."  This  differs  from  the  Egyptian  way, 
which  demanded  a  trial  of  the  deceased. 

A  corpse  not  burned  was  placed  in  its  marble 
sarcophagus.  Sometimes  an  inscription  was  laid  in 
the  coffin  with  the  letters,  D.M.  or  D.M.S.,  i.e., 
Diis  Manibus  Sacrum.  Monuments  over  the 
grave  or  elsewhere  were  erected  bearing  some 
epitaph,  including  the  name  and  a  list  of  virtues. 
Both  pubhc  and  private  burial  grounds  are  found. 
The  former,  e.g..  Campus  Marlius  and  Campus 
Esquilinu^,  were  devoted  to  great  men  by  vote  of 
the  Senate.  Burial  of  the  poor  was  outside  the 
Esquiline  gate. 

Christians  under  pagan  Emperors  placed  their 
dead  in  catacombs,  as  that  of  St.  Calixtus  a  few 
miles  out  near  the  Appian  Way,  wherein  was  a 
chapel;  and  bodies  were  laid  in  rock-hewn  niches 
sealed  and  inscribed. 

Mourning  periods  in  memory  of  the  dead  were 
fixed  by  law,  that  of  a  widow  being  ten  months. 
Anniversary  feasts  memorializing  the  date  of  death 
were  observed  at  the  grave,  often  attended  by 
games,  and  gladiatorial  shows,  and  distribution  of 
food;  the  mob  would  at  times  extort  from  heirs 
at  their  expense  these  anniversary  feasts  and 
games. 

II.  Burial  in  Other  Lands. — In  India  the 
Hindus  practice  a  rude  form  of  cremation.  Parsees 
place  their  dead  on  "towers  of  silence"  that  birds 
may  devour  all  the  flesh.  In  China  the  dead  are 
buried;  but  burial  often  is  delayed  during  several 
years  to  allow  geomancers  to  locate  a  "lucky 
grave."  This  makes  China  one  huge  graveyard, 
as  is  the  case  in  Korea  also.  The  Japanese  use 
both  cremation  and  burial,  usually  with  Buddhist 
rites. 

III.  Hebrew  Burial  and  Thoughts  of  Death. 
— ^Relatives  must  bury  their  dead,  but  humanity 
requires  that  no  body  be  left  unburied.  The 
tomb  was  not  immediately  covered,  but  was  left 
open  the  first  three  days  that  friends  might  see  that 
the  dead  did  not  come  to  life.  Upon  death  the 
eyes  are  closed  by  the  nearest  kin,  a  son  or  brother, 
the  mouth  is  held  closed  by  a  band  drawn  over 
the  cheekbones,  the  body  placed  on  sand  or  salt 
strewn  on  floor  to  retard  decay,  and  a  metal  or 
glass  disk  is  laid  on  the  navel  to  avoid  swelling. 
The  body  is  then  washed,  and  anointed  with  fragrant 
oil,  and  wrapped  in  linen  clothes.  To  be  buried 
without  garments  is  a  disgrace.  Objects  favored 
by  the  deceased,  as  writing  tablet,  pen  and  ink- 
stand, key  or  bracelet  are  put  into  the  coffin  or 
grave.  It  came  to  be  the  rulo  to  cover  the  face, 
except  that  of  a  bridegroom.  The  bier  was  borne 
on  shoulders  of  barefooted  friends,  one  set  chan- 
ging with  another  to  allow  this  honor  to  as  many 
as  possible.  Women  preceded  the  bier,  lamenting 
and  singing  dirges.  Mourners  threw  grass  behind 
them  on  leaving  the  cemetery.  Interment  was 
not  immediate  in  the  family  sepulchres  of  Palestine, 
but  the  corpse  was  left  in  its  chamber  till  reduced 
to  a  skeleton;  then  its  bones  were  collected,  wrapped 


Decalogue 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


126 


anew,  tied  together  like  a  mummy  and  solemnly 
interred. 

It  was  a  custom  to  visit  cemeteries  to  sleep 
there  and  hold  communication  with  the  dead,  for 
they  were  believed  to  be  still  semi-conscious  and 
very  sensitive  to  the  words  and  behavior  of  the 
living  around  them.  Praying  for  the  intercession 
of  the  dead  was  an  early  practice.  It  was  cus- 
tomary to  bend  the  thumb  of  a  corpse  so  that  the 
whole  hand  resembled  the  word,  Shaddai  (the 
Almighty).  A  small  stick  was  laid  in  the  crossed 
hands  (to  serve  as  a  cane),  a  tiny  bag  of  earth  of 
the  Holy  Land  under  the  head,  and  a  thi-ee-toothed 
wooden  fork  to  be  used  in  digging  a  subterranean 
way  to  the  Holy  Land  on  Resurrection-day,  when 
all  Jewish  dead  will  arise  in  Paradise.  A  towel  and 
glass  of  water  were  beside  the  body  so  that  the 
soul  might  bathe  when  it  returned  to  it. 

With  modern  Jews  burial  "is  not  religious." 
Respect  for  the  person  who  has  died  calls  for  conse- 
crated ground  and  a  simple  ritual.  Jewish  senti- 
ment favors  utmost  simplicity  and  economy  in 
funeral  necessities.  It  is  customary  to  honor  the 
recurrence  of  the  death-day  of  parents. 

IV.  Roman  Catholic  Burial  Rules. — Except 
in  contagious  cases,  burial  of  the  dead  must  be  from 
the  church.  The  priest  meets  the  body  at  the 
door  of  the  church  and  conducts  it  to  the  communion 
rail.  Then  follows  the  requiem  Mass.  A  final 
absolution  is  pronounced  over  the  coffin.  There  is 
a  ritual  of  prayers  at  the  grave.  It  is  the  common 
usage  (though  not  a  Church  rule)  a  month,  after 
burial  to  hold  "The  Month's  Mind"  with  Mass  at 
the  church.  Also  year-by-year  there  is  observed  an 
anniversary  Mass  as  a  continuous  memorial  to 
the  dead.  When  a  person  is  dying  a  priest  visits 
the  sick-room  with  the  Viaticum,  or  last  sacrament, 
and  grants  extreme  unction  to  the  dying. 

V.  Burial  as  Practiced  among  Protestants. 
— For  denominations  which  use  a  prayer-book, 
e.g..  The  Church  of  England  and  Protestant  Epis- 
copal, Methodist,  and  Lutheran  churches,  a  funeral 
and  burial  ritual  is  provided.  With  other  denomina- 
tions the  conduct  of  funerals  is  a  matter  of  the 
individual    minister's    practise.     Quite     generally 

^in  rural  regions  burials  are  from  the  home;  a 
brief  sermon  is  preached;  and  neighbors  attend 
at  the  grave  in  large  numbers.  Fraternal  orders, 
as  Masons  and  Odd  Fellows,  use  elaborate  religious 
rituals  at  the  cemetery.  While  burial  is  the  rule, 
cremation  is  steadily  growing  in  favor.  See 
Future  Life,  Conceptions  op  the. 

quincy  l.  dowd 

DECALOGUE.— The  Ten  Commandments  said 
to  have  been  revealed  to  Moses  at  Mt.  Sinai.  See 
also  Law,  Hebrew;  Hexateuch. 

The  Ten  Words  probably  arose  out  of  the  need 
of  the  Hebrew  community  for  certain  basal  prin- 
ciples of  conduct,  the  practice  of  which  would  enable 
them  to  live  together  harmoniously.  Such  an  origin 
carries  with  it  the  necessary  conclusion  that  the 
cominandments  originally  had  not  universal  scope 
and  significance,  but  only  relative  appHcation.  This 
means  that  such  a  precept  as  "Thou  shalt  not  steal," 
for  example,  was  intended  to  prohibit  theft  by  one 
Hebrew  from  another  and  had  no  application  to 
the  conduct  of  Hebrews  toward  non-Hebrews  (cf. 
Deut.  14:21).  The  ascription  of  universal  appHca- 
tion to  the  Decalogue  came  only  after  the  prophets 
and  sages  of  Israel  had  succeeded  in  leading  Israel 
to  think  in  terms  of  monotheism  and  of  universal 
human  brotherhood. 

That  the  Decalogue  is  not  now  in  its  original 
form  is  clear  from  the  name  given  to  it  in  Hebrew, 
"the  ten  words,"  and  from  a  comparison  of  the 
form  in  Deut.  5  with  that  in  Exod.  20.  The  original 
words  have  undergone  expansion  in  most  cases;  the 


old  form  is  preserved  in  the  6th.,  7th.,  8th.,  and  9th. 
laws,  all  of  which  would  be  accurately  described  by 
the  Hebrew  term  for  word. 

The  striking  characteristic  of  the  Decalogue, 
as  compared  with  other  early  Semitic  reUgious  law, 
is  the  relatively  large  place  given  to  ethical  pre- 
cepts as  over  against  ritual,  which  is  represented 
only  in  the  Sabbath-law.  This  is  in  keeping  with 
the  character  of  the  reUgion  of  the  prophets,  the 
glory  of  which  is  in  its  right  estimate  of  the  supreme 
importance  of  ethics  in  reUgion.  The  Christian 
interpretation  of  the  Decalogue  has  always  made  it 
universally  applicable  and  treated  it  as  the  Magna 
Charta  of  ethics.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

DECISION.— The  act  of  selectively  determin- 
ing a  course  of  conduct  where  alternatives  are 
presented. 

DECIUS  (201-251).— Roman  emperor,  who 
organized  a  systematic  persecution  of  Christians, 
the  object  being  the  reinstatement  of  the  old  Roman 
religion.  As  a  result  of  controversies  due  to  this 
persecution  Novatianism  (q.v.)  arose. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDULGENCE.— An  act 

promulgated  by  Charles  II.  of  England  in  1672 
whereby  penal  laws  against  non-conformists  and 
Roman  Cathohcs  were  suspended. 

DECREE. — A  formal  authoritative  statement, 
emanating,  e.g.,  from  an  ecclesiastical  council,  or 
from  the  pope. 

DECREES,  DIVINE.— The  eternal  judgments 
or  purposes  of  God  whereby  he  has  predetermined 
whatever  is  to  transpire.  Calvinistic  theologians 
referred  the  course  of  history  and  the  ultimate  fate 
of  individuals  to  these  decrees.  See  Election; 
Predestination. 

DECRETALS . — ^Authoritative  ecclesiastical 
documents. 

Catholic  church  law  consists  of  canons  voted  by 
councils  and  decisions  made  by  popes  either  in  the 
form  of  constitutions  or  permanent  ordinances, 
encyclicals  instructing  bishops  in  particular  cases, 
decrees  adopted  on  the  advice  of  cardinals,  and 
decretals  strictly  so-called,  which  are  interpretive 
laws.  Decretals  were  first  joined  to  canons  by  the 
Roman  Abbot  Dionysius  (ca.  500  a.d.)  and  others 
were  added  in  a  later  Spanish  collection  wrongly 
attributed  to  Isidore,  bishop  of  Seville.  AU  these 
materials  enriched  by  the  forged  Donation  of  Con- 
stantino and  many  forged  decretals  made  the 
famous  Pseudo-Isidorian  collection  ("False  Decre- 
tals") produced  in  the  Prankish  church  (ca.  852). 
Decretal  became  later  a  term  for  the  collections  of 
laws  made  imder  papal  auspices  like  the  Decretum 
Gratiani  (ca.  1150)  which  with  the  official  collec- 
tions of  Gregory  IX.  (1234),  Boniface  VIII.  (1298), 
Clement  V.  (1313),  and  Chappuis'  collection  of 
decretals  from  John  XXII.  to  Sixtus  IV.  form  the 
Corpus  Juris  Canonici.  Later  papal  decrees  are 
found  in  collections  of  Bulls  and  Briefs  (q.v.). 

F.  A.  Christie 

DECRETALS,  FALSE.— See  False  Decretals. 

DEDICATION.— The  rite  or  process  of  solemnly 
consecrating  to  reUgious  usage  or  to  the  service  of  a 
deity,  as  the  dedication  of  a  church  as  a  place  of 
worship.    See  Consecration. 

DEFENDER  OP  THE  FAITH.— A  title  con- 
ferred upon  Henry  VIII.  of  England  by  Pope  Leo  X. 
in  1521  for  his  work  on  the  seven  sacraments  in 
refutation  of  Luther.    The  title  was  revoked  by 


127 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Deism 


Paul  III.,  but  restored  by  parliament  in  1544,  and  has 
continued  to  be  a  designation  of  English  monarchs. 

DEFILEMENT  AND   PURIFICATION.— The 

idea  of  defilement,  or  pollution,  in  religion  does  not, 
in  its  more  ancient  forms,  make  any  clear  dis- 
tinction between  physical  and  spiritual  uncleanness. 
Defilement  was  incurred  by  contact  with  the  dead, 
by  childbirth,  by  sexual  intercourse,  by  the  changes 
of  life;  it  was  incurred  again  by  disease  or  contact 
with  disease,  by  bloodletting,  whether  in  crime  or 
war  or  sacrifice;  by  sacrilege,  broken  tabu,  contact 
of  sacred  and  profane,  even  of  the  old  and  new; 
sin  itself  was  a  defilement,  but  in  large  part  con- 
ceived as  a  physical  or  magical  taint  rather  than  a 
spiritual  condition.  The  latter  conception,  of  a 
spiritual  defilement  or  impurity,  appears  only  with 
great  advances  in  religious  ideas,  and  chiefly  in 
Christianity,  although  it  is  present  also  in  the 
thought  of  the  classical  poets  and  philosophers, 
the  Choephorae  and  Eumenides  of  Aeschylus,  for 
example,  being  studies  of  the  sin  and  purification 
of  Orestes,  in  which  the  ritual  element  gives  way 
to  the  moral. 

Purification,  or  cleansing,  is  naturally  conceived 
also  as  primarily  a  physical  process,  and  a  great 
portion  of  the  rites  exacted  of  individuals  in  primi- 
tive religions  are  purificatory  in  character.  Forms 
of  purification  are  by  bathing  or  sprinkling  with 
consecrated  water  or  sacrificial  blood;  by  fumiga- 
tion with  incense  or  anointing  with  oils;  by  the 
use  of  herbs  or  drugs,  especially  emetics  and 
cathartics;  by  the  sweat-bath,  very  common 
among  American  Indians;  by  shaving  and  depila- 
tion;  and  in  the  case  of  material  things,  by  fire. 
Along  with  the  use  of  these  go  priestly  offices 
and  ceremonies,  such  as  exorcisms,  incantations, 
lustrations,  prayers,  sacrifices.  In  the  higher 
forms  of  religion,  confession,  the  undergoing 
of  penance,  and  finally  renewal  of  religious  life 
through  readmission  to  sacred  rites,  become  the 
important  means  of  purifying  the  defiled;  while 
eventually  the  ideas  of  sin  and  repentance  replace 
the  more  primitive  conception.  Defilement  and 
purification,  in  primitive  forms,  pertain  not  only 
to  individuals,  but  to  whole  groups,  as  armies  of 
warriors,  or  even  nations;  and  again  to  places,  as 
the  house  in  which  death  has  occurred,  or  to  seasons, 
as  the  harvest  season.  H.  B.  Alexander 

DEGENERATION.— Biologically,  the  act  or 
process  of  reduction  from  a  higher  or  more  complex 
to  a  lower  or  less  complex  type;  analogously,  de- 
terioration from  a  higher  to  a  lower  ethical  standard 
of  behavior. 

DEGRADATION.— In  ancient  canon  law,  the 
punishment  which  was  sometimes  meted  out  to 
deUnquent  clergy,  withdrawing  all  the  rights  of 
orders  from  them.  This  penalty  ceased  with  the 
rise  of  the  doctrine  of  the  indelible  character  of  holy 
orders  in  the  12th.  century. 

DEICIDE.— The  murder  of  a  god;  (1)  In  certain 
rehgions  the  slaughter  of  men  or  lower  animals  who 
were  regarded  as  incarnations  of  the  deity,  such  as 
the  slaying  of  the  totem  animal.  (2)  The  mimetic 
rite  in  connection  with  the  mystery  rehgions  (q.v.). 
(3)  Rare,  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ. 

DEIFICATION.— The  elevation  of  men  and 
women,  the  phenomena  of  nature,  lower  animals  or 
abstract  qualities  to  the  rank  of  deities,  the  purpose 
being  to  obtain  some  needed  help  which  the  wor- 
shiper beheves  the  deified  person,  power  or  object 
might  be  able  to  impart.  The  deification  of  men 
and  women  is  commonest  among  such  peoples  as 


I. 


the  Greeks,  Romans,  Egyptians  and  Indians  where 
the  gods  were  pictured  in  vivid  anthropomorphic 
symbols.  If  gods  acted  hke  men,  the  next  step  was 
natural — heroic  men  after  death  should  attain 
deity.  In  some  instances,  as  with  the  Roman 
emperors  of  the  Augustinian  age,  the  title  of  "god" 
was  given  the  hving  sovereign,  as  emblematic 
of  power.  See  Emperor  Worship.  The  deifica- 
tion of  natural  phenomena  is  frequent  among  primi- 
tive peoples,  one  of  the  most  frequent  forms  being 
a  god  or  goddess  of  fertihty.  Where  the  existence  of 
a  people  depended  on  the  supply  of  a  certain  animal, 
that  people  frequently  identified  itself  with  the 
animal  and  treated  it  with  special  reverence,  as 
we  see  in  the  practises  of  totemisra  (q.v.). 

DEISM. — A  philosophy  and  theology  that  repre- 
sent God's  relation  to  humanity  as  expressed 
through  universal  natural  law  rather  than  through 
revelation. 

Deism  is  distinguished  from  atheism  in  that  it 
affirms  the  existence  of  God :  from  pantheism  in  that 
it  is  dualistic;  from  theism  in  that  it  conceives 
the  relationship  of  God  as  less  immediate,  constant 
and  personal.  _  To  a  very  considerable  extent,  it  is 
the  expression  in  theology  of  the  social  mind  that  in 
the  politics  of  the  17th.  and  18th.  centuries  devel- 
oped the  constitutional  monarchy  in  England 
As  certain  prerogatives  were  transferred  from  tW 
king  to  the  nation,  so  the  deist  came  to  conceive  of 
God  as  a  creator  who  permitted  his  creation  to 
administer  itself  through  natural  law.  Deism  wal 
an  attempt  to  put  faith  in  God  upon  a  scientific 
basis  by  discovering  in  humanity  a  so-called  natural 
reUgion,  independent  of  any  particular  cult  and 
revelation.  In  a  sense  the  movement  was  apologetic 
in  that  many  of  its  representatives  undertook  to 
show  that  historical  Christianity  was  fundamentally 
in  accord  with  natural  rehgion. 

As  a  system,  it  may  be  said  to  have  taken  its 
rise  in  the  works  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  in 
the  first  half  of  the  17th.  century.  As  organizedu^ 
by  him,  deism  included  five  fundamental  positionsT* 
the  existence \of  God;  the  duty  of  worship;  the 
identification  of  worship  with  morality;  the  need  of 
repentance  from  sin;  rewards  and  punishment^ 
The  anti-supernaturalism  of  Lord  Herbert's  posi- 
tion was  advanced  by  the  philosopher  Hobbes,  who 
traced  all  religion  back  to  the  primitive  ~f ear  of 
nature  from  which  arose  anthropomorphic  concep- 
tions of  natural  forces.  The  process  of  placating 
the  God  thus  created  was  a  part  of  the  social  life  of 
different  communities  and  in  more  highly  developed 
peoples,  religion  became  a  phase  of  political  life. 
Such  a  position,  of  course,  left  no  room  for  miracles 
in  the  strict  sense,  although  Hobbes  undertook  to 
give  some  of  them  a  rationalistic  interpretation 
which  ante-dated  some  of  the  efforts  of  rationalism 
itself.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  17th.  century, 
Charles  Blount  still  further  developed  the  deistic 
position  although  giving  more  weight  to  the  possi- 
bility of  miracles.  All  three  of  the  above  writers 
criticized  the  biblical  material  and  raised  questions 
as  to  the  historical  accuracy  of  all  accounts  of  the 
supernatural.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  17th. 
and  the  first  half  of  the  18th.  centuries,  the  deistic 
movement  became  one  phase  of  the  general  philo- 
sophical movement  which  characterized  Enghsh 
life.  Speaking  generally,  it  represented  the  efforf 
on  the  part  of  the  philosophers  and  some  preachers 
to  remove  the  supernatural  as  an  essential  element 
in  religion  and  to  conceive  of  any  religion,  Chris- 
tianity included,  as  a  social  evolution  of  a  universal 
reaction  to  natural  laws.  Deists  differed  in  the 
extent  to  which  they  recognized  the  teaching  of 
Christianity  as  logically  tenable,  but  were  par- 
ticularly skeptical  as  to  any  immediate  personal 


Delitzsch,  Franz 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


128 


working  of  God  especially  if  it  involved  miracles 
or  revelation. 

The  deistic  movement  had  a  very  considerable 
influence  on  the  development  of  French  philosophy. 
Its  outcome,  however,  in  France  was  more  com- 
pletely atheistic  than  in  England. 

The  real  contribution  of  deism  to  the  develop- 
ment of  thought  lies  not  so  much  in  its  particular 
tenets  as  in  the  fact  that  the  deists  anticipated  the 
modern  studies  in  comparative  religion  and  to  some 
extent  the  historical  criticism  of  the  Scriptures. 
They  were,  however,  too  speculative  in  method  to 
hold  their  own  with  the  advance  of  critical  scientific 
method,  and  their  religion  was  too  devoid  of  emo- 
tional warmth  to  compete  with  a  rationalistic 
orthodoxy.  Shailer  Mathews 

DELITZSCH,  FRANZ  (1813-1890).— German 
theologian,  an  ardent  Lutheran,  much  interested  in 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews  to  Christianity ;  a  scholar 
of  great  renown  in  the  post-biblical,  rabbinic  and 
talmudic  hterature,  being  called  the  "Christian 
Talmudist." 

DELPHI.— See  Oracle. 

DELUGE. — The  usual  term  for  the  biblical 
flood  described  in  a  secondary  element  of  the 
Yahwistic  narrative  and  the  priestly  sections  of 
Gen.  chaps.  6-8. 

The  story  belongs  in  a  cycle  of  similar  traditions 
widely  diffused  over  the  world,  the  most  conspicu- 
ous exceptions  being  Arabia,  Egypt,  Central  Africa, 
Japan  and  Northern  Asia.  Of  these  traditions  a 
certain  number  embody  reminiscences  of  separate 
local  inundations  (e.g.,  in  China,  N.America,  and 
various  parts  of  Greece),  while  others  are  mythical 
explanations  of  natural  phenomena,  in  some  in- 
stances colored  by  Christian  influence  (as  among 
the  American  Indians  and  South  Sea  Islanders). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  bibhcal  story,  together 
with  the  classical  Greek  legend  of  Deucalion  (the 
wanderings  of  which  can  be  traced  with  consider- 
able certainty  by  way  of  Phrygia  and  Syria)  and  the 
later  E.  Indian  traditions,  point  clearly  to  an  ulti- 
mate source  in  Babylonia.  The  relation  of  these 
traditions  was  already  manifest  from  the  fragments 
of  Berossus,  and  is  now  placed  beyond  all  doubt 
by  the  decipherment  of  the  original  tablets,  some 
of  which  date  from  B.C.  2100.  Here  it  is  related 
how  the  gods  sent  a  flood  to  destroy  Shurippak, 
an  ancient  city  near  the  Persian  Gulf,  but  Ea  re- 
vealed their  purpose  to  his  favorite  Sit-  (or  Par-) 
.napishti,  who  saved  himself  on  a  ship,  together 
iwith  his  wife  and  certain  of  his  people,  and  animals 
id  goods  of  various  kinds,  and  was  thereafter, 
translated  to  dweU  with  the  gods  "at  the  mouth  of 
«he  jivers."  The  story  has  probably  grown  round 
some  tradition  of  a  tidal  flood,  accompanied  by  a 
cyclonic  storm,  which  overwhelmed  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Shurippak;  but  it  is  so  heavily  colored 
by  mythical  elements  that  no  great  account  can  be 
taken  of  its  historical  significance.  The  chief  value  of 
the  story  lies  in  a  comparative  study  of  the  under- 
lying moral  and  rehgious  ideas.  See  Assyria  and 
Babylonia,  Religion  op.  Alex  R.  Gordon 

DEMETER. — In  Greek  rehgion,  the  goddess  of 
agricultural  and  civilized  life.  See  Greek  Reli- 
gion; Mystery  Religions. 

DEMIURGE. — Literally  a  craftsman  capable 
of  creating  objects.  In  Gnostic  speculations,  used 
to  designate  the  creator  of  the  world  as  distinct 
from  the  supreme  God.     See  Gnosticism. 

DEMOCRACY.— An  ideal  of  political  or  social 
organization  in  which  the  individuals  of  a  group, 


whether  it  be  large  or  small,  pohtical  or  industrial, 
are  free  and  able  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  group. 

In  the  pohtical  sphere  it  is  fairly  well  understood 
because  of  the  constitutional  development  of  the 
past  century  and  a  half. 

The  term  had  an  earlier  usage  in  the  Greek  city 
states,  and  occasionally  in  governments  of  the 
Middle  Ages  where,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cantons  of 
Switzerland,  the  people  had  the  right  of  self-deter- 
mination. In  its  modern  political  sense,  however, 
democracy  is  largely  the  outgrowth  of  the  consti- 
tutional development  of  England  and  the  United 
States  due  to  the  rise  of  the  middle  class.  The  re- 
sults of  this  growth  have  been  felt  in  modifying  the 
governmental  ideas  and  practices  of  most  nations  to 
such  an  extent  that  sovereignty  is  regarded  as  vested 
in  the  people  of  a  state  who  have  power  to  choose 
their  own  government  and  pass  their  own  laws 
through  elected  representatives. 

The  ideal  is  now  being  extended  to  industrial 
relations  and  may  be  said  to  have  entered  into  a 
second  phase  of  influence.  Various  theories  for  such 
extension  have  been  advanced.  See  Socialism; 
Communism.  The  establishment  of  industrial 
democracy  would  mean  at  least  the  determination 
by  the  workers  of  the  conditions  under  which  they 
should  labor,  as  regards  sanitary  arrangements, 
length  of  working  day,  number  of  working  days  in 
the  week,  division  of  profits,  control  of  productive 
processes,  etc. 

The  bearing  of  these  developments  upon  religious 
thinking  has  been  profound,  although  unfortunately 
not  sufficiently  reaUzed  by  the  churches.  In  all 
Protestant  churches,  however,  there  is  a  very 
marked  movement  ^  toward  the  participation  of 
laymen  and  women  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Many 
church  assembhes,  conventions,  and  other  central 
bodies  have  passed  resolutions  in  support  of  a  larger 
share  on  the  part  of  the  worker  in  self-direction  in 
and  of  the  industrial  process.  It  must  not  be  over- 
looked, also,  that  in  many  respects  this  new  attitude 
of  mind  in  politics  and  industry  is  very  unlike 
that  from  which  orthodox  theology  emerged.  Some 
readjustment  will  undoubtedly  be  necessary  by 
which  the  doctrinal  formulas  born  of  analogies 
drawn  from  oriental  monarchies  can  be  made  rnore 
effective  in  a  world  that  no  longer  permits  such 
monarchies.  In  such  recasting  as  has  already  been 
attempted  there  is  an  increasing  emphasis  upon 
the  democratization  of  monopolized  privileges  wit  hin 
both  the  churches  and  society.  This  is  vitalizing 
a  number  of  doctrines  especially  those  deaUng  with 
God,  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  Atonement. 

Shailer  Mathews 

DEMONIAC,  DEMONIACAL  POSSESSION. 
— See  Demons. 

DEMONS.— The  word  demon  (from  the 
Greek  word  daimon,  probably  signifying  originally 
"apportioner")  is  used  to  designate  a  lower  order 
of  superhuman  beings  (see  Spirits)  who  as  a  rule 
are  thought  to  be  enemies  of  mankind.  Demons 
may  be  distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  gods  and 
on  the  other  from  ghosts  (q.v.).  At  times  the  ghost 
may  deport  itself  not  unlike  a  demon  but  the  latter 
is  generally,  though  by  no  means  always,  a  creature 
of  the  other  world  rather  than  a  disembodied  human 
spirit.  In  contrast  with  angels  (q.v.),  who  are 
prevailingly  regarded  as  friendly  toward  mortals, 
demons  are  usually  assigned  a  hostile  r61e.  They 
cause  disease,  misfortunes,  and  dire  calamities. 

Belief  in  the  existence  of  demons  is  widely 
current  in  many  religions.  Savages  have  always 
peopled  the  world  about  them  with  hosts  of  demonic 
powers  (see  Animism),  while  the  adherents  of  even 
the  most  highly  developed  ethnic  faiths  frequently 
give  a  large  place  in  their  thinldng  to  demonology. 


129 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Design 


In  ancient  times  speculation  about  demons  throve 
particularly  among  the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonians, 
the  Assyrians,  and  the  Persians.  _  Hebrew  thinking 
upon  this  subject  was  comparatively  simple  previ- 
ous to  the  exile,  but  during  the  Persian  and  Greek 
periods  of  their  history  the  Jews  developed^  an 
extensive  demonology  resembling  in  many  particu- 
lars that  of  the  Babylonians  and  the  Persians. 
Belief  in  demons  was  common  also  among  the 
Greeks,  yet  they  did  not  draw  the  distinction 
between  good  and  evil  spirits  so  sharply  as  did  the 
Jews.  Jewish  views  were  taken  over  extensively 
by  the  Christians,  who  regarded  all  demons  as 
evil  powers  organized  under  the  leadership  of 
Satan  (q.v.).  Christians  also  consigned  all  the 
gods  of  paganism  to  the  demonic  sphere.  Moham- 
medan demonology  was  similarly  elaborate,  com- 
bining as  it  did  ancient  Arabic  belief  in  evil  spirits 
with  features  derived  from  both  Judaism  and 
Christianity. 

The  natural  dwelling-place  of  evil  spirits  was 
the  lower  regions,  or  remote  and  desolate  parts  of 
the  earth,  but  their  sphere  of  actual  operations 
included  practically  the  whole  universe.  They 
were  credited  with  ability  to  move  about  unseen 
and  might  lodge  in  a  tree,  a  stone,  an  animal,  or 
a  human  being.  A  characteristic  form  of  demonic 
activity  was  that  of  "possession,"  in  which  the 
demon  was  assumed  to  reside  within  the  individual 
who  was  thus  under  the  control  of  this  foreign 
power  and  was  impelled  to  various  forms  of  strange 
conduct.  Familiar  examples  of  this  type  of  belief, 
which  is  current  in  many  religions,  are  furnished 
by  the  New  Testament  accounts  of  Jesus'  encounters 
with  persons  possessed  by  an  evil  spirit  (e.g., 
Markl:23ff.,  34;  3:11,22;  5:lff.;  9:17£f.). 

The  ancients  gave  much  attention  to  the  prob- 
lem of  ridding  the  possessed  one  of  the  evil  spirit. 
Many  magicians  and  exorcists  appeared  who 
practiced  with  greater  or  less  success  the  art  of 
expelling  the  demon  by  calling  to  their  aid  other 
more  powerful  spirits  (see  Magic;  Exorcism). 
Thus  Jesus  credited  his  success  to  the  assistance 
of  God  (Matt.  12:28),  while  his  enemies  ascribed 
it  to  collusion  with  Beelzebul,  the  chief  of  demons. 
Subsequently,  when  Jesus'  disciples  had  attained 
their  belief  in  his  exaltation  to  a  position  of  superi- 
ority in  the  world  of  heavenly  spirits,  they  took 
up  the  practice  of  exorcizing  in  his  powerful  name. 
For  several  centuries  the  exorcism  of  demons  con- 
tinued to  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  attention 
of  Christians.  S.  J.  Case 

DENCE,  HANS  (ca.  1495-1527).— One  of  the 
ablest  leaders  among  the  Anabaptists  (q.v.),  whose 
writings  were  marked  by  profoimd  mysticism  and 
deep  spiritual  insight. 

DENIS,  SAINT.— First  bishop  of  Paris,  mar- 
tyred at  Paris,  either  under  Valerian  (253-60")  or 
Maximian  (285-305).  In  a  biography  of  the  9th. 
century  he  was  identified  with  Dionysius  the  Are- 
opagite.  He  is  venerated  on  Oct.  9  as  the  patron 
saint  of  France. 

DENNEY,  JAMES  (185&-1917).— Scottish 
Presbyterian  theologian,  author  of  The  Death  of 
Christ,  Jesus  and  the  Gospel,  and  other  theological 
works,  dealing  especially  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement.  He  attempted,  without  radical  depar- 
ture from  conservative  theology,  to  adjust  Christian 
doctrines  to  the  demands  of  modern  thinking. 

DEONTOLOGY.— From  the  Greek,  meaning 
"discourse  on  duties" ;  a  designation  sometimes  used 
for  ethical  science,  denoting  a  conception  of  ethics 
in  which  duty  rather  than  goodness,  virtue,  or  right 
is  paramount. 


DEPARTMENTAL  GOD.— In  the  history  of 
religions,  a  deity  regarded  as  presiding  over  a  specific 
department  or  subdivision  of  human  affairs,  as, 
e.g.,  education  or  agriculture. 

DEPOSITION.— In  ancient  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline a  removal  from  office  meted  out  to  delin- 
quent clergy,  at  first  the  same  as  degradation  (q.v.). 
A  deposed  cleric  may,  however,  be  reinstated  with- 
out reordination. 

DEPRAVITY. — ^A  confirmed  moral  corruption 
of  tastes  and  impulses.  Theologically  the  equiva- 
lent of  original  sin  (q.v.). 

DERVISH. — {Darwish,  a  Persian  word;  in 
Arabic,  Fakir),  a  member  of  a  Mohammedan  reli- 
gious Drotherhood  of  mystic  ascetics,  similar  to 
Christian  friars. 

Legends  trace  their  origins  to  the  patriarchal 
age  of  Islam  and  to  the  prophet;  they  do  not  appear 
in  history  before  the  11th.  century  a.d.  They 
have  complete  initiates,  also  lay  members  similar 
to_  Christian  _ "tertiaries."  By  various  means, 
chiefly  hypnotic,  they  seek  religious  ecstasy.  At 
present  they  are  the  lodges  and  clubs  of  the  lower 
classes. 

Many  orders  have  flourished  and  still  flourish. 
Best  known  in  the  west  are  the  Mevlevis  (dancing 
dervishes),  Rufaifs  (howHng  dervishes),  Kalandaris 
(Calendars  of  the  Arabian  Nights),  and  the  Senussis. 

M.  Sprenglinq 

DESCARTES,  RENE  (1596-1650).— French 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  known  as  the 
"father  of  modern  philosophy,"  because  he  began 
the  method  of  appeal  to  rational  inquiry  in  contrast 
with  the  theological  supematuralism  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

DESCENT  TO  HADES.— The  visit  of  Jesus  to 
the  under  world  described  in  I  Pet.  3:19;  4:6. 
These  obscure  references  reflect  a  behef,  probably 
suggested  by  Ps.  16:10,  quoted  in  Acts  2:27,  31 
("Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  Sheol"),  that  Jesus 
between  his  death  and  his  resurrection  visited  the 
world  of  the  dead  and  preached  to  them.  Eph.  4 : 9, 
10  perhaps  refers  to  the  same  interpretation  of  the 
interval  left  by  the  gospel  narratives  between  Jesus' 
death  and  resurrection.  The  idea  that  the  Messiah 
would  preach  to  the  departed  was  not  xmknown 
among  the  Jews.  That  Jesus  should  have  preached 
especially  to  the  antediluvians  is  perhaps  explained 
by  the  especial  interest  shown  in  the  1st.  century  in 
their  spiritual  destiny.  Some  scholars  however, 
amend  the  text  to  read,  "In  which  also  Enoch  went 
and  preached  to  the  spirits  in  prison,"  and  find  in  the 
passage  only  a  reference  to  Enoch's  mission  to  the 
fallen  angels  described  in  Enoch,  chaps.  12,  13. , 

In  the  early  church  the  descent  to  Hades  -^Mis 
emphasized  (as  in  the  Gospel  of  Nicodemus)  andXe- 
came  an  essential  part  of  the  interpretation  of  the 
death  of  Christ  as  a  ransom  to  Satan.  It  was 
natural,  therefore,  for  belief  in  it  to  become  an 
element  of  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

DESCENT  OF  MAN.— The  theory  that  all 
organic  life,  and  hence  man,  is  derived  from  and 
genetically  related  to  earlier  forms.   See  Evolution. 

DESECRATION. — The  act  or  process  of  divert- 
ing from  a  sacred  to  a  secular  usage;  sacrilege;  as 
the  profaning  of  a  temple  or  sacred  vessels. 

DESIGN. — The  explanation  of  instances  of 
adaptation  in  nature  Isy  reference  to  a  conscious 
and  deliberate  plan  of  action;  an  argument  fre- 
quently used  for  the  existence  of  God. 


Destiny 


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130 


DESTINY.— (1)  Antecedently  determined  lot 
or  fortune,  the  determination  being  sometimes 
referred  to  human,  and  at  other  times  to  divine 
agency.  (2)  An  inscrutable  and  immutable  power 
assumed  to  be  in  control  of  both  human  and  cosmic 
processes. 

DETERMINISM.— The  hypothesis  that  the 
human  will,  in  the  exercise  of  the  power  of  choice 
between  alternative  courses  of  conduct,  is  absolutely 
controlled  by  existing  conditions,  psychological  or  ex- 
ternal.    M oral  freedom  is  thus  held  to  be  a  delusion. 

DEVA. — The  general  name  for  God  in  Hindu 
religion  (fern.  devi).  In  the  Zoroastrian  reUgion  the 
term  is  applied  to  devils,  the  enemies  of  men  and 
of  Ormazd. 

DEVIL. — A  designation  for  an  evil  spirit,  par- 
ticularly the  chief  of  demons  (q.v.).  Primitive 
man  early  became  conscious  of  the  fact  that  nature 
was  sometimes  Idndly  and  sometimes  hostile,  and 
thus  there  arose  a  belief  in  the  activity  of  good  and 
evil  spirits — gods  and  devils.  All  the  historic 
faiths  have  personalized  these  forces  of  good  and 
evil,  and  where  there  is  a  disposition  to  elevate  one 
god  to  a  place  of  supremacy  above  all  other  good 
spirits — e.g.,  in  Zoroastrianism,  Judaism,  Chris- 
tianity, and  Islam — evil  spirits  also  tend  to  assume 
a  hierarchical  arrangement  with  a  chief  devil  at 
their  head.  Among  the  Jews  this  prince  of  dernons 
is  usually  called  Satan  (q.v.),  the  early  Christians 
refer  to  him  sometimes  as  Satan  and  sometimes  as 
the  devil,  but  in  the  later  history  of  Christianity 
the  latter  term  becomes  the  more  common.  The 
devil  figured  prominently  in  the  Christian  thinking 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  for  Luther  he  was  a 
very  realistic  personage,  but  his  prestige  has 
waned  somewhat  in  modern  times.        S.  J.  Case 

DEVIL-WORSHIPER. — One  who  worships  the 
power  or  spirits  of  evil,  a  practise  common  to  many 
primitive  tribes  in  Africa,  Asia  and  America;  the 
specific  designation  of  the  Yzedis — a  Mesopotamian 
tribe. 

DEVOTION  AND  DEVOTIONAL  LITERA- 
TURE.— The  experience  of  quiet  confidence  in 
communion  with  God,  and  books  conducive  to  such 
experience.    See  also  Worship. 

1.  The  experience  of  devotion. — Religion  is  always 
both  subjective  and  objective,  an  appreciation  of 
the  will  of  God  and  an  active  undertaking  of  it; 
piety  and  service.  In  a  healthy  religious  life  these 
are  mttmately  united,  though  one  or  the  other  may 
at  any  moment  be  in  the  ascendancy.  The  danger 
of  an  over-emphasis  on  a  contemplative  or  intro- 
spective religious  experience  divorced  from  active 
human    service    is    evident. 

Within  the  range  of  subjective  religious  experi- 
ence devotion  is  to  be  distinguished  for  its  peaceful 
and  joyous  character.  Struggle  with  temptation 
and  doubt,  painful  wrest Ung  with  the  problems  of 
life— -these  are  not  devotion.  They  are  occasional 
and  incidental  religious  experiences,  while  devotion 
may  be  regular  and  naturally  responsive  to  sum- 
mons. We  may  not  say,  "I  will  now  enter  upon 
spiritual  struggle,  "but  we  may  say,  "I  will  betake  me 
to  devotion."  This  is  not  to  eUminate  from  devo- 
tion heart  searching,  prayer  for  forgiveness,  longing 
after  holiness,  all  of  which  are  inevitable  to  the 
devout  soul. 

2.  The  experience  of  devotion  may  he  cultivated. — 
Like  all  other  experiences  it  develops  by  practice. 
Brother  Lawrence,  one  of  the  most  devout  of  men, 
entitled  his  work,  "the  practice  of  the  presence  of 
God."     Devotion  is  a  condition  of  spiritual  relaxa- 


tion, an  escape  from  the  tensions  of  life.  Devotion 
is  a  deliberate  withdrawal  from  the  world,  and  an 
endeavor  to  see  things  whole.  It  is  akin  to  the 
mountain  contemplation  of  a  landscape.  To  be 
healthy,  it  must,  of  course,  be  a  withdrawal  from 
Ufe  in  order  to  go  back  the  more  strenuously  into  life. 
It  is  the  endeavor  to  get  God's  point  of  view.  It  is 
unhurried,  though  it  may  be  brief.  It  is  the  "quiet 
hour."  Audit  is  the  spirit  of  receptivity.  In  devo- 
tion the  human  spirit  expects  to  be  spoken  to,  to  be 
encouraged  and  comforted,  to  be  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

3.  Devotional  leaders. — In  religion,  as  in  all  other 
human  interests,  the  gifted  souls  lead  the  mediocre. 
Poets  and  painters  help  us  to  appreciate  nature, 
musicians  stimulate  our  love  of  harmony,  good  men 
lead  the  way  toward  virtue.  So  i,he  devout  lead 
others  to  devotion.  This  leadership  is  sometimes 
designed,  whence  have  come  the  great  manuals 
of  devotion.  More  often  the  saint  is  simply  con- 
strained to  express  his  own  experience,  and  his 
book  becomes  the  classic  for  those  who  seek  to  share 
what  he  has  found. 

4.  Devotional  literature  is  very  abundant. 
Psalms,  prayers,  and  hymns  belong  to  it.  A  few  of 
the  great  works  may  be  mentioned.  The  Soul's 
Progress  in  God,  by  Bonaventura,  is  a  typical  work 
of  mediaeval  mysticism.  The  Imitation  of  Christ, 
by  Thomas  k  Kempis,  is  still  a  classic  for  Catholic 
and  Protestant  aUke.  Rules  and  Instructions  for  a 
Holy  Life,  by  Robert  Leighton,  is  a  piece  of  Scottish 
devoutness  from  the  troubled  17th.  century.  Intro- 
duction to  the  Devout  Life,  by  Francis  of  Sales,  is  an 
example  of  Jesuit  devotion.  Brother  Lawrence  has 
been  noted  above.  The  Rule  and  Exercise  of  Holy 
Living,  by  Jeremy  Taylor,  The  Saints'  Everlasting 
Rest,  by  Richard  Baxter,  and  The  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Religion  in  the  Soul,  by  Philip  Doddridge,  are 
famiUar  English  manuals.  Among  the  numerous 
modern  works  are  The  Still  Hour,  by  Austin  Phelps, 
My  Aspirations,  by  George  Matheson,  The  Greatest 
Thing  in  the  World,  by  Henry  Drummond,  The 
Meaning  of  Prayer,  by  Harry  Emerson  Fosdick. 

A  devotional  Uterature  having  the  note  of 
modem  reality  is  a  desideratum.  Rauschenbusch's 
For  God  and  People — Prayers  of  the  Social  Awaken- 
ing is  an  essay  in  this  direction. 

Theodore  G.  Scares 

DE  WETTE,  WILHELM  MARTIN  LEB- 
RECHT  (1780-1849).— German  theologian,  pro- 
fessor at  Basel.  Adopting  a  free,  critical  attitude 
he  strove  for  a  better  understanding  between  the- 
ology and  science,  approaching  the  study  of  doctrine 
from  the  side  of  feeling  and  morality. 

DHARMA. — ^A  Hindu  word  meaning  law, 
justice,  or  duty,  the  performance  of  which  gives 
salvation.  In  Buddhism  it  came  to  mean  the 
ultimate  cosmic  law  or  order  or  truth.    See  Dhar- 

MAKAYA. 

DHARMAKAYA.— The  Buddhology  of  some 
important  sects  of  Mahdyana  Buddhism  is  trini- 
tarian,  the  Buddha  possessing  three  bodies— 
dharmakdya,  sambhogakdya,  and  nirmdnakdya. 
The  dharmakdya,  "body  of  the  law"  or  of  the 
"truth,"  is  the  substratum  or  essential  buddhahood 
or  ultimate  nature  of  all  the  Buddhas  and  the 
real  nature  of  all  beings.  It  is  called  the  "void" 
or  "reality."  When  this  ultimate  reality  assumes 
a  supra-mundane  form,  endowed  with  all  the 
glories  and  powers  of  a  transcendant  Buddha, 
visible  only  to  the  spiritual  vision  of  saints,  it  is 
called  the  sambhogakdija  or  "body  of  bUss."  The 
nirmdnakdya  is  the  human,  illusory  form  appearing 
to  the  vision  of  ordinary  men,  as  e.g.,  in  Gautama. 
See  Doceticism  (Buddhist), 


131 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Disciples  of  Christ 


DHIKR. — A  religious  ritual  used  by  the  Moslem 
dervish  fraternities  to  assist  in  remembrance  of 
God  and  to  glorify  him.  The  verbal  form  varies 
but  usually  consists  of  some  or  all  of  the  99  names  for 
Allah. 

DHYANA. — Meditation.  The  religious  prac- 
tice of  Hindu  and  Buddhist  groups  in  which  one 
concentrates  the  mind  upon  a  single  idea  in  order 
to  arrive  at  that  complete  poise  of  mind  leading  to 
suppression  of  the  senses,  ecstasy,  quiet  joy  and 
finally  indiflference  to  joy  or  sorrow. 

DIASIA. — A  primitive  social  rite  of  Greece  in 
which  offerings  were  made  to  underworld  powers 
associated  with  the  dead.  The  huge  snake  repre- 
senting the  underworld  power  was  in  later  times 
displaced  by  the  Olympian  god,  Zeus,  under  the 
euphemistic  name,  Meilichios,  "Easy -to-be - 
entreated."  But  the  rites  were  somber  and  gloomy; 
the  offerings  were  abandoned  wholly  to  the  dreaded 
deities  and  their  chief  purpose  was  to  ward  off 
evil  from  the  living. 

DIASPORA. — The  term  means  disp>ersion,  scat- 
tering, but  it  has  come  to  be  applied  specifically  to 
the  distribution  of  the  Jews  among  the  Gentiles, 
particularly  after  the  Exile.  By  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  Era  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora,  perhaps 
exceeding  in  number  their  kinsmen  of  Palestine,  were 
to  be  found  in  all  the  lands  about  the  Mediterranean. 

DIATESSARON.— (Greek,  "through  four")  a 
harmony  of  the  four  gospels  so  as  to  make  one  con- 
tinuous narrative,  especially  that  composed  by 
Tatian  (q.v.)  in  the  2nd.  century. 

DICHOTOMY.— Technically,  a  logical  division 
whereby  a  genus  is  divided  into  two  species;  more 
popularly,  a  division  into  two  parts.  In  the  latter 
sense  the  theory  that  man  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  material  body  and  the  immaterial  spirit  or  mind. 

DID  ACHE,  THE.— Also  called  the  Teaching  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles,  an  ancient  Christian  docu- 
ment, discovered  in  1875  and  published  in  1881. 
It  consists  of  (1)  moral  precepts,  chaps.  1-6,  to 
guide  Christian  conduct,  to  be  taught  to  catachu- 
mens  in  preparation  for  baptism;  (2)  a  manual  of 
church  hfe,  chaps.  7-15,  with  definite  instructions 
as  to  baptism,  fasting,  prayer,  the  Eucharist;  the 
treatment  of  teachers,  apostles  (i.e.,  missionaries), 
prophets,  and  visiting  brethren;  worship  on  the 
Lord's  Day;  and  the  appointment  of  bishops  and 
deacons;  (3)  an  eschatological  conclusion,  chap.  16. 
The  work  in  its  present  form  shows  abundant  influ- 
ence of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  was  probably 
written  between  130  and  150.  The  first  part  of  it  is 
based  on  an  earher  form  of  the  Didache  which  has 
come  to  fight  in  a  Latin  version  (1900),  and  proves 
to  be  a  document  of  Jewish  Christianity  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  1st.  century. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

DIES  IRAE.— Latin,  "Day  of  Wrath"  or  Day  of 
Judgment.  Also  the  designation  of  a  well-known 
hymn  of  the  R.C.  church,  so-caUed  from  its  opening 
words. 

DILLMANN,  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH 
AUGUST  (1823-1894).— German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian; a  noted  scholar  in  the  field  of  the  Ethiopic 
language  and  fiterature. 

DIOCESE. — The  territory  of  the  churches  under 
the  administrative  authority  of  a  bishop.  The  tra- 
ditional custom  was  for  the  episcopal  title  to  be 
attached  to  the  see  where  the  cathedral  is,  and  not 


to  the  diocese,  but  in  modem  times  the  title  is 
frequently  attached  to  the  diocese. 

DIOCLETIAN.— Roman  emperor,  284-305,  who 
instituted  the  longest  and  most  severe  persecution 
of  Christians  in  the  empire.  Donatism  (q.v.)  origi- 
nated at  the  time  of  the  Diocletian  persecutions. 

DIOGNETUS,  EPISTLE  TO.— An  early  Chris- 
tian apology,  one  of  the  writings  of  the  ApostoUc 
Fathers.  The  £.uthor  is  unidentified,  and  the  date 
uncertain,  being  somewhere  between  150  and  300. 

The  letter  refutes  idolatry  and  Judaistic  ritual- 
ism, and  makes  a  vigorous  defence  of  Christianity 
on  the  ground  of  the  morahty  of  Christians  and  of 
the  revelation  of  God  through  his  own  Son. 

DIONYSIUS.— Pope,  259-268,  reorganized  the 
Roman  church  after  the  Valerian  persecution;  en- 
gaged in  a  doctrinal  controversy  with  Dionysius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria. 

DIONYSIUS  THE  AREOPAGITE.— A  convert 
to  Christianity  under  the  preaching  of  Paul  at 
Athens  (Acts  17:34);  by  other  writers  said  to  be 
the  first  bishop  of  Athens,  tradition  adding  that  he 
was  martyred  there.  In  the  6th.  century  certain 
mystical  theological  Greek  works  of  a  Neo-Platonic 
type  were  ascribed  to  him,  although  criticism 
shows  that  these  could  not  have  been  composed 
before  the  6th.  century.  These  treatises  were  of 
great  influence  on  later  Christian  thought.  Another 
mistaken  tradition  identified  St.  Denis  of  Paris  with 
Dionysius. 

DIONYSOS  (DIONYSIA).— God  of  fertility 
who  was  brought  to  Greece  from  his  native  Thrace. 
In  the  original  form  of  dancing,  coarse  satire  and 
fertility  symbolism  his  rites  are  similar  to  many 
vegetation  cults.  In  Greece,  however,  the  winter 
and  spring  festivals,  known  as  the  Rural  and  the 
Great  or  City  Dionysia,  developed  into  stately 
ceremonies.  The  rude  dialogue  and  dancing  of 
the  revelers  clad  in  goat-skins  were  transformed  into 
the  classical  tragedy  and  comedy  of  Athens.  The 
religious  character  was  maintained  however  and 
in  the  comedy  many  elements  of  the  ancient  fertility 
magic  persisted. 

DIPLOMATICS,  PAPAL.— The  study  of  ancient 
official  documents  originating  in  the  papal  chancery. 
The  science  of  diplomatics  has  to  do  with  questions 
of  authenticity,  signatures,  dates  etc..  and  origi- 
nated as  a  check  on  forgeries. 

DIRECTION,  SPIRITUAL.— The  guidance  of 
individuals  toward  the  acquirement  of  spiritual 
well-being.  In  Roman  CathoUcism  such  direction 
must  be  given  by  the  church. 

DIRECTORY,  CATHOLIC— A  book  contain- 
ing the  regulations  of  the  R.C.  church  for  the  mass 
and  office  for  each  day  of  the  year. 

DISCERNMENT  OF  SPIRITS.— The  ascertaua- 
ment  whether  the  alleged  supernatural  activity  of 
an  "inspired"  person  is  due  to  the  Spirit  of  Christ. 
The  practice  arose  in  communities  such  as  primitive 
Christianity,  where  good  and  evil  are  referred  to 
good  and  evil  spirits  respectively. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.— A  religious  body  of 
American  Protestantism  which  has  grown  out  of  a 
movement  led  by  Thomas  and  Alexander  Campbell. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  country  it  is  known  as 
the  "Christian  Church,"  or  the  "Church  of  Christ." 
It  is  congregational  in  polity,  but  for  co-operation 


Destiny 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


130 


DESTINY.— (1)  Antecedently  determined  lot 
or  fortune,  the  determination  being  sometimes 
referred  to  human,  and  at  other  times  to  divine 
agency.  (2)  An  inscrutable  and  immutable  power 
assumed  to  be  in  control  of  both  human  and  cosmic 
processes. 

DETERMINISM.— The  hypothesis  that  the 
human  will,  in  the  exercise  of  the  power  of  choice 
between  alternative  courses  of  conduct,  is  absolutely 
controlled  bj^  existing  conditions,  psychological  or  ex- 
ternal.    Moral  freedom  is  thus  held  to  be  a  delusion. 

DEVA.— The  general  name  for  God  in  Hindu 
religion  (fem.  devi).  In  the  Zoroastrian  reUgion  the 
term  is  applied  to  devils,  the  enemies  of  men  and 
of  Ormazd. 

DEVIL. — 'A  designation  for  an  evil  spirit,  par- 
ticularly the  chief  of  demons  (q.v.).  Primitive 
man  early  became  conscious  of  the  fact  that  nature 
was  sometimes  kindly  and  sometimes  hostile,  and 
thus  there  arose  a  belief  in  the  activity  of  good  and 
evil  spirits — gods  and  devils.  All  the  historic 
faiths  have  personalized  these  forces  of  good  and 
evil,  and  where  there  is  a  disposition  to  elevate  one 
god  to  a  place  of  supremacy  above  all  other  good 
spirits — e.g.,  in  Zoroastrianism,  Judaism,  Chris- 
tianity, and  Islam — evil  spirits  also  tend  to  assume 
a  hierarchical  arrangement  with  a  chief  devil  at 
their  head.  Among  the  Jews  this  prince  of  demons 
is  usually  called  Satan  (q.v.),  the  early  Christians 
refer  to  him  sometimes  as  Satan  and  sometimes  as 
the  devil,  but  in  the  later  history  of  Christianity 
the  latter  term  becomes  the  more  common.^  The 
devil  figured  prominently  in  the  Christian  thinking 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  for  Luther  he  was  a 
very  realistic  personage,  but  his  prestige  has 
waned  somewhat  in  modern  times.        S.  J.  Case 

DEVIL-WORSHIPER.— One  who  worships  the 
power  or  spirits  of  evil,  a  practise  common  to  many 
primitive  tribes  in  Africa,  Asia  and  America;  the 
specific  designation  of  the  Yzedis — ^a  Mesopotamian 
tribe. 

DEVOTION  AND  DEVOTIONAL  LITERA- 
TURE.— The  experience  of  quiet  confidence  in 
communion  with  God,  and  books  conducive  to  such 
experience.     See  also  Worship. 

1.  The  experience  of  devotion. — Religion  is  always 
both  subjective  and  objective,  an  appreciation  of 
the  will  of  God  and  an  active  undertaking  of  it; 
piety  and  service.  In  a  healthy  rehgious  Ufe  these 
are  intimately  united,  though  one  or  the  other  may 
at  any  moment  be  in  the  ascendancy.  The  danger 
of  an  over-emphasis  on  a  contemplative  or  intro- 
spective religious  experience  divorced  from  active 
human    service    is    evident. 

Within  the  range  of  subjective  religious  experi- 
ence devotion  is  to  be  distinguished  for  its  peaceful 
and  joyous  character.  Struggle  with  temptation 
a,nd  doubt,  painful  wresthng  with  the  problems  of 
life — ^these  are  not  devotion.  They  are  occasional 
and  incidental  religious  experiences,  while  devotion 
may  be  regular  and  naturally  responsive  to  sum- 
mons. We  may  not  say,  "I  wiU  now  enter  upon 
spiritual  struggle,  "but  we  may  say,  "I  will  betake  me 
to  devotion.  Tliis  is  not  to  eliminate  from  devo- 
tion heart  searcliing,  prayer  for  forgiveness,  longing 
after  holiness,  all  of  which  are  inevitable  to  the 
devout  soul. 

2.  The  experience  of  devotion  may  he  cultivated. — 
Like  all  other  experiences  it  develops  by  practice. 
Brother  Lawrence,  one  of  the  most  devout  of  men, 
entitled  his  work,  "the  practice  of  the  presence  of 
God."     Devotion  is  a  condition  of  spiritual  relaxa- 


tion, an  escape  from  the  tensions  of  life.  Devotion 
is  a  deUberate  withdrawal  from  the  world,  and  an 
endeavor  to  see  things  whole.  It  is  akin  to  the 
mountain  contemplation  of  a  landscape.  To  be 
healthy,  it  must,  of  course,  be  a  withdrawal  from 
life  in  order  to  go  back  the  more  strenuously  into  Ufe. 
It  is  the  endeavor  to  get  God's  point  of  view.  It  is 
unhurried,  though  it  may  be  brief.  It  is  the  "quiet 
hour."  Andit  is  the  spirit  of  receptivity.  In  devo- 
tion the  human  spirit  expects  to  be  spoken  to,  to  be 
encouraged  and  comforted,  to  be  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

3.  Devotional  leaders. — In  religion,  as  in  all  other 
human  interests,  the  gifted  souls  lead  the  mediocre. 
Poets  and  painters  help  us  to  appreciate  nature, 
musicians  stimulate  our  love  of  harmony,  good  men 
lead  the  way  toward  virtue.  So  Jthe  devout  lead 
others  to  devotion.  This  leadership  is  sometimes 
designed,  whence  have  come  the  great  manuals 
of  devotion.  More  often  the  saint  is  simply  con- 
strained to  express  his  own  experience,  and  his 
book  becomes  the  classic  for  those  who  seek  to  share 
what  he  has  found. 

4.  Devotional  literature  is  very  abundant. 
Psalms,  prayers,  and  hymns  belong  to  it.  A  few  of 
the  great  works  may  be  mentioned.  The  Soul's 
Progress  in  God,  by  Bonaventura,  is  a  typical  work 
of  mediaeval  mysticism.  The  Imitation  of  Christ, 
by  Thomas  k  Kempis,  is  stiU  a  classic  for  Catholic 
and  Protestant  ahke.  Rules  and  Instructions  for  a 
Holy  Liife,  by  Robert  Leighton,  is  a  piece  of  Scottish 
devoutness  from  the  troubled  17th.  century.  Intro- 
duction to  the  Devout  Life,  by  Francis  of  Sales,  is  an 
example  of  Jesuit  devotion.  Brother  Lawrence  has 
been  noted  above.  The  Rule  and  Exercise  of  Holy 
Living,  by  Jeremy  Taylor,  The  Saints'  Everlasting 
Rest,  by  Richard  Baxter,  and  The  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Religion  in  the  Soul,  by  Phihp  Doddridge,  are 
famihar  English  manuals.  Among  the  numerous 
modern  works  are  The  Still  Hour,  by  Austin  Phelps, 
My  Aspirations,  by  George  Matheson,  The  Greatest 
Thing  in  the  World,  by  Henry  Drummond,  The 
Meaning  of  Prayer,  by  Harry  Emerson  Fosdick. 

A  devotional  Uterature  having  the  note  of 
modem  reality  is  a  desideratum.  Rauschenbusch's 
For  God  and  People — Prayers  of  the  Social  Awaken- 
ing is  an  essay  in  this  direction. 

Theodore  G.  Scares 

DE  WETTE,  WILHELM  MARTIN  LEB- 
RECHT  (1780-1849).— German  theologian,  pro- 
fessor at  Basel.  Adopting  a  free,  critical  attitude 
he  strove  for  a  better  understanding  between  the- 
ology and  science,  approaching  the  study  of  doctrine 
from  the  side  of  feeling  and  morality. 

DHARMA. — ^A  Hindu  word  meaning  law, 
justice,  or  duty,  the  performance  of  which  gives 
salvation.  In  Buddhism  it  came  to  mean  the 
ultimate  cosmic  law  or  order  or  truth.    See  Dhar- 


DHARMAKAYA.— The  Buddhology  of  some 
important  sects  of  Mahayana  Buddhism  is  trini- 
tarian,  the  Buddha  possessing  three  bodies — 
dharmakdya,  sambhogakdya,  and  nirmdnakdya. 
The  dharmakdya,  "body  of  the  law"  or  of  the 
"truth,"  is  the  substratum  or  essential  buddhahood 
or  ultimate  nature  of  all  the  Buddhas  and  the 
real  nature  of  all  beings.  It  is  called  the  "void" 
or  "reality."  When  this  ultimate  reality  assumes 
a  supra-mundane  form,  endowed  with  all  the 
glories  and  powers  of  a  transcendant  Buddha, 
visible  only  to  the  spiritual  vision  of  saints,  it  is 
called  the  sambhogakdija  or  "body  of  bliss."  The 
nirmdnakdya  is  the  human,  illusory  form  appearing 
to  the  vision  of  ordinary  men,  as  e.g.,  in  Gautama. 
See  DocETicisM  (Buddhist), 


131 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Disciples  of  Christ 


DHIKR. — A  religious  ritual  used  by  the  Moslem 
dervish  fraternities  to  assist  in  remembrance  of 
God  and  to  glorify  him.  The  verbal  form  varies 
but  usually  consists  of  some  or  all  of  the  99  names  for 
Allah. 

DHYANA. — Meditation.  The  religious  prac- 
tice of  Hindu  and  Buddhist  groups  in  which  one 
concentrates  the  mind  upon  a  single  idea  in  order 
to  arrive  at  that  complete  poise  of  mind  leading  to 
suppression  of  the  senses,  ecstasy,  quiet  joy  and 
finally  indifference  to  joy  or  sorrow. 

DIASIA. — A  primitive  social  rite  of  Greece  in 
which  offerings  were  made  to  underworld  powers 
associated  with  the  dead.  The  huge  snake  repre- 
senting the  underworld  power  was  in  later  times 
displaced  by  the  Olympian  god,  Zeus,  under  the 
euphemistic  name,  Meilichios,  "Easy-to-be- 
entreated."  But  the  rites  were  somber  and  gloomy; 
the  offerings  were  abandoned  wholly  to  the  dreaded 
deities  and  their  chief  purpose  was  to  ward  off 
evil  from  the  living. 

DIASPORA.. — The  term  means  dispersion,  scat- 
tering, but  it  has  come  to  be  applied  specifically  to 
the  distribution  of  the  Jews  among  the  Gentiles, 
particularly  after  the  Exile.  By  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  Era  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora,  perhaps 
exceeding  in  number  their  kinsmen  of  Palestine,  were 
to  be  found  in  all  the  lands  about  the  Mediterranean. 

DIATESSARON.— (Greek,  "through  four")  a 
harmony  of  the  four  gospels  so  as  to  make  one  con- 
tinuous narrative,  especially  that  composed  by 
Tatian  (q.v.)  in  the  2nd.  century. 

DICHOTOMY.— Technically,  a  logical  division 
whereby  a  genus  is  divided  into  two  species;  more 
popularly,  a  division  into  two  parts.  In  the  latter 
sense  the  theory  that  man  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  material  body  and  the  immaterial  spirit  or  mind. 

DIDACHE,  THE.— Also  called  the  Teaching  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles,  an  ancient  Christian  docu- 
ment, discovered  in  1875  and  published  in  1881. 
It  consists  of  (1)  moral  precepts,  chaps.  1-6,  to 
guide  Christian  conduct,  to  be  taught  to  catachu- 
mens  in  preparation  for  baptism;  (2)  a  manual  of 
church  Ufe,  chaps.  7-15,  with  definite  instructions 
as  to  baptism,  fasting,  prayer,  the  Eucharist;  the 
treatment  of  teachers,  apostles  (i.e.,  missionaries), 
prophets,  and  visiting  brethren;  worship  on  the 
Lord's  Day:  and  the  appointment  of  bishops  and 
deacons;  (3)  an  eschatological  conclusion,  chap.  16. 
The  work  in  its  present  form  shows  abundant  influ- 
ence of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  was  probably 
written  between  130  and  150.  The  first  part  of  it  is 
based  on  an  earher  form  of  the  Didache  which  has 
come  to  Hght  in  a  Latin  version  (1900),  and  proves 
to  be  a  document  of  Jewish  Christianity  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  1st.  century. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

DIES  IRAE.— Latin,  "Day  of  Wrath"  or  Day  of 
Judgment.  Also  the  designation  of  a  well-known 
hymn  of  the  R.C.  church,  so-called  from  its  opening 
words. 

DILLMANN,  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH 
AUGUST  (1823-1894).— German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian; a  noted  scholar  in  the  field  of  the  Ethiopic 
language  and  Uterature. 

DIOCESE. — The  territory  of  the  churches  under 
the  administrative  authority  of  a  bishop.  The  tra- 
ditional custom  was  for  the  episcopal  title  to  be 
attached  to  the  see  where  the  cathedral  is,  and  not 


to  the  diocese,  but  in  modem  times  the  title  is 
frequently  attached  to  the  diocese. 

DIOCLETIAN.— Roman  emperor,  284-305,  who 
instituted  the  longest  and  most  severe  persecution 
of  Christians  in  the  empire.  Donatism  (q.v.)  origi- 
nated at  the  time  of  the  Diocletian  persecutions. 

DIOGNETUS,  EPISTLE  TO.— An  early  Chris- 
tian apology,  one  of  the  writings  of  the  Apostofic 
Fathers.  The  author  is  unidentified,  and  the  date 
uncertain,  being  somewhere  between  150  and  300. 

The  letter  refutes  idolatry  and  Judaistic  ritual- 
ism, and  makes  a  vigorous  defence  of  Christianity 
on  the  ground  of  the  morality  of  Christians  and  of 
the  revelation  of  God  through  his  own  Son. 

DIONYSIUS.— Pope,  259-268,  reorganized  the 
Roman  church  after  the  Valerian  persecution;  en- 
gaged in  a  doctrinal  controversy  with  Dionysius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria. 

DIONYSIUS  THE  AREOPAGITE.— A  convert 
to  Christianity  under  the  preaching  of  Paul  at 
Athens  (Acts  17:34);  by  other  writers  said  to  be 
the  first  bishop  of  Athens,  tradition  adding  that  he 
was  martyred  there.  In  the  6th.  century  certain 
mystical  theological  Greek  works  of  a  Neo-Platonic 
type  were  ascribed  to  him,  although  criticism 
shows  that  these  could  not  have  been  composed 
before  the  5th.  century.  These  treatises  were  of 
great  influence  on  later  Christian  thought.  Another 
mistaken  tradition  identified  St.  Denis  of  Paris  with 
Dionysius. 

DIONYSOS  (DIONYSIA).— God  of  fertility 
who  was  brought  to  Greece  from  his  native  Thrace. 
In  the  original  form  of  dancing,  coarse  satire  and 
fertility  symbolism  his  rites  are  similar  to  many 
vegetation  cults.  In  Greece,  however,  the  winter 
and  spring  festivals,  known  as  the  Rural  and  the 
Great  or  City  Dionysia,  developed  into  stately 
ceremonies.  The  rude  dialogue  and  dancing  of 
the  revelers  clad  in  goat-skins  were  transformed  into 
the  classical  tragedy  and  comedy  of  Athens.  The 
religious  character  was  maintained  however  and 
in  the  comedy  many  elements  of  the  ancient  fertility 
magic  persisted. 

DIPLOMATICS,  PAPAL.— The  study  of  ancient 
official  documents  originating  in  the  papal  chancery. 
The  science  of  diplomatics  has  to  do  with  questions 
of  authenticity,  signatures,  dates  etc..  and  origi- 
nated as  a  check  on  forgeries. 

DIRECTION,  SPIRITUAL.— The  guidance  of 
individuals  toward  the  acquirement  of  spiritual 
well-being.  In  Roman  CathoUcism  such  direction 
must  be  given  by  the  church. 

DIRECTORY,  CATHOLIC— A  book  contain- 
ing the  regulations  of  the  R.C.  church  for  the  mass 
and  office  for  each  day  of  the  year, 

DISCERNMENT  OF  SPIRITS.— The  ascertain- 
ment whether  the  alleged  supernatural  activity  of 
an  "inspired"  person  is  due  to  the  Spirit  of  Christ. 
The  practice  arose  in  communities  such  as  primitive 
Christianity,  where  good  and  evil  are  referred  to 
good  and  evil  spirits  respectively. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.— A  rehgious  body  of 
American  Protestantism  which  has  grown  out  of  a 
movement  led  by  Thomas  and  Alexander  Campbell. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  country  it  is  known  as 
the  "Christian  Church,"  or  the  "Church  of  Christ." 
It  is  congregational  in  polity,  but  for  co-operation 


Divine  Right 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


134 


on  the  assumption  that  it  is  possible  for  man  to  learn 
the  wiU  of  those  Powers  which  reveal  themselves 
in  the  natural  world. 

5.  Efficacy  _  of  divination. — Have  divinatory 
practices  any  intrinsic  efficacy?  The  answer  is 
easy  as  respects  heteroscopic  divination,  for  in  the 
whole  "monstrous  farrago"  resides  no  truth  or 
value  whatever.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible 
that  autoscopic  methods  may  make  use  of  sub- 
conscious suggestions,  or  of  actual  impressions  from 
external  objects  or  external  minds.  The  scientific 
investigation  of  crystal-gazing,  automatic  writing 
by  the  planchette,  presentiments,  and  clairvoyance 
has  not  proceeded  so  far  that  we  may  dismiss  them 
all  with  certainty  as  utterly  fallacious. 

6.  Uses  of  divination. — Among  most  uncivilized 
peoples,  as  well  as  those  of  archaic  civilization,  divina- 
tion holds  an  important  place  in  both  pubhc  and 
private  Ufe.  As  a  rehgious  practice  (haruspication, 
augury,  and  the  like)  it  is  closely  connected  with 
the  rites  of  sacrifice  and  prayer.  It  forms  a  recog- 
nized mode  of  judicial  procedure,  being  often 
employed,  especially  under  the  form  of  the  ordeal, 
to  indicate  the  innocent  and  make  known  the  guilty. 
Divination  also  appears  in  folk-medicine  as  a  means 
of  discovering  the  cause  of  the  iUness  from  which 
the  patient  suffers. 

7.  Survival  of  divination. — In  its  private  aspects 
divination  lingers  far  into  civiUzation.  Pahnistry 
and  astrology  flourish  yet;  dream  books  are  still 
consulted;  and  fortunes  are  still  told  by  means  of 
playing  cards.  The  folk  continue  to  take  omens 
from  seeing  and  meeting  animals,  to  "read  the  speal- 
bone"  (scapulimancy),  and  to  rely  on  the  divining- 
rod  to  discover  water  or  hidden  treasure.  Ancient 
superstitions  yield  but  slowly  to  either  science  or 
common  sense.  Hutton  Webster 

DIVINE  RIGHT.— A  right  alleged  to  be  derived 
from  God,  hence  giving  absolute  authority  to  the 
holder. 

The  doctrine  that  a  king  derives  his  authority 
from  God  has  been  wide-spread.  The  code  of 
Hammurabi,  e.g.,  represents  the  king  as  receiving 
from  Shamash  the  laws  which  he  promulgates. 
The  deification  of  kings  and  emperors  was  a  familiar 
phenomenon  in  the  ancient  world.  The  Mikado 
of  Japan  was  regarded  as  endowed  by  Heaven  to 
rule. 

In  Christianity  the  doctrine  of  divine  right  found 
religious  expression  in  the  conception  of  the  infal- 
lible authority  of  the  ApostoUc  Church,  which 
derives  its  divine  commission  from  Christ.  The 
pope,  as  vice-regent  of  Christ  has  an  authority 
not  derived  from  human  consent. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  political  authority  was 
believed  to  rest  upon  a  divine  provision.  "The 
powers  that  be  are  ordained  of  God."  Later  with 
the  emancipation  of  nations  from  ecclesiastical  con- 
trol there  cajne  naturally  an  exaltation  of  the  direct 
.  divine  authority  of  the  ruler.  The  Stuart  monarchs 
in  England  by  their  stubborn  insistence  on  uncon- 
ditional divine  right  provoked  the  revolution  which 
initiated  parhamentary  sovereignty.  The  abso- 
lutist assertion  attributed  to  Louis  XIV.,  "L'tltat, 
c'est  moi"  met  its  overthrow  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. The  doctrine  continued  into  the  20th.  century 
rf  the  dynasty  of  Russia  and  in  Prussia,  but  with  the 

at  War  of  1914  was  completely  discredited. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

DIVORCE. — The  legal  dissolution,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  of  the  marriage  bond.  Modern  law  recognizes 
two  sorts  of  divorce,  absolute  divorce  (a  vinculo 
matrimonii)  and  limited  divorce  (a  mensa  et  thoro). 
Usually  when  the  word  is  used  alone  we  mean 
absolute  divorce;  Hmited  divorce  is  commonly 
called  "legal  separation"  and  constitutes  a  very 


small  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  divorces  in 
Protestant  countries. 

Divorce  is  a  practice  common  among  practically 
all  peoples.  Speaking  generally,  marriage  is  not 
necessarily  of  life-long  duration.  Among  primitive 
peoples  divorce  is  common  for  a  variety  of  causes, 
but  chiefly  because  children  fail  to  be  born.  Among 
peoples  organized  on  the  basis  of  maternal  preroga- 
tives the  right  of  divorce  usually  rests  exclusively 
with  the  wife;  among  paternally  organized  peoples, 
especially  in  the  patriarchal  stage,  it  frequently  rests 
exclusively  with  the  husband,  although  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  (sporadically  among  the  Jews), 
wives  had  won  the  right  to  divorce  their  husbands 
well  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Among  all  ancient  peoples  divorce  was  a  private 
act  requiring  no  public  legal  procedure,  although 
in  order  to  check  the  evils  of  loose  divorce  in  Rome 
Augustus  finally  required  the  presence  of  seven  wit- 
nesses. Among  practically  all  modern  civihzed 
peoples,  however,  divorce  takes  place  through 
formal  procedure  in  courts  of  law,  the  practice  of 
granting  divorce  through  legislative  enactments  for 
each  separate  case  having  now  largely  been  dis- 
continued. 

Divorce  is  important  sociologically  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  relative  instabiUty  of  the  family.  While 
not  all  unstable  family  hfe  gets  recorded  in  the 
divorce  courts,  in  a  country  like  the  United  States 
where  divorce  is  relatively  free,  the  vast  majority 
of  unstable  unions  show  up  in  the  divorce  statistics. 
It  is  significant  of  modern  social  conditions  that 
divorce  statistics  during  the  last  half  century  have 
shown  a  rapid  increase  in  nearly  aU  Christian 
countries.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  United 
States,  which  leads  the  world  in  the  number  of 
divorces  granted  each  year  (in  1905,  67,976).  In 
the  rest  of  the  Christian  world,  taken  as  a  whole, 
there  were  less  than  40,000.  In  Germany  the 
number  was  11,147  in  the  same  year;  in  France, 
10,860;  and  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  821.  In 
France  the  ratio  was  one  to  every  thirty  marriages, 
in  Germany  one  to  every  forty-four,  in  England 
one  to  every  four  hundred,  while  in  the  United  States 
the  ratio  was  one  divorce  to  twelve  marriages.  By 
1916,  however,  the  number  of  divorces  granted  in 
the  United  States  reached  112,036,  while  the  ratio 
was  one  divorce  to  every  nine  marriages.  These 
census  statistics  show  that  divorces  in  the  United 
States  are  increasing  more  than  three  times  as  fast 
as  the  population.    See  Family. 

Divorce  statistics  from  non-Christian  countries 
are  seldom  rehable.  We  have  the  following,  however, 
from  Japan:  In  1905,  60,179  divorces;  in  1903, 
65,571;  in  both  years  the  proportion  being  one 
divorce  to  six  marriages  in  Japan.  Previous  to  the 
adoption  of  the  new  legal  code  in  Japan  (July  16, 
1898)  the  divorce  rate  was  much  higher,  although 
the  new  code  still  permits  divorce  by  mutual  con- 
sent. For  example,  in  1897  there  were  124,075 
divorces  in  Japan  or  one  to  three  marriages.  The 
French  government  furnishes  the  following  statistics 
regarding  the  Mohammedan  population  of  Algeria : 
In  1905,  14,569  divorces  granted;  in  1904,  15,084, 
in  each  year  the  proportion  being  one  to  two  mar- 
riages, though  the  usual  ratio  in  Algeria  is  one  to 
three  marriages.  Charles  A.  Ellwood 

DOCETISM.— The  doctrine  tha^  Jesus  Christ, 
because  divine,  could  not  have  had  a  material  body, 
but  only  a  body  which  seemed  (from  Greek  dokein, 
to  seem)  to  be  real.  The  belief  was  due  to  the 
prevalent  conception  of  matter  as  inherently  evil. 
Docetic  views  were  held  by  the  Gnostics,  Mani- 
chaeans,  to  some  extent  by  Origen,  and  by  various 
sects  and  individuals  in  the  history  of  Christi- 
anity. 


135 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Donatism 


DOCETISM  (BUDDHIST).— While  the  con- 
servative Theravadins  maintained  the  position 
that  Buddha  was  a  real  human  teacher  who  had  in 
his  own  life  shown  the  way  of  salvation  for  men, 
the  drift  of  all  later  schools  of  Buddhist  teaching 
was  toward  a  docetic  treatment  of  his  human  life. 
The  reason  for  this  lies  partly  in  the  social  mind  of 
India  and  partly  in  the  teachings  of  the  early 
faith  itself.  The  Hindu  emphasis  upon  trans- 
migration led  to  the  construction  of  elaborate 
speculations  regarding  the  previous  lives  of  Buddha. 
The  dominant  philosophy  of  the  age  taught  the 
unreality  of  the  phenomenal  world  and  the  sole 
reality  of  the  world-essence  or  Brahma.  Moreover, 
Gautama  emphasized  the  ultimate  reality  of 
dharma  or  truth  and  the  cosmic  ultimate  law  of 
karma  as  over  against  the  changing  flux  of  the 
"aggregates"  (skandas)  of  personaUty  and  the 
illusory  nature  of  the  world  revealed  and  clung  to 
by  the  senses.  When  Buddhist  teachers  specu- 
lated regarding  the  person  of  Buddha  attributing 
to  him  transcendent  powers  and  multipUed  his 
manifestations  indefinitely  it  was  natural  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  conclusion  that  the  Buddhahood  behind 
all  the  Buddhas  was  more  real  than  any  individual 
manifestation.  When  this  was  coupled  with  the 
idea  of  the  dharmakdya  (q.v.)  as  the  essence  of 
reality  and  the  "body  of  truth"  and  with  the  idea 
of  prajnd  or  the  finding  of  reality  only  by  tran- 
scending the  phenomenal  and  rational  in  mystic 
contemplation  it  was  easy  to  identify  the  real 
Buddha  with  this  dharmakaya  and  to  think  of  the 
historical  Buddha  as  a  docetic  appearance  assumed 
for'  pedagogical  reasons.  A  variety  of  docetic 
views  are  represented,  e.g.,  by  the  teachers  of  the 
Prajna  school  such  as  Nagarjuna,  by  the  trinitarian, 
Ashvaghosha  and  by  Vasubandha  and  Asanga. 
While  Tantric  Buddhism  may  not  properly  be 
called  docetic  it  is  pantheistic  and  practically 
ignores  the  historical  Buddha,  Sakyamuni. 

A.  Eustace  Haydon 

DOCTOR. — The  Latin  word  for  teacher,  used 
of  certain  eminent  fathers  of  the  church  on  account 
of  their  learning  and  orthodoxy.  The  Greek  Doc- 
tors are  Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great,  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom;  the  Latin  are  Ambrose, 
Jerome,  Augustine,  and  Gregory  the  Great.  The 
name  with  a  descriptive  adjective  was  used  as  a  title 
for  many  mediaeval  scholars. 

pODS,  MARCUS  (1834-1909).— Scottish  theo- 
logian, professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and 
principal  of  New  College,  Edinburgh.  His  prin- 
cipal activity  was  in  the  field  of  Bibhcal  scholarship. 

DOGMA. — ^A  doctrine  of  theology  officially 
defined  and  declared  to  rest  on  divine  authority. 

According  to  Roman  Catholic  theory,  Christ 
organized  the  church  and  committed  to  the  apostles 
the  truths  which  every  loyal  Christian  is  expected  to 
affirm.  In  the  course  of  Christian  history  some 
of  them  have  been  expressly  formulated  by  ecclesias- 
tical councils,  as  e.g.,  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity. 
In  case  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  content  of  doctrine, 
the  church  is  to  decide.  A  distinction  is  made  be- 
tween dogmas,  which  are  ecclesiastically  authorized, 
and  the  personal  opinions  of  a  theologian. 

Protestantism  rejected  the  authority  of  the 
CathoUc  church,  and  consequently  abandoned  the 
CathoUc  notion  of  dogma.  The  conception  of  scrip- 
turally  authorized  doctrines,  however,  is  logically 
the  same  as  that  of  Cathohcism;  and  the  official 
creeds  of  the  various  Protestant  bodies  have  served 
as  standards  of  dogma.  When  the  conception  of 
religious  authority  is  modified,  the  dogmatic  con- 
ception of  doctrine  vanishes. 

Gerald  Birnev  Smith 


DOGMATICS  or  DOGMATIC  THEOLOGY.— 

That  branch  of  theological  study  which  systemati- 
cally expounds  and  organizes  the  dogmas  of  a  church. 
See  Dogma;   Systematic  Theology. 

DOLLINGER,     JOHANN     JOSEF     IGNAZ 

VON  (1799-1890).— German  Church  historian  and 
leader  of  the  Old  CathoUcs  (q.v.).  His  historical 
study  led  him  to  take  a  tolerant  attitude  in  matters 
of  doctrine,  and  to  urge  the  independence  of  church 
and  state.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  dogma  of 
papal  infaUibility  as  enunciated  in  1870  by  the 
Vatican  council,  and  as  a  result  was  excommuni- 
cated. Thereupon  he  allied  himself  with  the  Old 
CathoUc  party,  and  as  its  leader  strove  for  the 
reunion  of  Christendom.  In  later  years  he  came 
to  a  more  favorable  appreciation  of  Luther  and  the 
Protestant  Reformation. 

DOLMEN. — A  prehistoric  grave  formed  by 
setting  up  slabs  of  stone  and  covering  them  with  a 
cap-stone.  The  whole  was  then  covered  by  a 
mound  of  earth. 

DOMINICALE.— A  white  Hnen  cloth  formerly 
worn  by  women  in  the  R.C.  church  at  the  Eucharist; 
applied  either  to  the  veil  worn  or  the  napkin  upon 
which  the  bread  was  placed;  still  retained  in  Italy. 

DOMINIC,  SAINT  (1170-1221).— Founder  of 
the  R.C.  order  of  the  Dominicans  (q.v.). 

DOMINICAL  LETTER.— A  letter  used  in  cer- 
tain ancient  calendars  to  denote  Sunday,  and  to 
assist  in  determining  the  date  of  Easter.  The  first 
seven  days  of  the  year  were  marked  A  to  G.  The 
letter  marking  the  first  Sunday  in  the  year  desig- 
nated all  Sundays,  excepting  in  leap-years. 

DOMINICAN  ORDER.— The  Order  of  St. 
Dominic  includes  three  parts:  the  Friars  Preach- 
ers, the  Dominican  Sisters  (Second  Order),  and  the 
Brothers  of  Penitence  of  St.  Dominic  (Third  Order). 
The  Dominican  Order  received  papal  confirmation 
in  1216._  The  founder,  Dominic,  a  CastiUan,  had 
worked  in  Southern  France  to  win  back  the  Albi- 
gensian  heretics.  He  aimed  to  organize  and  train 
good  _  preachers,  skilful  controversiahsts,  stern 
moralists,  who  should  beg  their  way  as  mendicant 
friars.  They  won  great  distinction  in  university 
fife;  to  them  belonged  Albertus  Magnus  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  (qq.v.).  They  had  many  con- 
troversies with  the  Franciscans  (Thomists  vs.  Scot- 
ists;  Immaculate  Conception) ;  and  later  protested 
insistently  against  Jesuit  concessions  to  converts 
from  heathenism.  Dominicans  were  usually  asked 
to  take  charge  of  the  Inquisition  (q.v.).  The 
French  Revolution  dealt  them  a  staggering  blow, 
from  which  they  have  been  rallying  since  about  1850. 
In  1910  their  rehgious  numbered  4472. 

W.  W.  Rockwell 

DOMITIAN.— Roman  emperor,  81-96  a.d., 
who  caused  a  brief  but  severe  persecution  of  Chris- 
tians in  96. 

DONATION  OF  CONSTANTINE.— A  forged 
document,  written  probably  between  752  and  778, 
purporting  to  have  been  addressed  by  Constantine 
the  Great  to  Pope  Sylvester  I.,  and  lending  support 
to  the  papal  claims  of  territorial  possessions  and  of 
universal  spiritual  authority. 

DONATISM. — A  schismatic  Christian  sect, 
originating  in  the  4th.  century  in  N.  Africa,  holding 
that  the  sacraments  were  valid  only  when  adminis- 
tered by  a  priest  of  blameless  life.  The  Catholic 
church  held  that  the  validity  of  the  sacraments  was 


Donus  or  Domnus 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


136 


not  dependent  on  the  character  of  the  ministrant. 
Donatus,  from  whom  the  sect  was  named,  was  a 
prominent  leader.  Augustine  (q.v.)  and  Optatus 
(q.v.)  did  much  to  heal  the  schism,  but  the  Donatists 
persisted  until  the  Saracen  invasion  of  the  7th. 
century. 

DONUS  or  DOMNUS— Pope,  676-678. 

DOOR. — The  place  of  entrance  into  or  exit 
from  a  house,  temple  or  other  enclosure.  Being  a 
means  of  separating  the  outside  world  with  its 
troubles  from  the  inside  world  with  its  comforts, 
it  had  a  sacred  character  for  primitive  man.  Con- 
sequently magical  and  reUgious  rites  and  customs 
arose,  e.g.,  offering  sacrifices  to  propitiate  the  house- 
hold patron  deity,  etc.  Guardian  spirits  are 
believed  to  reside  sometimes  in  household  doors  and 
again  in  temple  doors.  Many  peoples  suspend 
charms  and  amulets  from  doorways  to  inhibit 
demonic  influences.  Analogously  death  is  portrayed 
as  the  door  between  life  and  death,  and  the  heavenly 
and  lower  worlds  are  frequently  pictured  as  abodes 
with  doors  or  gates  and  guardians.  Similarly  Jesus 
is  symbolized  by  the  door  as  a  means  of  entrance 
into  life.  In  Babism  (q.v.)  Bab  means  gate,  bear- 
ing a  like  significance. 

DORNER,  ISAAK  AUGUST  (1809-1884).— 
German  theologian,  whose  most  important  works 
were  on  Christology,  Christian  Doctrine  and  Chris- 
tian Ethics.  His  theology  combined  elements  of 
Schleiermacher  and  Hegel,  together  with  an  appre- 
ciation of  historical  development. 

DORT,  SYNOD  OF.— Held  in  Dort,  HoUand, 
November  13,  1618,  to  May  9,  1619.  The  Synod 
marks  the  nearest  approach  which  the  reformed 
churches  ever  made  to  developing  an  ecumenical 
character.  Practically  all  of  the  Calvinist  Churches 
of  Europe  were  there  represented,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  of  Anhalt,  Brandenburg,  and  France — 
the  delegates  from  the  latter  country  being  forbidden 
by  Louis  XIII.  to  leave  the  country. 

The  chief  business  of  the  Synod  was  that  of 
considering  the  Remonstrance  proposed  by  the 
Arminians.  The  representatives  of  the  Arminian 
position  were  permitted  to  state  their  views  in  writ- 
ing, but  were  not  permitted  to  speak  against  their 
opponents;  and  withdrew  from  the  sessions  of  the 
Synod,  although  offering  to  answer  questions  sub- 
mitted to  them  in  writing.  Finally  they  were 
expelled  from  the  Synod. 

The  Synod  decided  that  the  five  Articles  of  the 
Remonstrance  (q.v.)  were  contrary  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  reformed  church,  and  that  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism  and  the  Helvetic  Confession  were  sus- 
tained by  Scripture.  The  five  chief  doctrines 
affirmed  by  the  Synod  became  the  determining  ele- 
ments in  the  development  of  the  Calvinistic  and  Ar- 
minian theologies.    See  Five  Points  of  Calvinism. 

Shailer  Mathews 

DOUAI  BIBLE.— An  English  translation  of 
the  Bible  prepared  for  the  use  of  Roman  Catholics 
by  EngUsh  scholars  in  the  University  of  Douai  in 
France.  The  N.T.  was  pubUshed  at  Rheims,  1582, 
and  the  O.T.  at  Douai,  1609,  whence  the  name. 

DOUBLEMINDEDNESS.— A  lack  of  clear 
convictions,  leading  to  inconsistent  impulses  and 
actions.  In  extreme  cases  this  characteristic 
betrays  a  divided  personality. 

DOUBLE  MORALS.— The  application  to  a 
moral  problem  of  two  different  standards,  whereby 
certain  individuals  are  held  to  stricter  conduct  than 
others. 


That  responsibility  varies  according  to  age, 
official  position  or  particular  circumstances  is  a 
well-known  fact.  While  truth-telling  is  usually  a 
duty,  there  are  circumstances  in  which  deception 
seems  to  be  a  moral  necessity,  as,  e.g.,  the  withhold- 
ing of  bad  news  from  a  person  dangerously  ill. 
The  term  "double  morals,"  however,  is  appUed  to 
certain  officially  or  socially  sanctioned  variations 
in  moral  behavior. 

1.  In  Roman  Catholic  morals. — A  distinction  is 
made  between  the  Christian  precepts  which  all  men 
must  obey,  and  the  "evangelical  counsels"  which 
are  required  only  of  those  who  dedicate  themselves 
to  especial  holiness  of  life.  A  layman's  life  may 
be  morally  perfect  if  he  obeys  the  general  laws  of 
Christian  living;  a  monk  or  one  who  takes  reUgious 
vows  must  observe  a  stricter  standard.  The  moral 
danger  is  that  aspiration  may  be  satisfied  by  the 
lower  standard;  or  that  any  surpassing  of  it  may 
be  regarded  as  a  work  of  supererogation.  Protes- 
tantism rejected  double  morals,  insisting  on  one 
and  the  same  kind  of  moral  life  for  clergy  and 
laymen. 

2.  In  sexual  morals. — There  is  widespread  a 
so-called  "double  standard,"  whereby  unmarried 
women  are  expected  to  be  absolutely  chaste,  while 
unmarried  men  are  not  socially  condemned  for  ilUcit 
sexual  relations.  The  best  moral  sense  of  today  is 
insisting  that  both  sexes  should  conform  to  the  ideal 
hitherto  demanded  of  women. 

3.  In  political  and  international  relations. — The 
policy  of  states  often  compels  citizens  to  support 
political  or  national  actions  which  would  be  con- 
demned in  the  relations  of  individuals  toward  one 
another.  War  is  the  most  striking  instance,  of  this, 
in  which  soldiers  are  called  upon  to  kill  their  fellow 
men.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  demand  the 
reformation  of  international  relations  so  as  to  elimi- 
nate this  dual  standard.  Quakers,  conscientious 
objectors,  and  those  who  are  laboring  for  a  league 
of  nations  are  seeking  to  bring  consistency  here  into 
the  moral  Ufe  of  men.        Gerald  Birney  Smith 

DOUBT. — ^A  hesitant  or  questioning  attitude 
toward  a  proposition  or  idea. 

Doubt  is  to  be  distinguished  from  disbeUef,  in 
that  the  latter  pronounces  a  definitely  negative 
verdict,  while  doubt  indicates  merely  an  inabiUty 
to  affirm.  But  since  this  inability  prevents  any 
decisive  attitude,  doubt  is  often  classed  with 
unbelief  as  irreligious.  Where  belief  is  regarded 
as  acceptance  of  authoritatively  prescribed  doc- 
trines, doubt  seems  to  indicate  a  moral  unwillingness 
to  subject  private  reason  to  the  divine  declarations. 
Hence  doubters  have  often  been  punished  and 
persecuted  by  ecclesiastical  authority.  Usually, 
however,  provision  has  been  made  for  meeting  the 
objections  of  honest  doubters  by  rational  defense 
of  the  tenets  of  faith.  Modern  philosophy  and 
science  recognize  that  doubt  in  the  form  of  critical 
questioning  is  an  indispensable  means  of  discover- 
ing and  testing  the  truth.  Accordingly  a  more 
positive  value  is  being  attached  to  doubt,  and 
ecclesiastical  compulsion  is  increasingly  disapproved. 
See  Certainty;  Assurance;  Apologetics. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

DOUKHABORS.— See  Russian  Sects. 

DOXOLOGY. — An  ascription  of  praise  or  glory 
(to  God). 

The  Jews  used  a  doxology  to  conclude  public 
prayer,  and  their  example  doubtless  suggested 
Christian  usage.  The  Trisagion  {Tersanctus, 
"Holy,  Holy,  Holy")  of  the  eucharistic  office  dates 
from  the  2nd.  century.  The  Greater  Doxology 
{Gloria  in  Excelsis),  also  still  used  in  that  office, 
is  found  full-formed  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 


137 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Dreams 


(about  375  a.d.).  The  Lesser  Doxology  {Gloria 
Patri),  said  or  sung  chiefly  at  the  end  of  canticles 
(except  Te  Deum,  itself  regarded  as  a  doxology)  and 
psalms,  is  earlier  than  the  4th.  century,  and  then, 
or  in  its  later  (and  present)  form,  was  regarded  as 
a  Cathohc  asserveration  against  Arian  heresy. 
Metrical  doxologies  formed  the  usual  conclusion  of 
early  Latin  hymns,  and  the  name  especially  sug- 
gests to  EngUsh-speaking  Christians  Bishop  Ken  s 
(1637-1711)  stanza  beginning  "Praise  God  from 
whom  all  blessings  flow,"  thus  used  by  him. 

E.  T.  Merrill 
DRAGON. — A  term  used  generally  of  a  deified 
serpent,  a  figure  widely  current  in  ancient  myth- 
ologies where  it  occupies  a  place  similar  to  its  present 
position  in  the  popular  fancy  of  China  and  Japan. 
Sometimes  this  fabulous  monster  is  friendly,  but 
more  commonly  it  is  a  terrible  creature  whose  de- 
struction is  the  crowning  achievement  of  some 
mighty  hero.  The  Babylonian  Marduk  overcame 
the  chaos-demon  Tiamat,  the  Hebrew  Daniel 
effected  the  death  of  the  dragon  Bel,  Hercules  slew 
the  many-headed  Hydra,  the  Book  of  Revelation 
predicts  Christ's  triumph  over  the  dragon  Satan, 
and  mediaeval  legend  is  replete  with  stories  of 
similar  heroic  exploits  of  a  St.  George,  a  King 
Arthur,  a  Siegmund,  or  a  Tristram.      S.  J.  Case 

DRAMA  IN  RELIGION.— 1.  Pa^an.— From 
certain  pagan  rites  and  charms  intended  to  avert 
evil  or  placate  gods,  drama  arose  when  the  symbol- 
ism underlying  the  action  that  accompanied  the 
ceremonies  faded  from  consciousness,  and  the  ele- 
ment of  play  entered.  Notably  various  festival 
rites  of  the  Greek  religion,  developing  into  the  satyr 
play,  comedy,  and  tragedy,  furnished  the  model 
for  modern  types  of  Mterary  drama.  Various 
dramatic  forms  developed  from  cults  elsewhere, 
most  of  them  not  progressing  beyond  the  stage  of 
ritual  dance  or  mimetic  action  shown  especially 
in  season  festivals  of  all  peoples,  as  in  May  Day 
rites.  Ritual  drama  with  song  and  dialogue  or  even 
an  embryonic  plot  is  still  found  among  the  folk  in 
Europe,  and  many  dramatic  games  of  children  are 
relics  oi  pagan  ritual.  Of  the  more  formal  ritual,  or 
folk  drama,  an  interesting  specimen  is  the  Christmas 
play  of  the  Enghsh  mummers  (now  contaminated  by 
the  miracle  play,  and  called  the  St.  George  play),  with 
its  representation  of  a  battle  symboUzing  perhaps 
the  conflict  of  summer  and  winter.  The  English 
Plough  Monday  play,  with  a  rather  elaborate  dia- 
logue, was  originally  probably  a  fertilization  rite, 
taking  the  form  of  wooing  ana  marriage.  Kindred 
material  but  dramatically  less  developed  is  found  in 
Germany,  northern  Greece,  and  the  Balkans. 

2.  Christian. — For  the  apparently  independent 
development  of  drama  within  the  Catholic  church, 
see  Mystery  Play  and  Miracle  Play.  The 
religious  drama  which  sprang  up  as  these  plays 
waned  was  of  a  far  more  cultivated  type.  In  the 
Renaissance  the  forms  of  classic  drama  were  sedu- 
lously imitated,  especially  in  academies  and  universi- 
ties, as  a  vehicle  for  instruction  in  Latin,  and  a  great 
number  of  reUgious  plays  in  Latin  were  produced. 
The  early  leaders  of  the  Reformation  being  for  the 
most  part  humanists,  the  drama  was  eagerly  seized 
upon  as  an  instrument  for  Protestant  propaganda. 
The  medieval  type  of  play  developed  under  the 
Catholic  church  was  replaced  by  dramas  drawn 
from  the  Bible  which  on  the  one  hand  taught  a 
Protestant  theology  and  on  the  other  followed  more 
nearly  classic  models  in  drama.  These  Protestant 
plays  were  especially  numerous  in  Germany. 
Nicholas  Grimald  produced  notable  plays  of  the  type 
at  Oxford  near  the  middle  of  the  16th.  century,  two 
of  which,  Christus  Redivivus  {Christ's  Resurrection) 
and    Archipropheta    {John   the    Baptist),    survive. 


The  most  famous  of  these  plays  preserved  is  the 
John  the  Baptist  of  the  Scotch  reformer,  George 
Buchanan,  in  Latin.  The  reformers  also  freely- 
used  the  morality  play  (q.v.)  and  the  dramatic 
debate,  especially  in  attacks  on  the  Mass.  A  con- 
spicuous figure  in  the  movement  was  John  Bale, 
who  wrote  Protestant  plays  in  English,  following, 
however,  the  miracle  and  the  moraUty  type.  Before 
1600  Puritan  sentiment,  in  England  particularly, 
had  led  to  a  reaction  against  religious  cirama  which 
has  lasted  to  the  present  day.  But  Milton,  an 
ardent  humanist,  used  the  masque  in  Comus  for 
moral  instruction  and  wrote  his  Samson  Agonistes 
in  the  form  of  a  Greek  tragedy. 

C.  R.  Baskervill 

DRAVIDIANS,  RELIGION  OF  THE.— The 
religion  of  an  aboriginal  non-Aryan  race  which 
inhabits  southern  India. 

Many  of  the  Dra vidians  have  been  received  into 
the  Hindu  social  organization,  and  their  rehgion 
classified  under  Hinduism;  many  groups  which  are 
beyond  the  pale  are  gradually  winning  a  place  on 
the  lowest  fringe  of  Hindu  society.  In  northern 
India,  where  the  two  races  amalgamated,  Aryan 
culture  and  language  prevailed.  _  In  the  south 
there  is  comparatively  httle  Aryan  influence  of  mix- 
ture of  blood,  and  about  sixty  millions  speak  Dra- 
vidian  languages.  Aryan  shades  off  into  Dravidian  in 
such  a  way  that  no  hard  and  fast  line  of  demarcation 
between  Aryan  and  Dravidian  reUgion  can  be  drawn. 

Typical  Dravidian  reUgion  is  animistic  and 
magical,  a  demonophobia.  Dravidian  life  is  essen- 
tially rural.  The  Dravidians  beheve  that  the 
world  is  filled  with  a  multitude  of  spirits  (many  are 
spirits  of  the  dead),  most  of  them  evil.  These 
become  local godhngs  {grdmadevata,  "village  gods")- 
There  is  no  universally  recognized  great  god;  no 
priestly  caste,  like  that  of  the  Brahmans,  to  develop 
an  elaborate  system  which  could  be  recognized  by 
society  as  a  whole  and  serve  as  a  unifying  force;  no 
tendency  toward  unification  except  where  Brahman 
influence  has  become  very  strong.  The  pantheon  is 
still  in  the  making.  The  aim  of  the  religion  is  rather 
to  propitiate  and  ward  off  the  evil  spirits  which 
bring  disease  and  disaster  (smallpox,  famine,  earth- 
quakes, etc.)  than  to  worship  them.  Each  village 
god  (each  viUage  has  its  own  tutelary  deity  or 
deities)  has  a  small  shrine  and  altar,  a  mound  of 
earth  and  a  few  stones,  with  a  rude  image  or  fetich 
stone.  There  may  be  temples  to  Vishnu  and  Qiy^ 
in  the  village,  and  the  superior  claims  of  these  deities 
to  cosmic  power  may  be  tacitly  recognized,  but  the 
primitive  community  turns  in  time  of  trouble  to  the 
local  gods.  Most  of  the  deities  are  female,  perhaps 
because  Dravidian  society  is  largely  matriarchal 
(not  patriarchal  like  Aryan  society).  Animal  sacri- 
fices are  general.  The  ministrants  at  the  local 
shrines  are  not  Brahmans,  but  holy  men  of  all 
castes  (or  none).  Vishnu  and  Qiva  represent  a 
larger  view  of  the  world,  a  reaction  to  the  universe 
as  a  whole.  The  thoughts  of  the  Dravidian  villagers 
are  concerned  only  with  local  affairs.  The  village 
deities  represent  a  reaction  to  local  affairs,  and 
are  more  intimately  connected  with  the  happiness 
and  prosperity  of  the  villages  than  Vishnu  or  Qiva 
could  be.  W.  E.  Clark 

DREAMS.  — Conscious  processes  occurring 
ordinarily  during  relatively  fight  sleep. 

The  dream  consciousness  is  essentially  continu- 
ous with  the  waking  life,  although  it  is  different 
from  it  in  important  ways,  primarily  in  the  absence,  in 
dream  states,  of  that  control  by  organized  ideas  and 
motives  that  is  characteristic  of  most  waking  states. 

Much  stress  is  placed  on  dreams  in  the  thought 
of  all  primitive  peoples  and  it  is  now  believed  that 
they  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  origin 


Druids 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


138 


and  development  of  such  concepts  as  those  of  the 
soul  and  of  the  Ufe  after  death,  as  well  as  in  the 
various  notions  of  inspiration  and  of  supernatural 
guidance.  Among  the  Hebrews  as  well  as  among 
many  peoples  both  ancient  and  modern,  dreams 
have  been  supposed  to  reveal  facts  and  events  hidden 
from  ordinary  consciousness,  especially  events  in 
the  future. 

Scientific  investigation  of  dreams  and  the  syste- 
matic gathering  of  facts  regarding  their  supposed 
mysterious  potency,  does  not  lend  any  support  to 
this  ancient  superstition.  Dreams  called  vericidal, 
that  is  those  which  are  found  to  correspond  with 
facts  unknown  for  the  time  being,  are  regarded  as 
coincidences.  A  dream,  moreover,  may  sometimes 
be  the  cause  of  its  own  fulfilment  by  first  suggesting 
an  action  which  is  afterward  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously dwelt  upon  until  its  main  elements  are 
actually  realized  in  the  external  world.  In  the 
case  of  the  dream  of  divination  it  has  been  proved 
to  be  possible  that  cues,  unrecognized  or  sup- 
pressed when  one  is  awake,  are  aroused  into  activity 
and  start  trains  of  thought  that  lead  to  startling 
discoveries  or  to  the  solution  of  perplexing  diffi- 
culties. 

The  real  significance  of  dreams. — ^A  certain 
amount  of  sensory  awareness  is  clearly  demon- 
strated in  many  dreams,  in  fact,  the  actual  misinter- 
pretation of  visual,  tactual,  auditory  and  organic 
sensations  has  been  shown  to  be  the  basis  of  simpler 
dreams  and  possibly  furnishes  an  important  ele- 
ment in  the  more  elaborate  dream  experiences  and 
pictures.  Dreams  do  not,  however,  all  arise  from 
such  sensory  stimuh,  and  even  those  that  may  have 
such  an  origin  are  largely  supplemented  by  deep 
currents  of  emotional  life  which  may  or  may  not 
have  found  a  place  in  the  stream  of  waking  thought. 
Thus  our  dreams  often  reflect  the  surprise,  fear, 
passion  and  the  deep  desires  which  have  played  a 
definite  part  in  our  waking  hfe.  Their  main  signifi- 
cance may  thus  be  found  in  their  reveahng  more  or 
less  elaborately  the  suppressed  or  half-acknowledged 
emotions,  interests,  secret  plans,  hopes  and  passions 
which  in  ordinary  consciousness  have  only  inarticu- 
late expression.  This  revelation  is  important  when 
pathological  mental  complexes  develop  from  these 
suppressed  phases.  Freud  is  the  main  exponent  of 
this  theory  of  dreams,  holding  that  they  are  all 
actual  or  symbohcal  expressions  of  suppressed 
desires  and  he  seeks  to  discover  throifgh  analyzing 
them  the  roots  of  such  pathological  conditions  of 
waking  hfe  as  hysteria,  unreasoning  fears  and 
inhibitions  that  run  counter  to  and  interfere  with 
the  normal  conduct  of  life.  Irving  King 

DRUIDS.— The  priests  of  the  ancient  Celtic 
religion  of  Gaul  and  Britain.  They  constituted 
a  well-organized  order  having  control  of  religious 
sacrifices,  teaching,  divination,  incantation  and  a 
magical  medical  science.  In  the  exercise  of 
authority  over  the  people  they  claimed  a  status 
superior  to  that  of  the  secular  ruler.  Their  sway 
was  broken  by  the  domination  of  Roman  authority 
and  culture  and  by  the  opposition  of  the  Christian 
clergy. 

DRUMMOND,  HENRY  (1851-1897).— Scot- 
tish scientist  and  evangeUcal  writer,  lecturer  on 
natural  science  in  Free  Church  College,  Glasgow. 
His  great  work  was  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual 
World  (1883)  an  attempt  to  interpret  evangehcal  re- 
ligious conceptions  by  using  biological  analogies. 

DRUSES. — A  people  with  a  peculiar  religion 
in  the  southern  Lebanon  and  the  Hawran. 

Their  most  distinctive  belief:  al-Hakim,  Fatimid 
Caliph  of  Egypt,  996-1021,  God  manifest  in  the 


flesh,  characterizes  their  religion  as  derivative,  but 
distinct  from  Mohammedanism.  Gnostic  and 
dualistic  doctrines  of  the  kind  prevalent  in 
the  Near  East  throughout  late  antiquity  and  the 
Middle  Ages,  are  other  prominent  elements.  The 
whole  is  a  phenomenon  similar  to  Behaism  (q.v.), 
except  that  their  Moslem  origins  are  traceable  to 
those  who  believe  in  seven  Imams. 

The  name  Druses,  given  by  outsiders,  is  derived 
from  one  of  their  founders,  Darazi;  they  call  them- 
selves Unitarians.  Numbering  about  185,000  (in 
1914),  they  seek  no  converts  and  admit  no  appli- 
cants. "The  wise  and  the  foolish"  are  those  who 
do  or  do  not  adhere  to  the  tenets  and  precepts  of 
their  religion.  "The  foolish"  must  pass  through  a 
probationer's  stage  to  be  accepted  as  "wise." 

M.  Sprengling 

DRYAD. — In  Classical  mythology,  a  nymph 
presiding  over  and  inhabiting  trees  and  forests. 

DUALISM. — A  type  of  explanation  of  the  uni- 
verse or  of  Hfe  which  divides  reaUty  into  two  inher- 
ently different  substances  or  realrns  in  contrast  to 
Monism  or  Pluralism  (qq.v.). 

1.  Theological  dualism  consists  in  the  aflfirmation 
of  two  deities  or  metaphysical  substances  inherently 
opposed  to  each  other.  The  best  known  example 
is  Zoroastrianism  (q.v.)  which  declared  that  Ahri- 
man,  the  god  of  darkness,  and  Ormuzd,  the  god  of 
fight,  were  competing  for  the  control  of  things. 
Christianity  was  threatened  with  duafism  in  thel 
Gnostic  movement  (see  Gnosticism)  and  in  Mani-j 
chaeism  (q.v.),  but  established  over  against  thesg 
the  doctrine  of  the  supreme  power  of  God|"  Moreor 
less  definite  rehcs  of  duafism  are  found  in  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Devil,  however. 

The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  a  theology  which 
makes  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  natural  and 
the  supernatural  realms,  so  as  to  divide  men  and 
institutions  into  two  classes.  Thus  CathoMc 
theory  makes  a  priest  essentially  different  from  a 
layman,  and  the  church  inherently  different  from  any 
other  social  organization.  Christian  doctrine  has 
contrasted  the  natural  man  with  the  regenerate 
man.  Where  such  dualism  is  pushed  to  an  extref^g, 
refigion  becomes  ascetic  and  unworldly.  In  Chris- 
tology  dualism  denotes  such  an  extreme  emphasis  on 
the  difference  between  the  two  natures  of  Christ  as 
to  destroy  the  unity  of  his  personafity. 

2.  Philosophical  duafism  is  concerned  with  the 
difference  between  matter  and  spirit.  In  Greek 
philosophy  and  in  philosophy  following  Descartes, 
metaphysics  was  largely  concerned  with  attempts 
to  explain  the  difference.  A  similar  problem  has 
confronted  psychologists  in  the  distinction  between 
body  and  mind. 

While  duafism  is  logically  unwelcome,  yet  the 
inevitable  distinctions  which  we  make  in  experience 
between  good  and  bad,  inteUigence  and  matter,  and 
the  like  seem  to  demand  a  recognition  which  strict 
monism  cannot  give.    _    Gerald  Birney  Smith 


W^tSC  a^^^r- 


(180&-1878).— Scottish 
missionary  to  India.  Influential  in  securing  the 
recognition  of  educational  work  as  a  branch  of  mis- 
sionary propaganda,  and  in  the  shaping  of  the 
government's  policy  regarding  higher  education. 
After  retiring  from  India  he  became  professor  of 
Missions  in  New  CoUege,  Edinburgh. 

DUNKARDS. — (Also  called  Dunkers  or  Tunk- 
ers.)  A  body  known  also  as  "  German  Baptist 
Brethren"  founded  by  Alexander  Mack  (1679-1735) 
in  1708,  which  a  few  years  later  began  immigration 
to  America. 

The  Dunkards  seek  to  reproduce  fiterally  the 
church  life  of  the  New  Testament  period.     They 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Dyothelites 


practice  immersion  (Dunkard  is  derived  from  Ger. 
tunken  to  immerse),  observe  the  love  feast  followed 
by  the  Lord's  Supper,  practice  the  rite  of  feet  wash- 
ing, salute  one  another  with  the  kiss  of  charity, 
anoint  the  sick  with  oil,  adopt  the  plainest  sort  of 
clothing,  and  refuse  to  take  oaths  or  engage  in  law- 
suits, holding  to  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance. 
Their  ministry  includes  bishops  or  elders,  ministers 
(frequently  with  ordinary  business  vocations),  and 
deacons. 

The  first  congregation  in  America  was  organized 
in  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  December  25,  1723. 
Other  communities  arose  in  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
Maryland,  and  subsequently  in  North  Carolina, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  later  in 
other  states.  While  opposing  slavery  they  took  no 
part  in  the  Civil  War.  They  have  established  a 
number  of  schools,  carry  on  foreign  mission  work  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  and  also  in  India. 

In  poHty  they  are  Congregational,  but  have  an 
Annual  Meeting  or  Conference  whose  decisions  are 
binding  on  district  conferences  and  churches.  The 
central  body  is  a  conference  made  up  from  delegates 
from  local  churches,  and  the  officials  in  charge  of  the 
State  work  are  called  Bishops.  Their  churches  are 
strictly  democratic. 

In  1881  the  body  divided  into  two  groups  known 
as  the  Conservatives  and  the  Progressives  or  simply 
Brethren,  the  point  of  difference  consisting  largely  in 
the  attitude  of  the  respective  bodies  toward  con- 
formity to  usual  social  practices.  Progressives 
do  not  adopt  the  style  of  dress  and  the  cutting  of  the 
hair  and  beard  favored  by  the  Conservative  group, 
and  in  general  both  in  practices  and  beliefs  approach 
the  other  bodies  of  Baptists.  A  third  group  known 
as  the  Old  Order  Brethren  are  more  conservative 
than  the  Conservatives,  oppose  Sunday  Schools, 
Young  People's  Societies,  and  higher  education. 

The  Seventh  Day  German  Baptists  are  now  a 
small  group,  successors  of  those  who  in  1728  seceded 
from  the  original  body  of  Dunkards.  They  observe 
the  Seventh  Day  and  maintain  some  features  of 
economic  communism. 

The  Church  of  God  or  New  Dunkers  is  another 
small  group  to  be  distinguished  from  the  general 
body. 

Statistics  (1917) :  Church  of  the  Brethren, 
about  100,000;  Progressive  Brethren  (or  Brethren), 
18,468;  Old  Order,  3,399;  Seventh  Day,  136;  Church 
of  God,  929.  Shailbr  Mathews 

DUNS  SCOTUS,  JOHN  (1255-1308).— Bom 
in  Northumbria,  a  Franciscan  teacher  at  Oxford, 
a  doctor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (1304)  sent  by  the 
General  of  his  order  to  Cologne  (1308)  where  he  soon 
died.  His  system  of  thought  antagonizes  the  intel- 
lectualistic  and  determinist  system  of  Aquinas  who 
argued  that  both  divine  and  human  will  were  deter- 
mined by  the  known  best.  Scotus  disproves  such 
determinism  by  the  accident  and  evil  of  the  world. 
God's  will  is  not  necessitated  but  free,  able  to  will 
whatever  is  not  a  logical  impossibiUty.  A  thing  is 
good  not  in  itself  but  because  God  wills  it.  This 
causeless  arbitrary,  inscrutable  divine  will  can  be 
known  only  by  revelation.  Theology  is  therefore 
not  a  system  of  rational  truth  but  practical  instruc- 
tion by  revelation.  The  doctrine  of  meritorious 
works  rests  on  the  freedom  of  the  will,  man's  will 
determining  by  free  attention  what  idea  shall  engross 
consciousness.  F.  A.  Christie 

DUNSTAN,  SAINT  (ca.  925-988).— Abbott  of 
Glastonbury  and  Enghsh  archbishop.  He  stimu- 
lated education  and  aided  in  the  reformation  of 
English  monasticism  in  accord  with  the  Benedictine 
rule. 


DUOMO. — An  Italian  designation  of  a  domed 
cathedral,  as,  e.g.,  the  Duomo  of  Florence. 

DURGA. — One  of  the  forms  of  the  wife  of 
Shiva.  Under  this  name  she  is  the  black  goddess  of 
destructive  power  delighting  in  blood.    See  also  Kali. 

DUTCH  REFORMED  CHURCH.— See  Re- 
formed Churches. 

DUTY. — The  conduct  or  action  required  of  a 
person  by  moral  considerations. 

The  conception  of  duty  presupposes  a  moral 
order  which  ought  to  be  maintained,  and  which  thus 
has  prior  claim  over  motives  of  mere  self-interest. 
Duty  is  therefore  obedience  to  a  moral  imperative, 
and  finds  a  place  only  in  an  ethics  emphasizing  objec- 
tive right  in  contrast  to  self-interest.  The  source 
and  sanction  of  this  imperative  is  religiously  located 
in  the  divine  will  and  wisdom.  Where  God  is 
conceived  in  terms  of  absolute  self-sufficiency  (see 
Transcendence)  duty  may  be  conceived  as  sheer 
obedience  to  objective  commands  (see  Legalism). 
Where  the  wisdom  rather  than  the  sovereign  will 
of  God  is  emphasized,  duty  consists  in  loyalty  to 
the  dictates  of  reason.  Kant  defined  duty  as  obedi- 
ence to  the  absolutely  rational  dictates  of  the 
Practical  Reason. 

A  so-called  conflict  of  duties  arises  when  a  person 
feels  a  sense  of  obligation  toward  conflicting  inter- 
ests, as  when  enUsting  in  war  is  incompatible  with 
the  duty  to  support  and  sustain  one's  family. 
Eventually,  of  course,  actual  duty  requires  the 
choice  of  one  alternative  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other. 
The  "conflict  of  duties"  differs  from  the  conflict 
between  self-interest  and  moral  obligation  only 
in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  instance  decision 
must  be  made  between  social  interests,  while  in  the 
latter  case  individual  satisfaction  is  weighed  against 
the  demands  of  broader  welfare.  If  the  word  duty 
were  restricted  to  the  obligation  to  act  in  accord- 
ance with  one's  best  moral  wisdom,  the  conflict 
would  be  seen  to  be  not  one  of  duties,  but  rather  of 
ununified  interests.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

DYAUS.— The  sky  god  of  the  Indo-European 
peoples:  a  term  applied  to  the  whole  circle  of 
heavenly  nature  powers  of  light  and  warmth 
without  clearly  anthropomorphic  meaning.  The 
name  Dyaus  Pilar,  sky-father,  is  also  used  and 
appears  in  various  branches  of  the  Aryan  religions, 
as  e.g.,  Zeus  pater,  Juppiter. 

DYNAMISM.— The  philosophic  attempt  to 
account  for  cosmic  phenomena  by  reference  to 
force  or  energy.  The  doctrine  has  appeared  in 
various  phases  in  (1)  the  Ionic  explanation  of  motion 
as  due  to  the  operation  of  love  and  hate ;  (2)  Leibniz' 
explanation  of  material  substance  as  a  combination 
of  moulding  and  resisting  forces;  (3)  Kant's  refer- 
ence of  matter  to  the  forces  of  attraction  and  repul- 
sion; (4)  energetics,  or  the  identification  of  matter 
with  energy  as  in  Spencerian  evolution;  (5)  Ost- 
wald's  monism  of  energy. 

DYOPHYSITES.— The  designation  of  the  party 
which  declared  for  the  existence  of  the  two  natures, 
human  and  divine,  in  Christ.  This  party  triumphed 
at  the  Councils  of  Chalcedon  in  451  and  Constanti- 
nople in  553.     See  Christology. 

DYOTHELITES. — The  name  of  the  party  which 
claimed  that  in  Christ  there  were  two  wills,  the 
human  and  the  divine,  corresponding  to  the  two 
natures.  It  was  officially  defined  as  true  orthodoxy 
in  the  6th.  Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople 
(680). 


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140 


E 


EA. — God  of  the  fresh  waters  in  ancient  Baby- 
lonia. His  worship  was  centered  originally  at  Eridu 
on  the  Persian  Gulf  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Later  he  was  incorporated  in  the 
oldest  triad  with  Anu  and  Enlil  as  the  god  of  the 
underground  waters.  He  was  always  a  beneficent 
power;  creator  of  the  earth  and  of  man;  champion 
of  the  good  powers  in  the  earliest  story  of  the 
conflict  with  Tiamat,  the  vast  ocean;  teacher  of 
arts,  writing,  medicine  and  building.  It  was  he 
who  revealed  the  coming  of  the  flood  to  Utnapish- 
tim  and  taught  him  how  to  save  his  family  in  a  ship. 

EARTH,  EARTH-GODS.— Among  all  the 

aspects  of  nature  worshiped  by  polytheistic  man, 
Earth  is  not  the  least  important.  Libations  are 
poured  on  the  earth,  sacrifices  of  food  are  buried  in 
it,  prayers  are  addressed  to  it,  and  oaths  are  sworn 
by  it.  Earth  is  commonly  reverenced  as  a  nourish- 
ing mother,  from  whose  womb  spring  all  good  things. 
From  such  conceptions  the  transition  is  easy  to  the 
cult  of  Earth-deities,  sometimes  thought  of  as  ani- 
mating the  physical  substance,  and  sometimes  set 
apart  and  adored  in  anthropomorphic  shape. 
Among  these  are  the  Vedic  Prithivi,  the  Greek 
Demeter,  particularly  a  goddess  of  the  cultivated 
earth,  the  Teutonic  Nerthus,  the  Babylonian  En-lil, 
and  the  Mexican  Centeotl,  specifically  a  goddess  of 
the  maize.  The  three  chief  mother-goddesses  of 
the  Semitic  area,  Ashtart  (Canaan),  Atargatis 
(Syria),  and  Ishtar  (Babylonia),  have  been  inter- 
preted as  originally  Earth-deities.  Similarly,  the 
great  goddess  of  the  old  Cretan  reUgion,  whose  gold 
and  ivory  statuettes  may  be  seen  in  archaeological 
museums,  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  Earth- 
mother.  In  many  rehgions,  low  and  high,  Heaven 
and  Earth  are  conceived  as  a  divine  pair,  the  parents 
of  both  gods  and  men.  Hutton  Webster 

EASTER,  AND  EASTER  CONTROVERSY.— 

Old  English  Easter  from  Eostre,  the  goddess  of 
spring  and  the  dawn,  the  Teutonic  name  for  the 
festival  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  The  Latin 
and  Greek  churches  use  terms  derived  from  the 
Greek  pascha,  the  Passover,  (e.g.,  ItaUan  Pasqua, 
French  Pdques). 

I.  Origin. — The  celebration  of  Easter  is  the 
most  ancient  of  all  the  annual  church  festivals  and 
the  most  important.  It  does  not  appear  in  the 
New  Testament,  for  in  Acts  12:4,  where  A.V. 
reads  "Easter,"  R.V.  rightly  has  "Passover,"  the 
reference  being  to  the  Jewish  festival  which  set  the 
time  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus.  In 
Apostohc  times  the  Christians  commemorated  their 
Lord's  resurrection  every  Sunday,  by  meeting  on 
that  day  for  worship.  When  St.  Paul  refers  to 
Christ  as  "our  Passover"  (I  Cor.  5:7)  his  language 
is  metaphorical  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  contain- 
ing any  allusion  to  a  church  function.  Neverthe- 
less the  annual  celebrations  of  the  Pascha  by  the 
Christians  may  be  traced  back  to  the  sub-apostolic 
age.  We  find  it  being  observed  by  Poly  carp,  a  per- 
sonal disciple  of  the  Apostle  John,  and  also  at 
Rome,  though  with  a  different  date.  In  these 
early  times  the  festival  was  not  confined  to  the 
Resurrection;  it  included  the  Crucifixion.  Indeed, 
there  is  some  reason  to  think  that  at  first  more 
stress  was  laid  in  the  Pascha  on  the  death  of  Jesus 
than  on  His  resurrection,  which  had  its  weekly 
reminder.  It  was  then  the  Christian  equivalent 
of  the  Jews'  Passover  feast  of  deliverance  and  so 
commemorated  the  great  fact  of  redemption.  The 
later  Teutonic  name  "Easter"  combines  the  pagan 
festival  of  spring  with  the  celebration  of  Christ's 
resurrection.    Hence  the  custom  of  making  presents 


of  "Easter  Eggs."  From  early  patristic  times 
baptisms  came  to  be  usually  celebrated  at  Easter. 
The  catechumen,  first  prepared  by  a  course  of 
instruction  and  discipline,  after  being  baptized, 
partook  of  the  Eucharist  for  the  first  time.  This 
custom  is  to  be  associated  with  the  exceptional 
importance  of  the  Easter  communion — either  as 
cause,  or  as  effect. 

II.  The  Controversy. — The  first  schism  in  the 
Catholic  church  turned  on  the  so-called  "quarto- 
deciman  controversy"  as  to  the  time  of  keeping 
Easter.  The  churches  of  Asia  Minor  followed  the 
Jewish  custom  of  beginning  the  Passover  week  on 
the  14th  day  of  the  month  Nisan,  whatever  the 
day  of  the  week;  but  the  church  at  Rome  and 
others  in  the  West  commemorated  the  death  of 
Christ  on  a  Friday  and  His  resurrection  on  the 
following  Sunday.  This  is  the  first  Sunday  after 
the  full  moon  following  the  equinox  March  21st, 
the  date  of  our  Easter. 

1.  Anicetus  and  Polycarp. — In  or  about  a.d.  160 
Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  paid  a  visit  to  Anicetus, 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  they  had  some  discussion  on 
the  subject,  each  arguing  for  the  custom  of  his  own 
church,  but  without  coming  to  agreement. 

2.  Victor  and  Poly  crates. — Thirty  years  later 
(a.d.  190)  the  controversy  was  revivea,  and  became 
more  wide-spread  and  embittered.  The  bishops  of 
Asia  united  in  contending  for  the  quarto-  deciman 
position  and  Polycrates  of  Ephesus  wrote  a  letter 
in  their  name  to  Victor,  the  bishop  of  Rome,  advo- 
cating it.  In  reply  Victor  excommunicated  the 
churches  of  Asia  and  all  who  joined  with  them, 
declaring  the  quarto-decimans  to  be  heretics. 
While,  as  Eusebius  informs  us,  the  bishops  of  Pales- 
tine and  Alexandria  assented  to  Victor's  pronounce- 
ment, there  were  many  bishops  who  protested,  most 
important  among  whom  was  Irenaeus  of  Lyonne 
and  Vienne  in  Gaul,  who,  though  he  came  from  Asia 
and  had  been  a  disciple  of  Poycarp,  followed  the 
Western  custom  and  did  not  "observe"  (i.e.,  the 
14th  Nisan).  Nevertheless  he  objected  to  Victor's 
action  in  cutting  off  whole  "churches  of  God"  who 
were  following  the  tradition  of  an  ancient  custom. 

3.  Final  settlement. — At  the  council  of  Nicaea 
(a.d.  325)  the  controversy  was  finally  settled  by 
church  authority  in  favor  of  the  Western  usage 
and  the  quarto-decimans  denounced  as  heretics. 
After  this  they  rapidly  declined  in  number  and 
importance. 

4.  The  Laodicean  Controversy. — This  occurred 
between  a.d.  170  and  177  among  the  quarto- 
decimans,  some  contending  that  the  last  supper 
took  place  on  the  14th  Nisan  and  the  death  of 
Christ  on  the  15th,  others  that  Christ  anticipated 
the  day  of  the  Passover  meal,  taking  it  on  the  13th, 
and  dying.  Himself  the  true  pascal  lamb,  on  the 
14th.  Quite  unimportant  as  this  discussion  is  in 
church  history,  it  has  obtained  a  factitious  value  in 
connection  with  the  Tubingen  hypothesis  which 
discredits  the  historicity  of  St.  John's  gospel,  our 
authority  for  the  belief  that  Jesus  was  crucified  on 
the  day  when  the  Jews  killed  the  pascal  lamb.  But 
the  controversy  itself  is  too  obscure  to  throw  much 
light  on  the  Johannine  problem.     W.  F.  Adeney 

EATING   THE   GOD,   or  THEOPHAGY.— A 

ceremonial  meal  in  which  the  participants  partake 
of  the  substance  which  symboUzes  their  deity;  due 
to  the  magical  conception  that  the  properties  of  a 
thing  are  transferable  through  eating.  The  objects 
eaten  include  animals,  human  victims,  plants,  grains 
and  dough  images;  and  the  custom  prevails  in  Poly- 
nesia, Central  America,  Mexico  and  equatorial 
Africa. 


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Edmund,  Saint 


EBIONISM. — A  form  of  Christianity  of  extreme 
Judaistic  tendencies,  which  appeared  in  New 
Testament  times,  and  acquired  some  prominence 
in  the  2nd.  century  in  connection  with  gnostic 
ideas.  Its  essential  features  are  sedulous  devotion 
to  the  Mosaic  law  and  a  more  or  less  pronounced 
asceticism.  Ebionites  held  that  Jesus  was  the 
Messiah  but  not  divine,  and  that  Paul  was  to  be 
rejected  while  James  and  Peter  were  to  be  honored. 
The  name  itself  is  from  the  Hebrew,  meaning  "poor," 
and  was  perhaps  applied  to  the  party  by  its  enemies. 
The  Clementine  Homilies  and  Recognitions  of  the 
3rd.  century  are  Ebionitic.  Ebionitic  views  per- 
sisted until  the  7th.  century  when  they  disappeared 
before  Islam. 

ECCE  HOMO.— Literally  "Behold  the  Man!" 
a  phrase  denoting  any  representation  of  Jesus 
wearing  the  crown  of  thorns.     See  John  19:5. 

ECK,  JOHANN  MAIER  (1486-1543).— German 
R.C.  theologian,  the  most  eminent  controversiaUst 
on  the  side  of  Cathohcism  in  opposition  to  the 
Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  Reformers. 

ECKHART    (or    ECKEHART),    JOHANNES 

(ca.  1260-ca.  1327). — German  philosopher  and 
mystic  of  wide  influence.  He  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Beghards,  making  certain  statements 
which  the  church  condemned.  He  was  an  Aris- 
toteUan  in  philosophy,  but  under  the  sway  of  Neo- 
Platonic  mysticism,  worked  out  a  sort  of  mystical 
Christian  pantheism. 

ECSTASY  AND  RELIGIOUS  ENTHUSUSM. 

— Ecstasy  is  an  abnormal  state  of  emotion  in 
which  the  subject  is  carried  out  of  his  usual  sus- 
ceptibility to  stimuli  and  inhibited  from  his  ordinary 
reactions.  It  is  felt  as  an  exaltation  or  rapture  and 
is  particularly  associated  with  religious  excitement 
and  mystical  experience.  It  has  been  characteristic 
of  religion  in  its  lower  forms  to  induce  intoxication 
by  drink  or  narcotics  and  to  interpret  the  phenomena 
by  spirit  possession.  In  such  a  view  the  individual 
is  then  full  of  the  sacred  power  and  attains  the 
special  privilege  of  union  with  the  divine.  Various 
methods  are  employed  to  reach  this  condition — 
fasting,  flagellation,  dancing,  and  whirling  as  among 
the  dervishes.  Each  method  apparently  produces 
a  characteristic  mental  state  as  different  drugs 
have  been  shown  experimentally  to  excite  different 
types  of  exaltation.  In  general  modern  Christian 
sects  have  not  employed  the  cruder  forms  of 
stimulation  but  evangelical  revivals  have  resorted  to 
the  influence  of  the  crowd,  of  sensuous  music  and 
emotional  appeals  of  various  kinds.  Mysticism 
in  all  religions  has  sought  the  experience  of  ecstasy 
since  it  has  been  regarded  by  mystics  as  the  state 
in  which  union  with  God  is  achieved.  An  analysis 
of  the  phenomena  makes  it  clear  that  the  state  is 
more  accessible  to  certain  temperaments  than  others. 
It  is  possible  to  those  of  "nervous"  or  "psychic" 
character  since  they  are  more  suggestible.  The 
study  of  hypnotism  and  the  subconscious  afford 
valuable  data.  In  hypnotism,  when  the  subject  has 
been  put  under  control,  he  can  be  influenced  to 
apparently  intense  emotion  either  of  the  pleasur- 
able or  painful  variety.  When  he  is  awakened  he 
is  unable  to  describe  the  experience .  One  reaches  the 
mystic  ecstasy  only  after  effort  and  prolonged  auto- 
suggestion. At  last,  if  he  is  of  the  susceptible  type, 
he  may  pass  out  of  ordinary  discriminating  self- 
consciousness  into  the  happy,  effortless  state  which 
he  has  so  long  cultivated  and  sought. 

As  religion  advances  the  cruder  forms  of  pos- 
session disappear  and  the  restraint  and  discipline 
of  the  emotional  Jife  develop.    The  higher,  more 


practical  and  intelligent  forms  of  religion  do  not 
lack  emotion  but  modify  its  expression. 

Edward  S.  Ames 
ECUMENICAL  COUNCIL.— A  council  purport- 
ing to  be  representative  of  the  entire  Christian  world, 
or  whose  doctrinal  decisions  have  received  universal 
acceptance.  There  is  no  fixed  hst,  R.C.  authorities 
giving  twenty  councils  as  ecumenical,  while  Protes- 
tant scholars  usually  confine  the  term  to  the  follow- 
ing seven:  First  Council  of  Nicaea,  325;  First 
Council  of  Constantinople,  381;  First  Council  of 
Ephesus,  431;  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451;  Second 
Council  of  Constantinople,  553;  Third  Council  of 
Constantinople,  680-681;  and  Second  Council  of 
Nicaea,  787. 

EDDAS. — Two  collections  of  ancient  Norse 
literature  consisting  of  mythology  and  heroic 
legends.  The  elder  Edda  is  a  group  of  35  poems 
discovered  by  Bishop  Sveinsson  in  1643  and  by 
mistake  credited  to  the  11th.  century  historian, 
Saemund  and  called  the  Saemundar  Edda.  The 
Younger  Edda  is  a  prose  work  written  by  Snorri 
Sturluson  in  the  13th.  century  making  use  of  the 
older  materials.  They  are  an  important  source 
for  northern  mythology.  The  name  Edda  was 
not  applied  to  them  by  the  authors. 

EDDY,  MARY  BAKER  (1821-1910).— The 
founder  and  discoverer  of  Christian  Science  (q.v.). 

EDERSHEIM,  ALFRED  (1825-1889).— Biblical 
scholar  and  author  of  Austrian  Jewish  parentage; 
converted  to  Christianity  and  ord&ined  to  the 
Presbyterian  ministry  in  Scotland,  1846;  took 
orders  in  the  Anghcan  church,  1875;  author  of 
The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah  and  various 
other  works. 

EDESSA. — A  city  of  northern  Mesopotamia, 
built  by  Seleucus  Nicator  in  203  b.c.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  very  early  Christian  tradition 
of  the  letter  of  Abgar.  A  council  was  held  there  in 
197.  It  was  the  home  of  Bardesanes  (q.v.). 
Thence  came  the  Peshitto  version  (q.v.)  of  the 
O.T.,  and  the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian  (q.v.).  Its 
greatest  fame  as  a  school  of  theology  dates  from 
(middle  of  the  4th.  century)  the  coming  of  St. 
Ephrem  (q.v.)  after  Nisibis  had  been  ceded  to  the 
Persians.  Nestorian  doctrine  there  found  support, 
especially  under  Bishop  Ibas  (q.v.)  and  Jacob  Bar- 
daeus,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  "Jacobites"  (q.v.). 
The  school  was  closed  by  the  Emperor  Zeno  (489) 
and  the  Nestorian  scholars  moved  to  Nisibis. 

EDICT  OF  MILAN.— The  statute  proniulgated 
in  313  by  Constantine  and  Licinius,  granting  reli- 
gious freedom  to  Christians. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES.— A  settlement  effected 
1598  by  which  the  French  Protestants  after  a  long 
succession  of  civil  wars  received  privileges  of  worship 
in  specified  cities  and  towns,  and  rights  of  citizen- 
ship.    It  was  revoked  in  1685. 

EDICT  OF  WORMS.— The  promulgation  of  the 
Imperial  Diet  which  met  at  Worms,  Germany,  in 
1521,  by  which  Luther,  his  followers,  and  his  literary 
works  were  put  under  the  ban.  It  was  virtually 
abrogated  by  the  Diet  of  Speier,  1526. 

EDIFICATION. — From  the  Greek,  meaning  a 
building  up.  In  Christian  usage,  metaphorically  the 
spiritual  enhghtening  and  strengthening  of  the  indi- 
vidual or  the  church  by  instruction  or  exhortation. 

EDMUND,  SAINT.— Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, d.  1240;  canonized  1247;  because  of  his 
eloquence  was  chosen  to  preach  the  crusades  in 


Edomites 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


142 


England.     As  archbishop  he  was  not  strong  but  his 
saintly  character  gave  him  great  influence. 

EDOMITES. — A  Semitic  people  inhabiting  the 
country  southeast  of  Palestine  called  Edom,  or  later 
Idumea.  Information  regarding  their  religion  is 
scanty.  The  references  in  the  O.T.,  in  inscriptions, 
etc.,  shows  them  to  have  been  polytheists.  They 
were  probably  eventually  fused  with  the  Hebrews. 

EDWARDS,  JONATHAN  (1703-1758).— One 
of  the  ablest  theologians  in  American  history.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  1720,  was  tutor  there 
1724-1726,  pastor  at  Northampton  1727-1749, 
minister  to  Indians  at  Stockbridge  1750-1757, 
and  president  of  Princeton  College  1757-1758.  The 
chief  features  of  his  ministry  were  his  advocacy  of 
the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God,  his  leadership  in 
the  Great  Awakening,  his  earlier  lukewarm  support 
and  later  repudiation  of  the  "Half-Way  Covenant" 
(q.v.),  his  training  of  young  men  like  Bellamy  and 
Hopkins  for  the  Christian  ministry,  his  Dantesque 
pictures  of  the  torments  of  hell.  In  spite  of  riis 
extreme  Calvinism,  he  and  those  who  were  associ- 
ated with  him  are  said  to  have  made  ten  improve- 
ments in  theology.  These  were,  however,  wholly 
in  the  interest  of  a  juster  estimate  of  man  and  set 
the  task  of  the  New  England  Theology  (q.v.). 
His  metaphysical  genius  appears  in  his  extremely 
precocious  notes  of  his  Mind  (1717-1720),  in  which 
he  proposed  a  theory  of  ideas  similar  to  that  of 
Berkeley;  yet  no  trace  of  a  historical  connection 
with  Berkeley  has  been  found.  He  writes  that 
God  is  the  only  entity,  that  the  universe  exists 
only  in  the  mind  or  idea,  that  God  is  the  source  of 
ideas,  and  that  excellence  is  measured  by  the  degree 
to  which  being  whether  of  man  or  God  consents  to 
being.  His  principal  writings  were:  Narrative 
of  Surprising  Conversions,  The  Religious  Affections, 
Qualification  for  Communion,  The  Nature  of 
True  Virtus,  The  End  for  Which  God  Created  the 
World,  and  An  Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will.  Clarence  A.  Beckwith 

EGEDE,  HANS  (1686-1758).— Norwegian  mis- 
sionary to  Greenland;  founded  the  colony  at  God- 
thaab,  and  met  with  considerable  success  in  his 
mission  among  the  Eskimos. 

EGG,  COSMIC. — The  origin  of  the  natural 
world  from  an  egg  is  a  natural  form  of  cosmogony. 
It  is  found  in  Egypt  where  Khnum  moulds  the 
world  egg;  in  Orphic  speculation  where  the  egg  of 
light  comes  from  Aether  and  breaks  into  heaven 
and  earth  yielding  the  light  of  the  world  and  the 
primeval  God;  in  India  where  the  impersonal 
Brahma  becomes  personal  as  creating  god  (Hiranya- 
garbha  or  Prajapati)  and  divides  the  egg  to  form 
heaven  and  earth. 

EGYPT,  RELIGION  OF.— I.  Origins.— The 
rehgion  of  ancient  Egypt  arose  far  back  in  the  most 
primitive  times.  It  grew  out  of  man's  superstitious 
reverence  for  the  mysterious  in  nature:  animals, 
man  himself,  trees,  plants,  and  stones;  his  imagin- 
ings about  the  origins,  structure,  and  processes  of 
earth  and  sky;  and  the  promptings  of  his  own 
inner  consciousness.  The  earliest  expressions  of 
these  feelings  were  colored  by  the  peculiarities  of 
the  Nile  valley.  Some  of  the  creatures  of  nature 
evidently  began  as  independently  divine,  but  in 
historic  times  are  found  almost  wholly  as  aspects 
of  more  complex  deities.  Other  natural  objects, 
parts  of  the  body,  and  even  invented  forms,  served 
as  fetishes  or  were  reproduced  as  amulets.  Magic 
formed  indeed  at  all  times  a  prominent  phase  of 
Egyptian  religious  practice.    The  two  outstanding 


features  of  the  Egyptian's  larger  world  were  the 
clear  sky  with  its  brilliant  sun  by  day  and  its  moon 
and  myriads  of  stars  by  night,  and  the  great  river 
which  formed  the  backbone  of  his  land.  Sky  and 
Nile  together  served  to  indicate  time,  seasons,  and 
direction;  and  together  they  made  possible  the  life 
of  Egypt.  The  sun  itself  and  the  principle  of  ever- 
renewed  life  exemphfied  in  the  yearly  inundation 
and  its  fruits  became,  then,  two  chief  gods  of  the 
land.  The  sun  was  known  by  many  names,  as 
Re,  Atum,  Khepri,  Horus;  the  inundation  became 
Osiris.  Many  different  myths  arose  to  explain 
the  phenomena  in  which  these  deities  took  part. 
A  few  abstractions — Fate,  Taste,  etc. — evolved 
from  man's  own  consciousness.  Of  these  the 
foremost  was  the  goddess  Maat,  the  personification 
of  Truth  or  Righteousnes. 

The  deification  of  man  took  place  for  certain 
groups  as  units.  Thus  prehistoric  kings  seem  to 
have  survived  as  the  so-called  "souls"  of  their 
ancient  capitals  Heliopolis,  Buto,  etc.  In  historic 
times  each  king  became  at  death  identified  with 
Osiris,  the  ruler  of  the  dead.  The  living  king, 
on  the  other  hand,  regularly  bore  the  title  "Horus" 
which  made  him  the  son  of  Osiris,  and  from  the 
IV.  Dynasty  on  was  also  considered  a  bodily 
"son  of  Re  (the  sun)."  Though  regularly  called 
a  god,  he  was  not,  however,  worshiped  during  his< 
lifetime.  By  the  Middle  Kingdom  (before  2000 
B.C.)  the  identification  of  the  dead  with  Osiris  was 
extended  from  the  king  to  everybody,  and  the 
coffins  of  even  humble  folk  of  that  period  often 
provide  in  picture  the  scepters,  etc.,  appropriate 
to  the  god.  In  practice,  of  course,  Osiris  definitely 
remained  the  ruler  of  all  these  new  Osirises.  Besides 
such  groups,  various  individuals,  partly  royal, 
partly  wise  men  famous  in  their  day,  and  partly 
perhaps  such  as  had  met  death  by  drowning  (like 
Osiris,  according  to  one  myth),  came  in  later  ages 
to  be  worshiped  in  regular  fashion. 

II.  Interrelations  pf  the  Gods. — -The  land  of 
Egypt  consists  fundamentally  of  a  series  of  com- 
munities strung  along  its  great  river.  Such  settle- 
ments were  at  first  independent  and  each  had  a 
deity  or  deities  of  its  own.  When  one  town  con- 
quered another,  the  victorious  god  would  extend 
his  sway  to  the  latter,  and  its  god  in  turn  might 
almost  disappear  or  might  perhaps  come  to  be 
considered  the  child  of  the  victorious  deity.  Rela- 
tionships thus  came  about  which  had  nothing  to  do 
with  origins.  The  family  group  of  three  (father, 
mother,  and  child)  became  frequent.  Thus  Amon, 
Mut,  and  Khonsu  appear  at  Thebes;  Ptah,  Sekh- 
met,  and  Nefertem  at  Memphis.  Already  in  pre- 
historic times  the  settlements  along  the  Nile  had 
been  united  into  two  kingdoms.  Lower  and  Upper 
Egypt.  The  gods,  Horus  and  Set,  presumably 
belonging  first  to  their  capitals,  became  their  natural 
patrons.  As  in  the  historic  titulary  of  the  pharaohs 
Horus  takes  precedence  over  Set,  a  conquest  of 
Upper  by  Lower  Egypt  is  next  to  be  assumed. 
Then  a  shift  in  control  puts  Nekhbet,  the  goddess  of 
a  new  capital  of  Upper  Egypt  (the  South),  ahead 
of  the  Delta  goddess  Uto.  With  this  state  of 
affairs  begins  the  I.  Dynasty  of  historic  Egypt, 
about  3400  B.C.,  with  Upper  Egyptian  kings  in 
control  of  a  united  kingdom.  Such  pohtical 
developments  were  mirrored  not  only  in  the  status 
of  local  deities,  but  by  priestly  envisagings  of  a 
mythic  state  among  the  gods,  where  Re,  the  sun, 
was  king,  with  Thoth,  the  moon,  for  his  prune 
minister. 

But  new  relationships  among  deities  were  only 
in  part  due  to  pohtical  events.  The  priests  of  any 
given  city  might  seek  to  emphasize  the  greatness 
of  their  special  patron  by  ranging  their  god  at  the 
head  of  a  group  of  deities.    Of  such  the  ennead 


143 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Egypt,  Religion  of 


(nine)  of  Heliopolis,  with  the  sup-god  at  its  head, 
is  the  most  famous.  At  Shmun,  by  a  pun  on  the 
city's  name,  the  group  was  made  an  ogdoad  (eight). 
But  the  renown  of  HeUopoUtan  theology  was  such 
that  "ennead"  became  a  term  commonly  used 
regardless  of  the  number  of  deities  actually  in- 
volved. Moreover,  in  the  attempt  to  explain  the 
world  many  myths  arose,  in  which  the  gods  came 
into  still  other  associations.  And  the  Egyptians, 
who,  one  might  suppose,  would  mythologize  and 
theologize  to  get  their  gods  into  more  intelUgible 
order,  were  really  multiplying  the  disorder.  For 
alongside  the  new,  the  old  beliefs  remained.  Hence 
comes  perennial  confusion  in  interpreting  the  indi- 
vidual gods  of  Egypt. 

III.  Myths. — 'Allusions  to  mjrths  appear  in  the 
most  primitive  religious  texts  preserved.  They 
concern  the  origin  of  the  gods  and  of  the  universe 
and  the  rule  of  the  gods  on  earth  before  human 
dynasties  began.  Best  known  of  all  was  the  story 
of  Osiris,  his  faithful  sister  and  wife  Isis  and  their 
son  Horus  who  became  "the  avenger  of  his  father." 
Osiris  had  been  given  the  throne  of  Egypt  by  his 
father  Geb,  the  earth-god,  and  proved  a  great 
and  beneficent  ruler.  But  his  jealous  brother  Set 
finally  effected  his  death.  His  dismembered 
body  was  ultimately  reunited  by  the  aid  of  other 
gods,  and  Isis  reinspired  it  with  the  breath  of  life; 
but  he  ruled  thereafter  over  the  dead  only.  His 
later-born  son  Horus,  after  a  childhood  spent  in 
the  concealment  of  the  Delta  swamps,  defeated  the 
treacherous  Set,  first  in  a  frightful  hand-to-hand 
combat,  then  in  a  law-suit  before  the  gods,  in 
which  Set  had  aspersed  the  youth's  birth  and  heir- 
ship. Thus  Horus  won  the  earthly  crown  of  his 
father. 

IV.  Magic. — Such  myths  as  survive  have  conae 
down  cLiefly  in  the  form  of  charms.  Sympathetic 
magic,  evidenced  in  Egyptian  medical  writings  by 
such  prescriptions  as  the  blood  of  a  black  calf  to 
keep  hair  from  whitening,  is  found  also  in  connec- 
tion with  the  gods.  For  their  vicissitudes  as 
recorded  in  the  myths  provided  analogies  for 
human  misfortunes  such  as  burns  and  snake-bites. 
Thus  Isis,  when  Horus  is  bitten  in  the  marshes, 
appeals  to  the  Sun-god  Re,  who  stops  his  barque 
and  sends  his  prime  minister  Thoth  to  heal  the  lad. 
".  .  .  .  And  the  Sun  moves  not  on  from  his  position 
of  yesterday  until  Horus  is  healed  for  his  mother, 
and  until  the  sufferer  Ukewise  is  healed  for  his 
mother."  Again,  the  magician  may  simply  state 
his  desire  as  if  it  were  already  accomplished,  with- 
out reference  to  the  gods.  Or  he  may  in  addressing 
an  evil  identify  himself  with  the  protector  god. 
The  gods  may  even  be  threatened  with  disaster  if 
they  fail  to  grant  some  boon.  Such  threats  have 
value  if  one  knows  the  hidden  real  name  of  the 
god  addressed,  for  in  the  name  lies,  according  to 
Egyptian  belief,  the  power  of  man  and  god  alike; 
and  one  who  knows  another's  name  can  control  that 
other  as  he  will. 

V.  Future  Life. — ^ReHgion  and  magic  are  inter- 
twined not  only  in  this  life  but  in  the  next.  A  life 
beyond  the  grave  was  aspired  to  already  by  the 
predynastic  Egyptians.  But  the  possibility  of 
enjoying  or  even  of  attaining  it  depended  for  hun- 
dreds of  years  upon  one's  surviving  relatives  and 
friends.  For  the  physical  body  must  be  preserved, 
and  over  it  the  proper  ceremonies  must  be  per- 
formed, e.g.,  the  ritual  of  "opening  the  mouth," 
that  the  deceased  might  be  able  to  eat  and  drink. 
Offerings  of  food  were  then  required.  Clothing, 
ointments,  cosmetics,  toilet  articles,  jewelry,  tools, 
or  weapons  were  often  placed  with  the  body.  The 
burden  of  continually  renewing  actual  food,  etc., 
led  to  the  application  here  too  of  sympathetic 
magic,  whereby  models  of  the  offerings,  or  pictures  of 


them,  or  even  their  written  names  became  effective 
substitutes.  To  provide  against  possible  destruc- 
tion of  the  body  itself  by  accident  or  by  enemies, 
substitute  bodies,  or  even  detached  heads,  came  into 
use — ^the  world's  earliest  portrait  statues — ^by 
about  3000  b.c. 

The  tomb  had  meantime  developed  from  a  mere 
pit  heaped  with  sand  until  it  was  protected  above 
ground  by  a  soUd  rectangular  masonry  structure 
with  slightly  sloping  sides.  By  putting!  such 
"mastabas"  one  on  top  of  another,  gradually  redu- 
cing their  size,  and  then  filhng  out  the  slope,  the 
pyramid-type  of  tomb  was  attained  wherein  Old 
and  Middle  ffingdom  pharaohs  were  buried.  The 
earliest  pyramids  (about  3000-2650  b.c.)  were  mere 
masses  of  stone  which  seemed  bent  on  winning 
immortality  by  main  strength.  But  the  kings  of 
the  next  two  centuries  felt  the  inadequacy  of  force 
alone.  The  walls  of  their  burial-chambers  and 
passages  are  carved  with  prayers,  hymns,  magic 
formulas,  etc.,  thus  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  dead 
to  help  him  reach  and  enjoy  the  other  world.  This 
use  of  mind  to  control  matter  was  continued  by 
covering  with  texts  of  similar  function  many  coffins 
of  the  Middle  Kingdom  (around  2000  b.c).  Later, 
under  the  Empire  (1580  b.c.  fT.),  priestly  imagin- 
ings had  so  multiphed  the  dangers  of  the  Hereafter 
that  long  rolls  of  papyrus  were  required  to  contain 
all  the  helps  that  should  now  accompany  the  dead. 
These  documents,  like  their  predecessors,  were  in 
content  merely  compilations  of  independent  texts, 
differing  from  copy  to  copy  in  selection  and  arrange- 
ment. But  their  roll  form  is  that  of  Egyptian 
books.  Hence  such  a  papyrus  is  commonly  called 
a  "Book  of  the  Dead.^' 

The  body  or  its  replica  was  to  serve  as  a  home 
for  the  soul.  Prominent  in  Egyptian  belief  was 
also  a  third  main  element  of  personality,  the  spirit 
or  ka.  This  individual  guardian  angel  as  it  were 
is  pictured  like  a  twin  and  hence  has  often  been 
called  the  "double."  It  took  charge  of  the  food- 
offerings  and  brought  them  to  the  dead;  hence  a 
man's  mortuary  priest  is  called  "servant  of  his 
ka,"  and  the  tomb-chapel  where  the  offerings  were 
deposited  is  the  "house  of  the  ka."  The  shadow, 
and  especially  the  name  as  noted  above,  were  also 
parts  of  one's  being.  The  soul  was  at  first  thought 
to  lead  an  unsettled  existence,  flitting  about  like  a 
bird  or  appearing  where  and  in  what  form  it  would. 
But  alongside  this  belief  others  developed,  influ- 
enced largely  by  the  sun.  His  apparent  death 
each  evening  in  the  West  led  to  locating  a  realm 
of  the  dead  there  and  calling  them  "Westerners." 
Since  the  Sun  evidently  spent  each  night  under  the 
earth  (at  that  time  of  course  supposed  to  be  flat), 
that  region  too,  called  Duat,  became  an  abode  of  the 
departed.  But  the  specially  favored  (at  first  prob- 
ably kings  only)  might  join  the  Sun-god  in  his 
daily  voyage  across  the  sky.  Others  thought  that 
the  dead  appeared  in  the  countless  stars  of  night. 
While  the  sun  and  stars  thus  affected  conceptions 
of  the  other  world,  earthly  forces  too  were  involved. 
The  wolves  and  jackals  slinking  on  the  desert 
margin  seem  to  lie  behind  such  mortuary  gods  as 
Upwawet  ("the  way-opener")  of  Assiut  and  Anubis 
the  patron  of  embalmers.  Osiris  in  turn  became 
identified  with  another  such  deity,  Khenti-amentiu 
("the  presider  over  the  Westerners")  of  Abydos. 
The  tomb  of  an  early  king  there  had  by  the  Middle 
Kingdom  (before  2000  b.c.)  become  to  the  folk  that 
of  Osiris  himself.  So  Abydos  became  a  place  of 
pilgrimage,  a  spot  where  one  wished  to  be  buried 
or  at  least  to  erect  a  memorial  tablet  that  he  might 
thus  come  in  some  sense  into  direct  companionship 
with  the  ruler  of  the  dead. 

VI.  Ethics. — To  the  Sun-god  Re  were  imputed 
the  virtues  which  the  nation  found  or  hoped  for  in 


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144 


its  kings.  The  mj^th  made  Maat  ("Truth")  his 
daughter.  Nobles  already  in  the  Old  Kingdom 
(about  3000-2500  B.C.)  were  priding  themselves  in 
their  tomb-inscriptions  on  their  kindness  to  the 
common  folk  of  their  districts,  desiring  thus  to 
justify  themselves  in  the  Hereafter  before  "the 
great  god."  So  early,  then,  began  the  transforma- 
tion in  the  estimate  of  the  future  life  from  an 
external  to  a  personal,  individual  affair,  dependent 
in  some  measure  at  least  on  one's  own  acts.  From 
humble  beginnings  the  level  of  morality  inspired 
by  the  solar  faith  shifted  gradually  upward.  An 
ethical  element  passed  also  into  the  Osu-ian  cult,  for 
Osiris  came  to  be  considered  not  only  the  ruler  but 
the  judge  of  the  dead.  In  the  illustrations  which 
regularly  form  part  of  the  "Book  of  the  Dead"  he 
is  to  be  seen  seated  on  his  throne  while  the  heart  of 
the  deceased  is  being  weighed  in  a  balance  before 
him.  Unfortunately,  magic  charms  were  devised 
later  to  secure  a  favorable  verdict  regardless  of  the 
kind  of  life  that  had  been  lived;  but  the  fact  that 
need  for  them  was  felt  indicates  in  itself  the  pricks 
of  conscience. 

VII.  State  Reugion. — In. the  Old  Kingdom 
likewise  grew  up  great  state  temples.  Near 
Memphis,  the  capital,  a  temple  of  that  distant 
age  survives  in  ruins  that  still  reveal  its  distinctively 
solar  character.  Its  focus  of  worship  was  a  great 
obelisk,  whose  essential  element  was  the  pyramidal 
capstone  derived  in  shape  from  an  ancient  sun- 
fetish  of  Heliopolis.  And  close  by  the  temple  was 
built  a  barque  of  brick,  symbolic  of  that  in  which 
Re  daily  crossed  the  sky.  Besides  such  temples  to 
national  deities,  there  were,  of  course,  shrines  of 
local  deities  scattered  throughout  the  land.  Then 
too,  since  dead  kings  were  divine  not  only  in  theory 
but  in  practice,  the  mortuary  temples  attached 
to  their  pyramids  must  be  included  here.  Bits  of 
even  the  equipment  of  these  survive,  indicating 
luxurious  vessels  of  gold  inlaid  with  turquoise  and 
lapis  lazuli.  So  state  religion  was  already  a  matter 
of  pomp  and  ceremony.  But  there  was  as  yet  no 
distinct  priestly  class;  for  the  pharaoh  himself 
was  nominally  the  only  mediator  between  man  and 
the  gods,  and  even  through  the  Middle  Kingdom 
the  temples  were  largely  staffed  by  successive 
shifts  of  laymen,  only  the  chief  administrative 
officials  being  permanently  on  duty.  The  Empire 
(1580  B.C.  ff.)  witnessed  a  great  change  in  this 
regard.  For  now  began  the  influx  of  wealth  from 
conquests  in  Asia  as  well  as  Nubia — -conquests  which 
the  pharaohs  of  the  XVIII.  Dynasty  unhesitatingly 
ascribed  to  Amon  of  Thebes,  their  city-god,  who 
had  with  them  become  supreme  in  the  nation. 
Thutmose  III.  and  other  great  conquerors  divided 
with  him  their  spoil,  until  Amon  was  the  richest 
god  in  Egypt.  Such  vast  expansion  of  temple  prop- 
erties required  of  course  a  large  permanent  staff  of  all 
ranks,  from  administrators  down  to  janitors  and 
field-laborers.  During  this  period  and  later,  the 
priesthood  was  a  field  of  wide  opportunity. 

VIII.  Social  Problems. — ^The  Old  Kingdom 
had  begun  to  appreciate  moral  values.  But  by  the 
Middle  Kingdom,  about  five  hundred  years  later, 
the  short-comings  of  society  were  first  keenly  felt. 
Along  with  this  development  of  man's  ability  to 
contemplate  himself,  skepticism  arose  as  to  the 
value  of  accepted  religious  behefs  and  practices. 
The  massive  tombs  of  the  ancestors  had  after  all 
been  violated  or  fallen  into  decay.  Of  what  avail, 
then,  were  all  the  elaborate  rites  and  equipment  for 
the  dead?  Was  it  not  better  to  eat,  drink,  and 
be  merry  in  this  present  life  which  one  was  sure  of? 
Yet  the  abuses  and  oppressions  of  the  intervening 
centuries  were  leading  others  to  look  to  the  future 
for  a  just  ruler,  in  fact  a  "messiah"  such  as  the 
Hebrews  later  were  to  long  for.    Many  more  Middle 


Kingdom  writingi  seek  to  inculcate  justice  and 
kiadness  in  the  current  generation.  Indeed,  these 
principles  now  became  the  theme  of  an  official 
address  which  the  king  regularly  delivered  at  the 
installation  of  a  prime  minister. 

IX.  Ikhnaton  and  Monotheism. — The  worship 
of  the  Sun-god  had  maintained  its  importance  in 
spite  of  temporary  or  local  prominence  of  other 
gods.     The  priests  of  these  latter  indeed  found  it 
advantageous    to    assimilate    theirs    to    the    Sun, 
and  even  Amon  in  the  height  of  his  power  was  most 
commonly  called  Amon-Re.     In  line  with  the  added 
prestige  acquired  for  Amon  by   his  identification 
with  the  Sun,  his  high  priest  about  1500  B.C.  was 
raised  to  titular  head  of  all  the  priests  of  Egypt. 
The  hierarchy  thus  created,   ever  more  enriched 
with    spoil     presented     by    successive    pharaohs, 
soon  rivaled   the  throne  itself.    King   Ikhnaton, 
about  1375  b.c,  opposed  this  rising  power,  and  by 
the  strength  of  his  amazing  personality  checked 
it  in  his  time.    The  faith  which  he  developed  and 
sponsored   was   undiluted   sun-worship   raised   to 
the  plane  of  monotheism  hundreds  of  years  before 
that  stage  of  thought  was  attained  by  the  Hebrews. 
For  as  Egyptian  territory  had  been  expanded  into 
an  empire,  so  the  sway  of  Egypt's  gods  had  widened, 
until  to  Ikhnaton  came  the  consciousness  that  his 
god  was  indeed  the  god  of  all  the  earth.    To  set  this 
"sole  god"  apart  in  thought  from  the  deities  of  the 
past,  Ikhnaton  called  him  Aton,  "the  sun-disk." 
He  originated  also  a  new  symbol,  the  sun  with  rays 
reaching  earthward  and  terminating  in  human  hands. 
This  well  expressed  his  conception  of  the  sun's 
heat  and  light  as  vital  forces  in  the  affairs  of  men. 
In  this  new  faith  the  king  still  feels  himself  the 
only  mediator  between  god  and  man.    Yet  his 
emphasis  is  chiefly  on  Aton's  love,  his  sole  and  uni- 
versal sway,  and  his  care  for  all  his  creatures.     As 
a  hymn  puts  it:    "Thou  art  the  mother  and  the 
father  of  all  that  thou  hast  made."     Such  a  religion 
of  love  would  appeal  strongly  to  us  modern  folk. 
But  the  Egyptians  of  the  14th.  century  B.C.  had 
behind  them  different  traditions  than  ours.    The 
care  of  their  dead  was  all  bound  up  with  Osiris; 
and    their   numerous    holidays   had    been  thrilled 
by  the  celebrations  in  the  great  state  temples  where 
Amon  was  so  prominent.     Now  of  a  sudden  these 
familiar  deities  were  done  away  with;  their  names, 
and  especially  that  of  Amon,  were  even  chiseled 
from  the  monuments;  and  the  capital  was  removed 
from  Thebes.    The  common  people  and  the  ancient 
priesthoods  were  joined  in  discontent  by  the  mili- 
tary class;  for  the  propagation  of  his  faith  had  so 
engrossed  Ikhnaton  that  his  Asiatic  empire  was  slip- 
ping away  without  a  struggle.    After  his  death  the 
adherents  of  Aton   were   too   few  and   too   self- 
interested  to  withstand  the  forces  of  conservatism; 
so  that  within  a  few  years  Ikhnaton's  memory  and 
his   faith   alike   were   execrated   and   apparently 
blotted  out. 

The  Amon-priesthood,  thus  returned  to  power, 
now  increased  its  control  of  the  state,  until  the  god's 
statue  was  made  to  give  oracles  and  even  to  utter 
decisions  in  legal  cases.  Then  in  the  beginning 
of  the  11th.  century  b.c,  the  high  priest  of  Amon 
himself  took  possession  of  the  throne  at  Thebes; 
and  his  descendants,  expert  diplomats,  by  inter- 
marriage regained  the  North  which  had  at  first 
established  its  independence.  The  official  religion 
of  the  late  Empire  was  thus  controlled  by  priestly 
politicians.  But  the  loving  care  imputed  to 
Aton  had  in  spite  of  his  overthrow  affected  men's 
conception  of  their  traditional  deities.  Among  the 
humble  folk  there  developed  a  devotional  attitude 
toward  their  gods,  a  confidence  in  divine  love  and 
justice,  and  a  sense  of  unworthiness  distinctly 
contrasting  with  the  more  customary  endeavors  to 


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Emanation 


gain  the  gods'  approval  by  magic  means  instead  of 
blameless  life. 

X.  Foreign  Contacts;  Formalism. — Among 
the  deities  to  whom  Egyptians  looked  in  this  later 
age  were  some  imported  from  Asia,  as  was  natural  in 
view  of  the  continuous  intercourse  (either  friendly 
or  hostile)  after  the  establishment  of  the  Empire. 
Such  borrowings  from  up  the  Nile  existed  already 
in  the  Old  Kingdom.  Two  thousand  years  there- 
after, in  the  7th.  century  B.C.,  occurred  a  Renais- 
sance when  the  priests  labored  to  restore  that  (to 
them)  Golden  Age.  But  developments  such  as 
have  been  traced  above  rendered  it  of  course  impos- 
sible; and  their  attempts  led  only  to  formal  ritual- 
ism, dwelling  on  the  letter  and  losing  the  spirit  and 
the  vigor  of  the  past. 

XI.  Animal-Worship;  Propaganda. — When 
the  nation's  vitality  had  finally  been  exhausted  and 
it  had  sunk  into  subjection  to  Persia,  Herodotus, 
visiting  Egypt  about  450  B.C.,  found  animal-worship 
omnipresent.  In  the  old  times  individual  animals, 
e.g.,  the  Ram  of  Mendes  and  the  bull  Apis  at 
Memphis,  had  been  thought  to  house  the  soul  of 
some  deity  to  whom  they  were  then  held  sacred. 
But  by  the  Greek  period  whole  species  had  come 
to  share  such  sanctity.  Their  bodies  were  then 
piously  mummified  like  those  of  men  in  such  quanti- 
ties that  the  cemetery  of  bygone  cats  at  Benihasan 
for  example  has  served  as  a  mine  for  a  modern 
fertilizer  factory.  Identifications  or  confusions  of 
once  independent  deities  were  becoming  even 
commoner  than  of  old.  The  relative  importance 
of  the  Sun  and  of  the  Osiris-group  was  also  shifting; 
so  that  when  in  the  first  centuries  a.d.  Oriental 
cults^  were  spreading  throughout  the  Roman 
Empire  it  was  Osiris-Apis  (Serapis)  and  Isis  who 
found  worshipers  as  far  as  the  Rhine  and  even  in 
France  and  England.  Again,  Isis  and  her  son 
Horus,  as  embodiments  of  devotion  and  filial  love, 
found  kindred  spirits  in  Christ  and  the  madonna 
when  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Egypt. 

T.  George  Allen 
ELDER. — An  officer  in  a  religious  organization 
originally  appointed  because  of  his  age  and  experi- 
ence. In  Judaism  the  elders  had  the  general  over- 
sight of  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
synagogue.  In  Christianity  the  term  is  the  designa- 
tion of  officials  of  the  church.  Its  usage,  however, 
is  various.  In  Methodism  elders  are  fully  ordained 
ministers,  members  of  the  annual  conferences. 
In  Presbyterian  churches,  ruling  elders  are  lay 
officials  constituting  the  session  of  the  local  church. 
See  Presbyter. 

ELEATICS.— A  school  of  Greek  philosophers 
originating  in  the  6th.  century  B.C.,  the  leading 
exponents  of  which  were  Parmenides  and  Zeno. 
Their  fundamental  doctrine  was  that  all  real  exist- 
ence is  a  unity,  Pure  Being,  diversity  being  due  to 
an  illusion  of  the  senses.  On  philosophic  grounds, 
the  anthropomorphic  deities  of  Homer  were  criti- 
cized. 

ELECTION.— The  theological  term  for  God's 
choice  of  those  who  are  to  be  recipients  or  bearers  of 
salvation. 

1.  The  key  to  the  interpretation  of  the  nature 
and  history  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  that  "God  chose 
Israel  for  his  people."  This  election  is  to  be  referred 
not  to  a  single  divine  act  but  to  a  continuous  provi- 
dential control,  conditioned  in  part  on  an  inner 
capacity  of  the  Jewish  spirit  for  the  task  involved 
in  this  supernatural  calling.  The  aim  as  appre- 
hended by  the  prophets  was  that  Israel  was  to  pro- 
claim the  truth  and  righteousness  of  God  throughout 
the  world.  This  idea  of  election  was  taken  over  by 
Paul  and  appUed  to  the  Christian  instead  of  to  the 


Jewish  community,  yet  so  as  finally  to  embrace  the 
Jewish  people. 

2.  The  Augustinian-Calvinistic  doctrine  is  that 
God,  out  of  mere  good  pleasure,  has  chosen  some 
who  are  neither  better  nor  worse  than  the  rest  to 
faith  and  holiness ;  yet  this  choice  is  neither  caused  nor 
conditioned  by  any  foreseen  merit  or  faith  in  the  elect. 

3.  Arminians  hold  that  election  is  God's  choice 
of  those  who  on  account  of  Christ  and  through  Christ 
by  grace  believe  the  gospel  and  persevere  in  faith 
to  the  end;  it  is  conditional,  based  in  part  on  fore- 
seen faith  of  those  who  believe. 

4.  Schleiermacher  defined  election  as  the  divine 
purpose  of  grace  which  ideally  embraces  all  men; 
since,  however,  it  subjects  itself  to  historical  con- 
ditions, it  reaches  only  a  portion  of  humanity  in 
this  world,  but  is  destined  to  universahty  in  the 
world  to  come.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

ELEMENTS. — In  early  scientific  speculation 
they  are  the  simplest  forms  of  material  substance 
which  combine  to  make  the  world.  In  India  there 
were  four — earth,  water,  fire,  and  wind;  in  China 
five — metal,  wood,  water,  fire,  and  earth;  in 
Greece  four — earth,  water,  fire,  and  air. 

ELEUSINIA.— A  Greek  religious  festival.  See 
Mystery  Religions. 

ELEUTHERIUS.— Pope,  ca.  175-189. 

ELEVATION   OF  THE   HOST.— The   act   of 

lifting  up  before  the  people  the  elements  of  the 
Eucharist  for  adoration  as  in  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi  (q.v.). 

ELF. — (1)  In  Norse  mythology,  a  gnome  or  fairy, 
there  being  two  classes,  the  elves  of  Ught  (Ljosalfar), 
and  those  of  darkness  (Dopkalfar  or  Svartalfar). 
(2)  Hence  any  one  of  the  imagined  diminutive  folk 
or  spirits  pictured  in  folk-lore  as  meddfing  in  human 
affairs. 

ELIZABETH,  SAINT  (1207-1231).— Daughter 
of  Andrew  II.,  King  of  Hungary,  and  wife  of  Louis 
IV.  of  Thuringia;  renounced  her  position  and 
wealth,  giving  her  life  to  asceticism  and  ministra- 
tions to  the  poor  and  sick.  She  was  canonized  in 
1235  on  account  of  the  miracles  of  healing  wrought 
on  pilgrims  to  her  grave  in  Marburg. 

ELKESAITES. — A  syncretistic  movement,  the 
elements  of  which  included  Judaistic  legalism  and 
circumcision,  Christian  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  pagan  ablutions,  astrology  and  magic,  and 
the  Gnostic  use  of  the  Scriptures.  They  were  one 
of  the  influences  leading  to  the  rise  of  Islam. 

ELVIRA,  SYNOD  OF.— An  ecclesiastical  council 
which  convened  in  Spain  early  in  the  4th.  century 
with  the  object  of  restoring  order  to  the  church. 
It  was  the  first  council  to  demand  celibacy  of  the 
priesthood. 

ELYSIUM.— In  Greek  mvthology,  the  abode 
of  the  blessed;  in  Homeric  legend,  set  apart  for 
heroes  who  were  translated  thither  without  death, 
while  in  later  mythology  it  was  the  region  of  the 
underworld  reserved  for  the  righteous  dead. 
Analogously,  a  region  of  consummate  joy  or  a 
paradise. 

EM  A,  EMMA-0. — A  god  of  hell  in  Japanese 
Buddhism.     Cf.  Yama. 

EMANATION     or     EMANATIONISM.— The 

doctrine  that  the  world  and  all  existing  beings  are 
derived  by  a  cosmological  process  from  the  divine 


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146 


essence.  It  is  held  by  certain  schools  of  Indian 
thought,  especially  the  Vedanta,  and  was  character- 
istic of  Neoplatonism  and  Gnosticism,  the  latter 
explaining  Christ  as  an  emanation  from  God. 

EMBER    WEEKS    AND    EMBER    DAYS.— 

Ember  weeks  are  the  complete  weeks  which  follow 
Holy  Cross  Day  (Sept.  14),  St.  Lucy's  Day  (Dec.  13), 
the  first  Sunday  in  Lent,  and  Whitsunday,  the  four 
seasons  designated  by  the  R.C.  and  AngUcan 
churches  for  fasting  and  prayer.  The  Wednesdays, 
Fridays  and  Saturdays  of  these  weeks  are  Ember 
Days,  being  the  days  appointed  for  the  ordination 
of  clergy. 

EMERSON,  RALPH  WALDO  (1803-1882).— 
American  man  of  letters.  Born  of  a  family  of  minis- 
ters, and  educated  for  the  Unitarian  ministry,  he 
soon  retired  because  his  views  were  too  radical. 
He  was  a  leading  representative  of  the  New  England  - 
school  of  transcendentalists,  teaching  a  mystical 
doctrine  of  the  presence  of  God  in  all  men,  in  which 
he  was  influenced  somewhat  by  Brahmanic  mysti- 
cism. 

EMMANUEL  MOVEMENT.— A  plan  worked 
out  by  Drs.  Elwood  Worcester  and  Samuel 
McComb,  and  started  in  1906,  in  connection 
with  Emmanuel  Church  in  Boston,  whereby  the 
aid  of  religious  encouragement,  prayer,  and  sugges- 
tion could  be  used  to  aid  in  the  cure  of  disease  or 
the  maintenance  of  health.  The  plan  differed 
from  most  religious  cults  of  healing  in  that  a  diag- 
nosis of  a  physician  was  required,  and  the  religious 
ministry  was  carried  on  in  co-operation  with  medical 
science.  This  treatment  has  been  very  successful 
in  cases  where  mental  or  moral  uneasiness  has 
contributed  to  nervous  disorders.  The  creation 
of  a  favorable  mental  condition  is  of  great  impor- 
tance for  successful  medical  treatment;  and  the 
service  which  can  be  thus  rendered  by  religious 
faith  has  been  conclusively  shown  in  the  results  of 
the  Emmanuel  Movement. 

EMOTION  IN  RELIGION.— Emotion  in  gen- 
eral may  be  defined  as  the  affective  accompaniment 
and  outcome  of  instinct.  This  is  strikingly  illus- 
trated in  the  elemental  emotions  of  fear  and  anger. 
The  James-Lange  theory  set  forth  the  view  that 
one  is  afraid  because  one  runs  from  the  bear,  or 
feels  grief  because  of  weeping.  Extended  investi- 
gations have  confirmed  this  theory  and  accounted 
for  many  of  the  variations  and  complications  which 
occur  in  the  expression  of  the  emotions.  It  is 
foimd  that  organic  sensations  from  the  viscera  and 
deep-lying  muscles  contribute  massiveness  and 
intensity.  In  pathological  cases  where  there  is 
widespread  anaesthesia  of  the  body  muscles,  little 
or  no  emotion  is  felt.  This  doctrine  aids  greatly 
in  the  explanation  of  the  emotions  of  religion  in 
which  love,  fear,  and  hope  play  so  large  a  part. 
The  rehgious  ceremonials  center  about  the  most 
vital  interests,  and  they  are  intensely  dramatic  in 
character.  Their  social  or  group  character  also 
heightens  their  emotional  quality.  Even  where 
the  outward  movements  are  inhibited,  the  incipient 
tendencies  to  action  within  the  body  furnish  the  or- 
ganic basis  for  the  emotion.  Changes  in  breathing, 
in  the  heart-beat,  and  in  the  muscle  tensions  may 
be  very  pronounced  while  the  subject  remains 
outwardly  passive.  Often  this  restraint  and 
suppression  of  the  normal  activity  intensifies  the 
feeling.  In  the  more  primitive  states  of  religion 
action  is  more  direct  and  unrestrained.  The  emo- 
tional manifestations  are  therefore  more  obvious  to 
the  observer,  but  the  origin  and  character  of  the 
states  are  not  essentially  different  from  those  of 


more  developed  stages.  It  is  also  of  the  highest 
importance  to  note  the  heightening  of  emotion  in 
connection  with  the  elaboration  of  the  means 
employed  to  reach  a  desired  end.  In  hunthig,  the 
preparation  of  the  weapons,  lying  in  wait,  the  risk 
of  danger  and  the  persistent  uncertainty  of  the 
outcome  keep  the  nerves  on  the  stretch.  Among 
the  Zuni  Indians  when  the  dry  season  was  tmusually 
prolonged  the  rain  ceremonials  were  enacted  with 
corresponding  zest  and  carefulness.  Under  analo- 
gous circumstances,  as  in  times  of  pestilence  or 
war,  civilized  men  extend  their  ceremonies,  and 
their  heightened  emotion  enhances  the  value  of 
the  place  and  functions  of  reUgion.  Jane  Harrison 
and  Irving  King  have  set  forth  the  view  that  the 
sense  of  sacredness  arises  out  of  this  heightened 
emotion  derived  from  the  ceremony,  and  that  the 
spirits  and  deities  of  religion  have  their  origin  here. 
The  possibility  of  the  control  of  emotion  is  sug- 
gested by  these  phenomena  and  some  modern 
religions  have  hit  upon  devices  for  overcoming  fear 
and  worry  by  preventing  the  attitudes  and  tensions 
from  which  they  arise.  They  are  able  also  to 
induce  the  expansive,  hopeful  moods  by  appropriate 
discipUne.  Edward  S.  Ames 

EMPEROR-WORSHIP.— Worship    of    the 

emperor  was  a  prominent  item  in  the  religious 
history  of  the  Romans  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  Era.  The  custom  of  deifying 
rulers  both  during  their  life-time  and  after  their 
death  had  been  common  in  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean lands  since  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  thus  the  way  had  been  prepared  for  worship 
of  the  Roman  emperors  particularly  in  the  eastern 
provinces.  Even  before  the  inauguration  of  the 
imperial  regime  under  Augustus,  the  people  of 
the  East  had  rendered  divine  honors  to  certain 
Roman  officials  for  their  prominence  in  eastern 
affairs  and  had  deified  Rome's  power  in  the  form 
of  a  new  goddess  called  Roma.  This  tendency 
received  a  new  stimulus  under  Augustus.  In  the 
year  29  B.C.,  worship  of  him  was  formally  established 
at  Pergamum  and  at  Nicomedia.  From  this  time 
on  worship  of  emperors,  both  while  they  lived  and 
after  their  death,  continued  to  be  an  estabhshed 
institution  in  the  eastern  provinces. 

The  new  cult  made  less  rapid  progress  in  the 
West,  especially  within  the  city  of  Rome.  The 
Senate  unhesitatingly  approved  of  the  provincial's 
deification  of  either  living  or  dead  rulers  but 
restricted  the  worship  of  Roman  citizens  to  such 
deceased  individuals  as  had  been  officially  apotheo- 
sized by  senatorial  decree.  This  honor  was 
bestowed  upon  Julius  Caesar  on  January  first, 
42  B.C.,  and  only  in  exceptional  cases  was  it  with- 
held from  any  ruler  of  early  imperial  times.  As 
practiced  among  the  Romans  imperial  apotheosis 
undoubtedly  derived  its  impetus  very  largely  from 
the  oriental  custom  of  deifiying  rulers,  but  the 
Roman  notion  of  the  genius  of  the  emperor,  as  a 
kind  of  divine  double  capable  of  ascending  to 
heaven  after  the  death  of  the  individual,  furnished  a 
further  basis  for  the  custom.  It  is  noteworthy 
also  that  the  deified  emperor  became  a  divus,  not 
a  deus. 

Emperor- worship  was  a  fact  of  peculiar  signifi- 
cance for  the  early  history  of  Christianity.  Chris- 
tians' refusal  to  acknowledge  the  lordship  of  Caesar 
was  taken  as  evidence  of  disloyalty  to  the  govern- 
ment" and  inspired  some  severe  persecutions  on  the 
part  of  the  Roman  authorities.  S.  J.  Case 

EMPIRICISM. — A  philosophical  or  scientific 
method  requiring  all  theories  to  be  tested  by  or 
derived  from  experience.  It  is  thus  opposed  to  all 
forms  of  a  priori  authority. 


147 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Enlightenment,  Thd 


While  Greek  philosophy  sought  to  question 
experience,  the  fundamental  interest  was  in  a  uni- 
versal or  metaphysical  ultimate,  which  was  often 
contrasted  with  experience.  Thus  ancient  and 
mediaeval  thought  characteristically  employed 
super-empirical  norms,  either  in  the  form  of  innate 
ideas  or  of  transcendental  reaUty.  Modern  science 
reverses  this  emphasis.  Francis  Bacon,  who  urged 
an  unprejudiced  questioning  of  Nature,  and  John 
Locke,  who  taught  that  the  mind  is  a  blank  tablet 
upon  which  experience  writes,  are  the  forenmners  of 
empiricism. 

Early  empiricism  regarded  the  mind  as  a  mere 
recording  machine,  and  ultimately  broke  down  when 
confronted  with  the  fact  of  universal  judgments 
which  far  outrun  the  deliverances  of  actual  experi- 
ence. In  recent  times  Pragmatism  (q.v.)  has 
elaborated  the  conception  of  "radical  empiricism," 
which  abandons  the  copy-theory  of  knowledge,  and 
ceases  to  search  for  a  purely  "objective"  world. 
ReaUty  for  radical  empiricism  is  precisely  what  it 
is  experienced  as,  and  the  old  metaphysical  puzzles 
drop  away. 

The  significance  of  empiricism  in  religion  and 
ethics  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  ehminates  all  appeal 
to  extra-experiential  norms.  The  gods  of  reUgion 
exist  in  experience,  grow  with  experience,  and  dis- 
appear if  experience  can  no  longer  employ  them. 
The  norms  of  moral  conduct  must  be  determined 
by  asking  what  experience  declares  to  be  good. 
Since  traditional  theology  and  ethics  appeal  to 
transcendental  sanctions,  empiricism  has  produced 
ruthless  criticism,  and  has  generally  been  opposed. 
The  fact  that  modern  science  is  frankly  empirical 
creates  an  unfortunate  lack  of  sympathy  with  a  non- 
empirical  religion,  and  efforts  are  constantly  being 
made  to  employ  empiricism  more  radically  in  the 
realm  of  reUgion.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

EMS,  CONGRESS  OF.— A  conference  of 
representatives  from  four  German  archbishoprics, 
assembUng  in  Ems,  Prussia,  1786,  which  issued  the 
Punctuation  of  Ems,  a  protest  against  the  inter- 
ference of  the  pope  in  the  conduct  of  the  Cathohc 
Church  in  Germany.     See  Febronianism. 

EMULATION. — An  ambition  to  imitate  or 
equal  the  accompUshments  or  possessions  of  another; 
it  may  be  a  wholesome  incentive  to  worthy  aspira- 
tion, but  sometimes  degenerates  into  jealousy  and 
antagonism. 

ENCHANTMENT.— The  use  of  magical  or 
occult  instrumentalities  to  allure,  charm  or  influ- 
ence toward  a  specific  course  of  action.  See  Magic; 
Sorcery;  Charms. 

ENCRATITES.— Greek,  "self-discipUned" ;  the 
name  adopted  by  a  heretical  sect  of  Christians 
arising  in  the  2nd.  century,  who  practised  asceticism, 
believing  the  world  to  be  evil.  Most  of  them  held 
to  Gnostic  views  of  God  and  Christ. 

ENCYCLICAL. — An  epistle  designed  for  general 
circulation  and  dealing  with  ecclesiastical  matters, 
now  usually  restricted  to  such  documents  of  papal 
origin. 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA,  THEOLOGICAL. 

Theological  Encyclopaedia. 


-See 


ENCYCLOPEDISTS.— A  name  given  to  the 
principal  writers  of  the  celebrated  French  Encyclo- 
pedia— Encyclopedie  ou  Dictionnaire  raisonnd  des 
Sciences,  des  Arts,  et  des  Metiers  (1751-1780). 

The  work  was  edited  by  Diderot  and  d'Alembert 
in  collaboration  with  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Grimm, 


Holbach,  Montesquieu,  Turgot,  and  others,  and, 
in  the  supplement  (1776),  by  Haller  and  Condorcet. 
The  suggestion  for  the  undertaking  came  from 
Chambers'  Cyclopedia  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences, 
reinforced  by  the  conviction  that  the  time  was  ripe 
for  a  comprehensive  work  which  should  gather  all 
thought  and  knowledge.  The  writers  were  far 
more  _  interested  in  science,  art,  and  philosophy 
than  in  theology;  indeed  on  account  of  their  atti- 
tude toward  theology  and  the  church,  they  were 
fiercely  denounced  by  ecclesiastical  and  political 
authorities,  their  publication  repeatedly  suspended 
by  the  government,  and  articles  destined  for  the 
later  volumes  mutilated.  These  men  were,  how- 
ever, not  so  much  atheists  as  rationalistic  skeptics; 
their  animus  toward  the  Christian  religion  was 
directed,  one  may  say,  not  so  much  against  the 
Christianity  of  Jesus  and  the  New  Testament  as 
against  the  church  of  France  in  the  second  half  of 
the  18th.  century.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

ENDOGAMY. — ^A  marriage  rule  of  early  society 
which  made  it  necessary  for  a  man  to  find  his  mate 
within  his  own  social  group. 

ENDOWMENT.— (1)  A  talent  deemed  to  be 
a  donation  or  gift  from  nature  or  God.  See  Charis- 
mata. _  (2)  A  gift  of  property  or  money  to  be  used  in 
the  maintenance  of  an  institution,  as  the  endowment 
of  an  institution,  such  as  a  college  or  hospital. 

ENEMY. — The  original  significance  was  a 
stranger  or  aUen.  Gradually  the  idea  of  antago- 
nism became  attached,  in  many  cases  because  of  the 
disparate  morality  or  reUgion  of  the  aliens.  Ulti- 
mately the  word  came  to  mean  a  person  or  state  or 
force  regarded  as  antagonistic  and  harmful,  and 
subject  to  hostile  activity. 

ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF.— See  Church  of 
England. 

ENHYPOSTASIA.— Endowment  with  person- 
aUty  in  union  with  previously  existing  personaUty. 
The  term  is  specificaUy  appUed  to  the  union  of  the 
human  and  divine  natures  in  the  person  of  Christ. 

ENLIGHTENMENT,  THE.— A  term  describ- 
ing the  critical,  rationaUstic  philosophy  of  the  18th. 
century,  which  sought  complete  freedom  of  thinking. 

As  the  name  suggests,  the  EnUghtenment 
achieved  a  self-conscious  and  boasted  freedom  from 
the  superstitions  and  traditions  of  the  past,  beUev- 
ing  that  human  reason  had  found  its  own  power  to 
dispel  the  intellectual  gloom  of  human  Ufe.  In  the 
14th.  and  15th.  centuries  the  Renaissance  had  dis- 
covered in  ancient  culture  the  indigenous  greatness 
of  human  nature,  and  so  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
Uberation  of  the  human  spirit  from  the  thraldom  of 
authority;  in  the  16th.  century  the  Reformation  had 
achieved  the  Uberation  of  the  nationaUstic  spirit 
from  the  absolutism  of  Rome  as  well  as  that  of  the 
Christian  Scriptures  from  the  fetters  of  Latin  official- 
ism, and  thereby  secured  a  large  degree  of  freedom 
for  the  indiviaual  conscience;  and  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  17th.  century  had  achieved  a  degree 
of  poUtical  self-determination  as  over  against 
monarchical  absolutism  within  the  nation.  These 
widening  circles  of  human  Uberty  in  practical  and 
social  spheres  necessarily  gave  increasing  impetus 
to  philosophy,  and  we  find  the  growing  Ught  of  these 
centuries  caught  up  and  concentrated  in  several 
great  thinkers,  by  whom  the  spirit  of  the  new  age 
was  so  focussed  as  to  produce  the  "illumination"  of 
the  18th.  century.  In  England  the  initiator  of  the 
EnUghtenment  was  Locke;  in  France,  Voltaire; 
in  Germany,  Leibnitz. 


Enlil 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


148 


Locke's  influence  may  be  noted  particularly  in 
three  directions.  (1)  He  laid  the  foundations  of 
assodationism  in  psychology,  repudiating  the  con- 
ception of  innate  ideas  but  introducing  a  barrenness 
and  artificiality  from  which  psychology  has  with 
difficulty  escaped.  (2)  He  reinforced  the  founda- 
tions of  deism  in  theology,  a  movement  which  freed 
faith  from  credulousness,  but  revealed  ultimately  the 
barrenness  of  a  religion  that  appeals  only  to  the 
reason.  (3)  He  stimulated  that  reflection  on 
ethical  problems  which  culminated  in  Adam  Smith's 
Wealth  of  Nations,  which  served  to  discredit  the 
old  mercantile  system  which  followed  the  Middle 
Ages  and  to  deliver  the  individual  from  that  indus- 
trial serfdom;  though  it  remained  for  the  succeeding 
century  to  discover  the  barrenness  and  harmfulness 
of  the  atomistic  laissez  faire  theory  which  was  basic 
in  that  movement. 

In  France  the  Enlightenment  had  a  brief  and 
hectic  career,  stimulated  largely  by  Voltaire's 
interpretation  of  the  Lockian  ideas,  and  expressing 
itself  as  a  vehement  protest  against  oppression  of 
all  kinds^  and  against  traditionalism  in  all  spheres 
of  experience.  Voltaire's  influence  in  liberalizing 
France  was  immense,  though  his  social  theories  had 
the  Umitations  characteristic  of  the  Enlightenment. 
Believing  primarily  in  the  power  of  clear  reason,  he 
necessarily  mistrusted  the  ignorant  classes  and,  not 
conceiving  the  ideal  of  popular  education,  fell  far 
short  of  being  truly  democratic. 

In  Germany  the  genius  of  Leibnitz  produced  (and 
the  work  of  his  follower  Wolff  popularized)  a  com- 
placent type  of  philosophy,  in  which  this  "best  of  all 
possible  worlds"  is  shown  to  be  rational  through  and 
through,  a  "pre-estabUshed  harmony"  of  cosmic 
fact  and  divine  purpose.  The  ideal  of  human  effort 
is  shown  to  be  the  quest  of  rationality,  and  mathe- 
matical clearness  and  logical  consistency  are  the 
chief  norms  of  rationaUty.  This  philosophy  was  a 
tremendous  stimulus  to  the  intellectual  life  of  Ger- 
many, but  in  all  departments  there  developed  a 
great  superficiaUty  and  barrenness. 

The  supreme  value  of  the  Enlightenment  lay 
in  the  reaction  which  it  finally  provoked  and  the 
consequent  deepening  of  all  philosophy.  The  super- 
ficiaUty of  the  Enhghtenment  was  challenged  by 
Hume,  Rousseau  and  Kant  in  England,  France, 
and  Germany,  respectively.  A.  C.  Watson 

ENLIL. — A  storm  god  of  Sumerian  origin  who 
replaced  the  sun  god,  Ninib,  at  Nippur  in  ancient 
Babylonia  and  assumed  his  functions.  In  the 
great  triad  of  the  early  period  Enlil  is  given  authority 
over  the  earth  and  upper  air,  Anu,  the  heavens 
and  Ea,  the  waters. 

ENNEAD. — In  the  process  of  combination  of 
nomes  and  cities  in  ancient  Egypt  there  was  also 
a  grouping  of  the  local  gods.  The  triad  is  the 
commonest  form  but  several  groups  of  nine 
(enneads)  are  foimd  presided  over  by  the  chief 
god  of  the  city.  HeHopoUs,  the  great  center  of 
theological  speculation,  had  three  enneads. 

ENOCH,  BOOK  OF.— A  collection  of  pseudepi- 
graphic  writings  purporting  to  report  the  experi- 
ences and  revelations  made  to  Enoch  in  order  that 
he  might  prophesy  concerning  the  affairs  of  the 
Jews  in  the  last  century  B.C.  and  the  1st.  century 
A.D.  The  literature  belongs  to  this  period  and  Uke 
other  apocalypses  sets  forth  the  certain  triumph  of 
the  Jews  through  the  intervention  of  God  in  estab- 
hshing  their  kingdom  over  the  earth.  The  literature 
had  an  influence  upon  the  primitive  Christians  and 
is  a  very  valuable  source  of  knowledge  of  the  apoca- 
lyptic messianism  with  which  the  early  Christian 
movement  was  so  largely  identified.  See  Apoca- 
lyptic Literature;  Messiah. 


ENVIRONMENT.— In  biology,  the  sum  total 
of  all  conditions  to  which  living  plants  and  animals 
are  exposed.  It  is  made  up  of  innumerable  factors, 
so  that  as  yet  it  is  impossible  to  analyze  completely 
any  environment.  Biologists  are  beginning  to  recog- 
nize two  general  categories  of  environment,  external 
and  internal.  ^  External  environment  is  represented 
by  the  world  in  which  plants  and  animals  live,  the 
world  outside  of  their  own  bodies,  including  such 
conspicuous  factors  as  hght,  temperature,  water, 
food  supply,  other  animals  and  plants,  etc.  Organ- 
isms respond  to  these  factors  in  various  ways;  and 
changes  in  the  factors  of  environment  may  result  in 
changes  in  the  structure  of  the  organism.  Once  this 
was  thought  to  be  so  important  that  such  a  change 
might  result  in  a  new  species  (see  Evolution)  ;  at 
least  the  changes  are  sufficient  to  produce  individual 
variations  resulting  in  individuality,  so  complete 
that  no  two  individuals  are  exactly  ahke.  The 
science  which  deals  with  the  effects  of  external 
environment  is  called  Ecology.  Plant  Ecology,  for 
example,  deals  with  the  response  of  plants  as  indi- 
viduals to  their  environment,  and  also  with  the 
responses  of  plant  masses,  as  forests,  prairies,  etc. 
The  latter  aspect  is  really  plant  sociology.  Factors 
of  environment  are  not  independent  of  one  another, 
but  affect  organisms  in  combination.  For  example, 
other  things  being  equal,  a  combination  of  maximum 
water  and  maximum  temperature  results  in  a 
tropical  jungle;  while  a  combination  of  minimum 
water  and  maximum  temperature  results  in  a  desert. 

Internal  environment  includes  the  conditions 
within  the  body  but  external  to  the  living  substance 
(protoplasm).  This  is  the  immediate  environment 
in  which  the  protoplasm  must  live  and  work,  often 
spoken  of  as  the  "condition  of  the  body."  Internal 
environment  belongs  to  the  field  of  the  psychologist. 

John  M.  Coulter 

ENVIRONMENT  (SOCIAL) .—The  behavior 
of  animals  with  a  complex  nervous  system  and  a 
prolonged  immaturity  is  more  largely  determined 
by  environment  than  is  the  case  with  the  lower 
animals.  Thus  in  man  approximately  four-fifths  of 
the  growth  of  the  brain  takes  place  after  birth 
(in  the  ape  only  one-third),  while  infancy  in  man  is 
much  more  prolonged  in  relation  to  the  total  length 
of  life  than  in  any  other  animal.  This  gives  oppor- 
tunity for  the  formation  by  man  of  many  complex 
habits  of  behavior  not  obviously  predetermined  by 
heredity  or  instinct — in  other  words  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a  type  of  behavior  which  is  controlled  by 
experience  and  intelligently  formed  habits  rather 
than  by  mere  instinct.  From  a  strictly  scientific 
point  of  view  this  is  the  biological  basis  which  has 
enabled  man  to  build  up  "culture,"  or  civilization 
in  the  broadest  sense,  since  civilization  is  a  complex 
of  acquired  habits,  slowly  built  up  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  knowledge  and  standards,  and  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation  by  means  of  language, 
personal  example,  and  modifications  of  the  material 
environment. 

The  immense  importance  of  the  social  environ- 
ment for  understanding  the  behavior  of  civilized 
man  is  thus  evident.  While  all  men  are  born 
with  the  capacity  to  acquire  a  high  degree  of 
civiUzed  behavior,  the  difference  between  the  savage 
and  the  civilized  man  is  entirely  a  matter  of  social 
environment.  For  the  same  reason  sociologists 
hold  that  the  difference  between  the  most  anti- 
social or  immoral  conduct  and  the  most  moral  or 
socialized  conduct  is  due  to  the  social  environment 
of  the  individual,  if  we  bar  those  instances  where 
immoral  conduct  is  correlated  with  hereditary 
defects,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  manifestly 
abnormal  individuals. 

An  important  element  in  the  social  environment, 
often  overlooked  in  discussion,  is  socially  prevalent 


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Erastianism 


opinions,  beliefs,  ideals,  values,  standards.  These 
constitute  the  so-called  psychic  or  "subjective" 
environment,  and  their  continuity  is  the  basis  of 
the  process  of  socialization  and  civilization.  As 
civilized  man  lives  mainly  in  a  world  of  ideas  rather 
than  of  real  objects,  the  immense  importance  of  this 
phase  of  the  environment  for  civihzed  society  is 
evident.  "Our  real  environment,"  says  Cooley, 
"consists  of  those  images  which  are  most  present 
to  our  thoughts."  Approved  social  standards,  or 
the  mores,  are  especially  recognized  by  sociologists 
as  all-powerful  in  the  determination  of  group 
behavior. 

The  importance  of  the  social  environment  for 
human  behavior  and  the  formation  of  individual 
character  sheds  hght  on  the  problems  of  religion 
and  morals.  Manifestly  a  completely  Christian 
environment  seldom  or  never  exists  for  the  indi- 
vidual. It  is,  however,  evident  that,  if  the  pro- 
duction of  Christian  character  is  the  aim  of  religion, 
as  much  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  environment  in  a  Christian  direction  as 
to  the  individual  himself.    Charles  A.  Ellwood 

ENVY. — A  feeling  of  ill  will  toward  another 
because  of  the  desire  to  possess  what  he  does  or  to 
accomplish  what  he  has  accomplished,  inducing 
a  resentful  sense  of  the  other's  superiority  and  one's 
own  deficiency. 

EPHESUS,  COUNCIL  OF.— An  ecumenical 
council  which  assembled  at  Ephesus  in  431,  and 
excommunicated  Nestorius  (q.v.)  for  his  Christo- 
logical  heresy,  specifically  involving  his  opposition 
to  the  appellation  "Mother  of  God"  used  of  Mary. 
See  Councils  and  Synods. 

EPHESUS,  ROBBER  SYNOD  OF.— A  council 
of  130  bishops  which  assembled  at  Ephesus  in  449 
and  acquitted  Eutyches  (q.v.)  of  heresy.  The 
council  did  not  obtain  universal  recognition  by  the 
church. 

EPHOD. — A  priestly  vestment  worn  by  Hebrew 

priests.     See  Exod.  chap.  28. 

EPHRAEMI    RESCRIPTUS,    CODEX.— See 

Codex  Ephkaemi  Rescriptus. 

EPICLESIS  or  EPIKLESIS.— The  portion  of 
the  hturgical  prayer  used  in  the  ancient  church  and 
still  in  the  Eastern  church,  whereby  the  elements 
of  the  sacraments  (water,  bread,  wine,  and  oil)  are 
consecrated,  and  the  blessing  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on 
the  participants  is  invoked. 

EPICTETUS. — Greek  philosopher  of  the  Stoic 
school  (born  ca.  60  a.d.).  According  to  Epictetus, 
God  was  a  good  king  and  true  father  who  expresses 
his  purpose  in  nature  and  in  human  reason.  Men 
are  of  kindred  nature  with  God,  and  virtue  consists 
in  rational  Uving  in  which  common  human  welfare 
is  the  dominant  interest.     See  Stoicism. 

EPICUREANISM.— The  philosdphy  of  Epi- 
curus, chief  representative  of  hedonism  among 
the  Greeks.  Epicurus  (341-270  B.C.)  made  pleasure 
the  only  good,  pain  the  only  evil.  Pleasure  is  inter- 
preted negatively — "absence  of  pain  from  the  body 
and  trouble  from  the  mind."  It  is  also  pleasure 
for  life  as  a  whole,  not  for  the  passing  moment. 
Epicurus  championed  simplicity  and  temperance. 
"Give  me  barley  bread  and  water,"  he  exclaims, 
"and  I  will  vie  with  Zeus  in  happiness."  He 
grounded  his  moral  system  in  the  atomistic  material- 
ism of  Democritus,  which  offered  release  from  the 
fears  inspired  by  religion.     Death,  the  end  of  con- 


sciousness, is  not  to  be  feared,  for  while  we  are  pres- 
ent, death  is  absent,  and  when  death  is  present,  we 
are  not.  Epicureanism  had  an  unbroken  existence 
of  fully  six  centuries. 

Walter  Goodnow  Everett 
EPIPHANIUS  (ca.  320-403).— Bishop  of  Con- 
stantia  and  metropoUtan  of  Cyprus;  noted  for  his 
combination  of  profound  learning,  ascetic  piety,  and 
zeal  for  orthodoxy.  He  vigorously  opposed  Origen's 
teachings  as  the  source  of  all  heresies.  His  best 
known  work,  the  Panarion  or  "medicine-chest" 
deals  with  eighty  heresies,  and  is  the  main  extant 
source  of  information  concerning  some  obscure 
heresies. 

EPIPHANY.— (1)  A  manifestation  of  the  deity; 
apphed  to  certain  events  in  the  life  of  Christ,  such 
as  the  birth,  baptism,  the  appearance  of  star  to  the 
Magi,  and  certain  of  the  miracles.  (2)  The  festival 
celebrated  on  Jan.  6th.  in  commemoration  of  the 
visit  of  the  Magi.    See  Christmas. 

EPISCOPACY. — A  form  of  church  government 
in  which  supreme  authority  is  exercised  by  bishops. 
See  Bishop. 

EPISTEMOLOGY.— (Gr.  episteme+logos  =  sci- 
ence of  knowledge . )  The  department  of  philosophy 
which  is  concerned  with  the  nature  and  vaUdity  of 
the  process  of  knowledge.  The  epistemology  of 
religion  is  a  critical  study  of  the  validity  of  human 
knowledge  concerning  God  or  the  reUgious  object. 

EPISTLE. — A  written  communication  addressed 
to  a  person  or  group  of  persons  at  a  distance,  of  a 
more  formal  literary  form  than  a  letter;  an  impor- 
tant type  of  early  Christian  literature. 

EQUIPROBABILISM.— The  casuistic  theory 
that  when  two  differing  judgments  on  an  ethical 
question  are  equally  defensible,  the  individual  is 
morally  free  to  choose  either.     See  Casuistry. 

EQUITY. — Ethically,  the  appUcation  of  the 
principle  of  equaUty,  fair  play  or  justice;  legally, 
a  system  of  technical  procedure  designed  to  modify  or 
supplement  the  common  law  in  the  interests  of  jus- 
tice and  the  moderation  of  rigor. 

EQUIVOCATION.— The  use  of  terms  which 
have  a  double  meaning  or  are  ambiguous,  usually 
with  the  intent  to  deceive — an  action  defended  by 
certain  casuistic  moralists.    See  Lying;  Casuistry. 

ERA. — A  means  of  reckoning  the  chronology  of 
events,  the  basis  being  a  reckoning  from  some  his- 
torical event  or  fixed  point  of  time.  Thus  the  Chris- 
tian era  is  popularly  regarded  as  beginning  with  the 
birth  of  Jesus  Christ;  the  Mohammedan  era  from 
voluntary  exile  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca,  etc. 

ERASMUS,  DESIDERIUS  (1466-1536).— Of 
Dutch  parentage,  trained  for  the  priesthood,  through 
his  acquaintance  with  Colet  and  More  he  became  a 
man  of  letters.  He  rendered  significant  service  in 
editing  and  translating  several  of  the  Fathers,  also 
a  Greek  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  and  a 
paraphrase  in  the  Latin.  Critical  of  the  clergy  for 
iUiteracy  and  immoraUty  and  of  the  Reformers  for 
imprudence  and  dogmatism  he  advocated  general 
enlightenment,  the  exercise  of  tolerance,  and  the 
restriction  of  dogma.  Extensive  travel,  the  patron- 
age of  princes,  and  wide  learning  gave  him  world 
renown.     See  Humanism.  P.  G.  Mode 

ERASTIANISM. — A  system  advocating  extreme 
subservience  of  the  Church  to  the  State. 


£rigena,  John  Scotus 


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150 


This  system  derived  its  name  from  the  Latinized 
spelling  of  Thomas  Liiber  (1524-1583),  a  medical 
professor  in  Heidelberg  ardently  devoted  to  Zwingli- 
anism,  in  defense  of  which  he  wrote  (1565)  Seventy- 
five  Theses,  an  elaborate  discussion  of  ecclesiastical 
polity.  "I  see  no  reason  why  the  Christian  magis- 
trate at  the  present  day  should  not  possess  the  same 
power  which  God  commanded  the  magistrate  to 

exercise  in  the  Jewish  commonwealth The 

magistrate  ought  to  consult,  when  doctrine  is  con- 
cerned, those  who  have  particularly  studied  it,  but 
that  there  should  be  any  ecclesiastical  tribunal  to 
take  cognizance  of  men's  conduct,  we  find  no  such 
thing  anyTvhere  appointed  in  the  Holy  Scripture." 
These  opinions,  while  never  promulgated  by  any 
organized  following,  exerted  considerable  influence 
in  Germany  and  notably  in  the  EstabUshed  Church 
of  England.  P.  G.  Mode 

ERIGENA,  JOHN  SCOTUS  (ca.  800-ca.  877).— 
Irish  mediaeval  philosopher  and  theologian,  to 
whom  philosophy  or  reason  is  primary  and  reUgion 
or  authority  is  secondary,  although  in  some  works 
he  identifies  philosophy  and  religion.  He  regarded 
the  world  as  a  rational  manifestation  of  God. 
Erigena  did  not  deal  with  matters  of  dogma,  and 
stood  midway  between  Neo-Platonism  and  Scholas- 
ticism. 

ERLANGEN  SCHOOL.— A  group  of  German 
theologians  at  the  University  of  Erlangen  who 
developed  a  type  of  theology  based  on  the  facts 
of  evangeUcal  religious  experience  rather  than 
on  external  authority.  The  most  influential  men 
of  this  school  were  J.  C.  K.  Hoffman  (1800-1877), 
Gottfried  Thomasius  (1802-1875),  and  F.  H.  R. 
Frank  (1827-1894). 

ERSKINE,  EBENEZER  (1680-1754).— Scot- 
tish divine,  a  noted  preacher  in  his  day,  and  the 
leader  in  founding  the  Scottish  Secession  church  in 
1733. 

ERSKINE,  THOMAS  (1788-1870).— Scottish 
lawyer,  who  interpreted  Christian  doctrine  in  vital 
terms  over  against  the  rigid  Calvinism  of  his  day 
and  exercised  wide  influence. 

ESCHATOLOGY.— Doctrine  as  to  the  "last 
things,"  i.e.,  the  end  of  the  present  order  on  the 
earth  and  the  estabUshment  of  that  of  eternity. 

Eschatological  behefs  obviously  include  those 
concerning  life  after  death,  but  as  these  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  article  Future  Life,  Conceptions 
OP  (q.v.)  we  shall  consider  here  the  more  general 
expectations  involved  in  the  succession  of  one 
age  to  another. 

1.  ESCHATOLOGIES  OF  NON-BIBLICAL  RELIGIONS. 

— 1.  It  is  only  by  accommodation  that  we  can 
speak  of  the  eschatology  of  primitive  peoples. 
While  it  is  true  that  many  such  peoples  expect 
some  sort  of  catastrophe  (by  fire,  water,  earthquake), 
as  cosmic  as  their  intellectual  development  suggests, 
will  wind  up  the  present  age,  only  in  rare  instances 
does  this  belief  involve  any  program.  Further  it 
is  often  possible  that  such  behefs  as  pass  beyond 
a  general  expectation  of  such  catastrophe  may  be 
due  to  the  untraceable  influence  of  Christianity. 
Where  such  influence  is  precluded,  the  expectation 
involves  httle  more  than  a  Happy  Hunting  Ground 
or  retribution  for  sins.  In  a  few  instances  there  is 
found  the  expectation  of  a  new  peopling  of  the  earth 
by  those  who,  because  of  their  virtue,  have  survived 
the  catastrophe.  Closely  associated  with  such 
behefs  are  primitive  conceptions  of  life  after  death. 

2.  In  Greek  and  Roman  religion  the  dead  people 
an  underworld  where  some  form  of  social  order  is 


maintained.  The  activities  of  the  dead  are  repro- 
ductions of  their  physical  habits.  The  influence 
of  the  mysteries  is  seen  in  the  more  complete  organi- 
zation of  this  life  of  the  shades  in  conditions  set  by 
a  judgment  held  by  divine  or  semi-divine  beings. 
In  the  Orphic  teachings  the  status  of  the  dead  was 
related  to  cycles,  sometimes  a  thousand  years  in 
length.  In  Platonic  teaching  there  is  no  such 
definiteness  of  duration  of  the  cycle  and  a  reversal 
of  the  cosmic  order  is  expected.  The  Stoics  taught 
that  the  present  cycle  (see  Cycle)  would  terminate 
with  a  world-conflagration. 

3.  In  the  Hindu  thought  there  were  to  be  four 
ages  totaling  millions  of  years  in  length.  At  the  end 
of  100  such  periods  (which  form  a  kalpa)  the 
world  was  to  be  cleansed  with  fire  and  water,  the 
virtuous  and  the  good  were  to  be  absorbed  in 
Brahma  who  after  sleeping  a  kalpa  would  recreate 
the  world.  The  process  of  transmigration  (q.v.) 
would  then  begin  anew  except  in  the  case  of  those 
who  had  desired  complete  absorption  in  Absolute 
Being.  In  popular  Buddhism  this  succession  of 
kalpas  survives  but  is  enlarged  with  the  expectation 
of  a  judgment  and  hell.  In  Japan,  Amida  Budd- 
hism has  emphasized  salvation  into  a  Western 
Paradise,  but  has  not  developed  any  eschatological 
system.  Other  types  of  Buddhism  in  Japan  have 
conventional  Buddhistic  eschatology. 

4.  In  Parsi  teaching  is  a  clear  presentation  of  a 
judgment  for  the  dead,  a  Paradise  for  the  good  and 
a  hell  for  the  wicked.  A  more  systematic  escha- 
tology appears  in  Persian  teaching  that  the  world 
period  is  12,000  years  broken  into  four  ages  each 
3,000  years  in  duration,  in  the  last  of  which  we  now 
live.  A  striking  parallel  to  Jewish  eschatology 
is  seen  in  the  appearance  of  Zarathustra  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  period,  a  thousand  years  of  evil 
culminating  in  reform,  a  final  millennium  in  which 
a  new  deity,  Hushetar-mah  is  born.  The  struggle 
between  good  and  evil  grows  more  intense  as  the 
Serpent  is  freed  but  ends  with  the  destruction  of 
the  latter  and  the  appearance  of  the  Savior  Soshy- 
ans.  He  conquers  evil,  brings  about  a  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  and  in  a  great  judgment  fixes 
the  conditions  of  eternity  by  passing  all  living  things 
through  a  sea  of  molten  metal.  In  its  heat  all 
traces  of  sin  are  to  be  removed. 

5.  Babylonian  eschatology  does  not  reach  the 
full  system  found  in  Indian  literature.  It  forms  the 
background  of  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  where  the  state 
of  the  dead  in  the  underworld  and  the  relations  of 
this  life  to  the  future  are  described  at  length.  The 
succession  of  ages,  however,  is  not  prominent  but 
an  imderworld  life  for  the  dead  is  described  and 
the  dehverance  of  the  righteous  from  the  evil 
powers  is  promised.  , 

6.  The  eschatologies  of  other  non-biblical  reli- 
gions, e.g.,  the  Egyptian,  are  less  concerned  with 
ages  and  world  orders  and  can  be  best  treated  as 
aspects  of  their  teachings  as  to  the  future  life. 
The  original  reUgions  of  China  and  Japan  are 
naturahstic  and  lack  genuine  eschatological  ele- 
ments. 

II.  Eschatologies  of  Biblical  Religions. — 
1.  In  the  Hebrew  religion  eschatology  is  absent. 
While  belief  in  life  in  Sheol  was  present,  the  suc- 
cessive periods  and  judgment  were  those  of  the 
nation.  The  Day  of  Yahweh  was  to  be  marked  by 
the  punishment  of  Israel's  enemies,  and,  in  later 
prophets,  by  that  of  the  unrighteous  Hebrews  by 
natural  catastrophes  and  wars. 

2.  In  Judaism  eschatological  teachings  are 
increasingly  important.  The  apocalyptic  literature 
(q.v.)  develops  the  Day  of  Yahweh  into  an 
elaborate  program  of  vengeance  and  dehverance, 
the  messianic  hope.  At  the  same  time  there  is 
nothing  which  can  be  recognized  as  a  universal 


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Established  Churches 


and  orthodox  formula.  The  central  hopes  are  the 
dehverance  of  Israel  and  the  punishment  of 
the  enemies  of  Yahweh  and  his  people  usually  by  the 
Messiah  (q.v.).  Just  how  far  these  expectations 
were  derived  from  Persian  sources  is  still  under 
investigation  though  the  general  tendency  is  to 
find  their  chief  origins  in  ancient  Semitic  behefs. 

While  the  eschato logical  views  both  of  the 
apocalyptists  and  of  the  masses  show  individual 
characteristics,  their  general  content  may  be  said 
to  constitute  an  interpretation  of  history  as  involv- 
ing God's  presence  and  the  consequent  triumph  of 
righteousness.  In  particular  this  view  includes: 
(1)  Two  ages:  "this  age"  under  the  control  of 
Satan  and  the  coming  age  under  the  control  of 
God.  In  one  is  the  kingdom  of  Satan  and  in  the 
other  the  kingdom  of  God.  (2)  The  introduction 
of  the  "coming  age"  (the  messianic)  by  catastrophe, 
which  sometimes  is  developed  into  a  struggle 
between  God's  representative  (usually  the  Messiah) 
and  his  enemies,  e.g.,  Satan,  Dragon,  Anti-Christ 
(q.v.),  Beast  (q.v.).  (3)  The  judgment  by  God 
or  the  Messiah  which  is  sometimes  identified 
with  the  catastrophe.  (4)  The  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God,  as  a  renewed  Jewish  people. 
(5)  The  resurrection,  certainly  of  the  righteous 
Jews.  In  some  cases  two  resurrections  were 
expected,  one  preceding  and  the  other  closing  the 
strictly  messianic  reign.  (6)  The  Messiah,  i.e  ,  the 
one  empowered  by  God's  resident  spirit  to  punish 
His  enemies  and  establish  His  kingdom.  The  com- 
ing of  Elijah  was  increasingly  expected  to  precede 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  _  Modern  Judaism 
tends  to  refine  this  eschatology  into  a  general  doc- 
trine of  the  future  life.    See  Reform  Judaism. 

3.  Christian  eschatology  is  essentially  the  same 
as  the  Jewish,  but  with  the  following  modifications: 

(1)  Jesus  is  the  Messiah  but  his  messianic  activity 
is  threefold  in  that  during  his  earthly  life  he 
suffered  and  died  in  behalf  of  his  kingdom;  in  his 
heavenly  life  he  rules  and  directs  his  church  through 
the  Holy  Spirit;  and  only  on  his  return  (see 
Parousia)  will  he  carry  out  the  full  messianic 
program  as  held  by  the  Jews  of  N.T.  times.  He  will 
then  judge  the  living  and  the  dead  (who  have  been 
raised)  sending  the  wicked  to  hell  and  welcoming 
the  righteous  to  heaven.  Christian  theologies  have 
varied  as  to  the  details  of  this  consummation  of 
the  age,  some  foretelhng  an  earthly  kingdona,  some 
expecting  a  thousand  years  of  peace  culminating 
in  the  final  victory  of  Christ  over  Satan.  Orthodox 
theologies  as  represented  in  the  creeds  and  confes- 
sions have,  however,  rejected  Chiliaism  and  describe 
the  future  kingdom  as  in  heaven  where  the  redeemed 
will  live  in  enjoyment  of  their  resurrection-bodies 
and  eternal  bUss.  The  transition  from  the  early 
Christian  belief  in  the  immediate  return  of  Christ  to 
establish  his  kingdom  to  the  expectation  of  a  salva- 
tion in  heaven  and  the  delayed  return  of  Christ, 
was  accomplished  after  the  3rd.  century  and  par- 
ticularly was  formulated  in  the  exposition  of  the 
divine  program  for  humanity  by  Augustine  in  his 
City  of  God. 

Modem  Christian  theology  tends  to  disregard  the 
detailed  eschatology  of  the  N.T.,  finding  in  it 
the  figurative  exposition  of  spiritual  truths  in  the 
thought  forms  of  Judaism.  This  interpretation 
grows  the  more  tenable  as  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
concerning  the  kingdom  of  God  and  his  messianic 
office  is  more  thoroughly  studied.  The  fundamental 
verities  of  eschatology  may  be  stated  as  (1)  the 
presence  of  God  in  history  assuring  the  triumph  of 
righteousness  as  the  end  of  the  historical  process; 

(2)  Jesus  as  the  revealer  of  the  divine  will  and 
character  as  that  of  a  loving  and  saving  Father; 

(3)  social  progress  under  divine  guidance  toward 
larger  justice  and  brotherliness;    (4)  full  personal 


immortality  as  the  goal  of  a  completed  individuality 
governed  by  the  ideals. 

4.  Mohammedan  eschatology  is  also  a  develop- 
ment of  Jewish  but  without  the  spiritual  quality 
given  the  Christian  hope  by  Jesus  Christ.  In  it 
Paradise  and  hell  are  pictured  sensuously  though 
not  without  ethical  elements.  It  shows  these 
stages  in  its  development:  (1)  the  original  escha- 
tology of  Mohammed;  (2)  that  of  the  Sunna;  (3)  the 
more  refined  views  of  later  sects,  particularly 
the  Shi'ites  and  mystics.  See  Age;  Future  Life, 
Conceptions  of;  Cycle;  Judgment;  Kingdom  op 
God;  Millenarianism;  Messiah;  Resurrection. 

Shailer  Mathews 

ESDRAS,  books  of.— There  are  in  all  six 
books  bearing  the  name  of  Esdras.  The  best- 
known  of  these  are  the  Apocryphal  I  and  II  Esdras. 
I  Esdras  arose  late  in  the  4th.  century  b.c.  and  in- 
cludes II  Chron.  35:1 — 36:21,  with  paraphrases  of 
much  of  the  Hebrew  Ezra  in  a  different  arrange- 
ment of  chapters  and  of  Neh.,  chap.  8,  plus  a 
section  of  new  material  in  I  Esdras  3 : 1 — 5 : 6.  The 
Greek  translation  was  probably  made  about  the 
middle  of  the  2nd.  century  B.C.  II  Esdras  is  in 
Latin  and  was  written  probably  about  100  a.d.  It 
is  a  Jewish  apocalypse  that  received  some  modifi- 
cation at  the  hands  of  Christians. 

ESKIMOS  or  ESQUIMAUX,  RELIGION  OF.— 

Aborigines  of  Arctic  N.  America,  inhabiting  Green- 
land, N.  Newfoundland,  Alaska,  Labrador  and  the 
islands  of  the  Arctic,  the  Eskimos  are  peaceable, 
truthful  and  faithful,  but  have  a  low  standard  of 
domestic  relations.  Their  religion  is  animistic,  the 
chief  deities  being  Tornassuk  who  rules  over  the 
beneficent  spirits,  Sedna,  the  old  woman  in  the  sea 
who  controls  the  food  supply,  and  Aningahk,  the 
moon,  who  is  a  hunter.  Russian,  Danish  and 
Moravian  missionaries  have  labored  among  the 
Eskimos  of  Greenland,  Labrador  and  Alaska  with 
good  success. 

ESSENCE. — The  real  character  or  nature  of 
a  thing  within  which  its  attributes  inhere.  The 
Greek  Fathers  used  the  words  ousia  and  hypostasis 
for  the  essence  of  God,  and  the  4th.  century  Christo- 
logical  controversy  debated  the  question  of  whether 
the  Son  was  of  the  same  essence  Qiomoousios)  as  the 
Father,  or  of  similar  essence  {homoiousios)  to  the 
Father. 

ESSENES. — A  Jewish  pietistic  monastic  sect 
existing  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  prac- 
ticing communism,  celibacy,  and  a  rigorous  manner 
of  life.  They  renounced  animal  sacrifices,  held  to 
immortahty  with  future  rewards  and  punishments, 
engaged  zealously  in  works  of  mercy  and  charity, 
and  maintained  a  strict  community  discipline. 
Many  of  their  ideals  appear  in  early  Christianity. 

ESTABLISHMENT  or  ESTABLISHED 
CHURCHES. — The  church  organization  authorized 
and  supported  by  a  State. 

The  effect  of  the  Reformation  was  to  establish 
a  number  of  state  churches.  As  these  were  sup- 
ported by  taxes  levied  by  the  state  the  appoint- 
ment to  the  pastoral  positions  was  largely  in  the 
hands  of  pohtical  authorities.  Many  of  the  privi- 
leges enjoyed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  were 
enjoyed  by  the  clergy  of  these  estabUshed  churches. 
As  pohtical  organization  has  become  more  demo- 
cratic and  free  churches  have  increased  in  number 
and  influence,  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  give 
rights  to  separatist  groups,  and  in  most  countries, 
with  the  exception  of  England,  the  church  has  been 
disestabUshed. 


Eternally-Begotten 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


152 


ETERNALLY-BEGOTTEN.— A  phrase  used  by 
Origen  in  description  of  the  Logos,  and  which  later 
theology  ascribed  to  the  Son.  The  purpose  was  to 
show  that  Christ  was  eternally  pre-existent  and  yet 
subordinate  to  the  Father. 

ETERNITY.— (1)  Infinite  duration,  without 
beginning  or  end,  and  independent  of  time,  as  when 
used  of  the  existence  of  God.  (2)  Existence  which 
has  a  beginning  in  time,  but  is  unending,  as  is  used 
of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  (3)  In  philosophy, 
that  which  is  supertemporal,  i.e.,  is  neither  related 
to  nor  limited  by  time,  so  used  of  the  Absolute  by 
some  writers. 

ETHICAL    CULTURE,    SOCIETIES    FOR.— 

Organizations  chiefly  in  the  U.S.  and  England  to 
promote  a  spiritual  life  based  on  ethical  principles, 
in  contrast  to  the  theological  foundations  of  churches. 

The  Ethical  Culture  movement  was  organized 
in  1876  in  New  York  City  by  Dr.  FeUx  Adler,  son  of 
a  distinguished  rabbi  and  lecturer  in  the  Semitic 
languages  at  Cornell  University.  The  purpose  of 
the  new  society  was  to  elevate  the  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice of  ethics  to  the  position  of  supremacy  in  men's 
philosophy  and  conduct  of  hfe,  and  to  free  ethics 
from^  dependence  on  the  supernatural  dogmas  of 
Judaism  and  Christianity.  The  New  York  society 
now  has  a  membership  of  1,200,  while  apostles  of  the 
movement  have  gone  forth,  under  the  founder's 
inspiration  to  estabhsh  societies  in  Chicago  (1883), 
Philadelphia  (1885),  St.  Louis  (1886),  London 
(1886),  and  Brooklyn  (1906).  The  ethical  move- 
ment has  spread  also  to  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
even  to  the  Orient,  societies  either  directly  con- 
nected with  the  movement  or  in  closest  sympathy 
with  it  existing  in  Berlin  and  a  dozen  other  German 
centers,  in  Vienna,  Venice,  Zurich,  Lausanne,  Paris, 
and  Tokyo.  International  congresses,  pledged  to 
work  for  the  social  and  moral  betterment  of  the 
wage-earner,  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition 
of  women  in  industry,  for  moral  education  in  the 
schools,  for  the  eUmination  of  national  egotisms 
and  rivalries,  which  hinder  the  advent  of  world 
peace,  have  been  held  at  Zurich  (1896),  Eisenach 
(1906),  London  (1908),  and  the  Hague  (1902)— 
the  last  two  devoted  especially  to  the  subject  of 
moral  education. 

The  activities  of  the  societies  for  Ethical  Culture 
in  America  may  be  summed  up  under  three  heads: 
social  relief,  education,  and  moral  exhortation. 
The  Hudson  Guild,  under  the  management  of  Dr. 
Adler's  first  assistant.  Dr.  John  L.  ElUott,  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  active  social  settlements 
in  New  York.  The  Madison  House  on  the  lower 
East  Side  of  New  York,  Southwark  House  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  Henry  Booth  House  in  Chicago  are 
other  settlements.  One  of  the  earUest  activities  of 
the  Society  in  New  York  was  the  organization  of 
a  system  of  district  nursing  for  the  poor.  The 
women  of  the  society  have  been  very  active  in  relief 
work,  co-ordinating  practical  measures  with  the 
constant  study  of  ethical  principles  in  the  meetings 
of  their  Women's  Conference.  The  Manhattan 
Trade  School  for  girls  is  one  of  their  early  founda- 
tions. A  recent  development  in  the  society's  work 
has  been  the  formation  of  vocational  groups  (busi- 
ness men,  lawyers,  physicians)  to  study  the  applica- 
tion of  ethical  principles  to  their  profession. 

The  founder  of  the  movement  has  insisted  that 
ethics  is  a  matter  of  Ufe-long  education,  therefore 
at  the  very  basis  of  his  system  hes  the  School. 
The  Ethical  Culture  School,  founded  on  Froebelian 
.principles  of  education,  has  grown  from  modest 
beginnings,  forty  years  ago,  adding  kindergarten 
(the  first  in  America),  normal,  and  high  school 
departments,  and  now  contains  some  700  pupils. 


Recently  an  Arts  High  School  has  been  added, 
which,  besides  technical  instruction  in  art,  includes 
courses  in  history,  science,  and  literature  presented 
in  their  bearing  on  art.  The  distinctive  features 
of  the  school  are  its  democratic  spirit  and  the  ethical 
emphasis  in  all  its  teaching. 

Though  not  a  church  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  with  clergy,  creed,  and  liturgy,  the  Society 
for  Ethical  Culture  nevertheless  puts  its  main 
emphasis,  as  the  churches  do,  on  preaching  a  religion, 
pursuing  an  infinite,  though  not  a  mystical  or  super- 
natural, ideal.  It  sees  in  the  classification  and 
progressive  appropriation  of  moral  aims  a  never 
ending  duty,  whose  compulsion  hes  in  its  very 
apprehension,  without  need  of  supernatural  sanc- 
tions, promise  of  reward,  or  threat  of  punishment. 
Ethics  is  Ufted  to  the  supreme  position  in  man's 
hfe,  not  a  corollary  and  consequence  of  certain 
revealed  dogmas^  but  itself  the  source  of  man's 
religious  disposition  and  beliefs,  as  of  all  his  other 
mental  and  moral  choices.  Since  knowledge  of 
one's  duty  is  the  most  difficult  and  delicate  question 
in  the  world,  it  needs  all  the  light  which  the  philoso- 
phies, religions,  literature,  and  history  of  past  ages 
can  throw  on  it. 

The  Ethical  Societies  in  America  today  number 
about  2,500  members.  D.  S.  Muzzey 

ETHICS. — The  science,  or  philosophy,  or 
more  modestly,  the  study  of  moral  conduct.  By 
moral  conduct  in  turn  is  meant  conduct  regarded  as 
right  or  wrong,  or  as  what  "ought"  or  "ought  not" 
to  be  done;  or  as  involving  deliberation  and  choice 
between  ends  viewed  as  "good." 

1.  Generaij  Division  op  the  Field. — The 
more  important  problems  of  ethics  are:  1.  The 
origins  and  development  of  moral  conduct;  this 
in  turn  may  take  (a)  the  psychological  path  of  a 
study  of  instinct,  emotion,  purpose,  desire,  will,  or 
(6)  the  sociological  lines  of  considering  the  mores 
and  economic,  political,  social,  and  rehgious  condi- 
tions which  have  given  rise  to  ideals. 

2.  Examination  (1)  of  the  nature  or  peculiar 
character  and  meaning  of  the  moral,  that  is  of  the 
"right,"  "ought,"  "good";  (2)  of  the  "moral 
faculty,"  i.e.,  of  how  we  arrive  at  moral  judgments, 
e.g.,  whether  by  "intuition,"  or  by  estimating 
results;  (3)  of  the  claims  of  various  kinds  of  experi- 
ence, actual  or  imagined,  to  be  considered  good,  such 
as  pleasure,  virtue,  power,  self-expression,  self- 
reahzation;  (4)  of  freedom  of  the  will. 

This  examination  may  view  conduct  in  (a)  a 
"jural"  way,  as  right  or  wrong,  as  in  accord  or  not 
with  duty  or  what  "ought  to  be  done,"  involving 
questions  of  authority  of  the  moral  law,  criterion 
for  what  is  right,  motive  for  doing  duty,  and  means 
of  discovering  duty;  or  (6)  from  the  point  of  view 
of  "value,"  as  to  the  meaning  of  good,  and  the  rela- 
tive value  of  goods,  involving  questions  as  to  the 
nature  and  formation  of  ideals,  the  various  virtues, 
or  types  of  good  character,  the  relation  of  the 
morally  good  to  the  useful,  the  pleasant,  the  beauti- 
ful, and  leading  with  some  writers  to  theories 
concerning  the  ultimate  nature  of  reality,  and  the 
existence  of  evil. 

3.  Study  and  criticism  of  (1)  individual  acts  as 
to  whether  they  are  right  or  wrong,  or  of  proposed 
courses  of  action — casuistry;  (2)  of  individual  or 
national  character;  (3)  social,  economic,  pohtical, 
family,  and  religious  institutions  as  to  their  value 
morally. 

This  article  will  consider  chiefly  the  theories 
falling  under  2.  For  3  see  Capitalism,  Ethics  of; 
Labor  Movement,  Ethics  of;  Politics,  Ethics 
of;   Justice;   Social  Ethics. 

II.  Oriental  Ethics. — Oriental  peoples  devel- 
oped their  moral  codes  in  most  cases  in  close  con- 


153 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Ethics 


nection  with  their  religion.  Certain  ethical  con- 
ceptions were  given  clear  statement  and  moral 
teachings  were  given  systematic  form.  The  domi- 
nant note  is  practical  rather  than  scientific.  Thus 
in  Egypt  the  concept  justice  emerged  at  a  very 
early  period,  in  connection  with  the  justification  of  a 
mortal  before  the  judgment  seat  of  Osiris,  and  is 
given  social  setting  in  the  Tale  of  the  Eloquent 
Peasant  in  which  the  figure  of  the  balance  or  scale 
is  introduced.  The  Book  of  the  Dead  recognizes 
wrongs  against  person,  property,  and  sexual  purity, 
and  gives  prominence  to  kindliness,  truthfulness, 
and  honesty.  Hammurabi's  code  shows  the  con- 
ception of  exact  requital.  Persia  was  notable  for 
the  sharp  opposition  it  set  between  good  and  evil, 
tracing  them  to  independent  principles  or  powers. 
India's  central  conception  was  Karma,  the  deed 
persisting  as  a  determining  series  or  system  of 
causation  and  retribution  through  successive 
rebirths.  The  problem  was  how  to  escape  this 
unending  chain  of  consequence  and  necessity. 
Brahmanism  sought  relief  through  metaphysical 
paths  such  as  merging  individuality  in  the  universal 
self;  Buddhism  insisted  on  the  ethical  path  of 
attacking  the  root  of  individuality,  namely  egotistic 
desire.  This  attack  is  to  be  made  by  moral  dis- 
ciplinCj  the  Eightfold  Path,  and  the  goal  in  char- 
acter IS  holiness;  in  the  extinction  of  egotistic 
desire  and  emancipation  from  karma  it  is  nirvana. 
In  China  Lao  Tse  sought  a  norm  for  conduct  in  the 
conception  of  Tao — the  Way,  or  course  of  nature, 
which  is  characterized  by  unity,  harmony,  repose, 
with  no  personal  display.  Confucius  (b.  551  b.c.) 
K'ung  Fu-tsu,  likewise  was  impressed  with  the 
order  displayed  in  nature  and  human  nature.  The 
path  of  moral  education  must  begin  with  knowledge 
and  proceed,  through  enlightenment  and  sincerity 
of  mind,  to  rectify  the  heart,  and  thus  to  cultivate 
the  person,  and  then  to  order  well  family  and  state. 
The  fundamental  relations  for  him  were  those  of 
sovereign  and  subject,  father  and  son,  elder  and 
younger  brother,  husband  and  wife,  friend  and 
friend,  and  the  fundamental  rule  was  that  of 
Reciprocity.  Do  not  unto  others  what  you  would 
not  nave  done  to  you.  For  Hebrew  ideals  see 
Israel,  Religion  of. 

III.  Greek  and  Roman  Ethics. — Greek  reflec- 
tion upon  standards  and  values  began  in  the  5th. 
century  B.C.  with  the  general  unsettling  of  tra- 
ditional codes.  Religion,  as  represented  in  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  no  longer  had  its  old  authority,  and 
its  morals  offended  the  ideals  of  the  day.  Politics 
gave  examples  of  the  doctrine  that  might  is  right, 
and  that  justice  is  merely  what  the  ruler  declares  to 
be  law — for  his  own  interest.  Impatience  at  the 
restraints  laid  by  laws  upon  radical  or  individualistic 
endeavor  expressed  itself  in  a  challenge  to  laws  and 
institutions  to  justify  themselves.  They  were  called 
conventions  and  were  opposed  to  "nature." 
Increasing  opportunities  for  careers  appealing  to 
love  of  power  and  love  of  gain  stimulated  reflection 
upon  what  constitutes  real  good.  Conflicts  between 
classes  led  to  contrasts  between  the  will  of  the 
multitudes  swayed  by  passion,  or  seeming  advan- 
tage, and  the  wisdom  of  the  few  who  think.  Con- 
demnation of  Socrates  by  a  popular  assembly — 
even  though  it  was  on  complaint  of  the  conservatives 
of  the  day — served  as  conclusive  proof  to  Plato 
of  the  incapacity  of  "the  many"  to  judge  wisely. 
Socrates  began  systematic  inquiry  into  what  is  meant 
by  good.  In  view  of  the  varying  portrayals  of 
him  by  Xenophon  and  Plato,  and  of  the  extent 
to  which  Cynics  and  Cyrenaics  alike  claimed  to  be 
his  disciples,  it  is  necessary  to  be  cautious  in 
attributing  positive  doctrines  to  him,  yet  it  seems 
clear  that  he  emphasized  the  duty  of  examining 
life,  and  the  value  of  knowledge,  or  wisdoiji.     His 


great  service  was  in  this  insistence  upon  inquiry 
and  upon  what  was  the  germ  of  one  aspect  of 
scientific  method — the  effort  to  generalize,  or  to 
seek  the  common  factor  in  various  cases. 

In  answer  to  the  question:  What  does  wisdom 
teach  as  to  the  good,  three  typical  answers  came. 
Cyrenaics,  headed  by  Aristippus  of  Cyrene,  declared 
for  pleasure  intense,  permanent;  Cynics,  among 
whom  Antisthenes  and  Diogenes  were  famous,  held 
on  the  contrary  that  the  wise  man  shows  his 
superiority  and  freedom  by  disdaining  pleasures, 
promptings  of  desire,  and  the  commonly  accepted 
goods  of  civilization  which  burden  rather  than 
satisfy.  Plato  followed  both  a  _  metaphysical 
and  a  social-psychological  line  of  inquiry.  Pur- 
suing the  former  he  took  up  the  conception  of  a 
quest  for  the  one  genuine,  permanent,  universal  good, 
as  contrasted  with  the  many,  seeming  or  false,  tran- 
sient, particular  or  private  goods.  Pursuing  the 
social-psychological  method  he  seeks  a  well-ordered 
harmonious  life,  guided  by  reason,  a  health  of  the 
soul,  as  contrasted  with  a  life  of  feverish  appetites 
and  uncramped  passions.  Happiness  cannot  be  a 
standard  for  living  since  different  types  of  men 
will  seek  happiness  each  in  satisfying  his  own 
desires.  Rather  a  standard  for  happiness  must 
be  set,  and  this  Plato  finds  in  the  choice  of  the 
expert,  the  wise.  In  the  Philebus  he  pictures 
the  perfect  life  as  a  mixture  of  five  ingredients: 
measure,  harmony,  wisdom,  knowledge  of  the 
various  arts  and  sciences,  pure  pleasures  (e.g., 
aesthetic  and  intellectual).  The  types  of  char- 
acter or  excellence  admired  and  esteemed  are 
analyzed  and  become  known  as  the  cardinal  virtues: 
(1)  wisdom,  (2)  courage,  (3)  self  control,  temper- 
ance or  soundness  of  mind,  and  (4)  justice.  Here, 
then,  was  a  great  attempt  to  set  forth  a  rational 
plan  of  life  and  of  society,  which  should  take  the 
place  of  conventional  and  unthinking  control  on 
the  one  hand,  and  of  the  anarchy  of  lust  and  pas- 
sions on  the  other. 

The  social  and  political  correlate  of  such  an 
ordered  life  is  to  be  found,  according  to  Plato, 
not  in  extreme  democracy,  but  rather  in  an  improve- 
ment of  the  class  system.  A  ruling  class  is  as 
necessary  in  a  state  as  a  ruling  principle  in  the 
individual,  but  this  ruling  class  should  not  be 
determined  by  birth  or  wealth  but  by  wisdorn. 
Its  members  should  be  educated  for  their  responsi- 
bilities, and  allowed  no  private  property,  lest 
they  subordinate  public  to  private  interests.  The 
dialogues  Protagoras,  Gorgias,  Phaedrus,  Republic, 
Philebus,  and  Laws  are  most  significant  for  ethics. 

Aristotle,  pupil  of  Plato,  with  less  of  the  artist 
and  more  of  the  scientist  in  his  make-up,  writing 
for  his  son,  emphasizes  like  Plato  the  importance 
of  reason  as  the  guide  and  ordering  principle  of  life. 
Life's  good  or  well-being  must  be  found  in  the 
excellence  of  man's  peculiar  endowment,  the 
intellectual  nature,  rather  than  in  the  vegetative 
or  animal  functions,  and  may  be  defined  as  the  perfect 
development  or  energizing  of  man's  true  nature. 
To  this  must  be  added  some  furniture  of  external 
goods.  The  practical  virtues,  in  which  may  be 
recognized  the  traits  of  the  Athenian  gentlemen, 
observe  the  "mean"  i.e.,  the  due  or  proper  degree 
of  impulse,  which  may  be  considered  either  as  falling 
between  two  extremes  (e.g.,  generosity  is  a  mean 
between  prodigality  and  miserliness)  or  as  being 
the  "reasonable"  degree.  Pleasure  is  not  the 
end  of  life,  but  has  a  function  as  reenforcing  activity. 
Higher  than  the  moral  virtues  stand  the  intellectual 
and  it  is  only  these  which  we  can  regard  as  divine, 
since  we  cannot  consider  God  as  curbing  His 
impulses.  This  gave  the  suggestion  for  the  medi- 
aeval view  that  the  contemplative  life  is  superior  to 
the  practical.    In  his  Politics,  Aristotle,  as  contrasted 


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with  Plato,  argues  that  the  ills  of  society  are  due 
rather  to  bad  men  than  to  institutions.  He  finds 
important  values  in  property,  and  defends  natural 
slavery  as  a  direction  of  the  less  capable  by  the 
more  capable. 

Despite  the  pre-eminent  genius  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle  the  schools  which  had  the  largest  following 
were  those  of  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans.  These 
both  held  up  as  pattern  the  ideal  "wise  man"  who 
is  guided  by  reason.  But  the  Stoic  temper  saw 
wisdom  and  reason  in  stern  repression  of  impulse 
and  passion,  the  Epicurean  in  the  selection  of  the 
most  refined  and  lasting  pleasures. 

IV.  Christian  Ethics. — The  Hebrew-Christian 
conceptions  of  sin,  redemption,  and  a  kingdom  of 
God  into  which  men  could  enter  through  divine 
grace  only,  confronted  the  Graeco-Roman  concep- 
tion of  a  life  according  to  nature.  ^  The  saint  replaced 
the  wise  man.  Instead  of  a  highest  good  sought 
in  an  ordered  life  or  in  a  balance  of  faculties 
appeared  the  mystic  goal  of  union  with  God. 
Monastic  ideals  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedi- 
ence claimed  a  higher  regard  than  the  class 
ideal  of  the  Greek  gentleman.  The  graces,  faith, 
hope,  and  love  were  variously  combined  with 
the  four  virtues  of  Plato  or  the  ten  of  Aristotle. 
Divine  authority  gave  its  sanction  to  the  moral 
law.  The  questions  of  freedom  and  respKjnsibility 
became  more  urgent  because  of  the  overshadowing 
solemnity  of  the  great  final  Judgment  with  its 
awards  to  eternal  destiny.  _ 

Abelard  gave  a  distinctively  rationalistic  stamp 
to  ethics  by  his  doctrines  of  consent  of  the  will  as  the 
decisive  fact  in  moral  good  and  evil,  and  of  con- 
science as  the  norm  of  judgments.  Thomas  Aquinas 
effected  the  most  comprehensive  synthesis  of  Chris- 
tian and  Greek  conceptions.  Thus  his  treatment  of 
the  virtues  seeks  to  combine  the  natural  or  acquired 
virtues  taken  from  Plato  and  Aristotle  with  the 
Christian  virtues  of  faith,  hope,  and  love  divinely 
infused;  his  treatment  of  law  seeks  a  foundation 
in  the  divine  reason  but  finds  a  knowledge  of  its 
principles  in  the  human  mind;  his  psychology 
moves  between  voluntariness  of  human  activity 
and  supernatural  influence  from  divine  omnipotence; 
his  heavenly  consummation  makes  love  result  from 
the  beatific  vision.  His  work  has  had  great  and 
permanent  influence.  His  doctrine  that  will  follows 
intellect  was  attacked  by  Scotus  and  Occam  who 
asserted  a  primacy  of  will.  According  to  Thomas, 
God  recognizes  the  good  by  his  wisdom  and  therefore 
commands  it;  for  Scotus  the  will  and  command 
constitute  the  goodness;  good  is  not  independent 
of  voluntary  selection.  Casuistry,  the  application 
of  principles  to  the  decision  of  specific  cases,  had  a 
large  development  in  the  later  Scholastic  period. 
Mysticism,  which  magnified  the  vision  of  God  and 
union  with  him  as  the  one  true  good  was  represented 
by  Bernard  of  Clair vaux,  Hugo  of  St.  Victor, 
Bonaventura,  and  Eckhart. 

V.  Modern  Schools. — The  leading  schools  of 
modern  ethics  agreed  in  seeking  an  independent 
basis  of  morality  as  contrasted  with  the  authority 
which  had  been  a  dominant  note.  Broadly  speak- 
ing, the  17th.  century  sought  this  basis  in  an 
intuitive  reason,  the  18th.  in  feeling,  the  19th. 
in  a  calculation  of  consequences.  But  there  were 
cross  currents:  The  political  struggles  for  liberty 
which  found  expression  in  Locke  and  Rousseau  had 
their  ethical  counterpart  in  Kant's  conception  of 
autonomy  or  self-rule;  the  general  growth  of 
humanitarian  feeling  and  of  democratic  opposition 
to  privilege  spoke  in  the  Utilitarian  maxims  "the 
greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number," 
"every  man  to  count  as  one." 

The  classic  formulation  of  rationalistic  ethics 
is  the  Ethics  of  Spinoza.     Seeking  for  a  true  good 


in  which  his  being  could  find  rest,  and  finding  little 
sympathy  or  understanding  among  his  fellows, 
Spinoza  finds  the  evils  from  which  men  suffer 
arise  from  their  ignorance  and  error  which  permit 
such  divisive  passions  as  hate,  envy,  and  fear  to 
rule.  To  see  the  world  from  the  point  of  view 
of  eternity  {sub  specie  aetemitatis)  by  the  intellect  is 
to  see  it  as  one  substance — ^nature  or  God — and  to 
see  ourselves  as  dependent.  It  is  also  to  see  the 
error  of  imagining  genuine  goods  to  be  separate 
and  conflicting.  In  the  intellectual  love  of  God  we 
find  that  union  with  true  being,  that  supreme 
good,  which  renders  us  free  and  participant  in  the 
divine. 

In  Great  Britain  the  particular  form  taken  in 
ethical  theory  was  due  largely  to  the  radical 
thinker,  Thomas  Hobbes.  In  the  troubled  times 
of  the  struggle  between  King  Charles  and  Parlia- 
ment when  men  asked  what  is  the  basis  of  rightful 
authority,  Hobbes  answers:  right  is  what  the  state 
declares  to  be  such,  and  the  state  in  turn  gets 
authority  as  being  the  necessary  means  of  keeping 
peace_  and  thus  of  self-preservation.  To  nearly 
all  his  contemporaries  this  appeared  dangerous 
ground.  One  school  of  critics  aimed  to  show  that 
morality  was  grounded  in  eternal  laws  of  nature, 
or  reason  (Cudworth,  Cumberland,  Clarke);  the 
other  that  man  has  a  taste  or  sense  which  revolts 
at  certain  actions  and  approves  others  (Shafts- 
bury,  Hutcheson).  Butler  combined  both  reason 
and  feeling  in  his  conception  of  conscience;  Hume 
analyzed  the  moral  sense  into  pleasure  plus  sym- 
pathy, and  Adam  Smith  used  sympathy  and  social 
psychology  to  explain  conscience.  Utilitarianism 
was  advocated  by  Bentham  and  Mill  not  as  a 
vindication  of  morals  but  as  a  method  of  social 
reform.  Its  strength  was  twofold:  CI)  its  more 
scientific  method,  the  right  or  wrong  of  an  act, 
must  be  tested  by  its  consequences;  (2)  its  demo- 
cratic standard,  the  greatest  happiness  of  the 
greatest  number,  every  man  to  count  for  one. 
Its  weakness  was  also  twofold:  (1)  its  hedonistic 
theory  of  good  according  to  which  pleasure  is  in 
the  last  analysis  the  only  good,  and  (2)  its  hedonistic 
theory  of  desire — everyone  seeks  and.  can  seek 
only  pleasure. 

On  the  Continent  the  most  notable  system  was 
that  of  Kant  who,  after  promising  early  essays  along 
the  path  of  social  psychology,  produced  a  system 
which,  like  the  Stoic,  made  duty,  defined  as  a 
"categori(;al  imperative,"  its  central  problem. 
He  sought  the  solution  in  the  dual  natm'e  of  man, 
reason  as  universal  and  active  is  opposed  to  inclina- 
tion as  private,  selfish,  passive  (i.e.,  belonging  to 
our  endowment,  rather  than  to  our  spontaneous  or 
active  will).  Reason  as  man's  legislative  will  gives 
man  dignity  and  makes  him  an  end  in  himself. 
The  secret  of  duty  lies  in  autonomy,  that  is,  in  the 
fact  that  man  gives  laws  to  himself. 

The  influence  upon  ethical  theory  of  the  doctrine 
of  evolution  was  many  sided.  To  Spencer  the 
law  of  struggle  and  survival  offered  a  criterion  for 
justice;  the  general  laws  of  biology,  psychology, 
and  sociology  promised  a  more  scientific  method 
for  reaching  happiness  than  empirical  observation. 
But  the  most  important  effect  has  been  to  direct 
study  toward  the  origin  and  development  of 
morality,  one  of  the  leading  lines  of  ethical  inquiry 
at  present. 

The  other  field  of  greatest  present  interest  is 
social,  economic,  and  political.  On  the  one  hand 
the  international  relations  brought  about  by 
modern  trade,  by  contacts  with  less  developed 
peoples,  by  the  ambitions  of  imperialism,  and  the 
rise  of  nationalistic  aspirations,  have  brought 
the  demand  for  a  larger  ethical  world  of  obligation; 
on  the  other,   the  struggle  between  capital  and 


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Eunomianlsm 


labor,  the  new  standards  of  living  set  by  the  wealth 
of  the  day,  the  changed  relation  of  the  sexes  due 
to  greater  equality,  the  great  social  changes  involved 
in  the  shift  from  rural  to  urban  life,  and  finally 
the  new  social  classes  formed  largely  on  economic 
lines  are  compelling  a  re-thinking  of  ethical  stand- 
ards. James  H.  Tufts 

ETHNIC  RELIGIONS.— The  reUgions  of  racial 
groups,  possessing  features  characteristic  of  such 
groups;  often  used  to  distinguish  other  religions 
from  Judaism  and  Christianity. 

ETRUSCAN  RELIGION.— The  reUgion  of  the 
ancient  Etruscans,  who  occupied  a  large  part  of 
central  Italy. 

Although  our  knowledge  of  the  religion  of  the 
Etruscans  is  limited  and  fragmentary,  we  can  gain 
considerable  information  from  the  Etruscan  monu- 
ments and  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  If  the 
remains  of  the  Etruscan  language  are  ever  satis- 
factorily deciphered,  we  may  add  considerably  to 
our  present  knowledge.  Yet  Italic  and  Greek  influ- 
ences were  so  strong  that  it  will  probably  always  be 
difficult  to  distinguish  clearly  in  all  cases  the  Etrus- 
can from  the  alien  elements. 

Gods. — It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  Etrus- 
cans had  a  triad:  Tinia,  Uni,  and  Menvra,  corre- 
sponding roughly  to  the  Greek  Zeus,  Hera,  and 
Athena,  which  was  established  at  Rome  at  an  early 
period  as  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva.  To  this 
triad  in  each  Etruscan  city  three  gates  and  three 
temples  were  dedicated.  Besides  these  there  was  a 
council  of  nine  gods;  and  we  hear  of  a  group  of 
twelve  gods,  known  to  the  Romans  as  the  dii  con- 
sentes,  six  pairs,  male  and  female,  who  suggest 
sirnilar  groups  among  the  Greeks  and  certain 
Oriental  peoples.  Above  these  were  the  dii  superi- 
ores,  involiili,  divinities  vaguely  conceived,  who 
were  superior  to  all. 

Of  lesser  divinities  there  were  many  groups: 
lares,  penates,  genii  of  men,  and  junones  of  women,  all 
of  which  the  Remans  adopted.  Gods  of  the  clan 
and  of  the  family  as  well  as  the  spirits  of  the  dead 
received  worship.  The  horrible  punishments  of 
hell  and  the  very  material  dehghts  of  paradise  are 
vividly  portrayed  on  paintings  in  Etruscan  tombs. 

Ritual. — In  matters  of  worship  the  Etruscans 
were  most  punctihous.  Their  system,  the  Etrusca 
discipliria  of  the  Romans,  was  set  forth  most  elabo- 
rately in  writings  known  to  us  only  in  part  from  the 
Latin  authors.  Especially  highly  developed  was 
their  system  of  divination.  Portents  were  of  three 
classes:  those  sent  by  lightning,  those  given  by  the 
entrails,  chiefly  by  the  Hver,  of  animals,  and  thirdly 
those  shown  by  other  means,  such  as  earthquakes, 
showers  of  blood  or  of  stones,  comets,  etc.  Other 
books  dealt  with  the  limitation  of  plots  of  ground 
and  of  temples,  with  sacred  law,  and  with  fate  and 
the  dead,  all  these  topics  being  regarded  as  part  of 
religion.  Although  our  knowledge  of  many  details 
is  lacking,  it  is  clear  that  the  Romans  took  many 
religious  as  well  as  political  institutions  from  their 
northern  neighbors.  The  art  of  the  Etruscan  harus- 
pices  was  highly  prized  by  them  to  the  end  of  the 
4th.  Christian  century.        Clifford  H.  Moore 

EUCHARIST.— See  Lord's  Supper. 

EUCHITES. — (1)  A  4th.  century  monastic  sect 
which  originated  in  Mesopotamia  and  spread  into 
Syria.  They  emphasized  mystic  communion 
through  incessant  prayer,  and  depreciated  the  sacra- 
ments and  rites  of  the  church.  Also  called  Messali- 
ans.  (2)  A  sect  of  Thracian  dualists  of  the  11th. 
century  which  was  a  recrudescence  of  Manichaeism. 
See  New  Manichaeans, 


EUDAEMONISM     or     EUDEMONISM.— In 

ethics,  the  theory  that  the  ultimate  purpose  of 
moral  conduct  consists  in  seeking,  experiencing  and 
creating  happiness  or  well-being. 

EUGENICS.— The  application  of  the  laws  of 
heredity  to  the  improvement  of  the  human  race. 

All  of  our  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  heredity  in 
naan  is  an  inference  from  experiments  with  a  few 
simple  plants  and  animals,  conducted  for  a  few  years. 
The  factors  of  inheritance  in  man  are  infinitely  more 
complex  than  in  the  simple  organisms  studied,  so 
that  inference  is  often  doubtful.  As  material  for 
a  study  of  heredity,  man  is  entirely  beyond  rigid 
experimental  control,  so  that  such  evidence  as  we 
have  cannot  be  tested.  The  method  used  is  to 
collect  testimony  of  every  kind  from  every  source, 
such  as  family  pedigrees,  records  of  physicians,  etc. 
The  "facts"  of  human  inheritance,  therefore,  upon 
which  eugenics  is  based,  are  inferences  from  more 
or  less  reliable  data,  impossible  to  be  tested  by 
experiments,  and  interpreted  by  what  is  known  in 
reference  to  a  few  plants  and  animals.  As  a  result, 
many  statements  and  some  legislation  in  reference 
to  eugenics  are  of  doubtful  value.  It  has  become 
evident  that  there  are  two  categories  of  inheritance 
in  man,  called  for  convenience  "normal"  and  "ab- 
normal" inheritance;  and  there  are  also  two  kinds 
of  abnormal  inheritance,  which  require  different 
treatment,  a  fact  which  makes  effective  legislation 
difficult. 

In  spite  of  the  limitations  of  knowledge,  the 
eugenics  movement,  when  wisely  guided,  deserves 
support.  Its  purpose  is  to  give  to  every  child  all 
possible  advantages  that  can  be  secured  in  connec- 
tion with  birth,  by  the  eUmination  of  undesirable 
characters  and  the  improvement  of  desirable  char- 
acters. Thus  far  the  movement  has  been  concerned 
with  the  eUmination  of  the  undesirable,  and  this 
has  been  restricted  chiefly  to  inheritable  diseases  of 
body  and  mind.  After  these  emergency  problems 
have  been  solved  by  eliminating  the  undesirable, 
the  larger  field  of  eugenics  will  be  to  improve  what  is 
desirable,  providing  all  the  conditions  that  deter- 
mine health  and  vigor.  John  M.  Coulter 

EUGENIUS.— The  name  of  four  popes. 

Eugeniusl. — Pope,  654-657. 

Eugenius  11. —Pope,  824-827;  during  his  pontifi- 
cate it  was  enacted  that  priests  should  not  wear 
secular  dress  or  engage  in  worldly  pursuits. 

Eugenius  III. — Pope,  1145-1153,  enjoyed  the 
friendship  and  support  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
(q.v.);  organized  the  second  crusade;  excommuni- 
cated Arnold  of  Brescia. 

Eugenius  IV. — Pope,  1431-1447;  his  papacy 
was  marked  by  a  long  and  bitter  struggle  for  domina- 
tion between  the  pope  and  the  council  of  Basel. 
Although  once  deposed  by  the  council,  the  pope  was 
ultimately  triumphant,  the  victory  establishing 
church  unity  and  re-estabhshing  the  prestige  of 
the  papacy. 

EUHEMERISM.— The  name  Euhemerus  is 
that  of  a  Greek  writer  of  the  3rd.  century  b.c.  who 
attempted  to  explain  the  Greek  gods  as  ancient 
rulers  and  heroes  who,  because  of  their  services  to 
mankind,  had  been  worshiped  as  divine  after  their 
death.  His  work  was  a  fictitious  narrative  describ- 
ing his  discovery  of  the  inscriptions  and  of  the  grave 
of  Zeus  in  Crete.  The  term  is  now  applied  to 
theories  which  trace  the  origin  of  gods  to  reverence 
for  the  souls  of  the  dead,  ancestral,  heroic,  or  kingly. 

EUNOMIANISM.— An  extreme  form  of  Arian 
Christology,  developed  by  Eunomius  (died  ca.  393) 
holding  that  Christ  was  a  creature  wholly  sub- 
ordinate to  God  in  nature. 


Eunuch 


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156 


EUNUCH. — An  emasculated  or  desexualized 
man. 

Among  certain  peoples  the  practice  of  desexuaU- 
zation  was  performed  sometimes  as  a  punishment 
and  sometimes  as  an  act  of  voluntary  asceticism. 
In  Asia  Minor  the  eunuch  priest  was  frequently 
associated  with  the  mystery  cults.  The  social  status 
of  eunuchs  is  usually  low,  and  among  the  Indians, 
Hebrews  and  early  Christians,  they  were  denied 
religious  privileges.  The  Muslims  employ  eunuchs 
as  guardians  of  the  harems  and  as  trusty  servants. 
The  R.C.  church  has  recorded  its  disapproval  of 
sexual  mutilations  unless  surgically  performed  for 
pathological  causes. 

EUSEBIUS.— Bishop  of  Rome  for  four  months 
in  309  or  310;  included  in  the  list  of  popes. 

EUSEBIUS  OF  CAESAREA  (ca.  26(>-ca.  340).— 
Ecclesiastical  historian  and  theologian.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Pamphilus,  presbyter  of  Caesarea,  with 
whom  he  collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  a 
defense  of  Origen's  teachings.  He  became  bishop 
of  Caesarea  ca.  314.  At  the  council  of  Nicaea, 
325,  he  was  the  leader  of  the  middle  party  of  moder- 
ates, but  assented  to  the  Alexandrian  position, 
although  he  reserved  the  right  of  interpreting  it  in 
the  direction  of  Semi-Arianism.  _  From  then  on 
he  supported  orthodoxy  against  Arianism,  although 
his  friends  were  chiefly  Arians.  He  possessed 
amazing  erudition,  his  books  furnishing  knowledge 
concerning  the  whole  field  of  theological  doctrine 
in  his  day,  and  serving  as  a  most  important  source 
of  information  to  modern  scholars. 

EUTHANASIA.— The  theory  that  under  certain 
circumstances,  such  as  disease  or  age,  a  person 
whose  life  is  rendered  permanently  inutile  or  dis- 
agreeable may  be  painlessly  killed  either  by  himself 
or  another.  Among  some  primitive  peoples  there 
was  a  practise  of  this  kind,  although  the  methods 
were  not  often  painless.  Christian  ethics  has  rigidly 
opposed  either  suicide  or  the  taking  of  life  on  any 
account.  There  has  been  a  tendency  in  certain 
quarters  to  revive  the  doctrine  in  recent  years. 

EUTYCHES  and  EUTYCHIANISM.— Presby- 
ter and  archimandrite  of  Constantinople,  Eutyches 
(ca.  380-ca.  456),  came  into  prominence  as  an 
adherent  of  Cyril  and  an  opponent  of  Nestorius  at 
the  council  of  Ephesus,  431.  He  declared  that  the 
human  and  divine  natures  coalesced  in  the  womb 
of  Mary,  producing  Jesus,  who  was  neither  God  nor 
man,  but  God-man.  At  the  "robber  synod"  of 
Ephesus,  449,  Eutyches  was  vindicated,  but  at 
Chalcedon,  451,  he  was  excommunicated.  Eutychi- 
anism  is  a  historical  term  for  a  Christology  which 
does  not  preserve  the  two  distinct  natures  in  the 
incarnate  Christ.     See  Monophysitism. 

EUTYCHIANUS.— Pope,  275-283. 

EVANGELICAL. — A  term  used  to  express 
primary  loyalty  to  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  in 
contrast  to  ecclesiastical  or  rationalistic  types  of 
Christianity  The  Y.M.C.A.,  e.g.,  permits  only 
members  of  evangelical  churches  to  become  officers. 
The  Federal  Council  of  Churches  of  Christ  in 
America  is  composed  exclusively  of  evangelical 
bodies. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE.— A  voluntary 
association  of  Protestants  of  various  denominations 
and  various  countries  organized  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1846  to  promote  Protestant  liberty  "against 
the  encroachments  of  popery  and  Puseyism,"  and  to 
inculcate  genuine  Scriptural  piety  in  the  face  of 


scepticism  and  indifference.  The  "week  of  prayer" 
at  the  beginning  of  the  calendar  year  is  one  of  the 
achievements  of  the  Alhance.  It  is  active  in 
lands  where  religious  persecution  prevails.  Ten 
international  conferences  have  been  held. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION.— A  Christian 
denomination  founded  in  Pennsylvania  by  Jacob 
Albright  (1759-1808),  a  German  Lutheran  who 
had  become  a  Methodist.  The  poUty  and  theology 
resemble  those  of  Methodism.  In  1891  there  was 
a  breach,  the  eastern  branch  taking  the  name, 
United  Evangehcal  church.  The  Evangehcal  As- 
sociation in  1919  had  159,310  members,  and  the 
United  Evangelical  church,  88,847. 

EVANGELICAL    COUNSELS.— See    Consilia 

EVANGELICA. 

EVANGELICAL  UNION.— A  denomination 
founded  in  1843  by  Rev.  James  Morrison  (1816- 
1893),  his  father,  and  two  other  ministers  of  the 
church  of  Scotland  who  were  deposed  for  anti- 
Calvinistic  views.  It  found  many  sympathizers 
among  the  Scottish  Congregationalists,  and  finally 
in  1896  was  merged  in  the  Congregational  Union  of 
Scotland. 

EVANGELICALISM.— A  form  of  orthodox 
Christianity  which  lays  special  emphasis  on  man's  sin- 
ful nature,  the  necessity  of  the  atonement,  salvation 
through  faith,  personal  union  with  Christ,  and  which 
labors  for  the  conversion  of  sinners  through  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel.  Similar  movements 
were  Cocceianism  in  Holland  and  Pietism  in  Ger- 
many, but  evangelicalism  in  English-speaking  coun- 
tries owes  its  rise  to  the  Wesleys  and  Whitefield.  It 
is  opposed  to  ritualism,  and  has  made  least  progress 
in  liturgical  churches.  It  has  given  birth  to  numer- 
ous missionary  and  philanthropic  enterprises,  as  well 
as  expressing  itself  in  revivalistic  movements. 

EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.— See 

Apologetics. 

EVIL. — That  wnich  thwarts  or  prevents  the 
satisfaction  of  human  desires,  or  ideals,  and  hence 
is  an  obstacle  to  the  reahzation  of  the  good. 

The  existence  of  forces  and  realities  which 
restrict  the  full  exercise  of  vital  impulses  and  aspira- 
tions is  univei  sally  recognized,  although  the  explana- 
tions of  evil  are  various.  Both  religion  and  ethics 
aim  to  aid  men  to  recognize  the  nature  of  evil  and 
to  escape  from  its  power. 

I.  Classification  of  Evils. — (1)  Physical 
or  Natural  Evil  exists  when  the  forces  or  move- 
ments of  the  physical  world  injure  human  welfare. 
Physical  disasters  such  as  earthquakes,  destructive 
storms,  diseases,  and  death  are  inevitable  in  the 
world  as  we  know  it.  Here  man's  choice  plays  a 
relatively  insignificant  part.  (2)  Moral  Evil  is  due 
to  man's  own  choice,  and  springs  from  uneducated 
or  perverted  desires.  Cruelty,  oppression,  murder, 
licentiousness,  etc.,  are  examples. 

II.  Explanations  op  Physical  Evil. — No 
explanation  is  entirely  satisfactory.  Evil  is  essen- 
tially an  irrational  thing,  out  of  place  in  a  good  world. 
Typical  theories  are:  (1)  Malignant  activity  of  evil 
spirits,  which  torture  and  ensnare  men.  In  some 
cases  one  supreme  evil  spirit  is  held  responsible,  as 
Ahriman  in  Zoroastrianism,  or  the  Devil  in  Jewish 
and  Christian  thought.  (2)  The  uncontrolled 
domination  of  desire.  To  give  one's  self  over  to 
desire  is  to  make  life  dependent  for  its  satisfactions 
on  the  incidental  occurrences  of  nature.  Rehgious 
or  rational  suppression  of  desire  eUminates  evil. 
Buddhism    and    Stoicism    represent    this    view. 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Evolution 


(3)  The  metaphysical  absence  of  Good. — This  is  a 
philosophical  way  of  including  evil  in  a  monistic 
system.  Evil  means  finiteness,  or  imperfection. 
It  indicates  room  for  more  goodness.  Augustine, 
e.g.,  declared  that  anything  is  good  in  so  far  as  it 
exists  at  all.  (4)  A  perverted  or  uneducated  way  of 
conceiving  reality.  It  may  be  assumed  that  from 
God's  point  of  view  all  is  good.  If  we  could  see 
things  as  he  does,  evil  would  vanish.  Christian 
Science  (q.v.)  and  some  monistic  philosophies  expound 
this  theory.  (5)  Maladjustment  in  a  growing  world. 
The  conception  of  evolution  suggests  this  doctrine 
of  "growing  pains."  Further  development  may  be 
expected  to  relieve  the  tension.  (6)  Divine  punish- 
ment for  wrong-doing.  This  has  been  a  favorite 
theological  theory,  but  fails  to  meet  the  facts,  as  is 
so  convincingly  shown  in  the  Book  of  Job. 

III.  Ways  of  Escape  from  Physical  Evil. — 
These  are  implicitly  suggested  in  the  theories  given. 
Evil  spirits  must  be  placated  or  rendered  impotent; 
hence  charms,  incantations,  protection  of  good  spir- 
its, etc.  See  Magic;  Exorcism.  Or  desire  must 
be  ehminated;  hence  ascetic  discipline.  Or  wrong 
conceptions  must  be  righted;  hence  philosophical 
refinements,  or  religious  indoctrination,  as  in  Chris- 
tian Science.  Or  maladjustments  must  be  reheved, 
as  by  manipulating  physical  forces.  Applied  science 
in  the  fields  of  medicine  and  engineering  is  an 
important  agent  here.  Or  divine  forgiveness  must 
be  secured  that  the  "curse  "may  be  removed.  All 
of  the  above  ways  are  current  in  almost  any  com- 
munity.    None  can  be  said  to  be  entirely  successful. 

IV.  Theories  Concerning  Moral  Evil. — ■ 
Why  do  men  deliberately  choose  what  harms  them- 
selves and  others?  (1)  Free  will  enables  man  to 
make  evil  as  well  as  good  decisions.  But  it  does  not 
explain  why  he  chooses  evil.  (2)  Temptation  must 
thus  be  recognized  as  an  alluring  influence,  either 
in  the  form  of  evil  suggestion  from  another  (Satan, 
evil  men)  or  in  the  solicitation  of  immediate  sensuous 
gratification,  regardless  of  consequences.  (3)  Fleshly 
desire  is  often  contrasted  with  spiritual  attain- 
ment so  as  to  suggest  an  evil  propensity  inherent  in 
the  flesh.  So  long  as  desire  is  active,  moral  evil 
will  result.  Asceticism  (q.v.)  frequently  adopts 
this  theory.  (4)  Original  sin  (q.v.)  has  been  invoked 
by  Christian  theology,  asserting  an  innate  propen- 
sity to  evil-doing  due  to  our  inheritance  from  Adam. 
(5)  Ignorance  was  declared  by  Socrates  to  be  the 
reason  for  wrong-doing.  In  the  sense  of  a  lack  of 
moral  education  it  is  responsible  for  much  wrong 
behavior.  (6)  Finiteness  is  a  more  philosophical  way 
of  expressing  the  hmitations  due  to  ignorance.  (7) 
Atavism,  or  the  persistence  of  animal  instincts  in 
human  beings,  is  an  explanation  suggested  by  the 
theory  of  Evolution. 

V.  Ways  of  Escape  from  Moral  Evil. — The 
problem  is  to  assure  a  right  exercise  of  choice.  The 
occasion  for  wrong  choice  must  be  removed  and 
the  will  set  free  to  follow  the  good.  Two  principal 
ways  have  been  recommended  in  religious  and  moral 
systems.  (1)  A  physical  or  metaphysical  transforma- 
tion. Ascetic  discipline  is  employed  to  loosen  the 
hold  of  the  flesh,  and  spiritual  or  philosophical 
meditation  or  prayer  to  fortify  the  spirit.  Often 
this  is  secured  by  dramatic  religious  rites.  See 
Purification;  Initiation;  Regeneration.  In 
Christianity  much  stress  has  been  laid  on  regen- 
eration and  the  imparting  of  divine  grace 
(q.v.).  (2)  Moral  education  always  accompanies 
the  above  methods,  and  may  exist  without  them. 
Today  it  is  increasingly  felt  to  be  fundamental. 
Choices  are  influenced  largely  by  the  ideals  which 
enlist  the  emotions.  The  great  problem  is  to  put 
developing  human  beings  into  vital  possession  of 
ideals.  See  Religious  Education;  Teleology; 
Good;  Sin.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 


EVIL  EYE.— The  ordinary  English  term  for  the 
superstition  that  some  persons  have  the  power, 
whether  voluntary  or  not,  of  injuring,  or  even  killing 
with  a  glance,  men,  animals  and  plants.  This  belief 
prevailed  among  most  ancient  peoples  and  survives 
among  the  uneducated  classes  in  Oriental  and  Euro- 
pean countries. 

EVODIUS. — First  bishop  of  Antioch,  according 
to  Eusebius.  The  Greek  church  regards  him  as 
a  martyr,  but  there  is  no  early  evidence  of  martyr- 
dom. 

EVOLUTION.— The  terra  has  very  broad  appli- 
cation in  science,  but  as  ordinarily  used  it  refers  to 
"organic  evolution,"  meaning  that  existing  plants 
and  animals  have  been  derived  by  lineal  descent 
from  previously  existing  forms  that  were  unlike 
them.  It  implies  that  species  are  not  static,  but 
vary  so  as  to  give  rise  to  other  species,  and  that  in 
this  way  the  plant  and  animal  kingdoms  have  been 
evolving  since  fife  began. 

I.  The  Idea. — The  idea  of  evolution  is  as  old 
as  our  record  of  man's  thought.  The  general 
impression  that  certain  men  are  authors  of  the  idea 
of  evolution  is  a  mistake.  So  far  as  we  know,  it  is 
the  common  property  of  the  human  race,  and  no  man 
can  be  cited  as  its  author. 

II.  The  Fact. — That  organic  evolution  is  a 
fact  was  suggested  when  scientific  observations 
began,  which  set  thoughtful  men  thinking  that  per- 
haps evolution  is  a  fact  and  not  merely  an  idea. 
Conspicuous  among  these  observations,  arranged  in 
their  chronological  sequence,  were  the  following: 

1.  Inter  grading  forms. — It  was  observed  that  it 
is  often  impossible  to  separate  related  species  by 
hard  and  fast  lines.  All  sorts  of  intergrades  were 
found,  shading  so  insensibly  from  one  species  into 
another  that  no  line  of  separation  was  evident. 
Museum  collections  of  plants  and  animals  represent 
selected  material,  and  these  are  very  distinct; 
but  when  observation  is  extended  to  large  popu- 
lations in  the  field,  these  distinctions  often  dis- 
appear. 

2.  Adaptation. — It  became  evident  that  plants 
and  animals  often  change  in  response  to  the  condi- 
tions of  living.  This  abiUty  to  change  was  first 
spoken  of  as  "adaptation"  to  environment,  but 
now  it  is  more  often  called  a  "response"  to  changed 
conditions.  Experiments  have  shown  that  one 
species  of  plant,  as  ordinarily  recognized,  can  be 
changed  into  another  species  oy  changing  the  con- 
ditions of  living. 

3.  Vestiges. — In  studying  the  anatomy  of 
plants  and  animals,  numerous  vestiges  of  structures 
once  used  but  now  no  longer  useful  were  found. 
It  seemed  impossible  to  explain  such  structures 
except  that  they  have  been  inherited  from  plants  or 
animals  that  once  used  them.  Such  vestiges  appear 
not  only  in  the  bodies  of  mature  plants  and  animals, 
but  even  more  striking  ones  often  appear  in  the 
developing  embryo,  and  disappear  before  the  body 
is  completely  organized. 

4.  The  geological  record. — When  the  geological 
record  began  to  be  opened,  it  was  observed  that  there 
had  been  a  succession  of  plant  and  animal  forms,  the 
most  ancient  very  different  from  those  of  today,  but 
the  subsequent  ones  gradually  approaching  our 
present  flora  and  fauna,  and  insensibly  grading  into 
them.  This  extensive  historical  record,  clearly 
showing  a  gradual  approach  through  uncounted 
years  to  our  existing  plants  and  animals,  was  per- 
haps more  influential  than  any  other  single  observa- 
tion in  extending  the  beUef  in  the  fact  of  organic 
evolution. 

5.  Domesticated  animals  arid  plants. — Men  began 
to  realize  that  animals  and  plants  taken  from  the 


Evolution 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


158 


wild  state  and  subjected  to  what  may  be  called 
domestication,  had  become  very  much  changed,  in 
many  cases  so  much  so  that  the  wild  originals  could 
not  be  recognized.  Through  centuries  of  domestica- 
tion plants  and  animals  had  been  responding  and 
often  had  become  so  modified  that  if  they  had  been 
found  growing  wild  they  would  have  been  described 
as  new  species.  This  was  an  experiment  in  evolu- 
tion upon  a  gigantic  scale,  proving  that  organisms 
are  not  static. 

III.  The  Explanation. — ^The  men  whose  names 
are  associated  with  evolution  are  those  who  have 
attempted  to  explain  the  fact  of  evolution.  All  of 
the  explanations  offered  may  prove  to  be  wrong, 
and  still  the  fact  remain  to  be  explained.  More 
intensive  experimental  work  has  suggested  that  some 
of  the  explanations  may  not  be  adequate,  but  it 
should  be  understood  that  this  does  not  involve  any 
lack  of  behef  in  evolution  as  a  fact.  From  the 
several  explanations  offered,  four  may  be  selected  as 
the  most  important,  since  each  represents  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
subject. 

1.  Environment  (1790-). — The  factor  of  environ- 
ment as  explaining  the  variations  of  organisms  lead- 
ing to  the  origin  of  new  species  was  announced 
almost  simultaneously  during  the  last  decade  of  the 
18th.  century  by  Goethe  in  Germany,  St.  Hilaire  in 
France,  and  Erasmus  Darwin  in  England.  Their 
conclusion  was  that  organisms  are  plastic  and  are 
moulded  into  various  forms  by  the  direct  effect  of 
environment.  The  seasonal  changes  in  the  plumage 
of  birds  and  the  fur  of  mammals  were  offered  among 
the  evidences  of  this  effect.  This  was  the  first 
scientific  explanation  of  evolution,  and  naturally  it  is 
the  most  superficial  one.  It  was  soon  recognized 
that  while  environment  does  play  some  role  in  evolu- 
tion, it  is  relatively  a  subordinate  one,  and  that  some 
more  fundamental  explanation  was  needed, 

2.  Use  and  disuse  (1801-). — This  explanation 
was  offered  by  Lamarck,  the  first  great  name  in  the 
history  of  evolution.  He  called  it  "appetency"  or 
the  "doctrine  of  desires."  He  had  observed  that  an 
organ  is  developed  by  use,  and  deteriorates  through 
disuse.  His  picture  was  that  of  an  animal  facing 
new  conditions  of  living  which  made  new  demands. 
As  a  consequence,  certain  organs  would  be  called 
upon  as  never  before  and  would  develop;  while 
others  which  had  been  of  service  in  other  conditions 
would  be  no  longer  useful  and  would  deteriorate  and 
perhaps  even  disappear.  In  other  words,  new  needs 
would  make  new  demands  (or  "desires"  as  Lamarck 
put  it),  and  the  organism  would  respond  in  a  new 
kind  of  development.  This  explanation  was  deep 
seated  enough  to  involve  the  whole  organism,  but 
its  weakness  was  due  to  the  fact  that  it  involved  the 
inheritance  of  acquired  characters,  a  possibility 
which  subsequent  investigation  has  discredited. 

3.  Natural  selection  (1858-). — The  modern  his- 
tory of  biology  and  of  science  in  general  dates  from 
the  announcement  by  Charles  Darwin  of  natural 
selection  as  an  explanation  of  evolution.  He  had 
observed  that  man  had  been  able  to  change  animals 
and  plants  from  their  wild  forms  into  others  better 
suited  to  his  purpose,  by  selecting  the  most  desirable 
individuals  generation  after  generation  for  breeding, 
and  thus  gradually  increasing  the  desired  character. 
He  conceived  of  nature  as  engaged  in  a  similar  pro- 
cess. Plants  and  animals  vary  in  every  direction, 
and  nature  selects  the  individuals  best  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  living,  by  destroying  those  less 
adapted.  This  impUes  a  competition,  which  Darwin 
called  "the  struggle  for  existence,"  resulting  in  what 
Herbert  Spencer  afterwards  called  "the  survival  of 
the  fittest." 

4.  Mutation  (1901). — The  theory  of  mutation 
as  an  explanation  of  evolution  ushered  in  the  modern 


period  of  experimental  work,  by  means  of  which 
plants  and  animals  under  proper  control  are  ob- 
served to  produce  new  species.  The  theory  was 
announced  by  Hugo  DeVries  of  Amsterdam,  whose 
breeding  experiments  with  a  species  of  evening  prim- 
rose led  him  to  his  conclusion.  He  found  that 
among  the  progeny  of  this  primrose  a  few  individ- 
uals appeared  occasionally  that  were  entirely  differ- 
ent from  the  parent,  and  these  individuals  continued 
to  breed  true  to  their  differences.  In  other  words, 
new  species  arose  in  a  single  generation,  suddenly 
and  completely  formed,  without  the  slow  building 
up  required  by  natural  selection. 

The  conclusion  is  that  all  of  these  explanations 
enter  into  the  problem;  that  perhaps  no  one  of  them 
is  adequate  to  explain  all  the  phenomena  of  evolu- 
tion;  and  that  still  more  explanations  are  needed. 

John  M.  Coultek 

EVOLUTION  IN  RELATION  TO  THEOLOGY. 
— During  the  past  half  century  Christian  thinking 
has  been  compelled  to  reckon  with  the  conception 
of  evolution.  The  first  and  most  obvious  conse- 
quence was  to  raise  the  question  of  the  historicity 
of  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis;  for  the  theory  of 
biological  evolution  pictured  the  various  species 
arising  through  a  long  and  complicated  process, 
whereas  the  account  in  Genesis  pictures  them  as 
created  by  fiat.  The  hypothesis  that  man  was 
derived  by  a  transmutation  of  lower  species  seemed 
to  discredit  the  religious  value  of  man;  and  the  tra- 
ditional explanation  of  the  origin  of  sin  is  undermined 
if  the  historicity  of  Adam  is  called  in  question. 

Christian  theology  has  not  yet  adjusted  itself 
satisfactorily  to  the  new  point  of  view.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  those  who  insist  on  the  main- 
tenance of  the  doctrine  of  Scriptural  infallibility 
are  either  frankly  hostile  to  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion, or  else  so  "interpret"  it  in  the  interests  of 
preserving  a  "harmony"  with  the  accounts  in 
Genesis  that  they  fail  to  deal  honestly  with  it. 
On  the  other  hand  an  increasing  number  of  religious 
thinkers  have  sought  to  reinvestigate  the  problems  of 
theology  in  the  light  of  the  new  conception.  It  has 
been  discovered  that  while  the  acceptance  of  the 
evolutionary  hypothesis  requires  considerable 
revision  of  the  content  of  doctrine,  a  world  con- 
ceived in  terms  of  process  (which  is  what  the 
conception  of  evolution  means  in  its  most  general 
sense)  is  capable  of  a  religious  interpretation 
which  shall  preserve  the  essential  attitudes  of 
Christian  faith.  The  full  implications  of  the 
new  point  of  view  are  as  yet  very  imperfectly 
apprehended;  but  fruitful  thinking  is  being  con- 
stantly done  on  the  problem.  It  would  appear 
that  Christian  theology  will  ultimately  welcome 
whatever  is  scientifically  established  and  give 
it  a  religious  interpretation.  See  Science  in  Re- 
lation TO  Theology.        Gerald  Birney  Smith 

EWALD,  GEORG  HEINRICH  AUGUST  VON 

(1803-1875). — German  orientalist  and  theologian, 
noted  as  an  exegete,  bibUcal  critic,  grammarian 
and  philologist.  His  History  of  Israel  was  an  epoch- 
making  work  of  historical  interpretation. 

EX  CATHEDRA.— Literally,  from  a  bishop's 
seat  or  a  professor's  chair;  a  term  specifically 
applied  to  those  official  utterances  emanating  from 
the  Pope,  deemed  to  be  authoritative  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  decree  of  the  Vatican  council  of  1871, 
to  be  infallible  and  binding  on  all  Catholics. 

EXALTATION  OF  CHRIST.— In  R.C.  theology 
the  events  in  the  Ufe  of  Christ  such  as  the  trans- 
figuration, resurrection  and  ascension  which  showed 
his  divine  power  in  contradistinction  from  the  events 
of  his  hunuliation  (q.v.). 


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Exegesis 


EXAMINATION     OF     CONSCIENCE.— A 

scrutiny  of  one's  past  deeds,  words,  and  thoughts 
for  the  purpose  of  repentance  and  correction.  It 
was  practiced  by  many  ancient  religious  men  in 
Egypt,  Babylonia,  India,  especially  Buddhists, 
and  Pythagorean  and  Stoic  philosophers  in  Greece 
and  Rome,  as  well  as  by  the  Jews.  R.C.  theology 
considers  it  a  requisite  preparation  for  confession, 
and  Christian  spiritual  writers  generally  recom- 
mend its  daily  practice. 

EXARCH.— (1)  In  the  Eastern  church,  a  digni- 
tary intermediate  in  rank  between  the  patriarch 
and  the  metropoUtan,  his  diocese  being  one  of  the 
political  divisions;  also  a  general  over  several 
monasteries.  (2)  In  the  Greek  church,  a  legate  or 
deputy  of  the  patriarch  who  has  oversight  of  the 
clergy  and  churches  committed  to  him. 

EXCOMMUNICATION.— Temporary  or  per- 
manent exclusion  from  the  religious  fellowship. 

Power  to  exercise  this  discipline  was  entrusted  to 
the  elders  of  Jewish  communities  (Ezra  10:8,  John 
9:22)  and  from  Apostolic  times  was  exercised  by 
the  Christian  congregation  (Matt.  18:15ff.)  and 
later  by  the  bishop.  Minor  excommunication 
suspended  from  sharing  in  the  sacraments  until 
reinstatement  after  penance,  while  major  excom- 
munication, the  greater  bann,  meant  complete 
exclusion  from  the  church  and  from  Christian  burial. 
Before  a  man  under  the  greater  bann,  mass  must 
not  be  celebrated  and  the  faithful  who  had  dealings 
with  him  incurred  the  minor  excommunication. 
Pius  IX.  in  1869  limited  this  to  the  case  of  inter- 
course with  one  publicly  excommunicated  by  name 
by  the  Pope.  In  the  Middle  Ages  major  excom- 
munication involved  banishment  and,  in  the  case  of 
a  king,  loss  of  the  right  to  rule.  In  the  Catholic 
church  the  right  to  excommunicate  and  to  absolve 
belongs  to  the  bishop,  absolution  in  certain  cases 
being  reserved  for  the  pope.  Certain  acts  of  them- 
selves excommunicate  without  official  action.  In 
Lutheranism  the  practice  has  dwindled  to  a  dis- 
ciplinary refusal  of  the  sacrament.  In  churches  of 
Calvinist  lineage  it  has  been  a  more  prominent 
feature  of  church  discipUne,  though  tending  to 
fall  into  disuse.  In  a  Congregational  polity  excom- 
munication was  to  be  an  act  of  the  whole  congrega- 
tion. Now  there  is  often  a  quiet  exclusion  by  a 
committee  revision  of  the  membership  fist. 

EXEGESIS. — Explanation  of  the  meaning  of 
a  writing;  in  particular,  explanation  of  Biblical 
writings. 

In  modern  parlance  "exegesis"  is  usually  dis- 
tinguished from  "exposition,"  the  former  word  being 
used  for  historical  explanation  and  the  latter  for 
practical  reUgious  explanation.  The  rules  governing 
exegesis  are  known  as  "hermeneutics,"  but  the  word 
is  falling  into  disuse,  as  these  rules  do  not  really 
form  a  separate  science.  The  primary  task  of 
exegesis  is  to  furnish  the  Biblical  basis  of  theologyt 
unfortunately,  until  comparatively  modern  time! 
this  task  was  too  often  construed  as  the  defense  on 
a  preconceived  theological  position. 

I.  Exegesis  in  Christian  History. 

1.  Palestinian  Christianity. — Palestinian  Jewish 
exegesis  in  New  Testament  times  was  concerned 
chiefly  in  interpreting  the  Old  Testament  as  a  guide 
for  legalistic  observance,  with  especial  reference  to 
bringing  the  interpretation  into  accord  with  scribal 
tradition  (see  Scribes;  Talmud).  In  contrast, 
Jesus  taught  that  the  moral  demands  of  the  Law  were 
to  be  explained  by  his  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
God.  His  interpretation  was  (theoretically)  norma- 
tive for  the  church.    The  church  held  also  that  the 


prophecies  all  looked  forward  to  Jesus  as  Messiah 
and  so  were  to  be  expounded  in  detailed  reference 
to  his  career.     Otherwise  scribal  rules  were  followed. 

2.  Allegory. — Greek  thought  in  the  5th.  century 
B.C.J  in  an  attempt  to  save  Homer  from  the  charge 
of  irreligion,  adopted  the  method  of  allegory. 
This  taught  that  the  apparent  meaning  of  a  passage 
has  a  deeper  meaning  underlying  it,  which  is  the 
sense  that  the  author  really  wished  to  convey,  a 
sense  to  be  detected  by  various  (arbitrary)  rules. 
This  method  was  followed  freely  in  the  Hellenistic 
world  (especially  in  Stoicism)  and  was  adopted 
by  certain  Jews  (notably  by  Philo)  and,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  by  Christians. 

3.  Patristic  and  medieval  periods. — The  first 
elaborate  exegesis  was  produced  by  the  Gnostics, 
who  were  thorough  allegorists,  and  the  allegorical 
method  dominated  the  works  of  Origen  and  the  Alex- 
andrian school  also.  In  opposition,  the  Antiocheans 
used  allegory  more  sparingly,  insisting  that  it  be 
built  on  the  literal  sense  (especially  Chrysostum) 
or  even  discarding  it  (Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the 
ablest  patristic  exegete).  The  Latin  fathers  differ 
considerably;  TertuUian  was  the  strictest  literalist 
but  the  influence  of  Augustine  gave  later  interpre- 
tation an  Alexandrian  tone  (particularly  in  Greg- 
ory I.).  In  the  medieval  church,  the  fathers'  specific 
interpretations  were  generally  held  to  be  normative, 
and  so  medieval  works  were  largely  compilations 
from  the  past  (catenas,  scholias,  or  glosses;  Wilifrid 
Strabo's  glossa  ordinaria  came  to  have  almost  canoni- 
cal authority).  Developed  Scholasticism  (Thomas 
Aquinas)  distinguished  four  senses  in  Scripture, 
literal,  allegorical  (doctrinal),  moral  and  anagogical 
(eschatological). 

4.  Reformation  and  modern  periods. — Humanism 
brought  a  revival  of  interest  in  history  for  its  own 
sake  as  weU  as  a  knowledge  of  the  original  tongues. 
The  Reformation  broke  with  tradition  as  deter- 
mining exegesis  and  (usually)  with  allegory.  At 
first  (Luther  and  Calvin)  there  was  a  tendency  to 
a  freer  ha,ndling  of  the  Bible  but  Protestant  ortho- 
doxy subjected  all  interpretation  to  dogmatic  inter- 
est. During  the  17th.  century  CathoHc  exposition  is 
not  seldom  truer  than  Protestant.  With  the  18th. 
century  the  growth  of  historic  method  and  the  criti- 
cism of  orthodoxy  by  pietism  led  to  better  exegesis 
(Bengel).  But  a  really  objective  interpretation 
came  only  through  a  freer  philosophy;  with  J.  A. 
Semler  modern  exegesis  begins.  From  his  time 
the  history  of  exegesis  is  largely  that  of  Biblical 
criticism  (q.v.).  Schleiermacher  insisted  on  study- 
ing the  psychology  of  the  Biblical  writers.  H.  A.  W. 
Meyer  developed  most  elaborately  the  grammatic- 
historic  method.  The  influence  of  the  religious- 
historical  school  is  now  prominent. 

II.  Method. — Exegetical  study  of  a  passage 
presupposes  an  accurate  text,  together  with  knowl- 
edge of  all  "introduction"  questions  (author, 
readers,  time  and  place  of  writing,  etc.).  And  it 
also  presupposes  knowledge  of  contemporary  history, 
thought  and  customs.  The  task  is  usually  divided 
intu  linguistic  exegesis,  fixing  the  meaning  of  the  words 
and  explaining  the  grammatical  constructions ;  histor- 
ical exegesis,  interpreting  the  concepts  as  they  would 
have  been  understood  by  contemporaries;  and  styl- 
istic exegesis,  determining  the  form  of  the  expres- 
sions (history,  conscious  legend,  hyperbole,  irony, 
etc.),  and  endeavoring  to  penetrate  to  the  mind  of 
the  author  as  he  wrote.  Modern  exegesis  endeavors 
to  interpret  the  parts  of  a  writing  in  relation  to  the 
whole  and  prefers  to  deal  with  entire  paragraphs,  in 
contrast  to  the  method  of  a  (not  distant)  past  that 
treated  single  verses  as  the  units  of  discussion.  All 
theological  presuppositions  should  be  barred  and 
theological  construction  should  not  begin  until  the 
exegetical  work  is  completed.     But  it  is  needless  to 


Exemption 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


160 


say  that  only  a  student  really  interested  in  religion 
can  interpret  a  religious  writing  successfully. 

B.  S.  Easton 
EXEMPTION. — (1)  A  dispensation  whereby  a 
person  is  granted  freedom  from  an  obligation  or 
from  the  penalty  consequent  upon  failure  to  meet 
such  obligation.  (2)  In  the  R.  C.  ecclesiastical 
regulations,  a  dispensation  whereby  persons  or 
institutions  are  released  from  the  authority  of  their 
regularly  constituted  superior,  and  placed  under  a 
higher  authority,  or  directly  under  the  Holy  See. 

EXOGAMY. — The  marriage  law  of  early  society 
which  compelled  a  man  to  find  his  mate  outside 
his  own  kin  or  social  group. 

EXORCISM. — A  name  applied  to  the  freemg 
of  human  beings  from  evil  spirits,  by  means  of 
magical  or  rehgious  ceremonies.  Exorcism  is 
strictly  an  individual  rite,  and  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  occasional  or  periodic  expulsion  of  demons 
from  an  entire  community. 

1.  Demoniacal  possession. — According  to  the 
principle  of  the  animistic  philosophy  (see  Animism), 
souls  and  spirits  are  capable  either  of  independent 
existence  or  of  embodiment  in  human,  animal,  or 
other  forms.  The  theory  of  demoniacal  possession 
often  provides  a  sufficient  explanation  of  abnormal 
conditions,  both  physical  and  mental.  Just  as 
there  are  spirits  which  produce  internal  diseases 
accompanied  by  severe  pain,  fever,  or  anaemic  con- 
ditions, so  there  are  other  spirits  whose  presence  in 
the  human  body  results  in  hysteria,  delirium,  or 
madness. 

2.  Methods  of  exorcism. — When  disease  and 
insanity  are  supposed  to  be  caused  by  attack  of 
demons,  the  most  obvious  means  of  cure  is  to  get 
rid  of  them  by  appropriate  ceremonies,  (a)  Words 
form  powerful  charms.  Doubtless  the  earliest 
words  used  for  exorcising  were  simple  extempore 
commands  addressed  to  the  spirits,  but  these  in 
time  would  stereotype  into  more  or  less  complicated 
formulas  containing  sacred  or  powerful  names  and 
invocations.  If  the  exorciser  felt  himself  stronger 
than  the  evil  spirit,  he  would  be  likely  to  address 
him  in  the  most  scurrilous  language;  otherwise  he 
would  rely  on  entreaties  and  prayer  to  induce  the 
demon  to  quit  the  patient.  (6)  Flagellation  is  often 
employed;  the  possessed  person  is  soundly  beaten 
until  the  demon,  speaking  through  the  patient's 
body,  promises  to  depart.  The  tortures  inflicted 
on  witches  and  lunatics  in  West  Africa  have  some- 
times this  object.  In  1914  four  religious  enthusiasts 
in  an  Illinois  town  tried  to  whip  "sin  and  the  devil" 
out  of  two  small  boys,  who  were  badly  cut  and 
bruised  by  a  chastisement  lasting  all  day.  (c)  Sacri- 
fice may  be  resorted  to,  as  among  the  Zulus,  who 
offer  cattle  to  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  regarded  as 
responsible  for  disease,  (d)  But  many  other 
methods  are  found.  In  China  the  exorciser  en- 
deavors to  rout  out  spirits  by  producing  disagreeable 
smells.  In  some  of  the  Malay  Islands  a  sick  person 
is  sprinkled  with  pungent  spices,  in  order  that  the 
prickling  sensation  may  expell  the  demon  of  disease 
clinging  to  his  body.  In  Hawaii  a  patient  was 
sometimes  pricked  with  needles,  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. Generally  speaking,  the  more  unpleasant  the 
remedy,  the  more  efficacious  it  is  deemed  to  be  in 
demon-riddance. 

3.  The  exorcist. — In  the  lower  culture  the  exor- 
cist is  commonly  the  magician  or  medicine-man; 
among  more  civiUzed  peoples  he  may  be  a  prophet 
or  a  saint.  In  modern  India  the  exorcist  is  a 
medium,  who  works  through  the  inspiration  of  a 
"familiar,"  which  enters  him  while  he  is  in  a  state  of 
ecstasy. 


4.  Exorcism  in  the  higher  religions. — Exorcism 
was  regularly  practiced  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
As  for  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  in  almost  the  whole  of  their  religious 
literature  the  expressions  "sin,"  "sickness,"  and 
"possession  by  evil  spirits"  are  synonymous  terms. 
The  exorcism-formulas  that  have  survived  contain 
much  information  about  the  Assyro-Babylonian 
demons  and  the  procedure  for  expelling  them.  The 
classical  peoples  had  their  professional  exorcists,  and 
the  same  was  true  of  the  Jews.  The  numerous  in- 
stances of  exorcism  recorded  in  the  New  Testament 
must,  therefore,  be  interpreted  in  the  Ught  of  the  wide- 
spread and  ancient  doctrine  of  demoniacal  possession. 

5.  Exorcism  in  Christianity. — The  early  Chris- 
tians degraded  the  pagan  deities  to  real  but  evil 
spirits,  which  entered  the  bodies  of  men,  disordering 
their  health  and  stealing  away  their  minds.  The 
writings  of  the  Church  Fathers  contain  minute 
accounts  of  the  demoniacs,  or  "energumens,"  for 
whom  a  special  order  of  exorcists  was  created  by 
the  middle  of  the  3rd.  century.  The  Roman  Catho- 
hc  and  Greek  churches  use  exorcism  in  the  baptismal 
ceremony,  as  well  as  in  specific  cases  of  persons  sup- 
posed to  be  possessed  by  devils.  The  Church  of 
England  has  now  discarded  exorcism,  but  it  still 
accompanies  baptism  as  practiced  by  some  of  the 
Lutheran  churches.  Hutton  Webster 

EXPEDIENCY.— The  theory  that  what  is 
advantageous  or  utihtarian  under  existing  cir- 
cumstances should  determine  the  course  of  human 
conduct.  Sometimes  what  is  expedient  may  dis- 
regard or  even  conflict  with  what  is  ethical.  In 
other  cases  the  expedient  in  the  broadest  sense  is 
made  the  criterion  for  determining  ethical  obUga- 
tions,  as  in  Utilitarianism  (q.v.). 

EXPIATION.— The  act  of  making  amends  for 
some  fault  or  sin. 

The  primary  conception  is  that  a  wrong  is  a 
trespass  on  the  right  or  property  of  another  and 
can  be  made  good  by  an  equivalent.  Property 
damage  can  be  estimated  and  payment  to  a  like 
amount  be  made.  In  case  of  injury  to  the  person 
the  natural  feeling  of  resentment  claims  the  inflic- 
tion of  a  similar  injury  on  the  guilty  party — an 
eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth.  This  talio 
does  not  restore  the  injured  member,  and  so  some- 
thing more  is  demanded  in  the  shape  of  confession 
or  penance.  In  case  of  murder  or  manslaughter 
the  kin  of  the  slain  man  demand  the  life  of  the 
slayer,  and  this  whether  the  deed  was  intentional 
or  not.  If  the  guilty  party  cannot  be  reached 
some  member  of  his  social  group  is  slain.  Thus  the 
feud  starts  and  may  result  in  greatly  weakening 
the  clans  concerned.  To  avoid  this  catastrophe 
the  parties  sometimes  agree  to  compound  the  guilt 
by  a  money  payment  (bloodwit),  and  a  regular 
scale  is  fixed  in  which  the  life  of  a  freeman,  a  woman, 
or  a  slave  each  has  its  price. 

When  an  offence  has  been  committed  against 
a  divinity,  the  nature  of  the  offence  must  first 
be  discovered.  If  it  is  a  case  of  property,  like 
the  withholding  of  the  tithe  or  neglect  to  bring 
a  gift  that  has  been  vowed,  the  wrong  can  be 
made  good  by  the  payment  of  the  debt  with  some- 
thing added  as  a  penalty.  Whether  the  anger 
of  the  offended  divinity  will  thus  be  appeased  is 
still  a  question,  and  therefore  confession  and  penance 
are  regularly  insisted  upon.  Since  disease  or  rnis- 
fortune  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  the  divine 
anger,  confession  and  penance  with  a  vow  to  make 
some  sort  of  offering  usually  accompany  the  prayer 
for  relief.  Where  the  sufferer  fears  that  his  Ufe 
has  been  forfeited  he  may  even  offer  a  substitute 
to  be  slain  in  his  stead.  H.  P.  Smith 


161 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Faith 


EXPLICIT  FAITH.— Belief  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  church,  involving  the  ability  to  give  a  reason- 
able explanation,  including  knowledge  of  the  details; 
a  standard  imposed  on  the  higher  clergy  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Contrasted  with  Implicit  Faith 
(q.v.). 

EXPOSITION.— (1)  An  interpretation  or 
explanation  of  the  meaning  of  a  passage.  Exposi- 
tory preaching  is  that  type  of  preaching  which 
expounds  BibUcal  passages.  (2)  A  R.C.  practise 
of  exposing  the  elements  of  the  Eucharist  for  adora- 
tion by  the  faithful. 

EXTREME  UNCTION.— A  sacrament  of  the 
R.C.    church,    and   similar   rites   in   the   Eastern 


Orthodox  church,  consisting  of  the  anointing  of 
those  in  extremis,  i.e.,  of  the  dying. 

The  Rituale  Romanum  provides  that  the  priest 
apply  consecrated  oil  to  the  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  lips, 
hands  and  feet.  In  emergencies  he  may  merely 
anoint  one  part,  saying:  "Through  this  holy  unction 
may  the  Lord  pardon  thee  whatever  sins  or  faults 
thou  has  committed."  The  aim  is  to  mediate 
forgiveness  and  to  aid  recovery.  Extreme  imction, 
like  the  viaticum  (q.v.)  may  be  repeated.  Insti- 
tution by  Christ  is  said  to  be  proved  by  James  5 :  14  f . 

W.  W.  Rockwell 

EXULTET. — An  ancient  hymn  sung  in  the 
R.C.  church  on  Easter  eve  at  the  blessing  of  the 
paschal  candle  or  taper,  so  named  from  the  opening 
word. 


FABER,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1814-1863). 
• — British  hymn  writer;  became  a  follower  of  New- 
man and  joined  the  R.C.  church  in  1845;  best 
known  for  his  devotional  h3rmns,  used  alike  in 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches. 

FABER  (or  FABRI),  JACOBUS  (ca.  1455- 
ca.  1536). — A  precursor  of  French  Protestantism; 
published  a  French  version  of  the  Bible  on  the 
basis  of  Jerome  in  1530. 

FABIAN.— Pope,  236-250.  Origen  addressed 
to  him  a  letter  in  defence  of  his  theology.  He  was 
martyred  in  the  persecution  of  Decius. 

FACULTY.— (1)  The  capacity  of  the  mind  or 
body  for  specific  types  of  activity.  (2)  In  the  older 
psychology  a  specific  native  power  of  the  mind, 
such  as  the  faculty  of  perception.  (3)  The  teach- 
ing members  of  a  university,  college,  or  school,  as 
the  theological  faculty.  (4)  In  canon  law,  the  dis- 
oensation  or  permission  to  perform  a  function  or 
hold  an  office  for  which  the  person  does  not  possess 
technical  qualifications  or  ordinary  jurisdiction. 

FAIRY. — A  non-human  imaginary  being  of 
folklore,  possessed  of  various  extraordinary  powers 
and  living  in  a  region  called  Fairyland. 

In  the  general  category  of  fairy  should  be 
included  the  dwarfs,  trolls,  elves  and  like  creatures 
which,  with  fairies,  are  particularly  characteristic 
of  Celtic  and  Teutonic  folk  tales.  However, 
closely  similar  superstitions  are  found  practically 
all  over  the  world. 

In  size,  fairies  are  often  conceived  as  diminutive 
beings  and  again  as  large  as  mortals,  they  possess 
magic  powers  similar  to  sorcerers  and  witches,  have 
the  abiUty  to  change  their  shape  and  visibility  and 
to  exert  various  spells  for  good  or  ill  over  humans  in 
whom  they  seem  to  be  greatly  interested.  They 
are  associated  with  various  places  such  as  streams, 
woods  and  houses.  They  have  a  social  order 
similar  to  that  of  mortals,  with  occupations,  amuse- 
ments, wars.  While  they  have  powers  beyond 
those  of  men,  they  are  more  or  less  dependent  on 
them,  steal  human  children  to  strengthen  their 
own  race,  fall  in  love  with  people  and  marry  them, 
play  various  tricks  on  them  or  do  them  highly  good 
turns.  In  many  respects  fairy  lore  may  be  regarded 
as  composed  of  scattered  fragments  of  older  religious 
beliefs  which  have  persisted  even  though  disassoci- 
ated from  later  and  better  developed  religious 
systems.  Irving  King 

FAITH. — An  attitude  of  confidence  in  the  reality 
and    trustworthiness    of    something    that    cannot 


be  absolutely  proved;  as  faith  in  the  victory  of  a 
righteous  clause  or  in  the  existence  of  God. 

Faith  is  a  practical  necessity  in  almost  any 
realm.  We  have  to  order  our  life,  not  simply  on 
the  basis  of  what  has  been  demonstrated,  but  also 
in  the  realm  of  more  or  less  uncertainty.  We  must 
have  faith  in  our  friends,  faith  in  the  honesty  of 
business  associates,  faith  in  the  processes  of  nature. 
Religiously,  faith  involves  confidence  that  super- 
human powers  will  be  exercised  for  one's  good 
if  proper  conditions  on  the  believer's  part  are  ful- 
filled. The  content  of  faith  will  be  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  content  of  the  general  intelligence.  It 
may  range  all  the  way  from  crude  superstition  to  a 
rationally  defensible  hypothesis;  or  from  a  vague 
hope  to  a  precisely  defined  doctrine. 

J7i  Christianity,  faith  has  from  the  first  occupied 
a  primary  place  in  religious  experience.  As  con- 
trasted with  philosophical  speculation,  it  has 
represented  certainty  resting  on  revelation.  As 
contrasted  with  a  religion  of  mere  good  works,  it 
represents  a  mystical  appropriation  by  the  behever 
of  the  saving  power  of  God.  Christian  faith 
developed  out  of  Jewish  faith,  which,  as  the  out- 
growth of  the  apparent  defeat  of  Israelitish  hopes 
through  foreign  conquests,  developed  a  prophetic 
expectation  that  God  was  preparing  in  heaven  a 
plarU  of  deliverance  which  should  sometime  be 
accomplished  through  the  intervention  of  divine 
power.  Christianity  asserted  that  Jesus  was  the 
divine  agent  of  such  redemption,  and  built  up  its 
system  of  religious  belief  by  elaboration  of  the 
details  of  God's  plan  of  deliverance.  Faith  thus 
came  to  mean  the  acceptance  as  true  of  a  fairly 
complete  theology,  in  order  that  men  may  live  in 
accordance  with  it. 

In  Roman  Catholic  theology  faith  is  regarded 
as  the  unwavering  acceptance  of  divinely  revealed 
truths,  inaccessible  to  natural  reason,  but  not 
contradictory  to  reason.  The  human  will  is 
assisted  by  divine  grace  to  the  attitude  of  firm 
assent.  Since  the  content  of  truth  to  be  believed 
is  already  objectively  provided  in  revelation, 
faith  means  the  acceptance  of  this  truth  rather  than 
unauthorized  spiritual  experiment.  One  may  have 
implicit  or  unformed  faith  if  the  willingness  to  assent 
is  present  even  if  the  content  of  doctrine  is  not 
fully  comprehended.  Explicit  or  formed  faith 
involves  a  rational  understanding  of  doctrine  and 
of  the  reasons  for  assent  thereto.  In  practical 
religious  life  the  Catholic  trusts  the  church  to 
secure  salvation  for  him  if  he  submits  himself  to 
its  guidance. 

The  Lutheran  Reformation  meant  the  repudia- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  the  authority  of  the  Catholic 
church.  Faith,  therefore,  came  to  mean  an  individ- 
ual personal  relation  to  God  rather  than  allegiance 


Faith  Healing 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


162 


to  the  church.  Religiously  it  was  defined  by- 
Luther  as  au  unwavering  trust  in  God's  Word, 
specifically  in  the  divine  promise  of  forgiveness. 
See  Justification.  Especial  emphasis  was  laid 
on  the  sole  sufficiency  of  faith  to  secure  salvation, 
good  works  being  regarded  as  a  spiritual  conse- 
quence of  saving  faith  rather  than  as  a  condition 
of  salvation.  In  the  endeavor  to  define  saving 
faith  Protestant  theologians  analysed  the  process  of 
beheving  into  nolitia  (intellectual  comprehension 
of  God's  Word),  assensus  (admission  that  it  is  the 
truth),  and  fiducia  (personal  trust).  Only  when 
faith  is  completed  in  this  last  is  one  saved.  The 
various  controversies  in  Protestantism,  however, 
accentuated  doctrinal  differences  and  led  to  the 
virtual  inclusion  of  creedal  affirmations  as  essential 
to  faith. 

I?i  recent  times  the  attempt  is  being  made  to 
rescue  the  conception  of  faith  from  dogmatic  compli- 
cations. Kant,  Hamann,  Herder,  and  others  gave 
to  faith  a  moral  rather  than  a  doctrinal  significance. 
Faith  is  the  practical  adoption  for  moral  ends  of 
certain  inherently  rational  ideas  which  are  not 
demonstrable  by  purely  intellectual  processes. 
RitschUanism  (q.v.)  gave  a  Christian  turn  to  this 
position  by  defining  faith  as  the  practical  spiritual 
response  which  a  man  makes  to  the  religious  and 
moral  appeal  of  the  person  and  teaching  of  Jesus. 
The  broader  historical  knowledge  of  religion  which 
is  today  available  suggests  that  faith  is  an  attitude 
of  spiritual  adventure  for  the  sake  of  discovering 
higher  resources,  rather  than  mere  assent  to  an 
already  given  body  of  doctrine. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

FAITH  HEALING.— A  process  of  preserving 
and  restoring  health  by  means  of  induced  religious 
attitudes,  which  are  sometimes  accompanied  by 
the  overt  aids  of  medical  science. 

I.  The  CuLTURAi.  Perspective  op  Faith 
Healing. — From  the  earliest  days  of  civiUzation 
the  reUgious  functions  were  assumed  to  include 
caring  for  the  complete  welfare  of  human  indi- 
viduals, as,  e.g.,  the  complete  regimen  prescribed 
for  every  phase  of  life  by  the  Old  Testament. 
Naturally  this  included  physical  ills,  and  healing 
was  a  supreme  employment  of  reUgious  leaders. 
With  the  growth  of  secular  institutions,  rehgion 
withdrew  more  and  more  from  such  practical 
pursuits  as  physical  healing.  In  recent  decades 
however  we  find  a  tendency  to  beUeve  that  salva- 
tion cannot  be  complete  unless  it  includes  the 
body  as  weU  as  the  soul. 

II.  The  Varieties  op  Faith  Healing. — In 
recent  years  we  have  observed  influential  and 
powerful  religious  heaUng  institutions  grow  up  and 
develop.  These  we  may  classify  into  three  dis- 
tinct types:  the  first  denies  the  value  of  scientific 
aid  in  effecting  cures;  the  second  avows  its  service; 
while  the  third  professes  no  overt  attitude  toward 
the  problem  because  it  formulates  its  doctrine  in 
metaphysical  terms.  Since  it  is  obvious  that  any 
actual  healing  results  must  involve  the  use  of 
natural  means,  we  may  place  the  first  and  third 
under  the  heading  of  impUcit  use  of  natural  methods 
in  faith  healing,  while  the  second  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  expUcit  method  of  using  natural 
principles. 

1.  Implicit  use  of  natural  methods  in  Faith 
Healing. — (a)  Specific  denial  of  the  value  of  medical 
aid.  A  prominent  example  of  this  type  is  Christian 
Science  (q.v.)  which  categorically  denies  the  necessity 
of  any  natural  means  for  the  heahng  of  disease, 
organic  or  functional.  Other  prominent  movements 
of  this  type  are  "Dowieism,"  founded  by  John  A. 
Dowie,  and  "The  Christian  Alliance"  founded  by 
A.  T.  Simpson,  (b)  No  specffic  denial  or  affirma- 
tion of  the  value  of  natural  means  of  healing.     The 


religious  movement  known  as  "New  Thought" 
performs  what  it  calls  "Metaphysical  Healing," 
a  practice  based  on  the  assertion  that  faith  in  a 
perfect  spiritual  fife  may  result  in  the  cure  of  any 
malady. 

2.  Explicit  use  of  natural  methods  in  Faith 
HeaUng. — The  Emmanuel  movement  represents 
an  attempt  to  harmonize  the  work  of  religious  faith 
and  medical  science  in  the  cure  of  human  ills. 
Consequently  it  is  believed  that  cures  can  be 
effected  through  the  aid  of  medical  science  as  well 
as  through  divine  intervention. 

III.  The  Scientific  Basis  for  Faith  Heal- 
ing.— Throughout  the  maze  of  faith  healing  prac- 
tices there  runs  a  thread  of  natural  principle  which 
in  some  form  or  other  is  invoked  to  bring  about  the 
desired  results.  The  scientific  means  employed 
have  been  only  crudely  developed  in  a  hit  and  miss 
fashion.  At  the  basis  of  most  faith  heahng  lies 
the  principle  of  suggestion,  which  is  used  to  produce 
a  condition  of  adaptation  between  the  individual 
and  his  environing  circumstances;  he  is  made  to 
feel  at  ease  in  his  surroundings,  and  this  means,  of 
course,  that  the  person  as  a  whole  is  undergoing 
a  desirable  change  of  behavior.  Therefore  the  *  'cure" 
may  be  not  only  mental  but  physiological  as  well. 

Although  all  genuine  faith  healing  is  based  upon 
some  definite  scientific  principle  we  cannot  fail 
to  be  impressed  by  the  precariousness  of  the  cures, 
which  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  healers  do  not 
appreciate  that  it  is  not  the  faith  that  heals  but  the 
psychophysical  effect  of  that  faith,  and  so  the 
proper  emphasis  is  not  placed  upon  the  actual 
curative  conditions.  Jacob  Kantor 

FAKIH. — ^A  moslem  theologian  or  expounder  of 
the  law. 

FAKIR  or  FAQIR.— Arabic,  "poor";  (1)  A 
designation  used  in  some  countries  as  equivalent  to 
dervish  (q.v.),  a  Mohammedan  ascetic;  (2)  in 
popular  usage,  an  Indian  religious  mendicant  or 
yogi  who  practices  sannydsa  or  asceticism.  Some 
fakirs  have  a  genuine  religious  interest;  others  are 
lazy  beggars  with  revolting  habits,  who  prey  upon 
the  creduhty  of  the  populace. 

FALASHAS. — A  Jewish  sect  living  in  Abys- 
sinia, closely  resembling  the  other  natives  in  their 
looks  and  customs,  but  observing  their  own  religion. 
They  follow  closely  the  Judaism  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, not  knowing  many  of  the  later  developments 
of  the  faith. 

FALL  OF  MAN.— The  doctrine  that  the  first 
human  being  disobeyed  the  divine  command  and 
thereby  lost  for  himself  and  the  race  the  original 
righteousness  and  blessedness  which  he  enjoyed. 

The  conception  of  a  Golden  Age  at  the  begin- 
ning of  human  history  is  wide-spread  in  folk-lore. 
Contrasted  with  that  original  perfection  is  the 
present  state  of  evil  and  misery,  which  is  explained 
by  the  theory  of  an  act  of  disobedience  or  rebelUon 
on  the  part  of  the  progenitors  of  the  human  race. 
The  biblical  account  represents  Adam  as  having 
been  seduced  to  eat  of  forbidden  fruit.  As  a 
consequence  he  was  expelled  from  the  Garden  of 
Eden  and  condemned  to  a  life  of  toil  and  sorrow, 
and  to  death.  Theology,  both  Jewish  and  Christian, 
elaborated  this  account,  portraying  Adam  as 
endowed  at  creation  with  original  righteousness 
and  immortality,  both  of  which  were  lost  as  a 
consequence  of  his  disobedience.  Historical  and 
scientific  anthropology  gives  no  confirmation  of  the 
doctrine,  and  it  is  quite  generally  interpreted  today 
as  folk-lore.  See  Original  Sin;  Depravity; 
Anthropology.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 


16S 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Family,  The 


FALSE  DECRETALS.— A  collection  of  canons 
and  letters  dealing  with  ecclesiastical  law,  purport- 
ing to  have  been  written  by  popes  prior  to  Gregory 
the  Great. 

This  collection  has  three  parts — the  first  con- 
sisting of  70  letters  attributed  to  popes  of  the  first 
three  centuries,  entirely  spurious;  the  second  of  a 
collection  of  canons,  largely  genuine;  the  third  of 
genuine  and  false  letters  about  evenly  divided.  The 
skilful  blending  of  authentic  elements  with  forgery 
aroused  no  suspicion  until  the  15th.  century,  and  not 
until  the  17th.  century  were  scholars,  Romanist  and 
Protestant,  agreed  upon  the  spuriousness  of  this 
work.  The  name  Isadora  suggested  for  a  long  time 
that  this  compilation  originated  in  Spain.  Modern 
investigation,  however,  has  established  its  origin 
somewhere  in  the  Frankish  Empire,  with  opinion 
sharply  divided  as  to  the  provinces  of  Mainz,  Reims, 
and  Tours.  The  object  of  the  forger,  as  stated  in 
the  preface,  was  the  better  application  of  canon 
law.  His  constant  anxiety  is  to  protect  bishops 
from  being  imjustly  accused  or  deprived  of  their 
sees,  also  to  safeguard  the  property  and  persons 
of  the  clergy  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
temporal  power.  Throughout  the  Frankish  terri- 
tories these  decretals  lent  powerful  impulse  to  the 
movement  toward  centralization  around  the  see  of 
Rome.  Peter  G.  Mode 

FAMILY,  THE. — A  more  or  less  permanent 
group  of  parents  and  offspring;  in  human  society, 
the  group  formed  by  the  father,  mother,  and  chil- 
dren. The  word  is  sometimes  used  for  a  much 
larger  group  tracing  descent  to  a  common  ancestor, 
that  is,  a  kinship  group. 

1.  General  considerations. — In  the  sense  of  a 
more  or  less  permanent  group  of  parents  and 
offspring  the  family  exists  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  the  animal  world  below  man.  Thus  it  is  found 
beginning  with  some  of  the  higher  fishes,  and  it  is 
common  among  the  birds,  the  higher  carnivora,  and 
the  primates.  Strictly  speaking,  we  have  the 
animal  group  only  when  both  parents  unite  in  the 
care  of  the  offspring.  Animal  family  life  un- 
doubtedly owes  its  origin  (1)  to  the  production  of 
"child"  or  immature  forms  that  need  more  or  less 
prolonged  parental  care;  and  (2)  to  the  develop- 
ment of  parental  instincts  which  keep  male  and 
female  together  for  the  care  of  the  offspring.  In 
other  words  the  family  group  is  due  not  to  sex, 
though  that  is  a  necessary  condition,  but  to  parental 
care.  It  is  essentially^  a  device  of  nature  for  the 
preservation  of  offspring  through  a  more  or  less 
prolonged  immatrurity. 

As  one  of  the  primary  social  groups  the  family 
has  played  a  very  large  part  in  the  development  of 
human  society  and  of  civihzation.  Because  it  is  a 
groui>  characterized  by  intimate,  face-to-face 
association  and  by  the  presence  of  both  sexes  and 
all  ages,  it  exhibits  social  Ufe  at  its  maximum  inten- 
sity. In  it  are  found  most  of  the  essential  forms 
of  social  relationship  between  individuals.  For 
this  reason  the  older  sociologists  generally  regarded 
the  family  as  the  unit  of  social  organization,  not  the 
individual.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  family  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  primary  social  structure,  and  from 
both  a  cultural  and  moral  standpoint,  as  the  most 
important  of  human  institutions.  In  present 
human  society  this  primary  group  performs  the 
following  important  functions:  (1)  It  continues 
the  life  of  the  species.  It  determines  thereby 
the  child's  physical  heredity  and  furnishes  the  child 
with  physical  care  and  nurture  until  maturity  is 
reached.  (2)  It  preserves  and  conserves  all  social 
possessions.  It  transmits  property  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  and  thus  furnishes  the  child 
largely    with    his    economic    equipment    for    life. 


More  important,  however,  is  its  preservation  and 
transmission  of  the  spiritual  possessions  of  human 
society.  It  is  the  chief  institutional  vehicle  of 
tradition  in  the  sociological  sense;  that  is,  it  is 
the  chief  medium  of  handing  down  from  one 
generation  to  another  knowledge,  standards, 
values  along  every  cultural  line.  The  child,  there- 
fore, gets  his  ideas  and  standards  on  government, 
law,  religion,  and  morality  largely  from  the  family. 
(3)  The  family  is  the  chief  generator  of  altruistic 
sentiments  and  ideals  in  human  society.  This 
primary  group  furnishes  the  basis  upon  which  such 
primary  ideals  as  fatherhood,  brotherhood,  love, 
service,  and  self-sacrifice  have  been  built  up  in 
our  moral  and  social  traditions.  It  is  in  other 
words  the  chief  means  of  socializing  both  the  child 
and  the  adult,  and  forms,  as  Comte  said,  a  sort 
of  natural  transition  from  the  egoism  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  high  degree  of  service  and  altruism 
demanded  by  civilized  society. 

2.  The  primitive  form  of  human  family  life. — 
There  has  been  much  debate  about  the  primitive 
form  of  the  family  in  human  society.  Spencer, 
Lubbock  and  others  held  that  the  primitive  form 
of  sex  relation  among  human  beings  was  that  of 
sexual  promiscuity  or  irregularity.  On  account  of 
the  facts  that  a  well  developed  family  life  is  found 
among  some  of  the  anthropoid  apes,  man's  nearest 
relatives  in  the  animal  wortd;  that  promiscuity  is 
not  found  to  exist  to  any  extent  among  the  peoples 
lowest  in  point  of  culture;  that  the  upright  attitude 
of  man  made  it  necessary  under  primitive  conditions 
for  the  male  parent  to  care  for  both  mother  and 
child  before  and  after  the  birth  of  offspring  if  both 
were  not  to  perish;  the  consensus  of  sociologists 
and  anthropologists  at  present  is  that  a  primitive 
stage  of  promiscuity  never  existed,  but  that  the 
original  form  of  the  family  i^  the  human  species 
was  that  of  a  simple,  pairing  monogamy,  such 
as  is  found  among  the  birds  and  many  of  the  higher 
animals.  By  "simple"  we  mean  that  the  union 
was  instinctive,  and  without  the  legal  moral  and 
religious  sanctions  of  later  ages;  by  "pairing" 
we  mean  that  the  monogamic  union  was  not  neces- 
sarily of  a  permanent  type,  but,  as  among  many 
animals,  lasting  oftentimes  merely  through  the 
rearing  of  offspring.  The  morahzed  monogamy 
of  later  ages  should  not  be  confused  with  this 
primitive  pairing  type  of  family  life,  which  even 
yet  generally  prevails  among  the  most  primitive 
peoples.    See  Marriage. 

3.  The  maternal  and  'paternal  families. — The 
original  form  of  the  family  in  the  human  species 
seems  to  have  been  of  the  type  which  anthropologists 
and  sociologists  called  "maternal";  that  is,  the 
mother  was  the  center  of  the  family,  the  children 
took  her  name,  and  if  there  was  property  or  heredi- 
tary titles,  they  passed  along  the  female  line,  not 
along  the  male  line.  Thus,  among  maternal 
peoples  the  children  bear  the  name  of  the  mother's 
kinship  group,  or  clan,  and  the  property  of  the 
father  or  his  rank  descends  not  to  his  own  children, 
but  to  his  eldest  sister's  children.  Indeed,  there 
is  much  evidence  to  show  that  in  primitive  society 
the  physiological  connection  between  father  and 
chila  was  not  known;  and  therefore  that  it  was 
impossible  to  trace  blood  relationship  along  the 
male  line.  This  primitive  form  of  the  family  life 
and  of  tracing  blood  relationships  persisted  among 
many  peoples  down  to  recent  times.  However, 
the  great  historic  civilized  peoples  of  Europe  and 
Asia  had  all  left  the  maternal  form  of  the  family 
behind  before  they  appeared  upon  the  historic 
stage,  and  had  developed  in  varying  degrees  the 
paternal  family  in  which  names,  property,  and 
titles  pass  along  the  male  line,  ana  the  father  is 
the  head  of  the  household.    The  Chinese,  Hindus, 


Fana 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


1G4 


Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans  had  all,  indeed, 
early  in  antiquity,  developed  that  extreme  type 
of  the  paternal  family  which  we  call  the  "patri- 
archal." See  Patriarchal  System.  The  main 
causes  of  this  transition  to  the  paternal  system 
seem  to  have  been  wife  capture,  wife  purchase, 
and  pastoral  industry.    See  Fatherhood. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 
FANA. — The  final  step  in  the  program  of  salva- 
tion of  the  Sufi  mystic  when  the  soul  secures  com- 
plete absorption  in  God.     The  word  means  "extinc- 
tion." 

FANATICISM. — Excessive  and  imrestrained 
zeal  in  behalf  of  some  religious  or  moral  conviction. 
The  fanatic  is  so  completely  possessed  by  his  idea 
that  he  is  incapable  of  appreciating  other  interests. 
Under  the  stress  of  this  "fixed  idea"  he  displays 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  monomania,  and 
may  disregard  human  welfare  or  may  even  be 
willing  to  sacrifice  life  for  the  sake  of  his  conviction. 
Fanaticism  prevents  the  exercise  of  deliberation 
or  criticism  and  hence  is  an  expression  of  irrational 
zeal.  Under  its  sway  religious  or  moral  actions 
become  detached  from  the  total  realm,  of  social 
interests.  Fanaticism  is  thus  anti-social  and  is 
usually  morally  defective. 

FANON. — (1)  A  shoulder  cape,  hke  an  amice, 
worn  over  the  alb,  formerly  used  by  other  ecclesi- 
astics but  now  reserved  for  the  pope  alone.  (2)  A 
napkin  or  cloth  for  the  use  of  tha  celebrant  at  mass 
in  handling  the  holy  vessels  and  offertory  bread. 

FAREL,  GUILLAUME  (1489-1565).— French 
and  Swiss  Reformer,  persuaded  the  Genevan  govern- 
ment to  adopt  the  Reformation  by  edict  in  1535; 
was  influential  in  enhsting  Calvin  in  the  movement. 

FARRAR,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1831- 
1903). — Anglican  preacher  and  writer;  held  various 
honorable  positions  in  the  Church  of  England. 
His  writings  include  pedagogical  and  philological 
works,  as  well  as  fiction  and  theology.  He  cham- 
pioned the  doctrine  of  an  opportunity  to  repent 
after  death  in  his  Eternal  Hope,  and  in  all  realms 
advocated  broad  humanitarian  views.  He  is  prob- 
ably best  known  by  his  Life  of  Christ  and  Life  of  Paul. 

FASTING. — Abstinence  from  food  or  from 
particular  kinds  of  food  for  a  prescribed  period. 

As  a  religious  rite  fasting  may  be  either  jejunium, 
in  which  all  kinds  of  food  and  drink  are  avoided, 
or  absiinentia,  applying  only  to  specified  articles. 
The  practice  has  had  a  variety  of  origins.  (1)  The 
physical  repugnance  to  the  consumption  of  food, 
after  experiencing  grief,  fear,  or  other  strong  emo- 
tion, would  tend  to  become  a  conventional  absti- 
nence, as  the  symbol,  and  sometimes  the  pretense, 
of  such  emotions.  Doubtless  the  mourning  fast 
often  arose  in  this  manner.  (2)  Fasting  is  some- 
times an  act  of  precaution,  to  avoid  consuming 
food  supposed  to  be  tainted  with  a  mysterious  and 
dangerous  influence.  Thus,  the  natives  of  northern 
India  will  not  eat  during  an  ecHpse  of  the  moon,  and 
among  high-caste  Hindus  no  food  which  has  been 
in  the  house  during  a  lunar  eclipse  may  be  eaten. 
(3)  The  enforced  abstinence  of  primitive  hunters 
or  fishers,  through  scarcity  of  the  food  supply, 
would  result  in  abnormal  nervous  conditions 
favorable  to  dreams  and  visions,  and_  such  phe- 
nomena might  come  to  be  deliberately  induced  by 
a  course  of  fasting.  It  is  a  Zulu  axiom  that  "the 
continually  stuffed  body  cannot  see  secret  things," 
i.e.,  cannot  gain  access  to  spiritual  realities.  Hence 
the  prime  justification  for  the  place  which  the  fast 
still  holds  in  Islam,  Buddhism,  and  Christianity. 

Hutton  Webster 


FATALISM. — The  doctrine  that  all  events  are 
irrevocably  predetermined  so  that  human  efforts 
cannot  alter  them. 

Fatahsm  represents  the  universe  as  a  field  where 
specific  occurrences  are  scheduled  to  occur  at  a 
definite  time.  It  differs  from  mechanism  or  deter- 
minism (qq.v.)  in  that  it  is  concerned  with  the 
inevitable  appearance  of  an  event  at  a  specific  time, 
while  the  other  theories  are  concerned  merely  to 
establish  an  unbroken  causal  nexus.  Fatalism 
may  be  attached  to  some  theory  of  causation, 
but  it  more  characteristically  leaves  the  precise 
causes  of  events  an  inexpHcable  mystery,  either  a 
vague  Fate  (q.v.)  or  the  inscrutable  will  of  God,  as  in 
the  Mohammedan  conception  of  Kismet  (q.v.). 

Fatalism  is  a  natural  attitude  whenever  one 
feels  himself  entirely  incapable  of  influencing  the 
course  of  events.  Soldiers  exposed  to  the  incalcu- 
lable hazards  of  battle  are  fx'equently  fatalists.  The 
doctrine  has  wide  currency  in  lands  where  hopeless 
misery  exists  with  no  developed  means  of  scientific 
or  social  control.  It  is  a  pronounced  trait  of 
Mohammedanism  and  of  Indian  religions.  In 
western  civihzation,  with  its  aggressive  powers, 
fatahsm  has  little  place.  See  Fate;  Determin- 
ism; Predestination.       Gerald  Birney  Smith 

FATE. — The  mysterious  power  which  determines 
events,  an  object  of  religious  reverence  in  Greek 
and  Roman  thought. 

The  concept  of  Fate  among  both  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  came  much  closer  to  the  Roman 
ideas  of  Fortuna  than  to  the  Greek  notions  con- 
cerning Tyche  (see  Fortuna).  Fate  with  both 
peoples  was  a  determining  power  whose  potency 
was  sometimes  conceived  to  be  superior  to  all; 
again  it  was  regarded  as  Umited.  In  the  Homeric 
poems  there  are  passages  in  which  Fate  seems  to  be 
identified  with  the  will  of  Zeus,  and  other  places  in 
which  the  king  of  gods  and  of  men  is  subject  to 
Fate's  power.  In  Homer  also  appears  the  idea  of 
the  web  or  thread  of  Fate  which  one  or  more  of  the 
gods  spin  for  mortals;  but  in  Hesiod  the  spinners 
are  already  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atropos,  who 
allot  good  and  ill  to  mortals  at  their  birth. 

In  the  Greek  tragedians  Fate  plays  a  mighty 
part.  Aeschylus  especially  dweUs  on  the  unescap- 
able  doom  which  pursues  the  guilty  house  from 
generation  to  generation;  Sophocles  also  speaks 
with  awe  of  the  mysterious  power  which  determines 
men's  Uves;  and  Euripides,  for  all  his  revolt  against 
the  older  and  more  cruel  notions,  speaks  often  of 
Fate's  power  which  defeats  man's  hope  and  brings 
him  in  sorrow  to  his  end.  Among  the  common  peo- 
ple the  behef  in  Fate  was  wide  spread  and  persistent. 

The  philosophers  early  observed  that  individual 
phenomena  are  the  result  of  chains  of  causation; 
Herachtus,  so  far  as  we  know,  was  the  first  to  give 
utterance  to  this  truth  in  the  phrase,  "all  things 
come  to  pass  by  Fate."  Plato  accepted  the  belief 
that  the  course  of  events  was  predetermined,  but 
did  not  discuss  the  matter;  nor  did  Aristotle. 

The  Stoics  were  the  first  to  deal  seriously  with 
Fate.  The  founder  of  the  school  identified  it  with 
the  course  of  Nature  and  with  Providence;  others 
made  it  one  with  God.  Epictetus,  hke  the  other 
later  Stoics  in  general,  taught  that  God's  will  would 
be  done,  and  that  although  man  could  endeavor  to 
resist,  his  effort  would  be  vain  and  could  result 
in  only  wretchedness  for  the  rebel;  happiness 
was  to  be  found  in  complete  submission  to  God. 
The  New  Academy  denied  the  existence  of  Fate 
altogether,  accounting  for  the  accidents  of  hfe 
by  Nature  and  Chance;  but  in  general  a  behef 
in  Fate  persisted  in  all  classes  of  ancient  society. 
The  Romans  held  a  belief  in  Fortune  (q.v.) 
analogous  to  the  Greek  in  Fate;   but  the  influence 


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A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


leasts  and  Pasts 


of  Greece  was  so  strong  that  their  writers  like 
Horace  and  Vergil  use  the  Greek  mythology  of 
the  Fates  and  reproduce  the  Greek  beliefs.  Their 
philosophical  writers  only  repeated  what  they  had 
learned  from  their  Greek  sources. 

Clifford  H.  Moore 

FATHERHOOD.— In  primitive  times  the 
physiological  fact  of  fatherhood  was  probably 
imknown;  hence  blood  relationship  was  traced 
through  mothers  only,  and  the  family  organized 
about  the  mother  (see  Family).  As  far  back  as 
we  can  trace  the  human  family  life,  however,  the 
social  importance  of  the  father  in  the  family  as  a 
protector  and  provider  was  recognized.  Originally 
these  functions  were  perhaps  performed  instinc- 
tively, since  they  are  found  in  the  family  life  of 
some  animals  below  man,  but  in  all  human  groups 
they  are  enforced  by  custom.  Recognition  of  the 
social  importance  of  fatherhood  is  thus  practically 
universal  among  men. 

Nevertheless,  the  full  social  importance  of 
fatherhood  may  be  said  not  to  have  been  recognized 
until  the  patriarchal  stage  was  reached.  Then, 
indeed,  the  rights  of  fatherhood  became  exaggerated, 
the  father  becoming  practically  owner  of  all  persons 
and  property  in  the  family  group,  often  having  the 
right  to  sell  wife  and  children,  and  sometimes  the 
right  to  put  them  to  death  (see  Patriarchal 
System).  These  extreme  developments  were  due 
in  part  to  ancestor  worship,  in  part  to  economic 
conditions.  The  despotic  power  of  the  father 
among  patriarchal  peoples,  however,  was  in  prac- 
tice mitigated  by  natural  affection,  by  moral 
customs,  and  by  religious  scruples.  Hence  father- 
hood became  among  them  a  moral  and  religious 
concept  to  express  the  highest  social  values. 

The  patriarchal  system  thus  gave  the  concept 
of  the  fatherhood  of  God  to  developed  religions. 
The  idealism  of  Jewish  family  life  and  of  the  pro- 
phetic movement  in  Judaism  led  to  the  inclusion  in 
the  concept  of  fatherhood  the  attributes  of  mother- 
hood also.  Hence  in  Christianity  the  concept  of  the 
fatherhood  of  God  represents  a  synthesis  and  ideali- 
zation of  all  the  social  values  found  in  parenthood 
generally.    See  Family.     Charles  A.  Ellwood 

FATHERS,  CHURCH.— A  term  applied  as 
early  as  the  4th.  century  to  the  leading  representa- 
tives of  Christian  doctrine  whose  works  came  to 
be  the  standard  for  later  belief.  The  most  eminent 
of  them  were  afterward  further  distinguished  as 
"doctors,"  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome,  and  Greg- 
ory the  Great  among  the  Latin  fathers,  and  Athana- 
sius,  Basil  of  Caesarea,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and 
John  Chrysostom  among  the  Greek. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

FATIHA. — ^The  opening  section  of  the  Koran 
which,  through  tradition  and  use,  has  acquired 
a  ritual  significance.  It  is  used  as  a  daily  prayer  and 
in  intercession  for  the  sick  and  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead.  It  reads:  "In  the  name  of  Allah,  the  Merci- 
ful, the  Compassionate.  Praise  belongeth  unto 
Allah  the  Lord  of  the  worlds,  the  King  of  the  day 
of  doom.  Thee  do  we  serve  and  of  thee  do  we  seek 
aid.  Guide  us  in  the  straight  path,  the  path  of  those 
to  whom  thou  hast  been  gracious,  not  of  those 
with  whom  thou  art  angered  or  of  those  who  stray." 

FATWA. — A  decision,  usually  in  writing, 
regarding  any  matter  of  duty  given  to  a  layman  by 
a  teacher  of  the  canon  law  in  Islam. 

FAUN. — In  Roman  mythology  a  god  or  goddess 
of  the  fields  and  cattle,  partly  human  in  form, 
having  short  horns,  a  tail,  and  feet  like  those  of  a 
goat. 


FEAR.— A  dread  of  possible  evil  events.  Fear 
is  one  of  the  psychological  factors  in  many  primitive 
religions,  and  has  had  a  considerable,  though 
diminishing,  influence  over  the  individual  in  the 
higher  religions. 

Petronius  expressed  a  common  but  extreme 
view  in  his  oft-quoted  verse:  Primus  in  orbe  deos 
fecit  timor.  Many  philosophers  in  the  18th. 
century  taught  that  fear  was  the  origin  of  all 
"heathen"  religions,  and  the  anthropologists  of  the 
19th.  century  gave  it  a  more  important  position 
than  does  the  science  of  our  time.  Primitive 
religions  are  now  seen  to  be  largely  matters  of  social 
custom  and  observance;  the  gods  are  tised  as  well 
as  feared  and  propitiated.  Still  fear  has  been 
a  considerable  though  steadily  decreasing  factor 
in  the  attitude  of  the  individual  toward  the  deity 
throughout  the  history  of  rehgion.  In  the  more 
highly  developed  forms  of  reUgion  it  is  found 
chiefly  among  the  phenomena  of  conversion  and  as 
a  constituent  of  the  sentiment  of  awe. 

James  B.  Pratt 

FEASTING. — Feasting  and  banqueting  are 
natural  forms  of  joyous  celebrations  when  men 
gather  together.  The  hearth-fire  and  the  common 
meal  is  perhaps  the  chief  social  mark  of  the  family, 
primitive  or  civilized,  and  invitation  to  share  such 
a  meal  is  still  the  symbol  of  hospitality  and  good 
feeling.  From  the  family  meal  to  the  tribal  feast 
or  the  social  banquet  is  but  a  step,  which  has  been 
taken  by  all  men,  feasts  being  characteristic  of 
every  grade  of  human  culture.  Inevitably  the 
feast  has  become  associated  with  religious  rites, 
probably  in  the  first  place  because  of  religious  or 
superstitious  ideas  in  regard  to  food,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  well-nigh  universal  feast  of  first-fruits,  and 
again  from  a  desire  to  honor  the  gods  or  appease 
the  spirits  of  the  dead.  In  savage  societies  the 
mere  presence  of  an  abundant  food  supply  is  made 
the  occasion  for  feasting.  In  more  advanced 
societies,  where  the  food  supply  is  under  control, 
feasting  becomes  associated  with  all  events  of  impor- 
tance, birth,  induction  into  society,  adoption, 
swearing  of  brotherhood,  naarriage,  and  even  death, 
and  again  the  celebration  of  victory,  election  of 
chiefs  and  accession  of  kings,  festivals  of  the  seasons, 
sacrifices  to  the  gods,  great  commemorations.  In 
festivals  of  a  religious  character  feasting  is  often 
preceded  by  fasting,  as  a  form  of  purification. 
Probably  the  oldest  of  European  festal  occasions  is 
the  "harvest  home,"  the  feast  of  the  final  harvest- 
ing in  autumn,  which  is  certainly  prehistoric,  and 
with  which  the  American  " Thanksgiving  _  Day" 
may  reasonably  be  associated.  ^  With  it  is  also 
associated  the  worldwide  feasting  of  the  dead 
at  harvest-time,  or  All  Souls  Day.  "Hallowe'en" 
is  formed  from  a  combination  of  these  festivals. 
The  determination  of  dates  for  the  seasonal  festivals 
early  made  the  precision  of  the  calendar  important, 
and  naturally  placed  it  in  priestly  hands,  so  that 
this  oldest  of  the  sciences  has  always  possessed 
a  sacerdotal  or  ecclesiastical  character.    See  Food. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

FEASTS  AND  FASTS  (CATHOLIC).— i^osiing 
is  considered  a  self-inflicted  mortification  and  moral 
discipline.  Though  Mark  (2 :  18)  makes  certain 
ones  complain  to  Jesus,  "Thy  disciples  do  not 
fast,"  there  is  reference  to  Christians  fasting  in 
Acts  13,  etc.  The  Didache  (q.v.),  ch.  8,  prescribes  a 
fast  on  Wednesday  and  Friday.  The  fast  from 
Good  Friday  to  Easter  Sunday,  observed  appar- 
ently at  an  early  date,  was  extended  to  all  Fridays, 
and  to  Saturdays  in  some  places,  and  was  later 
lengthened  to  forty  days,  "Quadragesima,"  as  it  is 
still  called,  or  in  English  "Lent."  The  custom  of 
fasting  on  the  vigil  of  feasts  may  have  been  sug- 
gested by  the  fast  before  Easter,   or  by  similar 


Pebronianism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


166 


fasts  of  "preparation"  and  "katharsis"  in  the 
pagan  world.  The  fast  of  the  "Four  Seasons" 
(Quatitor  Tempora,  Ember  Days:  Wed.,  Fri.,  and 
Sat.,  after  Ash  Wed.,  Pentecost,  Sept.  14,  and 
Dec.  13)  dates  from  the  Middle  Ages.  At  present 
the  law  of  fasting  varies  in  different  locaUties: 
with  notable  exceptions,  one  full  meal,  a  bit  of  food 
in  the  morning,  and  a  light  evening  "collation"  may 
be  taken  on  a  fast  day.  Friday  is  a  day  of  "absti- 
nence"— from  flesh-meat  only.  The  "Eucharistic 
fast"  is  abstinence  from  all  food  and  drink  after 
midnight  till  Communion:  not  required  in  serious 
illness.  The  Feasts  of  Easter  (Resurrection, 
Sunday  after  the  full-moon  of  the  Spring  equinox) 
and  Pentecost  (50th  day  after  Easter)  date  appar- 
ently from  the  beginning  of  Christianity.  Sunday, 
"the  Lord's  Day,"  from  the  1st,  century,  is  an 
Easter  in  each  week.  Epiphany  (the  "Manifesta- 
tion" of  Christ  at  his  birth,  the  adoration  of  the 
Magi,  and  his  baptism),  Jan.  6,  was  of  early  origin. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  3rd.  century,  the  Birth  was 
transferred  to  Dec.  25  in  the  Western  Church, 
"dies  solis  invicti."  The  Martyrium  Poly  carpi 
(XXI),  Feb.  23,  155,  evidences  the  custom  of 
keeping  the  feasts  of  martyrs  on  the  anniversary 
of  their  death  ("birth").  Third  century  calendars 
give  the  dates  of  the  feasts  of  SS.  Peter,  Paul, 
Stephen,  etc.  At  present  the  ecclesiastical  year 
is  divided  into  Advent  (4  weeks  preceding  Christ- 
mas), Christmas,  Epiphany  and  the  six  weeks 
following,  Lent  (from  Ash  Wednesday  to  Easter), 
Easter  and  the  seven  weeks  following,  Pentecost 
and  the  twenty-four  weeks  following  to  Advent. 
The  principal  feasts  are:  Circumcision  (Jan.  1), 
Presentation  (Feb.  2),  Annunciation  (March  25), 
Assumption  (Aug.  15),  All  Saints  (Nov.  1),  All 
Souls  (Nov.  2),  Immaculate  Conception  (Dec.  8), 
and  those  of  the  Apostles.  J.  N.  Reagan 


FEBRONIANISM. — A  movement  originating 
in  the  R.C.  church  in  Germany  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th.  century  with  Johann  Nikolaus  von 
Hontheim  under  the  pseudonym,  Jiistinus  Febronius, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  limit  the  sphere 
of  the  pope  to  that  of  general  administration, 
giving  to  councils  of  bishops  supreme  authority. 
The  Punctuation  promulgated  by  the  Congress 
of  Ems  (q.v.)  was  Febronian.  The  movement  was 
perpetuated  in  the  Old  Cathohc  movement  (q.v.). 

FEDERAL  COUNCIL  OF  THE  CHURCHES 
OF  CHRIST  IN  AMERICA.— A  body  composed  of 
representatives  of  various  evangehcal  denominations 
which,  although  without  authority  over  its  constitu- 
ent bodies,  acts  as  their  representative  in  matters 
of  counsel  and  the  expression  of  general  church 
attitudes. 

The  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ 
in  America  is  the  outcome  of  a  long  effort  at  inter- 
denominational co-operation.  Among  its  fore- 
runners were  the  Evangehcal  Alliance  (o-v.)  and 
the  National  Federation  of  Churches  for  Christian 
Workers.  In  1905,  the  latter  body  called  a  meeting 
in  New  York  of  the  Inter-church  Conference  for 
Federation,  in  which  thirty  denominations  were 
represented.  This  body  drew  up  a  tentative 
constitution  which  was  submitted  to  the  bodies 
represented  and,  after  it  had  been  approved  by 
two-thirds  of  their  number,  summoned  a  con- 
vention which  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1908.  At 
this  meeting  the  constitution  of  the  Federal 
Council  was  adopted  and  the  Council  organized. 
Representation  within  it  is  limited  to  evangehcal 
churches.  Every  co-operating  denomination  has 
the  right  to  appoint  four  representatives  and  one 
additional  member  for  every  fifty  thousand  mem- 
bers.    The  Council  is  thus  ecclesiastically  organized 


and  is  usually  attended  by  approximately  three 
hundred  and  fifty  representatives. 

The  Federal  Council  has  no  authority  over  the 
bodies  represented  within  it.  The  province  of  its 
activity  is  hmited  to  the  expression  of  counsel  and 
recommendations  to  its  constituent  bodies  as  to  the 
course  of  action  in  matters  of  interest  to  denomina- 
tions, local  councils,  and  individuals.  It  carries 
on  its  work  through  a  regular  quadrennial  and  an 
occasional  special  meeting  of  the  Council  and 
annual  meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee. 
Between  these  meetings,  affairs  are  conducted  by 
an  Administrative  Committee  and  various  com- 
missions, of  which  the  following  are  the  most 
important:  Social  Service,  Rural  Church,  Feder- 
ated Movements,  Peace  and  Arbitration,  Evangel- 
ism, Temperance.  Other  commissions  which  make 
reports  to  the  quadrennial  convention  are  those 
dealing  with  the  family,  home  missions,  foreign 
missions,  and  rehgious  education.  The  expense  of 
the  Council  is  met  by  contributions  from  its  constitu- 
ent bodies  at  the  rate  of  $1.00  for  every  thousand 
members  and  from  private  gifts  and  appropriations 
from  various  co-operating  organizations.  In  1920, 
there  were  thirty  denominations  represented  in  the 
Council  and  in  addition  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  co-operated  with  the  Social  Service  Com- 
mission. Its  office  is  in  the  United  Charities 
Building,  New  York  City.        Shailer  Mathews 

FEDERAL  THEOLOGY.— See  Covenant 

Theology. 

FEELING. — See  Emotion  in  Religion. 

FEET-WASHING.— The  practice  of  feet- 
washing  in  connection  with  the  Jewish,  the 
Roman,  the  Muslim,  and  Coptic  rituals  is  a  cere- 
monial cleansing  from  defilement  preparatory  to 
worship.  It  is  an  evidence  of  hospitahty  among 
Orientals  to  provide  water  for  guests  to  wash  their 
feet  on  arrival.  Among  other  Orientals  it  is  a 
custom  observed  in  connection  with  marriage. 
The  instance  recorded  in  John  13 : 1-17  is  intended 
as  a  sermon  on  humility.  But  from  it  the  early 
church  instituted  the  ceremony  of  washing  the  feet 
of  the  newly  baptized.  A  widespread  custom  arose 
in  the  11th.  century  and  still  exists  to  some  extent  for 
monks  and  royal  persons  to  wash  the  feet  of  the 
poor,  usually  on  Holy  Thursday.  Certain  Protes- 
tant sects  have  perpetuated  the  rite  such  as  the 
Moravians,  Mennonites,  Dunkards,  Seventh-day 
Adventists,  and  the  Church  of  God,  holding  it  to  be 
an  ordinance  as  binding  as  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
supper. 

FEINN  CYCLE.— One  of  the  three  great 
Celtic  mythological  cycles  in  which  Fionn  and  the 
Feinn  are  represented  as  heroes  with  supernatural 
powers  who  accomplished  great  deeds  of  military 
prowess  in  the  early  history  of  Ireland.  In  the 
later  literature  elements  of  Norse  mythology,  of 
religious  legend,  and  of  mediaeval  magic  and 
witchcraft  were  introduced. 

FELIX. — The  name  of  five  popes. 

Felix  I.,  pope  269-274. 

Felix  II.,  appointed  pope  355-358  by  imperial 
influence  in  the  place  of  Liberius,  who  was  banished 
for  refusing  to  concur  in  the  condemnation  of 
Athanasius.  Liberius  soon  was  restored,  when 
Felix  retired. 

Felix  III.,  pope,  483^92. 

Felix  IV.,  pope,  526-530. 

Felix  v.,  pope,  1439-1449. 


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Fetishism 


FEMINIST  MOVEMENT.— The  modern  desig- 
nation of  the  agitation  to  free  women  from  the 
traditional  restrictions  and  disabihties  resting  on 
the  sex.    See  Woman. 

FENELON,  FRANCOIS  DE  SALIGNAC  DE 
LA  MOTHE  (1651-1715).— French  ecclesiastic; 
archbishop  of  Cambrai;  eminent  as  a  literary  and 
pohtical  critic,  and  as  an  educator.  Religiously, 
he  was  inchned  to  mysticism,  and  upheld  the 
quietistic  doctrines  of  Madame  Guyon,  until  the 
pope  condemned  them.  He  was  always  a  loyal 
servant  of  the  Catholic  church,  and  bitterly  opposed 
Jansenism  (q.v.).  He  was  a  zealous  and  some- 
what successful  missionary  to  the  Huguenots, 
modifying  the  methods  of  coercion  then  in  favor. 
Hfe  is  best  known  by  his  Adventures  of  Telemachus, 
written  for  the  grandsons  of  Louis  XIV. 

FENG-SHUI.— See  Fttng-Shui. 

FENRIR,  FENRIS-WOLF.— The  offspring  of 
Loki  and  enemy  of  the  gods  in  Teutonic  mythology. 
At  Ragnarok,  the  day  of  the  doom  of  the  gods,  the 
wolf  will  engage  in  battle  with  the  chief  god,  Odin, 
and  slay  him. 

FERRARA-FLORENCE,     COUNCIL    OF  —A 

gathering  of  representatives  of  the  Roman  and 
Greek  churches,  which  met  in  1438  at  Ferrara  or 
Florence  to  consider  the  union  between  the  two 
churches.  An  agreement  was  reached  and  signed 
by  115  Latins  and  33  Greeks,  but  was  not  made 
effectual.  In  1472  a  synod  in  Constantinople 
repudiated  the  Florentine  agreement. 

FESTIVALS  AND  FEASTS— A  festival  or 
holy  day  is  a  time  set  apart  for  religious  observances 
of  a  public  character. 

1 .  Relation  of  feasts  to  festivals. — Etymologically, 
festival  and  feast  are  synonymous  terms,  both  being 
derived  from  the  Latin  festum.  From  an  anthro- 
pological standpoint,  also,  the  prototype  of  the 
festival,  as  found  in  the  higher  religions,  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  communal  feasts  of  primitive  peoples. 
Such  feasts  are  often  part  of  the  ritual  of  sacrifice. 
See  Sacrifice.  If  the  god  is  supposed  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  immaterial  essence  of  the  food, 
the  visible  material  substance  may  then  be  con- 
sumed by  his  worshipers.  It  is  sometimes  the 
custom  to  present  part  of  the  offering  to  the  deity, 
the  remainder  being  eaten  by  those  who  take  part 
in  the  ceremony.  A  common  meal  of  this  sort 
has  more  or  less  a  sacramental  character:  it  forms 
at  once  a  bond  of  union  between  the  eaters  and 
between  them  and  the  god.  Communal  feasting 
usually  accompanies  birth,  marriage,  and  death  rites, 
which  in  the  lower  culture  are  clan  or  tribal,  rather 
than  purely  family  affairs,  as  well  as  the  important 
ceremonies  at  arrival  of  puberty.  See  Initiation. 
Other  occasions  for  feasting  arise  in  connection  with 
the  beginning  or  end  of  the  huntmg  and  fishing  sea- 
sons,the  inauguration  or  close  of  agricultural  opera- 
tions,and  at  certain  times  which  have  a  calendrical 
importance,  such  as  new  moon  and  full  moon,  the 
solstices  and  equinoxes,  and  the  rising  and  setting 
of  the  Pleiades.  Feasts  will  commonly  be  conse- 
crated to  particular  divinities,  as  soon  as  polytheistic 
cults  arise:  they  then  become  reUgious  festivals 
properly  so  called. 

2.  Characteristics  of  festivals. — Festivals  have 
pre-eminently  a  social  character  and  express  the 
feeUngs  of  an  entire  community,  whether  clan, 
tribe,  or  nation.  Being  folk  possessions,  they  are 
very  tenacious  of  lifo,  and  may  exist  through  long 
ages  almost  unchanged  in  nature.  Most  Euro- 
pean popular  festival,  for  instance,  can  be  traced 


back  either  to  classical  paganism,  or,  more  remotely, 
to  the  observances  of  our  prehistoric  and  heathen 
ancestors.  Festivals  lie  always  outside  of  the 
routine  of  ordinary  Ufe :  they  are  occasions  marked 
by  much  eating  and  drinking,  dancing,  buffoonery, 
disregard  of  the  current  conventions,  and  sexual 
license.  Compare  the  Roman  Saturnalia  and  the 
Hindu  Holi.  This  saturnaUan  aspect  of  early 
festivals  has  its  pale  survivals  in  modem  camivab 
and  similar  amusements. 

3.  Seasonal  festivals. — With  advancing  civiliza- 
tion festivals  tend  to  increase  in  number,  to  develop 
a  more  elaborate  ritual,  and  to  fix  more  precisely 
the  time  and  order  of  their  celebration.  It  becomes 
the  business  of  the  priesthood  to  estabhsh  and 
maintain  a  calendar  of  holy  days,  in  accordance 
with  the  natural  divisions  of  the  year.  Seasonal 
festivals  may  be  lunar,  such  as  those  at  new  moon, 
or  solar,  such  as  the  solstitial  ceremonies  held  by 
the  Pueblo  Indians,  or  agricultural  in  character. 
By  many  primitive  peoples  the  end  of  the  old 
year  or  the  beginning  of  the  new  year  is  observed 
festively.  This  time  usually  coincides  with  seasonal 
changes  (winter  and  summer,  or  wet  and  dry 
seasons)  or  is  fixed  with  reference  to  agricultural 
operations  (beginning  of  sowing,  end  of  harvest). 
The  European  observance  of  New  Year's  Day 
illustrates  the  fusion  of  festivals,  since  old  Celtic 
and  Teutonic  New  Year  customs  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  first  of  January.  Many  other  popular 
festivals  of  medieval  and  modern  Europe  have  had 
a  seasonal  origin.  All  Fool's  Day  (April  1)  seems 
to  be  a  relic  of  ceremonies  held  at  the  vernal  equinox. 
May  Day  once  honored  the  spirits  of  trees  and 
aU  budding  vegetation  in  the  spring.  The  fire 
festivals  on  Midsummer  Eve  (June  23),  marking 
the  summer  solstice,  were  once  either  solar  rites, 
or,  more  probably,  purificatory  ceremonies  for 
men,  animals,  and  growing  crops.  Hallow  Eve 
(October  31)  forms  another  survival  of  a  seasonal 
celebration. 

4.  Anniversary  festivals. — It  is  a  further  develop- 
ment when  well-defined  anniversaries,  marking 
important  events  in  the  communal  Ufe,  give  rise 
to  festivals.  The  general  tendency  will  be  to  con- 
vert the  earlier  seasonal  observances  into  anni- 
versary festivals.  Thus,  the  Hebrews  associated 
Passover,  Tabernacles,  and  Pentecost — all  originally 
agricultural  festivals — with  episodes  of  their  early 
history.  Similarly,  the  Athenian  Genesia,  an  annual 
commemoration  of  the  dead,  came  to  be  connected 
with  the  victory  of  Marathon. 

5.  Secularization  of  festivals. — With  the  progress 
of  culture  the  rehgious  element  in  festivals  tends 
to  become  less  and  less  pronounced.  This  remark 
applies  particularly  to  seasonal  festivals,  but  even 
those  of  an  anniversary  character  will  lose  their 
rehgious  significance  as  the  events  commemorated 
by  them  recede  into  the  distant  past.  The  seculari- 
zation of  festivals  is  perfectly  illustrated  by  the 
history  of  the  Roman  ferioe,  which  were  conse- 
crated to  deities  of  the  state  cults,  but  which  ended 
by  becoming  to  all  intents  and  purposes  simply 
civic  holidays.  The  same  process  of  secularization 
may  now  be  traced  in  connection  with  the  principal 
festivals  of  the  Christian  Year. 

HuTTON  Webster 
FETISHISM. — Any   form  of  behef  in   which 
mysterious   or   magic   powers   are   attributed    to 
material  objects. 

The  term  was  first  apphed  by  the  Portuguese 
explorers  to  beliefs  and  practices  of  this  character 
found  among  the  natives  of  West  Africa.  Closely 
similar  beliefs  are  now  known  to  be  common  among 
all  of  the  natural  races  and  traces  persist  in  higher 
levels  of  culture.  While  fetishism  cannot  bo 
regarded  as  a  distinct  stage  in  the  development  of 


Feuerbach.Ludwig  Andreas  A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


168 


religion  it  is  particularly  in  evidence  in  the  lower 
phases  of  religions.  It  is  the  expression  of  the 
widely-spread  primitive  notion  that  the  world  is 
pervaded  by  mysterious  powers,  a  notion  which 
lies  at  the  base  of  both  primitive  religion  and  magic. 
This  power  is  ordinarily  thought  of  as  locaUzed  or 
capable  of  being  locahzed  iu  particular  objects  and 
available  for  use  to  anyone  who  discovers  its  presence. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  primitive  man  would 
associate  power  with  any  pecuUar  object.  Oddly 
colored  or  shaped  bits  of  stone,  trees  unusual 
in  shape  or  size,  twigs,  bark,  roots,  claws,  teeth, 
skin,  feathers,  human  remains,  all  sorts  of  curious 
and  even  commonplace  trifles,  animals  and  even 
places  associated  with  mystic  power  become  objects 
of  superstitious  regard  by  the  fetish  worshiper. 
Or  such  objects  may  be  transformed  into  fetishes 
by  appropriate  rites  and  incantations.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  a  vague  power,  it  is  a  definite  spirit  that 
dwells  in  the  fetish.  Sometimes  it  is  little  more 
than  a  charm,  an  amulet  or  a  clever  device  by 
which  one  may  bring  to  himself  good  luck  or  success 
in  certain  und.ertakings.  The  interest  in  the  fetish 
is  often,  though  not  always,  private  and  malevolent. 

The  essential  idea  of  fetishism,  namely  that 
spiritual  powers  may  find  embodiment  in  material 
objects,  persists  in  higher  reUgious  and  in  many 
modern  behefs  and  practices,  for  example,  in  the 
reverence  of  the  Hebrews,  Greeks  and  Romans  for 
sacred  places  and  trees,  the  Hebrew  ark  of  the 
covenant  and  its  sacred  objects,  the  mistletoe  of 
the  Druids,  the  relics  of  the  saints,  the  cross,  the 
eucharist.  The  multitudes  of  charms  and  amulets 
believed  in  by  the  cultural  races  are  all  attestations 
of  tendencies  to  behefs  that  are  largely  fetishistic. 

Irving  King 

FEUERBACH,  LUDWIG  ANDREAS  (1804- 
1872). — German  philosopher,  belonging  to  the 
left  wing  of  the  Hegehans  who  interpreted  idealism 
pantheistically.  He  explained  religion  on  the 
basis  of  psychology,  declaring  God  and  immortality 
to  be  subjective  creations  due  to  imagination  and 
desire. 

FICHTE,  JOHANN  GOTTLIEB  (1762-1814).— 
German  philosopher,  champion  of  an  ethical 
idealism.  An  enthusiastic  disciple  of  Kant,  he 
later  developed  an  independent  system  which  he 
worked  out  largely  during  professorships  at  Jena 
and  Berlin.  Knowledge  is  not  a  passive  mirroring 
of  a  given  world-order,  but  a  personal  achievement, 
a  creation.  The  moral  life  is  hkewise  a  free  act 
of  the  self  against  opposition  within  and  without. 
The  self  thus  active  is  not  an  independent  individual 
but  an  element  in  a  universal  hfe-process.  Fichte 
identifies  God  with  the  moral  order.  Individuals 
are  instruments  of  its  realization.  Religion  can 
represent  God  only  by  means  of  symbols.  These 
symbols  are  makeshifts  of  our  thought,  and  con- 
stantly require  to  be  developed  to  clearer  and  more 
significant  forms,  for  "every  representation  of  God 
is  a  misrepresentation."  Fichte's  ethical  teaching 
had  important  social  applications.  With  feeling 
of  a  prophetic  mission  he  presented  to  the  German 
people  the  ideal  of  a  state  of  justice  and  freedom. 
Government  has  its  end  in  the  education  of  men  for 
freedom,  and  this  can  be  attained  only  when  prop- 
erty, leisure,  and  higher  culture  are  secured  for 
every  individual.  Philanthropy  is  only  a  wretched 
substitute  for  such  an  order.        W.  G.  Everett 

FIDEISM. — A  theological  position  which  makes 
faith  as  contrasted  with  reason  the  basis  for  doc- 
trinal statements.  The  term  is  employed  in 
France  to  designate  the  type  of  theology  advo- 
cated and  expounded  in  Pans  by  E.  M6n6goz  and 
Auguste  Sabatier  (q.v.). 


FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN.— A  sect  of  English 
fanatical  Millenarians  who,  in  the  time  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  even  after  the  restoration, 
declared  that  Christ  was  about  to  set  up  a  fifth 
universal  monarchy,  and  that  existing  govern- 
ments should  be  removed  as  a  means  of  prepara- 
tion for  his  kingdom. 

FILIAL  PIETY. — Reverence  for  parents  was 
very  early  recognized  as  a  social  virtue,  and  is 
found  among  practically  all  peoples.  Even  among 
those  nature  peoples  who  put  to  death  aged  parents 
this  sentiment  is  not  absent,  but  careful  examination 
rather  shows  that  this  act  is  itself  an  expression  of 
filial  piety  as  the  aged  are  put  to  death  only  with 
their  own  consent  and  because  of  certain  animistic 
superstitions  as  regards  their  state  in  a  future  life. 

Filial  piety,  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  known  in 
history,  however,  took  shape  under  ancestor 
worship  in  the  patriarchal  period.  Ancestor  wor- 
ship (q.v.)  itself  may  be  regarded  as  in  part  an 
expression  of  the  natural  reverence  for  parents, 
though  many  other  causes  also  entered  into  its 
origin.  Filial  piety  under  ancestor  worship  became 
the  chief  social  virtue.  Reverence  for  fathers  was 
especially  enjoined,  though  among  most  patriarchal 
peoples  the  honoring  of  mothers  was  also  inculcated. 
The  large  part  which  filial  piety  played  in  the 
religious  and  social  life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
is  well  known.  In  India  and  China  it  has  played 
an  even  larger  part.  Thus  filial  piety  may  be 
said  to  be  the  central  principle  not  only  of  the 
Chinese  social  system  but  of  the  ethical  system  of 
Confucianism  as  well.  Among  the  Jews  filial 
piety  was  not  only  a  religious  duty  toward  parents, 
but  it  was  standardized  as  the  attitude  to  be 
maintained  toward  _  Jehovah.  Thus  filial  piety 
became  in  Christianity  an  ideaUzed  attitude  to  be 
maintained  by  the  individual  toward  God  as  a 
father    See  Fatherhood. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 

FILIOQUE.— (Latin,  "and  from  the  Son.") 
The  clause  added  to  the  Latin  version  of  the  Nicene 
creed  at  the  council  of  Toledo,  589,  indicating 
that  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  from  the 
Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father.  It  was  the  chief 
doctrinal  ground  for  a  schism  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches,  the  former  rejecting  the 
filioque  clause. 

FINAL  PERSEVERANCE.— The  doctrine  that 
those  whom  God  elects  and  who  accept  salvation  in 
Jesus  Christ  will  persevere  in  grace  and  may  be 
certain  of  final  salvation;  one  of  the  five  points 
of  Calvinism  (q.v.)  in  opposition  to  the  Arminian 
doctrine  of  the  possibiUty  of  falUng  from  grace. 

FINALITY.— The  condition  of  being  fully 
fixed  or  absolutely  established,  as  in  the  doctrine 
that  Christianity  is  the  ultimate  form  of  religion. 
See  Teleology. 

FINNEY,  CHARLES  GRANDISON  (1792- 
1875). — -American  congregational  divine.  From 
the  date  of  his  conversion  in  1821  he  engaged  in 
evangelistic  work  in  which  he  met  with  great 
success.  President  and  professor  of  systematic 
theology  in  OberUn  CoUege. 

FINNS,  RELIGION  OF.— The  inhabitants 
of  Finland  comprise  chiefly  the  Swedish-speaking 
descendants  of  Scandinavian  immigrants  and  the 
Finns  proper,  a  people  whose  linguistic  and  physical 
characteristics  point  to  an  Asiatic  origin;  indeed, 
it  is  believed  that  the  J'inns  entered  Finland  only  in 
the  7th.  and  8th.  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
They  were  Christianized  in  the  12th.  century, 
although   the   native  paganism   only   slowly   sur- 


169 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Fish,  SymboUsm  of  the 


rendered.  The  Reformed  religion  was  introduced 
in  1528,  and  today  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Finland  are  Lutherans.  The  original  paganism  of 
the  Finns  was  a  combination  of  ancestor-  and 
nature-worship.  The  cult  of  the  dead  was  early 
important,  and  is  still  vestigially  present  among 
the  peasants.  Of  deities  proper  the  more  impor- 
tant classes  were  the  guardians  of  the  household 
and  farmstead,  analogous  to  the  household  tutelaries 
of  the  classical  peoples;  the  greater  deities  of  the 
elements,  especially  of  storm  and  thunder,  gods 
which  may  have  become  important  through  Scandi- 
navian influence;'  vegetation,  deities,  especially 
of  trees  and  grains;  and  the  great  number  of  water 
and  forest  spirits  which  have  left  in  Finland  a  rich 
folk-  and  fairy-lore.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  under 
the  influence  of  combined  Christian  and  pagan  ideas, 
arose  a  poetic  mythology  centering  around  the 
person  and  deeds  of  the  hero,  Kalevala,  and  repre- 
sented by  a  poem  of  that  name  which  is  rather  a 
collection  of  traditional  songs  than  a  composition 
having  a  single  source.    See  Kalevala. 

H.  B.  Alexander 
FIORETTI.— "The  Little  Flowers  of  St. 
Francis,"  a  collection  of  early  legends  of  St.  Francis 
and  his  companions,  have  been  said  to  be  the 
"most  exquisite  expression  of  religious  life  in  the 
Middle  Ages."  They  breathe  the  delightful 
childlike  trust  and  love  of  St.  Francis,  and  a  naive 
realistic  faith  in  the  Supernatural  that  is  delightful. 
The  simplicity  and  purity  of  the  Italian  in  which 
they  are  written  has  deservedly  won  them  a  place 
in  early  Italian  classical  literature.  The  oldest 
known  MS.  is  dated  1390.  J.  N.  Reagan 

FIQH. — The  authoritative  theology  and  law  of 
Islam.  The  canon  law  was  developed  by  four 
schools  which  are  all  accepted  as  orthodox;  the 
Hanbalite  (Central  Arabia),  Malikite  (Upper 
Egypt  and  N.  Africa),  Hanifite  (Central  Asia, 
Turkey,  and  N.  India),  Shafi'ite  (Lower  Egypt, 
S.  India,  Malay  and  Syria). 

FIRE,  FIREWORSHIPPERS,  AND  FIRE 
GODS. — No  element  is  more  commonly  regarded 
as  sacred  by  primitive  and  pagan  men  than  is  fire. 
Both  as  the  hearth-  or  household  fire  and  as  the 
fire  of  heaven  (lightning)  or  of  earth  (volcanic 
or  inflammable  gas)  fire  has  been  deified  in  nearly 
every  polytheistic  religion,  the  firegod  usually 
being  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  deities.  In 
classical  religion  Vulcan,  or  Hephaestos,  was  the 
deity  of  natural  fire,  and  Vesta,  or  Hestia,  the 
goddess  of  the  hearth-fire.  The  worship  of  Vesta 
in  Rome  was  the  worship  of  the  hearth-fire  of  the 
city,  after  the  analogy  of  the  household  hearth- 
fire,  and  in  the  temple  of  the  goddess  a  perpetual 
fire  was  guarded  and  fed  by  the  Vestal  Virgins. 
An  almost  identical  custom  was  observed  by  the 
ancient  Celts,  among  whom  the  fire-gods  were 
important,  and  again  by  the  Incas  of  Peru,  whose 
perpetual  fire  was  also  guarded  by  chosen  virgins. 
The  keeping  of  perpetual  or  symbolic  fires  was, 
indeed,  characteristic  of  many  barbarous  nations, 
while  a  rite  also  widespread  was  the  periodic  extinc- 
tion, after  periods  varying  from  one  to  many  years, 
of  such  holy  fires  along  with  all  others  in  the  com- 
munity, and  the  kindling  of  a  new  fire,  which  was 
made  the  occasion  for  sacrifices  and  an  elaborate 
festival.  Sacrifice  by  burnt  offerings,  ordeals  by 
fire,  purifications  by  fire,  divinations  by  fire,  appear 
in  numberless  forms;  and  it  is  perhaps  in  the 
worship  of  fire-gods  more  than  any  others  that 
human  sacrifices,  generally  by  burning  alive,  have 
been  most  numerous  and  longest  preserved.  The 
Biblical  Moloch  was  a  sun-  or  fire-god  to  whom  chil- 
dren were  sacrificed. 


In  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Medes  and  Persians, 
as  reformed  by  Zoroaster,  fire  was  made  the  symbol 
of  the  power  of  righteousness,  more  or  less  identified 
with  the  sun,  and  the  preservation  of  continuous 
fires  upon  the  altars  was  so  important  a  part  of  the 
ritual  that  Zoroastrians  have  frequently  been 
called  fire-worshippers.  They  are  represented  today 
by  the  Parsis  of  Bombay,  descendants  of  refugees 
from  Persia  to  India  when  the  former  country  was 
conquered  and  Mohammedanized  by  the  Saracens. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

FIRMAMENT.— In  the  cosmologies  of  the 
ancient  religions  of  the  Babylonians,  Hebrews, 
Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  sky  was  con- 
ceived as  an  expansive  dome  (firmament)  created 
by  God  to  separate  the  terrestrial  and  celestial 
regions;  or,  as  in  Genesis,  the  waters  above  from 
those  below  the  earth. 

FIRST  CAUSE.— The  first  cause  appears  in 
religious  thought  as  Creator  or  prime  Mover,  and 
forms  the  kernel  of  the  cosmological  argument. 
Its  logic  runs  as  follows:  the  universe  of  each 
moment  is  dependent  upon  the  imiverse  of  the 
preceding  moment,  this  upon  an  earlier,  and  so 
on  ad  infinitum.  Thought  cannot  rest  except  in  a 
first  cause,  assumed  as  the  beginning  of  the  whole 
series.  But  the  logic  of  the  argument  is  abandoned 
the  moment  we  make  a  halt,  since  the  demand  for 
the  cause  of  any  assumed  first  cause  is  as  exigent 
as  ever.  Further,  such  reasoning  could  never  take 
us  outside  of  the  world  to  its  creator.  Religious 
thought  is  compelled  rather  to  view  the  universe 
as  eternally  existent  fact,  and  to  find  the  basis  of 
faith  in  its  nature — in  what  it  is  and  does. 

Walter  Goodnow  Everett 

FIRSTBORN.— Especial  sanctity  was  attrib- 
uted by  the  Hebrews,  as  by  some  other  peoples,  to 
the  first  crop  of  the  fruit  tree,  the  first  sheaf  of  the 
harvest,  the  firsthngs  of  animals,  and  the  firstborn 
child  (if  a  male)  in  each  family.  The  logical  result 
was  the  sacrifice  of  firstlings  of  the  flock,  and  appar- 
ently also  in  the  earlier  stages  of  Semitic  religion 
the  sacrifice  of  firstborn  sons. 

Another  manifestation  of  the  sanctity  of  the 
firstborn  is  their  consecration  to  the  priesthood, 
of  which  we  have  some  traces.  According  to 
the  priestly  writer  the  Levites  were  taken  into 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary  as  an  equivalent  for  the 
firstborn  of  all  Israel,  the  implication  being  that 
these  were  liable  for  this  service.  Deuteronomy 
intimates  that  the  firstborn  had  a  claim  to  a  larger 
share  of  the  property  than  the  other  sons,  a  privilege 
that  still  persists  in  some  countries. 

H.  P.  Smith 

FIRSTFRUITS.— The  earliest  ripened  products 
of  agriculture;  also  the  firstborn  of  domestic 
animals  and  human  beings. 

Produce  from  the  soil  and  the  body  being 
regarded  as  the  gift  of  superhuman  powers,  the 
earUest  (and  best)  are  in  aclmowledgment  offered  to 
spirits  or  deity.  Often  they  are  eaten  in  celebra- 
tion of  a  religious  harvest  feast.  They  may  be 
offered  to  ancestral  spirits,  to  a  (divine)  living 
chief,  or  eaten  representatively  by  children.  The 
time  of  celebration  varies. 

The  first  born  of  domesticated  animals  are 
sacrificed,  if  sacrificable;  if  not,  redeemed.  First- 
born children  are  redeemed  or  consecrated  to  the 
god;  primitive  peoples  sacrifice  them  (so  in  New 
Guinea,  China,  India,  Africa,  Peru);  and  even 
eat  them  in  solemn  feast  (Africa,  Australia). 
Vestiges  remain  in  modern  harvest  festivals. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore 

FISH,  SYMBOLISM  OF  THE.— In  early 
Christian  practise  the  fish  was  frequently  used  in 


Five  Articles 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


170 


Christian  symbolism.  A  famous  acrostic  was  made 
from  the  first  letters  of  the  phrase,  "Jesus  Christ, 
Son  of  God  and  Savior"  which  in  Greek  spelt  the 
word  "fish." 

FIVE  ARTICLES  OF  ARMINIANISM— Fun- 
damental doctrines  set  forth  in  the  Remonstrance 
of  1610  affirming  (1)  election  dependent  upon  God's 
foreknowledge  of  a  sinner's  faith;  (2)  universal 
atonement;  (3)  salvation  by  grace  alone;  (4) 
grace  not  irresistible  though  necessary;  (5)  pos- 
sibility of  faUing  from  grace. 

FIVE  CLASSICS,  THE.— The  five  sacred 
Scriptures  of  Confucianism  (q.v.),  viz. — (1)  The 
Book  of  Changes  (Yi  King),  (2)  The  Book  of 
Rites  (Li  Ki),  (3)  The  Book  of  History  (Shu  King), 
(4)  The  Book  of  Odes  (Shi  King),  and  (5)  The 
Spring  and  Autumn  Annals  (Chun  Tsiu). 

FIVE  MILE  ACT.— An  act  passed  by  the 
Enghsh  parliament  in  1665,  whereby  any  clergy- 
man, who  had  been  expelled  from  his  parish  by  the 
Act  of  Union  of  1662,  was  prohibited  from  coming 
within  five  miles  of  his  former  parish  or  of  any 
incorporated  town  or  city,  unless  he  agreed  to  con- 
form to  the  state  church.  This  cut  off  the  majority 
of  Puritan  pastors  from  their  churches. 

FIVE  POINTS  OF  CALVINISM.— The  five 
distinctive  tenets  of  Calvinism  adopted  at  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  1610  (q.v.),  in  opposition  to  the  five  articles 
of  Arminianism  (q.v.),  viz.,  (1)  unconditional 
election;  (2)  atonement  Umited  to  the  elect;  (3) 
total  depravity;  (4)  efficacious  and  irresistible 
grace;   (5)  perseverance  of  the  saints.| 

FLABELLUM.— (1)  In  the  R.C.  church,  the 
fan  carried  in  procession  before  the  pope.  (2)  In 
the  Greek  church,  the  fan  waved  to  prevent  flies 
from  ahghting  on  the  chahce  during  the  celebration 
of  the  Eucharist. 

FLACIUS,  MATTHIAS  (1520-1575).— German 
Lutheran  theologian,  chiefly  known  as  advocate  of 
an  extreme  form  of  the  doctrine  of  original  sin, 
although  he  was  active  in  most  of  the  theological 
controversies  of  his  day. 

FLAGELLATION,  FLAGELLANTS.— Flagella- 
tion is  self-inflicted  scourging  as  a  method  of  religious 
penance.  There  are  evidences  of  it  in  the  Egyptian, 
Greek,  Roman,  Indian,  and  Semitic  religions.  In 
Christianity,  originally  an  ecclesiastical  punishment, 
it  became  a  voluntary  penance.  The  FageUants 
were  fraternities  who  arose  in  Italy  in  the  13th. 
century,  practising  voluntary  scourging.  The 
movement  spread  throughout  Europe,  and  appeared 
from  time  to  time  until  as  late  as  1820.  Both  the 
Cathohc  church  and  European  states  have  en- 
deavored to  control  or  suppress  it. 

FLEECE. — In  certain  religions,  magical  prac- 
tices became  associated  with  fleece,  such  as  the 
magical  transfer  of  the  animal's  properties  to  the 
wearer  of  its  fleece,  protection  against  disease  and 
other  evils,  rain-making  ceremonies  and  agrarian 
fertility  rites.  In  many  cases  the  fleece  used  was 
from  the  hide  of  a  sacrificial  victim.  The  Greek 
myths  of  the  golden  fleece  are  well  known. 

FLESH. — A  term  used  with  a  variety  of  mean- 
ings, but  generally  to  indicate  the  material  and 
less  spiritual  elements  in  a  man's  personahty. 

The  theological  usage  of  the  term  is  an  extension 
of  the  simple  anthropology  which  has  characterized 


all  human  thinking  from  primitive  times.  A  distinc- 
tion has  always  been  drawn  between  the  body 
and  an  element  which  was  known  as  the 
"breath,"  "the  soul"  or  "the  spirit"  (q.v.)  In  the 
more  developed  thinking  of  the  pre-scientific  age 
a  distinction  was  naturally  drawn  between  the 
tissues  of  the  body  and  the  bones  and  the  blood. 
As  this  tissue  portion  of  the  body  seemed  to  be  the 
seat  of  feeUng  and  passions  (see  Heart;  Liver), 
it  was  natural  for  the  term  by  metonymy  to  be 
used  to  represent  the  physical  and  passional  elements 
of  the  human  personahty.  See  Body. 

In  the  New  Testament  thought,  the  body  itself 
is  not  evil,  but  the  flesh  is  the  agent  of  sin.  Paul 
does  not  identify  the  flesh  with  the  body,  but  with 
aU  those  elements  of  life  which  the  evolutionist 
might  describe  as  survivals  of  animalism.  To 
some  extent,  this  is  identical  with  the  rabbinical 
thought  of  the  "evil  impulse"  which  is  as  old  as 
humanity,  although  it  is  difficult  to  show  any  direct 
connection  between  the  two  terms.  As  the  quahty 
of  the  flesh  is  to  be  seen  not  only  in  licentiousness 
but  also  in  quarrelsomeness,  there  naturally  arises 
a  contest  between  it  and  the  more  spiritual,  super- 
animal  elements  of  the  personahty  and  this  contest 
opens  the  door  to  asceticism  (q.v.).  Death,  by 
deUvering  man  from  the  flesh,  makes  it  possible 
for  his  personahty  to  achieve  higher  development. 
Early  church  writers  thought  that  the  flesh  would 
be  restored  to  the  spirit  at  the  resurrection  but  the 
Pauline  teaching  does  not  contain  this  view  but 
expects  rather  that  in  the  place  of  the  flesh  the 
spirit  will  be  given  a  spiritual  body.  The  resurrec- 
tion of  the  flesh  may  properly  be  considered,  how- 
ever, as  an_  imperfect  expression  of  the  hope  of  a 
genuinely  individual  immortahty.  See  Future 
Life,  CoNcaaprioNS  of.  Shailer  Mathews 

FLETCHER,  JOHN  WILLIAM  (1729-1785).— 
Clergyman  and  theologian  who  became  one  of 
John  Wesley's  associates,  and  who  wrote  many 
treatises  expounding  Arminianism. 

FLIEDNER,  THEODOR  (1800-1864).— German 
clergyman  and  philanthropist,  the  founder  of  the 
deaconess  order  in  modern  Protestantism. 

FLOOD.— See  Deluge. 

FLORENCE,  COUNCIL  OF— See  Basel, 
Council  of. 

FLORIGELIA. — Compilations  of  quotations 
from  the  Fathers  and  other  early  ecclesiastical 
authors,  collected  to  serve  the  ends  of  theological 
or  efthical  doctrines. 

FLOWERS. — Because  of  their  beauty,  flowers 
naturally  are  used  on  ceremonial  occasions,  hke 
weddings,  funerals,  or  to  reinforce  emotion.  Among 
the  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Japanese,  certain  flowers 
and  certain  arrangements  of  flowers  are  used  in 
rehgious  symboUsm.  In  India  and  Persia  certain 
flowers  are  regarded  as  sacred  to,  or  as  an  acceptable 
offering  to  the  deity.  The  lotus  is  especially 
sacred  among  Buddhists  and  Hindus.  In  Japan 
many  festivals  are  associated  with  the  blooming  of 
certain  flowers. 

FONT. — A  vessel  or  receptacle  used  as  a  con- 
tainer for  water  for  the  administration  of  baptism. 

FOOD,  RELIGIOUS  ASPECTS  OF.— Rehgion 
is  associated  with  the  use  of  food  in  many  ways. 
(1)  Food  gods,  or  deities  presiding  over  important 
sources  of  food-supply,  are  the  objects  of  universal 
worship  among  pagan  peoples;    as  gods  of  grain, 


171 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Formorians 


fruits,  the  fields,  of  hunting,  of  herds,  of  animal 
species,  gods  of  the  sea,  of  marine  foods.  Such 
deities  are  always  very  important.  (2)  Sacrificial 
offerings  are  more  often  in  the  form  of  food-offerings 
than  in  any  other;  they  may  be  in  the  form  of 
devotions,  as  in  the  biblical  whole  burnt  offerings, 
and  as  is  customary  in  food  offerings  to  the  dead,  or 
in  the  form  of  sacrificial  feasts  in  which  the  worship- 
per deems  himself  to  share  with  the  god,  each  par- 
taking of  the  offering.  (3)  Sacramental  feasts,  in 
which  the  body  of  the  deity  is  believed  to  enter 
symboUcally,  as  in  the  Eucharist,  are  a  special  form 
of  communion.  (4)  First  fruits,  comprising  the 
first  gatherings  of  harvest  or  the  first  born  of 
flocks,  are  very  generally  recognized  as  appropriate 
to  the  deity,  harvest  offerings  in  particular  being 
both  very  ancient  and  very  important  among  pagan 
peoples.  (5)  Tabu  foods,  or  forbidden  fruits,  are 
religious  in  origin;  foods  are  forbidden  unless 
properly  prepared,  certain  foods  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  certain  times  of  life,  to  certain  classes 
of  people,  etc.,  in  a  multitude  of  forms.  (6)  Conse- 
crated foods,  or  foods  enjoined  under  special  cir- 
cumstances and  to  special  ends,  by  being  blessed 
or  prepared  according  to  ritual.  (7)  Modes  of 
eating,  as  to  with  whom  one  may  lawfully  eat,  the 
bond  created  by  eating  together,  form  an  important 
chapter  in  the  history  of  social  organization,  and 
are  even  today  influential  among  Mohammedans, 
Hindus,  Jews,  and  others.         H.  B.  Alexander 

FOOL,  FOLLY.— The  Hebrew  and  Greek  words 
translated  by  "fool"  and  "folly"  in  the  EngHsh 
Bible  denote  a  person  without  wisdom,  or  absence 
of  wisdom,  rather  than  an  imbecile  or  witlessness. 
The  conception  of  wisdom  is  that  of  divine  law, 
moral  and  religious,  as  a  truly  devout  and  upright 
person  should  comprehend  it:  its  beginning  is 
"fear  of  the  Lord."  Folly,  accordingly,  is  a  moral 
rather  than  an  intellectual  failure,  and  the  fool  is 
akin  to  the  sinner. 

Fools  proper,  or  imbeciles,  among  primitive 
peoples  are  more  often  than  not  regarded  as  pos- 
sessing a  sanctity  of  their  own,  being  viewed  either 
as  possessed  or  as  under  the  protection  of  an 
interested  deity.  In  not  a  few  cults,  clownish 
impersonation  and  fool-playing  is  a  recognized  part 
of  reUgious  festivals.  Greek  comedy  probably 
arose  from  such  a  source,  and  something  not  dis- 
similar appeared  in  the  Mystery  Plays  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  H.  B.  Alexander 

FOOLS,  FEAST  OF.— A  Christian  perpetuation 
of  the  ancient  Roman  Saturnaha  in  which  burlesque 
representations  of  ecclesiastical  proceedings  of 
church  services  were  given.  It  was  celebrated  in 
France  until  the  15th.  century. 

FOREKNOWLEDGE.— The  abiUty  of  God  to 
foresee  from  eternity  aU  the  course  of  future  history 
and  future  existences.     Cf.  Foreordination. 

FOREORDINATION.— The  doctrine  that  God 
previously  determines  the  course  of  events  of 
every  kind,  particularly  salvation,  so  that  all  things 
happen  according  to  his  plan. 

FORGIVENESS.— The  act  or  decision  of  an 
offended  person  whereby  the  offender  ceases  to 
incur  the  displeasure  of  the  injured  party  and  is 
released  from  penalties. 

In  all  rehgions  where  men  are  believed  to  be  in 
relations  with  a  personal  deity,  forgiveness  or  its 
equivalent  is  essential  whenever  the  deity  has  been 
offended.  The  conditions  under  which  the  deity 
may  be  placated  vary  greatly  with  varying  kinds 
of  cultures.    See  Atonement;  Propitiation;  Sacri- 


fice. Thus  forgiveness  may  be  little  more  than 
a  favorable  response  of  the  god  to  a  pleasing  sacrifice 
or  ritual.  In  the  more  ethical  interpretations  of 
religion,  forgiveness  is  a  moral  attitude  of  helpful 
approval  on  the  part  of  God  and  is  conditioned 
solely  on  honest  repentance  on  the  part  of  the 
sinner.  The  great  prophets  of  Israel  in  clearest 
fashion  proclaimed  this  ethical  conception,  declar- 
ing that  God  would  not  heed  attempts  to  placate 
him  in  merely  external  ways.  See,  e.g.,  Isa.  1 :  10- 
20.  In  later  Judaism,  the  observance  of  rituals 
was  emphasized  as  evidence  of  the  genuineness  of 
repentance. 

In  Christianity,  forgiveness  has  been  con- 
nected with  the  atoning  work  of  Christ.  See 
Atonement.  The  obstacles  in  the  way  of  God's 
favorable  attitude  toward  a  sinner  are  removed  by 
Christ,  so  that  anyone  who  accepts  this  atoning 
work  in  faith  may  be  freely  forgiven.  The  Catholic 
Chufch  holds  that  the  benefits  of  Christ's  work 
are  entrusted  to  the  Church,  so  that  forgiveness  is 
granted  only  through  the  church  to  the  individual, 
ordinarily  through  the  sacraments,  though  not  ex- 
clusively, since  perfect  contrition  or  love  of  God 
obtains  forgiveness  without  the  sacraments,  even  for 
the  heathen,  who  is  thus  said  to  belong  to  *'the 
soul  of  the  church."  See  Penance;  Absolution. 
Protestantism  released  forgiveness  from  ecclesias- 
tical conditions,  referring  the  sinner  directly  to 
God's  love  as  manifested  in  the  death  of  Christ. 
A  more  or  less  explicit  affirmation  of  beUef  in 
the  efficacy  of  Christ's  atoning  work  has  usually 
been  insisted  upon  as  a  condition  of  forgiveness. 
Forgiveness  means  the  remission  of  the  penalties 
which  otherwise  the  sinner  must  suffer,  hence  his 
deUverance  from  the  fear  of  Hell.  In  CathoUcism, 
a  certain  amount  of  disciplinary  penalty  is 
imposed  either  in  deeds  of  penance  to  be  done 
during  this  fife,  or  in  purgatory  after  death. 
Protestantism  has  emphasized  the  experience  of 
gratitude  for  free  forgiveness  as  a  motive  for 
gladly  living  hereafter  in  accordance  with  the 
will  of  God. 

In  ethics,  forgiveness  is  a  magnanimous  attitude, 
in  which  the  offended  party  foregoes  any  claims! 
for  damages  and  renounces  all  ill-feehng.  It 
furnishes  a  way  in  which  a  new  moral  start  may  be 
made  without  the  encumbrance  of  past  evils,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  important  means  of  securing  more 
flexible  adjustments.  When  forgiveness  is  formally 
or  officially  pronounced,  it  is  called  Pardon. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

FORM. — (1)  In  philosophy,  those  quahties  and 
determinants  which  fix  the  arrangement  of  the 
"matter"  and  thus  give  a  thing  definite  identity. 
According  to  Kant,  the  a  priori  factors  which 
determine  mental  activity,  such  as  space  and  time, 
and  the  categories  of  the  understanding.  (2)  In 
scholastic  theology  form  came  to  stand  for  the 
intrinsic  determinant  of  a  species.  The  form  or 
formal  cause  of  Aristotle  (q.v.)  was  identified  with 
essence,  as  "the  form  of  God"  or  *  form  of  an  angel." 
Aquinas  made  form  the  determinant  of  what  God 
and  men  are  essentially. 

FORMALISM. — A  strict  adherence  to  external 
rules  in  rehgion  or  moraUty,  without  any  proper 
appreciation  of  the  spiritual  reahty  lying  behind 
the  rules.  The  formaUst  depends  on  mere  con- 
formity to  sacraments,  rites,  or  acts  of  worship  to 
win  for  him  all  the  rewards  of  reUgion.  The  scribes 
and  Pharisees  are  represented  in  the  gospels  as 
formahsts. 

FORMORIANS. — The  gods  of  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Ireland  before  the  coming  of  the 
Celts.    On   the   arrival   of   the   new  Celtic  gods 


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172 


they  were  treated  as  evil  powers  of  storm,  darkness 
and  death,  though  their  original  functions  were 
those  of  gods  of  fertility  and  growth. 

FORMOSA,  RELIGIONS  OF  AND  MISSIONS 

TO. — An  island  off  the  coast  of  China  ceded  in  1895 
by  China  to  Japan ;  now  called  Taiwan.  The  popu- 
lation comprises  a  large  number  of  Chinese,  Japa- 
nese, and  about  300,000  Formosan  aborigines.  For 
the  reUgions  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  see 
China  and  Japan.  The  aborigines  are  polytheists, 
two  of  their  important  deities  being  Tamagisangak 
who  beautifies  man  and  Tekarpada  who  sends  rain. 
Idolatry  is  practised,  and  many  of  their  ceremonials 
are  wildly  orgiastic.  The  information  is  very 
meager  concerning  them,  and  about  the  only 
missionary  work  was  that  done  by  the  Dutch 
pastors  when  Holland  possessed  Formosa  in  the 
first  half  of  the  17th.  century. 

FORMOSUS.— Pope,  891-896. 

FORMULA  OF  CONCORD.— The  last  great 
confessional  formulation  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
pubUshed  in  1580  with  the  signature  of  the  large 
majority  of  Lutheran  princes  and  clergy.  It 
endeavored  to  give  a  true  Lutheran  interpretation 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (q.v.),  which  should 
preclude  the  teachings  of  Melanchthon,  Flacius, 
and  the  Crypto-Calvinists.  See  Creeds;  Con- 
fessions OF  Faith. 

FORTITUDE.— Courage  or  strength  of  mind 
for  patient  endurance;  one  of  the  four  cardinal 
virtues  of  classical  ethics.  In  early  Christian 
history  fortitude  was  a  passive  rather  than  active 
virtue.      See  Courage. 

FORTUNATUS  (ca.  535-588).— ItaUan  Chris- 
tian poet  of  the  6th.  century.  Translations  of 
some  of  his  hymns  are  still  used. 

FORTUNE. — A  goddess  of  chance  in  the  Greco- 
Roman  world. 

1.  Greek. — Fortune  as  a  goddess  of  chance  seems 
to  be  a  development  of  historic  times  in  Greece.  In 
the  fragmentary  poetry  of  the  7th.  and  6th.  centuries 
the  word  tyche  occurs  meaning  "good  luck," 
"success."  Pindar  celebrates  Fortune  especially 
in  his  twelfth  Olympian  ode;  at  times  he  attaches 
tyche  to  some  divine  power;  again  he  makes  her  one 
of  the  Fates.  In  Aeschylus  and  Sophocles  Fortune 
plays  no  great  part,  but  Euripides  makes  her  a 
rival  of  the  gods  in  power.  From  the  orators  and 
others  it  is  clear  that  in  common  behef  Fortune, 
Chance,  played  a  large  role.  She  was  personified 
and  worshiped  with  various  appellatives.  The 
great  philosophers  were  for  the  most  part  inclined 
to  exclude  Chance  from  their  systems,  regarding  the 
popular  belief  as  due  to  the  fallibihty  of  men's 
judgments,  so  that  they  attributed  to  Fortune  those 
elements  which  they  could  not  foresee  and  calculate. 
The  popular  mind,  however,  continued  the  worship 
of  tyche  to  the  end  of  antiquity,  often  identifying 
her  with  Fate. 

2.  Roman. — Fortuna  among  the  Romans  was 
not  a  goddess  of  Chance,  but  a  controUing  goddess, 
often  prophetic.  Her  oracles  at  Praeneste  and 
Antium  were  famous.  Contact  with  the  Greeks, 
however,  brought  in  the  idea  of  Chance  which 
spread  among  many  classes  of  society.  Among 
the  educated  the  influence  of  Stoicism  tended  to 
foster  the  concept  of  Fortuna  as  a  power  working 
toward  a  definite  end,  and  to  identify  Fortune  with 
Destiny.  This  later  idea  is  given  splendid  expres- 
sion by  Vergil  in  his  Aeneid.  But  the  disasters 
which  attended  the  end  of  the  Republic  contributed 


greatly  to  the  spread  of  the  belief  in  Chance.  Under 
the  Empire  there  arose  the  cult  of  Fortuna  in  con- 
nection with  the  worship  of  the  emperors,  which 
lasted  on  beside  the  other  manifold  concepts  of 
Fortune  to  the  end  of  paganism. 

Clifford  H.  Moore 
FORTY  HOURS'  DEVOTION.— A  service  in 
the  R.C.  church  in  honor  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
of  the  Mass,  continuing  for  forty  hours  during  which 
time  the  Host  is  exposed  on  the  high  altar,  and 
prayers  are  conducted  by  the  priests. 

FORTY-TWO  ARTICLES.— An  AngUcan  con- 
fession of  faith  issued  in  1551  and  ratified  by  the 
Privy  Council  and  Bishops  of  England  in  1553. 
They  were  subsequently  reduced  to  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  (q.v.)  by  the  ehmination  of  three 
articles  directed  against  the  Anabaptists. 

FORUM,  ECCLESIASTICAL.— See  Courts, 
E  c  clesiasti  cal. 

FOSSARIAN.— (1)  A  grave  digger  in  the  early 
church  dating  from  the  use  of  special  cemeteries 
probably  in  the  3rd.  century.  Also  called  fossar. 
(2)  A  member  of  a  hermit  sect  of  the  15th.  century 
who  observed  their  rites  in  ditches  and  caves. 

FOUNDATION-RITES.— Among  primitive 
peoples  the  erection  of  a  house  or  temple,  or  the 
estabUshment  of  a  settlement  is  an  occasion  for 
ceremonies  of  magical  and  rehgious  character.  In 
the  choice  of  a  site  divination  is  employed  to  ascer- 
tain the  wiU  of  supernatural  powers.  Again  in 
the  apprehension  and  consecration  of  the  site 
shamanistic  practises  are  frequent.  The  collection 
of  building  materials  and  the  actual  laying  of  the 
foundation  called  forth  rites  designed  to  intimidate 
evil  spirits,  neutrahze  charms  and  spells,  concihate 
the  earth  spirits  or  other  local  powers  and  to  make 
provision  for  a  patron  spirit.  The  modem  custom 
of  laying  the  corner-stone  of  churches  and  other 
edifices  is  a  survival  of  this  ancient  custom. 

FOUNDLING  ASYLUMS.— Orphans  and  aban- 
doned children  were  wards  of  the  early  churches, 
being  reared  by  widows  and  given  a  trade  (Tert. 
Apol.  39;  Augustine,  Ep.  39).  The  Second  Council 
of  Nicaea  (787)  enjoined  foundhng  asylums  and  one 
was  soon  opened  in  Milan.  Under  the  influence 
of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  (17th.  century)  France 
developed  many  which  in  1789  became  state  institu- 
tions. Secret  dehvery  by  placing  the  child  in  a 
box  revolving  within  the  wall  led  to  alarming 
increase  of  foundhngs  and  in  1834  was  abandoned. 
Similar  experience  led  the  London  Foundling 
Hospital  (founded  1741)  to  receive  a  child  only  on 
the  mother's  attestation  that  it  is  the  first  illegiti- 
mate and  that  the  father  has  not  hved  with  her. 
Germany  has  no  such  asylums  but  "baby  farming" 
has  recently  been  put  under  the  control  of  city 
physicians.  In  America  such  institutions  are 
private  though  sometimes  aided  by  pubhc  funds. 
Massachusetts  forbids  them,  the  State  Board  of 
Charities  placing  abandoned  children  with  hcensed 
families.  This  measure  has  reduced  the  high  death 
rate  found  in  asylums.  F.  A.  Christie 

FOUR  POINTS. — Four  particulars  concerning 
which  American  Lutheranism  has  declared  itself: 
(1)  Chiliasm  condemned;  (2)  secret  societies  teach- 
ing anything  contrary  to  the  Bible  or  confessions 
condemned;  (3)  mixed  or  open  communion  dis- 
approved; (4)  exchange  of  pulpits  between  Lutheran 
and  non-Lutheran  ministers  permitted,  if  ortho- 
doxy is  not  thereby  impaired. 


173 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Free  Church  of  England 


FOX,  GEORGE  (1624-1691).— Founder  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  (Quakers).  Born  at  Drayton, 
Leicestershire,  England  in  1624.  He  showed 
psychopathical  tendencies  in  his  youth.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-three  he  had  a  great  constructive 
religious  experience,  which  profoundly  transformed 
him,  and  he  believed  hirnself  divinely  sent  as  a 
preacher  of  the  Light  within.  He  was  a  mystic  of 
the  same  general  type  as  Jacob  Boehme  (1575-1624), 
a  great  traveller,  organizer  and  reformer.  He  was 
constantly  persecuted  and  suffered  seven  severe 
imprisonments.  Author  of  a  famous  religious 
autobiography,  the  Journal  of  George  Fox,  and 
many  religious  tracts  and  epistles,  expounding  his 
views.  Ruptrs  M.  Jones 

FOX'S  BOOK  OF  MARTYRS.— A  book  written 
by  John  Fox  (1516-1587),  being  a  compilation  of 
the  persecutions  of  Christians  from  a.d.  1000 
to  his  own  day;  a  book  which  exercised  a  wide 
influence  on  subsequent  Christian  history,  especially 
among  Englishmen. 

FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI,  SAINT  (1182-1226).— 
Founder  of  the  Franciscan  order  (q.v.);  born  in 
Assisi,  Italy,  where  he  received  a  meager  education. 
As  a  youth  he  was  given  to  adventure  and  carefree 
indulgence,  but  as  a  result  of  illness  during  which  he 
experienced  visions  he  consecrated  himself  to  a  Ufe 
of  poverty  and  ministrations  to  the  poor,  attempting 
Uterally  to  follow  the  commands  of  Jesus.  Dis- 
ciples soon  gathered  about  him,  and  in  1209  Inno- 
cent III.  sanctioned  the  order.  _  The  outstanding 
features  of  Francis  were  his  rigorous  asceticism 
combined  with  joyous  mysticism  and  the  ideal  of 
service  making  him  perhaps  the  most  lovable  saint 
in  history.  He  resigned  the  office  of  general  of  the 
order  in  1220. 

FRANCISCANS.— A  Roman  Catholic  order 
named  after  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  The  penitents 
who  joined  Francis  of  Assisi  in  a  Ufe  of  complete 
poverty  and  a  religious  work  of  preaching  and 
reUef  of  suffering  became  the  ecclesiastical  Order  of 
Brothers  Minor  by  the  rule  imposed  in  1223  by 
Pope  Honorius  III.  The  members,  barefoot  and 
clad  in  a  coarse  grey  gown  ("Grey  Friars"),  lived 
by  manual  labor  and  alms.  The  order  had  a 
somewhat  democratic  government,  the  local  leaders 
("guardians")  electing  the  provincial  minister  and 
the  Minister  General  being  limited  to  a  tenure  of 
twelve  years.  With  the  papal  rule  of  1223  began 
gradual  assimilation  to  the  older  monastic  orders, 
but  the  Testament  of  Saint  Francis  occasionea 
divisions  into  the  rigorist  Spirituals  or  Observants, 
living  hermit-like  in  mean  shelters,  and  the  Con- 
ventuals living  with  a  laxer  rule  in  large  convents. 
In  the  14th.  century  the  rigorists  revolted  against 
the  papal  policy  of  hostility  to  their  complete 
poverty  and  many  died  at  the  stake.  A  branch 
of  the  Observants  became  the  rigorist  Capuchins 
(1526),  an  order  definitely  separate  in  1619.  In 
1897  Leo  XIII.  united  minor  groups  of  rigorists  in 
one  order  and  in  1907  Pius  X.  classed  Observants, 
Conventuals,  Capuchins  as  aU  ahke  branches  of  the 
Brothers  Minor.  The  second  order  is  the  women's 
order  of  Poor  Clares  (Saint  Clara  of  Assisi,  1216). 
The  third  order  is  a  fraternity  of  laymen  Uving  the 
world's  hfe  with  the  ideals  of  Franciscan  piety. 
The  order  has  been  distinguished  for  missions  in  the 
Orient  and  Spanish  American  lands.  In  the 
scholastic  universities  it  had  eminence  through 
Alexander  of  Hales,  Bonaventura,  Duns  Scotus, 
Roger  Bacon.  The  order  now  counts  about 
thirty  thousand  members.  Those  in  North  and 
South  America  are  chiefly  Germans. 

F.  A.  Christie 


FRANCK,  SEBASTIAN  (1499-1542).— An  able 
German  who  began  his  career  as  a  R.C.  priest, 
became  converted  to  the  Lutheran  movement,  and 
passed  on  from  this  to  a  humanistic,  liberal,  and 
unsectarian  conception  of  religion.  Although  dis- 
trusted by  the  Protestant  leaders  of  his  day,  his 
writings  both  then  and  since  exercised  wide  influence 
in  the  direction  of  a  free  type  of  mysticism. 

FRANCKE,  AUGUST  HERMANN  (1663-1727). 
— A  Lutheran  theologian,  professor  at  Halle  in 
Germany,  who  under  the  influence  of  Spener  (q.v.) 
became  one  of  the  most  vigorous  exponents  of 
Pietism  (q.v.).  He  was  noted  for  his  original  ideas 
in  religious  education,  for  his  power  as  a  preacher, 
and  for  his  skill  in  organizing  and  maintaining  a 
school  for  orphans. 

FRANK,    FRANZ    HERMANN    REINHOLD 

(1827-1894). — ^An  influential  German  theologian, 
professor  at  Erlangen,  who  elaborated  a  profound 
system  of  Christian  doctrine  on  the  basis  of  the 
special  knowledge  derived  from  the  experience  of 
regeneration.  Christian  truth  was  thus  derived 
from  a  source  possessed  only  by  those  who  had 
passed  through  a  specific  Christian  experience.  His 
most  famous  works  were  System  of  Christian 
Certainly  and  System  of  Christian  Truth. 

FRANKFORT  RECfiSS  (or  AGREEMENT).— 
A  document  signed  in  1558  by  the  orthodox  Luth- 
eran princes  led  by  Flacius  (q.vfl)  and  the  Philippists 
(q.v.),  led  by  Melanchthon.  They  agreed  on  the 
doctrines  of  justification  by  faith,  the  necessity  of 
good  works  in  the  justified,  and  the  real  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Some  theologians 
objected  to  the  settlement  of  church  doctrines  by 
secular  princes,  so  the  aim  of  the  agreement  was 
not  attained. 

FRANKFORT  RESPITE.— An  agreement  be- 
tween the  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  of 
Germany,  signed  in  1539  at  Frankfort,  whereby 
a  temporary  peace  was  agreed  upon. 

FRATICELLI.— In  the  beginning  of  the  Francis- 
can order  (q.v.)  there  were  some  friars  who  stub- 
bornly insisted  on  striving  after  the  ideal  poverty 
of  St.  Francis.  Persecutions,  portrayed  allegorically 
by  Angelo  Clareno  in  his  Liher  Septem  Tribula- 
tionum,  drove  the  "Spiritual"  friars  to  seek  refuge 
wherever  they  might  find  it.  Some  found  it 
with  Louis  IV.  of  Bavaria;  some  with  the  banditti 
in  the  mountains.  They  were  called  "Fraticelli" 
(the  diminutive  of  Fratti,  Italian  for  Friars). 
The  name  was  also  given  to  other,  heretical,  groups 
in  the  later  Middle  Ages. 

FRAVASHI. — The  pre-existent,  immortal  part 
of  human  personality  according  to  Zoroastrianism, 
similar  to  the  Roman  genius  and  the  Greek  agathos 
daimon.  The  f ravashi  stimulates  birth  and  cares  for 
the  babe  during  growth.  At  death  it  unites  with 
the  soul  in  the  immortal  life.  When  thought  of 
plurally  they  are  similar  to  the  pitris,  the  Di  Manes 
and  ancestor  spirits  of  other  Indo-European  groups. 

FREE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.— An  organi- 
zation effected  in  1844  as  a  reaction  against  the 
Romeward  tendencies  of  the  Oxford  Movement 
(q.v.).  Episcopal  in  government  and  in  doctrinal 
unison  with  the  Low-Church  wing  of  Anghcanism 
it  insists  upon  being  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  Estabhshed  Church.  Holding  itself  free  to 
preach  in  all  parishes,  using  a  revised  edition  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  associating  the  laity  in  its 
church  government  and  work,  and  fostering  fraternal 
relations  with  other  evangelical  bodies,  it  has  not 


Free  Church  of  ScoUand        A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


174 


enjoyed  the  co-operation  and  good  will  of  the 
EstabUshed  Church.  With  a  message  largely  of 
negations  and  a  spirit  somewhat  particularist,  this 
body  has  failed  to  enlist  a  large  following,  number- 
ing not  over  1,500  members.        Peter  G.  Mode 

FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.— A  bodv 
that  in  1843  seceded  from  the  EstabUshed  Church 
of  Scotland  as  a  protest  against  political  meddling 
in  the  government  of  the  church. 

Contrary  to  the  Revolution  settlement  which 
incorporated  the  Westminster  Confession  in  the 
statute  law  of  Scotland,  thereby  placing  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church  in  the  hands  of  church  officers 
distinct  from  the  civil  magistrate,  an  act  was 
passed  (1712)  restoring  patronage  in  Scotland, 
thereby  placing  ministers  in  dependence  upon 
the  aristocracy.  After  years  of  agitation  the 
General  Assembly  in  1834  passed  a  "Veto  Law" 
declaring  it  to  be  "a  fundamental  law  of  the  church 
that  no  pastor  shall  be  intruded  on  any  congrega- 
tion contrary  to  the  will  of  the  people."  In  the 
litigation  that  followed  the  court  disallowed  the 
contention  of  the  church  to  freedom  and  legislative 
initiative,  and  announced  that  Parliament  is  the 
temporal  head  of  the  church  from  which  it  derives 
aU  its  power.  In  protest  the  General  Assembly 
(1842)  drew  up  a  "Claim  of  Right."  A  final 
appeal  to  the  House  of  Cojnmons  (March,  1843), 
having  received  no  assurance  of  redress,  induced 
the  General  Assembly  to  proceed  to  organize 
under  the  title  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Its 
leaders  were  outstanding  men — Chalmers,  Candhsh, 
Cunningham,  Buchanan,  Guthrie,  Dunlop,  Hugh 
Miller.  Its  experiment  in  voluntary  support  of 
the  church  was  marvelously  successful.  Its  zeal 
for  foreign  missions  proved  phenomenal.  As  early 
as  1863  proposals  were  launched  looking  toward 
a  imion  with  the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 
The  lawfulness  of  state  endowments  proved  a 
stumbling  block  for  years  but  in  October,  1900, 
the  union  was  effected.  Peter  G.  Mode 

FREE  CHURCH  FEDERATION.— An  organiza- 
tion of  the  dissenting  churches  of  Britain  to  pro- 
mote interdenominational  fellowship  and  practical 
church  unity. 

Feeling  the  need  of  counsel  and  inspiration  for 
the  defense  of  their  distinctive  interests,  the  Free 
Church  leaders  called  a  series  of  Congresses  (1892- 
95)  at  Manchester,  Leeds,  and  Birmingham,  which 
was  so  successful  as  to  suggest  the  organization 
at  Nottingham  (1896)  of  the  National  Council  of 
the  Evangelical  Free  Churches.  According  to 
the  constitution,  the  objects  of  this  federation  are 
to  facilitate  intercourse  and  co-operation  among  the 
Free  Churches,  to  organize  local  councils,  to  advo- 
cate the  New  Testament  doctrine  of  the  church,  to 
defend  the  rights  of  the  associated  churches,  and 
to  promote  the  application  of  the  law  of  Christ  to 
every  relation  of  human  life.  The  tactful  adminis- 
tration of  its  officers  has  eliminated  and  prevented 
wasteful  church  overlapping,  removed  jealousies 
and  suspicions  among  local  churches,  and  exercised 
a  watchful  care  over  the  interests  of  non-conformity. 
Its  national  assemblies  have  played  an  important 
part  in  endorsing  or  resisting  contemplated  parlia- 
mentary legislation,  and  in  stimulating  the  morale 
of  the  Free  Church.  It  issues  a  monthly  magazine, 
The  Free  Churchman  and  has  pubhshed  the  Free 
Church  Handbook  and  The  Evangelical  Free  Church 
Catechism.  PeterG.  Mode 

FREE  CONGREGATIONS  IN  GERMANY.— 

A  name  given  to  groups  of  Friends  of  Light,  a  mid- 
nineteenth  century  rationalistic  movement  in  Ger- 
many.    Its  original  leader  was  L.  Uhlich,  pastor 


of  Pommelte.  In  1841  Uhlich  formed  an  associa- 
tion of  pastors,  who  shared  his  rationalistic  view. 
Halle  became  the  center  of  the  movement  under 
G.  A.  Wislicemus,  who  for  his  pantheistic  ideas 
and  disbelief  in  the  historicity  of  the  gospels, 
suffered  deposition  from  his  charge  in  1846,  and 
became  head  of  a  free  congregation.  Another 
evangeUcal  pastor,  J.  Rupp  of  Konigsburg,  was 
deposed  for  similar  views  in  1845.  The  revolution 
of  1848  gave  freedom  to  the  movement  and  free 
congregations  appeared  in  various  parts  of  Germany. 
With  the  reaction  of  the  fifties,  they  encountered  a 
severe  policy  of  repression  based  on  the  charge  of 
poUtical  radicahsm.  In  1859  the  free  Protestant 
groups  federated  with  some  of  the  so-called  "German 
Catholics,"  who  represented  similar  tendencies  in 
Catholicism.  The  later  history  of  the  movement  is 
unimportant,  but  it  has  survived  with  a  present 
membership  of  over  20,000.  As  an  organization 
it  is  a  loose  federation  of  congregations  held  together 
through  biennial  conventions. 

John  T.  McNeill 
FREEDOM.— See  Liberty. 

FREEMASONRY.— The  "art"  or  "mystery" 
of  the  Freemasons  or  Free  and  Accepted  Masons, 
a  universal  rehgious,  moral,  charitable,  and  benevo- 
lent fraternal  organization. 

It  is  religious  in  requiring  belief  in  God  as  a 
prerequisite  of  initiation  and  insisting  on  such 
belief  as  one  of  its  unalterable  fundamental  points. 
Beyond  this  and  belief  in  immortality  it  has  no 
reUgious  dogmas  but  expects  the  brother  to  adhere 
to  some  religion  and  obligates  him  upon  the  sacred 
oath  of  the  religion  he  professes.  For  the  rest  it 
seeks  to  promote  morals  by  ceremonies,  symbols 
and  lectures,  inculcating  life  measured  by  reason 
and  performance  of  duties  toward  God,  one's 
country,  one's  neighbor  and  oneself.  It  relieves 
needy  brothers,  cares  for  their  dependents,  educates 
orphans,  and  insists  upon  duties  of  charity  and 
benevolence. 

There  is  no  authentic  evidence  as  to  its  origin. 
Manuscript  "old  charges,"  of  which  the  oldest 
certainly  dates  from  the  end  of  the  14th.  century, 
show  that  it  was  then  an  established  institution 
with  a  long  past.  Apparently  the  medieval  craft 
of  masons  at  an  early  date  combined  a  religious, 
moral,  and  philosophical,  or,  as  masons  say,  "specu- 
lative" element,  with  the  operative  art,  and  ad- 
mitted gentlemen  and  clergymen  as  accepted 
masons,  free  of  the  guild,  who  were  interested  in 
the  speculative  side  only.  In  Scotland  in  the 
16th.  and  in  England  in  the  17th.  century,  the 
speculative  element  developed  with  the  decay  of 
the  operative  craft  and  it  became  customary  and 
even  fashionable  for  nobility  and  gentry  to  become 
initiates.  The  present  organization  dates  from 
the  so-called  "revival"  on  St.  John's  Day,  1717, 
when  four  lodges  in  London  formed  the  Grand 
Lodge  of  England,  from  which  directly  or  indirectly 
all  organized  freemasonry  of  today  derives.  About 
the  middle  of  the  18th.  century  the  "higher  degrees" 
began  to  develop,  particularly  on  the  Continent, 
and  as  a  consequence,  there  came  to  be  many 
"rites."  All  are  based  upon  the  three  degrees  of 
the  "Ancient  Craft":  Entered  Apprentice,  Fellow- 
craft,  and  Master  Mason,  representing  the  original 
two  parts  of  the  ceremony  of  1717.  The  Ancient 
and  Accepted  or  Scottish  Rite  of  33  degrees  is  the 
most  widespread.  In  the  United  States  it  co-exists 
with  the  American  or  York  Rite  of  nine  degrees  on 
which  is  superposed  a  Christian  order,  the  Knights 
Templars,  to  which  only  York  Rite  masons  are 
eligible.  These  higher  degrees  develop,  illustrate 
and  add  force  to  the  teachings  of  the  Ancient  Craft. 

RoscoE  Pound 


175 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Friends,  Society  of 


FREETHINKERS  AND  FREE  THOUGHT.— 

Refusal  to  be  bound  in  thinking  by  any  religious 
authority.  Originally  applied  to  Deists,  the 
terms  are  generally  employed  to  characterize 
anti-Christian  rationalism. 

FREE  WILL. — A  term  used  to  affirm  a  real 
power  on  man's  part  to  choose  between  alternate 
possibilities,  so  that  the  decision  lies  in  his  own  hands, 
without  necessary  compulsion  of  circumstances 
or  motives. 

The  question  whether  man's  acts  are  due  to  his 
own  independent  choice,  or  whether  they  are 
inevitable  consequences  of  existing  motives  has 
been  debated  at  length  by  moral  philosophers 
without  any  decisive  agreement.  At  one  extreme 
we  find  Determinism,  the  theory  that  the  existing 
facts  of  temperament,  psychic  habits,  and  external 
solicitation  absolutely  condition  a  man's  behavior 
at  any  moment.  At  the  opposite  extreme  is 
Indeterminism,  which  pictures  the  will  as  an  incalcu- 
lable factor,  capable  at  any  given  moment  of  defying 
the  power  of  the  strongest  motive.  Psychological 
investigation,  intent  on  discovering  causal  relations 
between  psychic  facts,  tends  toward  determinism. 
Moral  training  proceeds  on  the  theory  that  behavior 
may  be  controlled  by  definitely  planned  influences. 
On  the  other  hand,  consciousness  seems  to  testify 
to  a  sense  of  freedom  in  the  face  of  possible  alterna- 
tives, and  it  seems  absurd  to  attribute  moral 
responsibility  to  a  person  unless  he  is  free  to  choose. 

The  discussion  of_  free-will  often  runs  into 
abstractions  if  "wiU"  is  assumed  to  be  a  definite 
"faculty"  with  inherent  power.  But  our  life  is  a 
unity  m  which  the  act  of  willing  is  inevitably 
bound  up  with  emotions  and  ideation.  Action 
is  the  response  of  an  organism  to  stimulus.  When 
action  is  automatic  or  emotionally  instinctive, 
there  is  no  "free  wiU."  When  action  is  delayed 
while  the  stimulus  is  subjected  to  mental  valuation, 
conduct  becomes  "deliberate";  i.e.,  a  sense  of 
personal  responsibility  arises.  The  freedom  which 
here  occurs  is  due  to  the  relating  of  a  given  stimulus 
to  the  various  values  of  total  experience  which 
memory  brings  forward  for  comparison  with  the 
value  to  be  gained  by  yielding  to  the  stimulus. 
One's  total  experience  can  thus  be  utilized,  and  one 
is  not  at  the  mercy  of  the  single  stimulus. 

In  Christian  theology  the  doctrine  of  free-will 
has  been  the  occasion  of  many  controversies. 
Those  who,  like  Augustine,  Luther,  and  Calvin, 
exalted  the  sovereignty  of  God  and  salvation  by 
grace  alone,  minimized  or  denied  human  freedom  in 
the  interests  of  specific  divine  foreordination.  On 
the  other  hand,  those  who  were  concerned  to  main- 
tain moral  responsibility,  like  Pelagius  and  Armini- 
us,  insisted  on  man's  real  power  to  accept  or  to 
reject  divine  grace.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

FRIAR. — A  brother  or  a  member  of  one  of  the 
R.C.  mendicant  orders  of  which  the  chief  are  the 
Augustinians  or  Austin  Friars,  Carmelites  or 
white  Friars,  Franciscans  or  Gray  Friars  and 
Dominicans  or  Black  Friars. 

FRIARS  MINOR.— The  name  of  the  order 
estabUshed  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th.  century 
by  Francis  of  Assisi,  also  called  Minorites.  See 
Franciscans. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.— Mutual  benefit 
organizations,  mainly  of  working  people,  for  help 
in  times  of  sickness  and  death. 

Their  purpose  appears  in  the  custom  of  making 
payments  to  members  in  case  of  illness,  and  to  their 
families  for  burial  expenses  and  sometimes  for  small 
pensions.    Aside  from  a  single  instance  these  socie- 


ties do  not  seem  to  antedate  the  late  17th.  century, 
nor  is  there  any  direct  connection  with  the  earher 
guilds,  but  in  Great  Britain  friendly  societies 
became  important  agencies  for  the  encouragement 
of  industry  and  thrift.  Poor  financial  management 
resulted  in  the  loss  of  large  sums  of  money,  and 
thousands  of  persons  failed  to  keep  up  their  pay- 
ments to  the  common  fund,  so  that  waste  was 
enormous,  but  British  legislation  providing  for 
the  registration  of  societies  helped  to  secure  more 
scientific  management. 

Friendly  societies  include  locals  with  special 
ends  in  view,  and  central  organizations.  The  latter 
have  no  social  features,  but  are  stronger  and  have 
become  more  popular.  Within  recent  years  societies 
have  joined  together  to  influence  legislation,  and 
have  co-operated  in  investment  associations  and 
medical  associations  for  the  sake  of  economy.  In 
1911  Great  Britain  linked  up  the  societies  with  the 
new  national  insurance  system,  greatly  to  their 
advantage. 

From  England  this  kind  of  organization  extended 
to  the  British  colonies  and  elsewhere.  On  the 
Continent  the  national  governments  grant  special 
privileges.  In  the  United  States  fraternal  associa- 
tions with  various  benefits  have  proved  very 
popular,  and  assessment  insurance  societies  have 
made  use  of  their  experiments.  Trade  unions 
have  incorporated  the  benefit  idea.  Mercantile 
corporations  encourage  mutual  aid  societies  among 
their  employees. 

Under  good  management  many  of  these  organi- 
zations are  valuable  socially  and  pecuniarily,  in 
spite  of  numerous  failures.  Success  is  dependent 
upon  the  observance  of  sound  principles  of  finance, 
on  economy  of  administration,  and  on  the  faithful 
practice  of  thrift.  H.  K.  Rowe 

FRIENDS,  SOCIETY  OF  (QUAKERS).— A 
small,  mystically  inclined  branch  of  the  Christian 
Church,  which  originated  in  England  during  the 
Commonwealth  Period  (1648),  under  the  leader- 
ship of  George  Fox  (1624-1691).  Fox  and  his 
followers  often  called  themselves  "the  children 
of  the  Light,"  though  they  gradually  adopted  the 
name  "Friends."  Through  a  casual  remark  they 
received  the  nickname  "Quakers,"  which  has  per- 
sisted. 

The  preaching  of  Fox  convinced  many  of  the 
"Seekers"  and  other  small  sects  and  the  movement 
grew  rapidly.  It  was  organized  into  a  Society 
under  Fox's  direction,  with  local  monthly  meetings, 
district  quarterly  meetings,  and  a  national  yearly 
meeting.  Itinerant  ministers  came  to  Massa- 
chusetts in  1657  and  in  a  short  time  in  spite  of 
intense  persecution,  the  movement  spread  in  most 
of  the  colonies.  In  1862  William  Penn,  who  was 
convinced  by  Fox,  founded  Pennsylvania  as  "a 
holy  experiment"  of  a  state  governed  by  all  the 
people  and  dispensing  with  all  military  force.  At 
the  time  of  Fox's  death  six  American  yearly  meetings 
had  been  estabhshed. 

The  most  important  early  interpretation  of 
Quakerism  is  given  in  Robert  Barclay's  Apology 
for  the  True  Christian  Divinity  (first  edition,  1676). 
Its  central  principle  is  the  belief  in  a  divine  Light 
implanted  in  the  soul  of  man,  which  convicts  him 
of  sin,  condemns  him  when  he  disobeys  it,  ajid 
which  as  he  obeys  and  follows  it  leads  him  to  Christ, 
the  living,  spiritual,  present  Saviour,  who  guides, 
inspires,  empowers  and  sanctifies  him.  Friends 
dispense  with  outward  sacraments  and  insist  upon  a 
positive  inward  baptism  and  communion.  They 
hold  their  meetings  for  worship  on  a  basis  of  silence, 
maintaining  that  the  soul  can  find  God  in  the  hush 
and  that  He  reveals  His  word  and  will  to  responsive, 
obedient   persons.    Quaker   ministry  is,  thus,  ia 


Friends  of  God 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


176 


theory,  of  the  prophetic  type,  the  utterance  of  a 
divinely  revealed  message.  No  distinction  is 
made  between  the  sexes  in  matters  of  reUgion. 

Friends  have,  throughout  their  history,  refused 
to  take  oaths,  dechned  to  bear  arms  or  take  part  in 
military  operations.  They  endeavor  to  live 
sincerely,  honestly,  and  simply.  They  often  use 
the  singular  form  of  speech  and,  until  modern  times, 
they  wore  a  pecuUar  garb.  They  have  taken  an 
important  part  in  great  reform  movements,  and 
have  always  shown  strong  sympathy  for  less 
favored  classes  and  for  undeveloped  races.  In 
America  they  have  had  two  separations  and  are 
divided  into  three  groups:  Orthodox,  Hicksite 
(with  liberal  views),  and  Wilburite  (extremely 
pimctilious).  They  have  in  America  a  membership 
of  about  125,000,  in  England  20,000,  in  Ireland 
less  than  3,000,  _  and  in  AustraUa  1,000.  They 
maintain  in  America  ten  colleges  and  a  large  number 
of  schools  and  academies.  They  carry  on  extensive 
foreign  mission  work.  Rufus  M.  Jones 

FRIENDS  OF  GOD.— An  association  of  a 
pietistic  mystical  type  originating  (ca.  1340)  in 
Basle  and  expanding  through  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands.  Most  of  the  leaders  were  Dominicans, 
but  the  membership  included  some  laymen.  Henry 
Suso  (ca.  1300-1365)  was  the  most  eminent  leader 
of  the  movement,  which  disappeared  after  the 
14th.  century. 

FRIENDS  OF  LIGHT.— Rationalistic  associa- 
tions which  originated  in  Germany  in  1845.  Also 
called  Fbee  Congregations  (q.v.) 

FRIENDS  OF  THE  TEMPLE.— A  sect  organ- 
ized in  Germany  in  1861  by  Christoph  Hoffmann. 
Colonies  were  founded  in  Germany  and  Palestine 
with  a  view  to  estabhshing  Christ's  kingdom 
with  Jerusalem  as  capital.  The  movement  has 
dwindled  since  the  death  of  Hoffmann  in  1885. 

FRIGG. — The  most  important  goddess  of  the 
Teutons,  probably  identical  with  Freyja.  She 
was  the  wife  of  Odin  and  patroness  of  love,  marriage, 
and  home-making. 

FUNDAMENTAL  ARTICLES.— Doctrines  and 

beKefs  which  are  regarded  as  essential  to  a  rehgion, 
without  which  that  reUgion  would  lose  its  character- 
istic nature.  In  the  case  of  Christianity,  those 
have  been  variously  stated,  but  are  not  to  be  con- 
foimded  either  with  the  ecumenical  creeds,  which 
do  not  include  articles  dealing  with  morality 
and  the  atonement,  or  with  doctrines  peculiar 
to  a  church  or  denomination.  See  Confessions? 
OP  Faith. 

FUNG-SHUI.— The  Chmese  science  by  which 
one  secures  happy  orientation  to  the  orderly 
movements  of  the  forces  of  nature.  Correct 
location  of  graves,  homes,  temples  or  other  struc- 
tures assures  good  fortune.  Proper  selection  of 
grave-sites  is  important  not  only  for  the  happiness 
of  the  dead  but  that  they  may  secure  prosperity 
and  honor  for  their  living  descendants.  To  change 
a  natural  environment  in  any  way  by  cutting  down 
hills  or  erecting  lofty  buildings  may  interfere  with 
the  smooth  working  of  the  nature  forces  and  bring 
disaster.  The  difficulty  of  locating  graves  is  a 
source  of  great  expense  and  worry  to  the  people, 
while  the  aversion  to  interference  m  any  way  with 
the  order  of  nature  has  been  a  serious  obstacle  to 
Chinese  economic  development.  The  doctors  of 
the  science  exercise  a  tyrannous  power  over  the 
common  life.  The  philosophic  theory  is  that  the 
universe  is  aa  organism  everywhere  moving  under 


the  control  of  a  cosnuc  order  or  Too.  The  content 
of  the  science  is  a  mixture  of  astrology,  geomancy, 
and  magic. 

FUTURE    LIFE,    CONCEPTIONS    OF.— The 

common  element  in  these  conceptions  is  the  expecta- 
tion of  the  continuance  of  life  after  death: 

I.  The  Chief  Elements  op  These  Con- 
ceptions.— 'The  origin  of  the  behef  that  life  sur- 
vives death  is  hidden  in  the  obscurities  of  pre- 
historic humanity.  When  primitive  men  first 
reached  the  confines  of  history  they  seem  to  have 
possessed  this  conviction.  In  the  light  of  anthropo- 
logical research  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the 
belief  in  some  sort  of  post-mortem  existence  is 
universal.  The  content  of  such  expectation  varies 
markedly,  however.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  future  life  is  conceived  of  as  either  better  or 
worse  than  the  present.  Death  ushers  in  conditions 
which  serve  to  intensify  dominant  tendencies  of  the 
life  of  the  deceased.^  As  civilization  grows,  the  con- 
ceptions of  future  life  also  develop  until  among  the 
more  reflective  peoples  it  becomes  an  essential 
part  of  a  philosophical  view  of  the  world. 

1.  Among  primitive  peoples  the  belief  that  a 
dead  person  continues  in  some  sort  of  active 
existence  is  general  but  there  is  a  great  difference 
of  view  regarding  his  status.  In  most  extremely 
primitive  civilizations  the  dead  are  supposed  to 
renaain  in  the  vicinity  of  the  grave.  Therefore 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  bodies  be 
properly  buried  and  not  exposed  to  the  mutilation 
of  enemies  or  of  wild  beasts.  Food  and  drink 
are  placed  at  the  grave  for  the  refreshment  of  the 
dead  person  through  some  form  of  magical  trans- 
formation of  the  material  food.  Closely  allied 
practices  are  the  burial  of  the  implements  of  war 
or  of  agriculture,  household  utensils  and  sometimes 
retainers  of  chiefs. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  at  just  what  point  such 
conceptions  passed  over  in  those  of  animism.  The 
experience  of  dreams  and  of  the  sight  of  the  breath  in 
cold  weather  together  with  the  observed  fact 
that  the  dead  do  not  breathe,  naturally  suggested 
an  inner  element  of  the  personality  which  was 
different  from  the  body  and  could  leave  it.  See 
Spirit.  It  became  customary  among  many 
tribes  to  regard  death  as  a  sort  of  passage  of  the 
spirit  or  shade  from  the  body  through  some  of  the 
physical  apertures.  It  was  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon for  the  living  to  fear  these  spirits  who  were 
liable  to  do  injury;  therefore  the  apertures  of  the 
body  would  be  stopped  up  so  that  the  spirit  could 
not  return,  and  various  sacrifices  would  be  made  to 
it.  The  worship  of  ancestors  is  doubtless  closely 
connected  with  the  belief  that  the  spirits  of  the 
dead  can  come  into  contact  with  the  living  and 
must  be  paid  the  honor  which  persons  possessed 
of  power  expected  and  received.  The  further 
practice  of  sitting  up  with  the  corpse  (see  Wake) 
was  closely  connected  with  the  belief  that  the  spirit 
remained  in  the  vicinity  of  the  body  for  a  number  of 
hours  before  passing  to  whatever  was  beUeved  to 
be  its  destination. 

As  would  be  expected,  every  tribe  whose  cus- 
toms have  been  studied,  possesses  some  character- 
istic conception  as  to  the  treatment  of  their  dead 
members  and  their  condition  after  death.  See 
Death  and  Funeral  Practices. 

2.  In  the  highly  developed  religions,  certain  gen- 
eral characteristics  can  be  discovered  although  all 
of  them  are  not  found  in  any  single  religion. 

(a)  Transmigration  of  the  soul  to  some  living 
being  is  by  no  means  unusual  in  ancient  religions. 
Probably  this  is  a  survival  of  the  more  primitive 
belief  that  the  spirit  of  the  dead  has  the  power  to 
enter   into   other   bodies.    In   Brahmanism   and 


177 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Future  Life 


Hinduism  this  conception  is  made  a  basis  of  an 
elaborate  world-process  in  which  the  souls  of  the 
dead  enter  into  higher  or  lower  forms  of  life  in 
accordance  with  their  general  characteristics. 
There  is  no  general  belief,  however,  regarding  the 
time  of  such  transmigration.  In  some  religions 
apparently  it  would  be  shortly  after  death  and  in 
others  it  would  be  the  end  of  ages  or  cycles.  See 
Cycle;   Eschatology. 

(b)  More  general  than  the  expectation  of  trans- 
migration is  the  belief  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead 
migrate  to  a  definite  locality.  In  some  nations  (e.g., 
some  Teutonic  races,  and  the  Egyptians)  this 
world  is  the  west,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  land. 
With  other  nations  the  spirits  go  to  a  great  under- 
world which  like  a  huge  cave  is  beneath  the  flat 
earth.  This  is  the  more  common  belief.  Pictures 
of  this  underworld  vary  markedly.  With  the 
Semitic  peoples,  including  the  Hebrew,  the  under- 
world seems  to  have  been  a  place  of  inactivity. 
Among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  there  was 
some  difference  of  condition  determined  by  sentence 
passed  upon  the  character  of  the  dead.  Divisions 
of  the  abode  of  the  dead  are  to  be  found  in  prac- 
tically all  of  the  more  developed  religions,  certain 
places  intended  for  the  righteous  being  enjoyable 
while  others  intended  for  the  wicked  are  places 
of  suffering.  Such  distinctions  varied  in  distinct- 
ness according  to  the  development  of  the  idea  of 
retribution  and  the  dualistic  view  of  the  world. 

(c)  Rewards  and  punishments. — The  idea  of 
the  abode  of  departed  spirits  is  generally  associated 
with  the  adjustment  of  post-mortem  existence  in 
accordance  with  the  conduct  and  character  of 
the  departed.  Although  the  Hebrew  religion, 
until  affected  by  Persian  and  other  religions  seems 
not  to  have  associated  morality  with  the  thought 
of  future  rewards  and  punishment,  in  the  vast 
majority  of  religions  whether  primitive  or  developed, 
some  idea  of  retribution  is  present.  In  the  more 
simple  types  of  religion  this  consists  in  a  naive 
adjustment  or  reversal  of  conditions,  or  punish- 
ment for  sins  in  kind.  In  the  more  highly  developed 
religions,  however,  the  idea  of  retribution  was  closely 
associated  with  an  expected  judgment,  the  details  of 
which  varied.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  Egyptian, 
there  was  an  elaborate  trial  of  the  dead  who  could 
be  instructed  as  to  the  proper  defense  (see  Egypt, 
Religion  of).  In  the  Greek  and  Roman  religion 
(q.v.)  there  is  also  a  judgment  which  is  similar  to 
that  which  can  be  found  in  a  conventional  tribunal. 
In  other  religions  the  decision  is  less  judicial  and 
more  mechanical,  e.g.,  the  dead  being  compelled  to 
walk  a  narrow  bridge,  off  from  which  the  wicked 
fall.     See  Judgment. 

But  whatever  its  dramatic  figures  might  be, 
developed  religions  have  generally  regarded  life 
after  death  as  a  time  for  purification  or  punishment 
either  through  elaborate  reincarnations  in  lower  or 
higher  form,  or  in  accordance  with  contemporary 
feudal  practices.  Judaism  appropriated  most  of  the 
more  tenable  elements  of  the  great  religions  with 
which  it  was  associated  during  the  last  four  centuries 
before  Christ.  During  this  period  the  old  hope  of 
the  restoration  of  the  nation  was  supplemented  by 
the  belief  in  the  post-mortem  punishment  of  its 
enemies  both  nationally  and  individually  expanded 
into  elaborate  eschatological  expectations.  See 
Eschatology.  By  the  time  of  Jesus  these  pic- 
tures of  the  future  had  grown  vivid  and  were 
becoming  systematized.  They  were  taken  over 
into  Christianity  and  later  were  very  markedly 
affected  by  the  practice  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Speaking  generally,  the  joys  of  the  righteous 
and  the  sufferings  of  the  wicked  after  death  reflect 
people's  view  of  the  pleasures  and  their  methods  of 
dealing  with  criminals.    UsuaUy  the  blessed  dead 


are  represented  in  some  definite  place.  Paradise  or 
Heaven  into  which  they  enter  immediately  or,  after 
being  cleansed,  as  successive  stages  of  bliss.  See 
Intermediate  State;  Paradise;  Heaven.  Pic- 
tures of  bliss  are  sometimes  highly  physical  as  in 
Mohammedanism  and  in  parts  of  the  apocalyptic 
literature  of  the  Jews.  Christian  portrayals  of  the 
bliss  of  the  future  are  almost  all  in  figures  of  speech, 
feasts,  singing  and  other  forms  of  joyous  celebration. 
Similarly,  pictures  of  the  treatment  of  the  wicked 
reflect  the  torture  and  punishment  of  various  ages. 
The  wicked  dead  no  more  than  the  condemned 
criminal  in  a  contemporary  law  court  had  rights 
which  needed  to  be  respected.  The  more  vivid 
pictures  of  hell  came  into  Christianity  during  the 
2nd.  century  from  the  writings  of  Plato,  through 
the  Apocalypse  of  Peter  but  already  the  idea  of  the 
abyss  of  fire  for  the  devil,  his  angels,  the  giants, 
and  the  wicked  dead  was  in  Christianity.  The 
brutality  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  reflected  in  the 
descriptions  of  suffering  after  death  on  the  part  of 
the  wicked,  many  of  which  are  quite  indescribable. 
In  several  religions,  notably  the  R.C.  form  of  Chris- 
tianity, death  is  followed  by  a  purgatorial  period  in 
which  those  who  have  not  committed  unpardonable 
sins  are  cleansed  by  suffering  and  made  fit  for 
Paradise.  See  Purgatory;  Rewards  and  Pun- 
ishments. 

(d)  Resurrection. — In  early  Semitic  and  Greek 
thought  there  is  no  expectation  that  the  body  will 
be  restored  to  a  spirit;  in  the  last  few  centuries,  b.c, 
however,  the  Oriental  mystery  rehgions  were  reflected 
in  the  Jewish  expectation  that  some  sort  of  bodies 
would  be  given  the  dead,  ^any  rate  the  righteous. 
Opinions  seem  to  vary  as  to  the  nature  of  these 
bodies.  In  some  cases  they  are  obviously  physical 
and  the  righteous  are  to  have  families  of  four 
hundred  children.  In  other  cases  no  such  material- 
istic idea  obtained  and  views  were  held  similar  to 
those  expressed  by  Paul.  In  any  case  this  giving 
of  a  new  body  is  something  distinct  from  the  early 
belief  of  the  Greeks  that  the  shades  of  the  dead 
could  be  given  a  certain  element  of  substantiability 
by  the  shedding  of  blood,  and  the  later  Greek 
expectation  of  immortality  as  inherently  possessed 
by  humanity.  The  gift  of  this  new  body  was  in 
Jewish  thought  associated  with  the  work  of  the 
deliverance  of  the  Jewish  nation  by  the  expected 
Messiah  and  so  was  expected  to  occur  either  at  the 
beginning  or  the  end  of  the  messianic  reign. 

In  Christianity,  these  ideas  of  the  resurrection 
are  carried  forward  but  are  given  certain  definiteness 
of  form  by  the  accounts  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus. 
These  accounts  are  not  easily  harmonized  and  seem 
to  imply  three  views  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body: 
(1)  It  was  composed  of  bones  and  flesh  and  could 
eat  material  food.  (2)  It  had  the  appearance  of  the 
physical  body  but  was  not  subject  to  the  laws  of 
ordinary  bodies  and  finally  disappeared  in  the  sky. 
(3)  It  was  a  spiritual  body  similar  to  that  which 
Paul  describes  in  I  Cor.,  ch.  15.  The  Christian 
church  has  generally  combined  (1)  and  (2),  holding 
that  the  body  of  Jesus  was  at  first  material  but  in 
the  forty  days  preceding  his  Ascension  took  on  new 
powers  and  characteristics  which  in  the  opinion 
of  some  made  it  capable  of  ubiquity.  The  Chris- 
tian doctrine  of  resurrection  early  shifted  from  the 
raising  of  the  shade  from  the  underworld  as  in  the 
Jewish  and  doubtless  the  early  Christian  belief, 
to  the  raising  of  the  particles  of  flesh  from  the  grave 
and  their  recombination  in  the  original  body  which 
as  a  partner  in  the  conduct  of  the  spirit  was  to  share 
in  its  post-mortem  fate. 

(e)  Eternity  of  conditions  set  by  a  judgment 
is  usually  held  by  those  religions  which  do  not 
think  of  the  future  in  terms  of  successive  cycles. 
Just  what  the  dead  will  do  is  left  by  all  religions  to 


Future  Life 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Its 


the  imagination  and  intelligence  of  the  believer. 
In  Brahmanism  and  some  other  religions,  the 
state  of  the  dead  is  an  unconscious  absorption  into 
the  Absolute  Being  and  therefore  there  is  need  of  a 
new  incarnation  or  creation  of  the  individual  whose 
condition  is  determined  by  the  transmigration  in 
accordance  with  his  pre-existing  character. 

(J)  Impersonal  immortality  has  been  urged  by 
many  writers  in  place  of  the  conceptions  described 
above.  According  to  such  views  the  individuality 
is  so  immediately  connected  with  the  body  and  its 
mechanical  and  chemical  operations  that  when  that 
body  passes  out  of  existence  nothing  individual 
survives.  There  are  three  general  classes  of  views 
which  follow  this  general  premise:  (1)  the  view 
of  the  thoroughgoing  materialist  who  claims  that 
the  individual  disintegrates  and  disappears  in  the 
process  of  death  as  certainly  as  a  piece  of  wood  dis- 
appears in  the  fire;  (2)  the  view  of  those  who 
hold  that  the  individual  is  absorbed  in  a  universal 
being  and  so  disappears  although  continuing  to 
exist  without  individuality;  (3)  the  hope  for  an  im- 
mortaUty  of  influence  which,  as  the  name  imphes, 
sees  the  continuation  after  death  only  of  individuals' 
influence  in  human  affairs  before  death.  A  similar 
conception  is  that  of  the  immortality  of  the  race. 
Since,  however,  human  life  must  ultimately  become 
extinct  upon  a  dead  earth,  this  cannot  be  regarded  as 
fimdamentally  different  from  the  second  view  above. 

II.  Akguments  for  Life  after  Death. — It  is 
natural  that  objections  to  immortality  should  have 
been  expressed  from  the  very  earliest  time  in  which 
man  undertook  to  think  about  the  great  mystery 
which  confronted  all  hfe.  The  natural  desire  to 
meet  one's  friends  and  loved  ones  after  death  rather 
than  philosophical  interest  doubtless  led  to  the 
study  of  arguments  in  justification  of  the  belief 
that  death  did  not  end  conscious  existence.  These 
arguments  may  be  classified  briefly  as  follows: 

(a)  The  argument  from  human  nature. — Platonic 
thought  made  belief  in  the  existence  of  in- 
corporeal realities  relatively  easy.  The  human 
spirit  was  regarded  by  Socrates  and  his  followers 
as  existing  prior  to  birth.  The  a  priori  objection 
to  the  continuance  of  bodiless  spirits  was  therefore 
met  and  the  argument  for  life  after  death  could 
rest  on  foundations  unaffected  by  materialistic 
objections.  Immortahty  was  a  property  of  human 
nature. 

(b)  The  moral  argument. — Human  life  is  so 
full  of  misfortune,  injustice,  and  uncompleted 
lives  that  a  belief  in  a  moral  order  compelled  the 
belief  in  a  period  after  life  in  which  such  inequalities 
could  be  adjusted  and  righteousness  be  triumph 
over  evil.  This  argument  is  very  widespread  and 
carries  weight  in  proportion  to  the  confidence  one 
has  in  the  religious  view  of  the  world. 

(c)  The  evolutionary  argument. — This  is  an 
extension  of  the  general  position  of  evolution  as 
involving  the  survival  of  the  fittest  to  survive 
and  also  as  viewing  life  as  constantly  assuming  more 
completely  personal  forms.  In  some  cases  this 
involves  a  doctrine  of  conditional  immortality 
although  this  view  is  held  independently  of  the 
acceptance  of  the  evolutionary  hypothesis.  In 
such  a  view,  immortality  is  not  regarded  as  belong- 
ing essentially  to  humanity  but  to  be  reached 
through  a  process  by  those  who  are  capable  of 
meeting  the  conditions  of  that  process.  Such 
conditions  will  vary  according  to  philosophical 
views  but  speaking  generally  it  is  held  that  such 
immortality  as  ensues  from  the  evolutionary  process 
must  include  those  elements  of  life  which  possess 
timeless  values  rather  than  those  which  are  depend- 
ent on  physical  conditions.  A  crude  form  of  this 
belief,  although  not  avowedly  evolutionary,  is  that 
of  the  aauibilation  of  the  wicked. 


(d)  Attempted  scientific  investigation. — This  has 
been  carried  on  for  a  number  of  years,  especially  by 
those  who  are  associated  in  the  various  societies  for 
psychical  research  (q.v.).  Their  method  involves 
the  effort  to  get  into  touch  with  the  dead  through 
some  medium  who  becomes  clairvoyant.  While 
many  psychologists  and  other  scientists  would 
admit  the  theoretical  legitimacy  of  experimentation 
in  such  field,  trickery  and  self-deception  are  so 
likely  and  experiments  are  so  incapable  of  control 
and  corroboration  that  such  method  of  proving 
immortality  has  not  received  any  general  acceptance 
among  psychologists.  Since  the  great  war,  how- 
ever, it  has  gained  widespread  favor  among  people 
at  large  and  has  undoubtedly  served  to  increase 
the  general  belief  in  life  aft^er  death.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  that  the  conceptions  of  that  life  reached 
through  mediums  are  very  similar  to  those  of  primi- 
tive man.  The  dead  seem  to  have  about  the  same 
existence  and  enjoyments  as  they  had  upon  earth. 
See  Spiritualism. 

(e)  Christian  faith  in  immortality  rests  ulti- 
mately upon  the  Christian  religious  view  of  the  world. 
If  we  believe  in  a  living  God  and  in  the  finality  of 
personality,  although  we  may  not  be  able  to  have 
full  cognitive  assurance  as  to  immortality,  we  can 
accept  it  by  faith  and  test  it  as  a  working  hypothesis 
of  conduct.  From  this  point  of  view  such  elements 
of  value  as  there  are  in  other  arguments  can  be 
appropriated  and  belief  in  the  historical  resurrection 
of  Jesus  can  add  to  such  Christian  hope.  It  is 
impossible  not  to  feel  that  a  belief  in  a  theistic 
universe  is  inconsistent  with  a  belief  in  the  utter 
annihilation  of  personalities  like  those  of  man. 
Immortality  thus  gains  a  religious  rather  than  a 
scientific  ground  of  assurance. 

Shailer  Mathews 

FUTURE  PUNISHMENT.— The  punishment 
inflicted  upon  sinners  after  death. 

Most  fully  developed  religions  contain  teachings 
relative  to  suffering  to  be  borne  by  evil  doers  in 
the  future  hfe.  Many  of  these  teachings  are 
highly  developed,  e.g.,  in  the  Egyptian  religion. 
The  Hindu  idea  of  punishment  is  closely  allied 
with  the  doctrine  of  successive  reincarnations  in 
higher  or  lower  forms  of  hfe.  In  Greco-Roman 
religion,  behef  in  punishment  after  death  was  com- 
mon and  sins  brought  their  appropriate  suffering 
and  often  torture.  These  views  came  into  the 
Christian  religion  through  the  [Apocalypse  of  Peter. 
See  Apocalyptic  Literature.  Hebraism,  while 
recognizing  the  future  life,  did  not  contain  any 
clear  teaching  as  to  the  post-mortem  outcome  of 
moral  actions.  Judaism,  however,  developed  the 
idea  of  future  punishment  and  laid  especial  emphasis 
upon  that  dealt  out  to  those  who  had  committed 
heinous  crimes,  and  especially  upon  those  who  had 
oppressed  the  Jewish  people. 

In  Christianity,  the  punishment  of  the  wicked 
after  death  was  not  so  greatly  emphasized  in  the 
Eastern  church  as  in  the  Western,  where  the  uni- 
versal doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh 
was  expanded  by  the  thought  that,  since  the  flesh 
had  participated  in  sin,  it  should  participate  also 
in  the  consequent  penalty.  The  growing  tendency 
to  set  forth  the  relations  of  God  and  man  under 
the  general  categories  of  poHtics  led  to  emphasis 
upon  punishment  in  hell.  This  punishment  was 
commonly  thought  of  as  consisting  of  terrible 
forms  of  physical  torture  which  lasted  through 
eternity.  Suffering  in  purgatory  was  not,  strictly 
speaking,  punishment,  but  more  of  the  nature  of 
penance  through  which  those  who  ultimately  were 
to  be  saved  were  cleansed  from  sin.  See  Purga- 
tory. 

In  Protestant  thought,  the  eternity  of  suffering 
is  explicitly  taught  in  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 


179 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Gambling 


churches  but  there  has  always  been  opposition  to 
the  conception  of  its  endlessness  and  particularly 
to  the  conception  of  torture.  As  social  experience 
has  modified  the  infliction  of  penalties  by  the 
State,  the  idea  of  future  punishment  has  been  con- 
siderably modified  and  the  retributive  element 
made  less  prominent,  while  in  more  intelligent 
circles  the  thought  of  physical  torture  has  been 
replaced  by  that  of  spiritual  suffering  implied  in 
the  nature  of  sin.  Certain  groups,  hke  the  Uni- 
versalists  (q.v.),  have  protested  against  the  thought 
that  punishment  can  be  endless  and  without  power 
to  lead  to  repentance.     Discussions  concerning  a 


future  probation  or  second  probation  have  also 
at  times  been  common.  There  are  two  tendencies 
at  the  present  time  in  Protestantism,  the  one 
seeking  to  maintain  the  inherited  views  as  to 
punishment  and  the  other  holding  forth  the  "larger 
hope"  that  suffering  in  the  future  world  will  lead 
to  repentance  on  the  part  of  the  sinner.  A  third 
view  expressed  in  the  belief  in  conditional  immor- 
tality would  destroy  all  conception  of  eternal  punish- 
ment by  holding  that  the  wicked  are  annihilated  at 
death  or  in  the  course  of  long  spiritual  attrition. 
See  Eschatology;  Future  Life,  Conception  op. 

Shailer  Mathews 


GABARS  (sometimes  spelled  Ghebers,  Guebres; 
Pers.  Gahr,  Turkish  Giaur).  The  name  deroga- 
torily  applied  by  Mohammedans  to  the  followers  of 
the  ancient  faith  of  Zoroaster  in  Persia  as  "infidels." 
The  etymology  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 

In  Moslem  literature  the  term  Atash-parast, 
"Fire-worshiper,"  or  Majus,  "Magian,"  is  also 
used  to  designate  them.  They  call  themselves  Zar- 
tushllan,  "Zoroastrians,"  Parsl  or  Farsi,  from  the 
historic  province  of  Pars  or  Fars  in  Persia,  and 
also  Bah-Dlndn,  "those  of  the  Good  Faith," 
the  religion  of  Ormazd. 

This  faithful  band  of  Iranian  adherents  to 
Zoroastrianism  corresponds  to  the  Parsis  (q.v.)  in 
India.  Through  centuries  of  persecution  by  their 
Mohammedan  conquerors,  conversions  to  Islam, 
and  the  sufferings  caused  by  various  vicissitudes, 
these  Iranian  devotees  to  their  ancient  faith  were 
gradually  reduced  in  numbers  till,  by  the  middle 
of  the  19th.  century,  there  were  far  less  than  10,000 
of  them  left  in  Persia.  Thanks  to  the  aid  of  the 
prosperous  Parsis  in  India,  who  founded,  in  1854, 
a  Society  for  the  Amelioration  of  the  Zoroastrians 
in  Persia,  and  in  response  to  the  growth  of  more 
hberal  and  tolerant  conditions  in  Persia,  their 
numbers  in  1903  were  over  11,000.  Their  growth 
since  that  time  has  been  steady,  especially  after  the 
Persian  Constitution  was  adopted  in  1906,  which 
gave  them  greater  religious  freedom  in  their  home- 
land, and  larger  civil  rights.  _  Most  of  the  Zoroas- 
^trians  in  Persia  are  engaged  in  trade,  but  a  goodly 
number  of  them  are  gardeners,  thus  keeping  up  a 
tenet  in  their  ancient  creed  which  inculcates  agri- 
culture as  a  religious  duty.  Their  general  behefs, 
manners,  and  customs  agree  in  the  main  with  those 
of  the  Indian  Parsis,  as  followers  of  Zoroaster's 
creed,  and  they  are  noted  for  their  honesty  and 
probity.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson 

GABIROL  (IBN  GABIROL)  (1020-1070  a.d).— 
An  influential  Jewish  writer  on  ethics  and  religious 
philosophy  who  mediated  Platonic  mysticism  to 
Christian  and  Jewish  scholastics.  He  taught 
that  the  physical  and  spiritual  are  different  phases 
of  one  identical  universal  reaUty  which  itself  is  an 
emanation  from  God.  He  is  perhaps  more  widely 
known  as  a  writer  of  hymns. 

GAD. — A  god  of  the  early  Semitic  peoples  of 
northern  Arabia  whose  name  means  "fortune"  or 
"luck." 

GALLICAN  CONFESSION,  or  CONFESSION 
OF  LA  ROCHELLE,— A  confession  drawn  up  by 
the  Reformed  Church  of  France  in  1559.  It  was 
shaped  under  the  influence  of  John  Calvin  and 
contains  four  parts  and  forty  articles.  In  content 
it  follows  the  usual  Unes  of  the  reformed  confessions, 
although    not    presenting    the    doctrine    of    pre- 


destination in  its  extreme  form.  The  present 
Reformed  Church  of  France  in  1872  re-afllirmed 
its  confidence  in  this  confession,  which,  however, 
has  lost  much  of  its  authority  among  the  more 
hberal  French  Protestants. 

GALLICANISM.— A  term  applied  to  the  long 
struggle  of  the  French  Church,  especially  in  the 
17th.  and  18th.  centuries,  to  preserve  its  ancient 
hberties  against  the  encroachments  of  Ultra- 
montanism  (q.v.). 

French  bishops  asserted  that  the  papal  power 
was  limited  by  that  of  the  episcopate  and  the 
General  Council.  French  kings  protested  the 
interference  of  the  papacy  in  temporal  affairs. 
In  1687  Bossuet  (q.v.)  summed  up  both  protests  in 
the  "Declaration  of  the  Clergy,"  asserting  the 
independence  of  the  State,  the  superiority  of  the 
General  Council,  the  inviolabihty  of  Gallican 
liberties,  and  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  and 
bishops.  The  conflict  continued  till  the  abrogation 
of  the  Concordat  (q.v.),  1905,        H.  H.  Walker 

GAMBLING. — The  risking  of  money  or  some 
valuable  possession  on  an  uncertain  event,  so  that 
gain  or  loss  is  determined  by  chance. 

Gamliling,  as  distinguished  from  betting, 
usually  indicates  a  more  or  less  organized  form  of 
staking  money  on  an  unpredictable  event.  The 
natural  curiosity  of  people  to  "see  what  will  happen" 
in  case  of  an  uncertainty  is  greatly  enhanced  if 
the  gain  or  loss  of  money  hangs  on  the  outcome. 
Gambling  organizes  this  financial  interest  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  it  primary,  and  develops  a  method 
of  money-making  far  more  exciting  and  less  labori- 
ous than  the  usual  process  of  earning  reward. 
The  experience  of  a  winning  a  large  sum  brings 
an  extraordinary  elation.  The  losers,  in  hope 
eventually  of  attaining  a  Uke  experience,  continue  to 
risk  their  possessions.  So  powerful  is  the  excite- 
ment that  it  often  overrules  all  other  considerations, 
leading  men  to  impoverish  themselves  and  even 
to  incur  crushing  debts  in  order  to  pursue  the 
fickle  goddess  of  chance. 

Gambling  is  found  in  connection  with  many 
kinds  of  games  and  with  unpredictable  results  of 
normal  social  and  poUtical  actions.  Horse-racing, 
baseball  and  football,  prize-fights,  elections,  and 
the  movement  of  markets  furnish  opportunities 
on  a  large  scale.  Stringent  legislation  in  all  well- 
governed  states  puts  a  check  on  gambhng,  but  it 
continues*  to  flourish  in  private  and  ilhcit  ways. 
Its  evils  are  evident.  It  creates  a  way  of  acquif^ 
ing  money  without  any  creative  labor.  The  excite^ 
ment  attending  such  a  quest  makes  ordinary 
industry  seem  ^  tame.  The  lure  of  the  practise 
is  peculiarly  insidious,  leading  often  to  what 
is  virtuaUy  a  monomania.  For  these  reasons  it  is 
almost  universally  condemned  by  ethics  and 
restrained  by  law-  Gerald  Birney  Smith 


Games 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


180 


GAMES. — See  Amusements. 

GANDHARVAS. — Divine  musicians  of  Indra's 
heavenly  court  in  Vedic  religion.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  a  strange  power  over  earthly  women. 
Their  heavenly  mistresses  are  the  Apsarases  who, 
in  their  turn,  tempt  men  and  become  the  mothers 
of  renowned  human  leaders. 

GANESHA.— A  Hindu  god,  son  of  Parvati  the 
wife  of  Shiva.  He  was  known  as  the  creator  of 
obstacles  but  his  worship  has  transformed  him  into 
the  remover  of  difficulties,  the  god  of  learning,  and 
the  protector  of  the  open  road.  He  is  represented 
as  an  elephant-headed  fat  figure  riding  on  a  rat. 
He  leads  the  demonic  retinue  of  Shiva. 

GAG N.— (Plural:  Geonim.)  The  title  of  the 
head-masters  of  the  academies  at  Sura  and  Pumbe- 
ditha,  Babylonia.  The  period  of  the  Geonim  lasted 
for  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  years,  ending  in 
1038.  The  Geonim  were  the  highest  judges  and 
recognized  heads  of  the  Jewish  communities.  They 
and  their  schools  made  important  contributions 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  Talmud. 

GATHAS. — One  of  the  oldest  sections  of  the 
Zoroastrian  Scriptures,  consisting  of  hymns,  songs 
and  prayers,  thought  to  contain  much  of  the 
genuine  teachings  of  Zarathustra  himself.  See 
Persia,  Religions  op;  Sacked  ScRiPTUREa. 

GAUTAMA  (560-477  b.c.).— The  founder  of 
Buddhism,  called  also  Sakyamuni,  Tathagata, 
Siddhartha,  and  Buddha,  "the  enlightened." 
The  historic  figure  of  the  great  teacher  was  early 
obscured  by  mythology,  stories  of  miracles,  and 
philosophic  speculation,  yet  it  is  possible  to  rescue 
the  main  outlines  of  his  life  from  the  early  sources. 
He  was  born  in  the  family  of  the  ruling  (kshatriya) 
caste  of  the  Sakya  clan  of  the  Magadha  coimtry 
near  Kapilavastu.  It  was  a  farming  community 
sufficiently  removed  from  Brahmin  influence  to 
allow  an  independent  religious  development.  As  a 
boy  he  probably  received  the  usual  Hindu  training 
in  the  sacred  sciences  and  then  married.  The 
tragedy  of  human  life  with  its  ceaseless  round  of 
passion,  suffering,  disease,  cruelty,  sorrow,  old  age 
and  deathj  weighed  heavily  upon  him.  At  29 
he  determmed  to  leave  the  householder  life,  to 
abandon  his  wife  and  infant  child,  and  take  up  the 
hermit  life  which  was  normally  reserved  for  the 
aged.  His  quest  for  truth  led  him  to  renowned 
teachers  but  he  quickly  discovered  that  there  was  no 
solution  of  the  problem  of  actual  human  suffering 
in  their  endless  psychological  theories  and  meta- 
physical speculations.  Next  he  tried  extreme 
asceticism  only  to  be  convinced  of  its  futility. 
With  a  rare  courage  he  gave  up  the  ascetic  life,  losing 
his  only  remaining  friends,  and  devoted  himself  to 
solitary  meditation.  In  this  he  did  not  abandon 
hinaself  to  a  sleepy  mysticism  but  undertook  a 
critical  diagnosis  of  life  and  life's  suffering  which 
resulted  in  his  enlightenment — the  discovery  of  the 
way  of  eliminating  human  suffering  by  uprooting 
its  cause.  Moved  by  his  love  for  his  fellowman 
he  now  undertook  the  task  of  preaching  his  gospel 
of  emancipation.  For  the  following  45  years  he 
was  continuously,  except  during  the  rainy  seasons, 
a  wandering  preacher  with  an  ever-growing  band  of 
followers  of  all  castes  and  conditions,  men  and  women. 

His  was  a  genuine  religious  experience  and  he 
spoke  with  the  authority  of  one  who  has  seen  the 
truth.  His  message  is  set  in  a  thoroughly  Hindu 
background.  The  weariness  of  life,  the  crushing 
burden  of  the  ceaseless  wheel  of  transmigration, 
the   quest   for   release,    the   belief   in    karma   and 


admiration  for  the  saintly,  ascetic  seeker  after 
hoUness  are  all  part  of  his  world  view.  The  new 
thing  was  that  he  abandoned  the  old  authoritative 
ways — sacrifices,  priests  and  scriptures — scorning 
as  futile  all  metaphysical  theories  regarding  cosmic 
ultimates,  all  speculations  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  soul  as  an  entity.  He  was  agnostic  rather 
than  atheist.  He  himself  had  found  the  great 
peace  and  joy  of  emancipation  without  any  need  of 
solving  the  problems  of  theology.  His  gospel  was  a 
practical  program  of  moral  action,  available  to 
men  of  every  class,  and  set  forth  in  the  four  noble 
truths,  the  noble  eight-fold  path  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  ten  fetters.  See  Buddhism.  It  was  a  way  i 
of  self-salvation  for  the  individual.  Gautama  was 
not  a  social  reformer.  He  taught,  "All  existence  is 
transitory,  all  existence  is  sorrow,  all  the  constituents 
of  being  are  lacking  in  an  ego."  Hence  he  imder- 
took  an  exposition  of  the  way  of  forming  that 
aggregate  of  habits,  by  a  practical  way  of  living, 
which  would  achieve  for  the  individual  the  great 
peace — nirvana  (q.v.).  To  secure  this  a  character 
must  be  formed  in  which  the  three  fires  of  lust, 
anger  and  delusion  can  no  longer  burn.  This  is 
release,  peace,  salvation. 

His  success  was  immediate.  Judged  by  the 
number  of  human  beings  who,  during  the  centuries, 
have  claimed  to  follow  him  he  must  be  given  high 
rank  among  the  greatest  religious  leaders  of  the 
world.  His  early  success  may  be  attributed  to  his 
large  sympathy^  his  winsome  personality,  his 
confidence  and  joy  in  his  message,  his  practical 
program  and  his  understanding  of  the  Hindu  mind. 
The  early  simplicity  of  his  religion  was  soon  lost  in 
the  milieu  of  Hindu  fantasy  and  speculation.  _  The 
later  story  belongs  to  the  long  and  difficult  history 
of  Buddhism.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

GAYATRI. — The  most  sacred  verse  of  the 
Vedas,  thought  to  embody  the  essence  of  Hindu 
Scripture  and  of  all  the  Gods.  It  reads,  "We 
meditate  on  that  desirable  light  of  the  divine 
Savitri,  the  sun  who  governs  our  holy  rites." 
The  name  is  used  also  for  one  of  the  metres  of  the 
Vedic  hymns. 

GEB. — The  earth-god  of  ancient  Egypt,  father 
of  Osiris  (q.v.). 

GEHENNA. — ^A  fiery  place  of  punishment  of  the 
wicked  in  the  after-hfe  according  to  the  eschatology 
of  Israel  and  of  Islam.  Originally,  the  valley  of 
Gehinnom  in.  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem  where 
sacrifices  in  fire  were  offered  to  a  pagan  god  and 
where  later  the  refuse  of  the  city  was  burned. 

GELASIUS. — The  name  of  two  popes. 
Gelasius  /.—Pope,  492^96. 
Gelasius  11. —Pope,  1118-1119. 

GEMARA.— The  Uterary  work  of  the  Baby- 
lonian and  Palestinian  rabbis  of  the  3rd.  to  6th.  cen- 
turies. The  authors  of  the  Gemara  are  called 
Amoraim.  See  Amora.  They  amplified  and 
commented  upon  the  articles  of  the  Mishna, 
explaining  and  illustrating  its  laws  and  teachings. 
The  collection  of  the  mass  of  traditional  lore  thus 
accumulated  through  the  centuries  above-men- 
tioned, is  called  the  Gemara,  and  the  Gemara 
along  with  the  Mishna,  on  which  it  is  based,  is 
called  the  Talmud.  The  Babylonian  Talmud  is 
the  collection  of  the  work  of  the  Babylonian  Amor- 
aim, and  the  Palestinian  Talmud,  of  the  Palestinian. 
The  former  is  by  far  the  fuller  and  the  more  popular. 
The  Talmud,  representing,  as  it  does,  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  the  scholarship  of  many  centuries  of  intense 
Jewish  thought,  affords  a  storehouse  of  literary 


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Ghazali,  Al- 


wealth,  combining  legal  minutiae  with  philosophic 
and  scientific  discussions,  folk-lore,  historical 
and  biographical  notes,  homilies,  stories,  and 
mottoes.  It  is  the  embodiment  of  the  oral  tradition 
of  the  Jews,  and  is  now,  as  it  has  always  been,  one 
of  the  main  branches  of  Jewish  study. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 
GENERAL  ASSEMBLY.— The  highest  legisla- 
tive gathering  of  the  official  representatives  of 
the  Presbyterian  church,  which  convenes  annually 
and  is  composed  of  the  ruling  elders,  ministers, 
and  appointed  delegates  of  the  presbyteries.  Simi- 
lar bodies  are  convened  by  the  French  Reformed 
and  other  churches. 

GENERAL  CONFESSION.— (1)  A  pubhc  con- 
fession of  sins  made  by  congregation  and  minister 
or  by  the  minister  on  behalf  of  the  congregation,  a 
practice  common  in  AngUcan  and  certain  other 
churches.  (2)  In  the  R.C.  church  a  confession  in 
which  the  penitent  sums  up  his  past  sins,  even 
though  previously  confessed. 

GENERATIONISM.— Same  as  traducianism 
(q.v.). 

GENEVA  CATECHISM.— See  Catechism. 

GENEVIEVE,  SAINT  (ca.  422-512).— Patron- 
ess saint  of  Paris,  venerated  on  Jan.  3rd.  for  her 
benevolence,  and  the  services  she  rendered  to 
Paris  by  her  prophetic  gift  and  her  holy  influence 
when  the  city  was  attacked  by  Attila,  the  Him. 

GENIUS. — In  Roman  mythology,  the  tutelary 
deity  of  a  person  who  attends  mortals  through 
life,  or  protects  places  or  other  objects.  E.g.,  genius 
familiae,  a  household  patron  deioy,  or  genius  loci, 
a  local  guardian  genius. 

GENIZAH. — A  small  chamber  or  other  reposi- 
tory in  connection  with  many  synagogues  for  the 
storing  of  sacred  reUcs  and  damaged  manuscripts. 
Oriental  genizahs  have  yielded  many  texts  valuable 
for  bibUcal  criticism. 

GENTILE. — A  word  adapted  from  the  Latin, 
gentilis,  which  means  belonging  to  the  same  clan; 
later  used  in  the  sense  of  a  nation  or  race,  hence  a 
foreign  nation.  In  the  English  Bible  the  term  is 
used  for  the  non- Jewish  peoples. 

GENTILE  CHRISTIANITY.— This  expression, 
in  contrast  with  Jewish  Christianity  (q.v.),  is  com- 
monly applied  to  the  Christian  movement  outside 
Palestine,  especially  during  the  early  years  of  the 
new  religion's  history.  At  the  outset  the  member- 
ship of  the  gentile  Christian  communities  often 
included  Jewish  as  well  as  pagan  converts.  Evi- 
dently this  was  the  case  in  most  of  the  PauUne 
churches,  although  the  apostle  regarded  himself  as 
called  to  preach  more  especially  to  the  gentiles. 
But  in  the  course  of  a  few  generations,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  inconspicuous  Christian  groups 
in  Palestine,  the  new  religion  drew  its  adherents  exclu- 
sively from  pagan  circles,  and  thus  "Christianity"  and 
"Gentile  Christianity"  became  synonymous  terms. 

S.  J.  Case 

GENUFLEXION.— The  bending  of  the  knee  as  a 
gesture  of  reverence  and  humiUty  in  worship.  The 
custom  dates  from  the  early  church  and  in  the 
more  hturgical  sects  rules  are  prescribed  for  its 
observance. 

GERHARD,  JOHANN  (1582-1637).— Lutheran 
theologian,  the  most  complete  scholastic  expositor 
of  early  Lutheran  dogmatics.     By  his  detailed  doc- 


trine of  the  inspired  infallibility  of  the  Bible  he 
furnished  a  Protestant  answer  to  the  Cathohc 
doctrine  of  an  infaUible  church. 

GERHARDT,  PAULUS  (1607-1676).— The 
greatest  of  German  hymn-writers.  More  than  thirty 
of  his  hymns  have  become  classics. 

GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  PROTESTANT 
CHURCH  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.— A  liberal 
body  of  German-speaking  Protestants,  mainly  in 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Pennsylvania.  17,962  mem- 
bers (1919). 

GERMAN  EVANGELICAL  SYNOD  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA.— A  denomination  of  German 
Protestants  in  the  U.S.A.  formed  in  1850  by  a 
fusion  of  the  German  Evangelical  Association 
(organized  1840)  and  the  German  Evangehcal 
Church  Association  of  Ohio,  and  to  which  other 
similar  bodies  were  subsequently  added.  Doc- 
trinally  the  church  holds  to  the  common  elements 
in  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  creeds,  and  leaves 
points  of  difference  to  the  individuals.  They  have  a 
mission  work  in  India.  The  Synod  comprises 
some  1,300  churches  and  has  352,644  communicants 
(1919). 

GERSON,  JEAN  CHARLIER  DE  (1363- 
1429). — French  ecclesiastic  and  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  tried  to  supplant  scholastic 
speculation  by  evangelicaUsm  in  imiversity 
studies.  His  supreme  effort  was  the  endeavor 
to  end  the  papal  schism  through  the  councils  of  Pisa, 
1409,  and  Constance,  1418.  At  the  council  of 
Constance,  Gerson  was  the  accusor  of  John  Huss. 

GESENIUS,  HEINRICH  FRIEDRICH  WIL- 
HELM  (1786-1842).— German  Semitic  scholar  and 
bibKcal  critic,  the  first  scholar  to  introduce  the 
scientific  method  into  the  study  of  Semitic  philology 
and  hterature. 

GHAZALI,  AL-(1058-1111).— The  greatest  theo- 
logian of  Mohammedanism  and  the  most  advanced 
philosopher  of  the  Mediterranean  world  during  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Brilliant  and  diligent  study  at  the  famous 
imiversity  of  Naysabur  led  to  his  appointment  by 
the  great  vizier  Nizam  al  Mulk  (patron  of  Omar 
Khayyam)  to  a  chair  in  the  newly  founded  Nizamiy- 
ya  University  at  Bagdad  (1091).  He  was  speedily 
recognized  as  one  of  the  cleverest  expounders  of 
the  Scholastic  theology  and  the  casuistic  juris- 
prudence which  characterized  the  Moslem  East 
as  well  as  the  Christian  West  in  his  day. 

In  1095  the  depth  of  his  own  nature  and  the 
influence  of  his  great  teacher.  Imam  al-Haramain, 
asserted  themselves;  he  resigned  his  post  and 
except  for  a  brief  period  of  enforced  teaching  at 
Naysabur  devoted  his  life  to  private  research, 
writing,  and  mystic  devotion.  His  lifework  is 
summed  up  in  two  great  works,  the  Collapse  of 
the  Philosophers  (known  in  Mediaeval  Europe  as 
Destructio  philosophorum  of  Abuhamet  =  Abu  Hamid, 
or  of  Algazel)  and  the  Revivification  of  the  Sciences 
of  Religion.  In  the  former  his  critique  of  the  func- 
tion of  the  senses  and  the  brain  reaches  heights  not 
attained  in  Europe  before  Hume  and  Kant.  See 
Arabic  Philosophy.  In  the  latter  and  in  many 
smaller  writings  he  makes  room  for  Sufic  mysticism, 
which  itself  had  just  made  an  approach  through 
Qushairi  (in  1045)  to  intelligent  orthodoxy,  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion;  i.e.,  he  emphasizes  simple 
formulation,  individual  devotion,  and  practical 
ethics  as  against  hair-splitting  Scholasticism. 
Accordingly  he  stood  steadfastly  for  a  spirit  of 


Ghebers 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


182 


broad  toleration.  Having  limited  the  sciences  to 
what  he  beUeved  to  be  their  sphere  he  respected 
them  there.  Holding  that  the  layman  need  and 
should  not  be  troubled  with  questions  of  the 
schools,  he  recognized  a  time  and  place  for  these, 
also.  He  himself  was  great  enough  to  be  able  to 
write  for  the  layman  as  well  as  for  the  professional 
theologian.  Attacked  from  various  quarters, 
nothing  inconsistent  with  the  best  in  orthodox 
Moslem  doctrine  has  yet  been  discovered  in  his 
pubUshed  works.  He  hints,  however,  at  experi- 
ences and  opinions  which  he  seems  never  to  have 
set  down  in  writing.  What  this  inexorable  agnostic, 
who  yet  found  himself  bound  by  mystic  intuition 
to  his  infinite  God,  thought  and  beUeved  in  his 
heart  of  hearts,  is  still  a  mystery. 

M.  SPRENGLINa 

GHEBERS.— See  Gabers. 

GHETTO. — (From  Italian  gieito,  cannon-factory, 
at  Venice,  near  which  the  first  ghetto  was  located.) 
Street  or  neighborhood  within  which  the  Jews 
were  compelled  to  live.  The  ghettos  were  estab- 
lished in  many  European  cities,  beginning  in  the 
11th.  century;  and  only  the  end  of  the  19th.  century 
saw  the  last  ghetto-gate  torn  down.  The  term  is 
now  used  also  to  designate  a  neighborhood  in  which 
a  great  number  of  Jews  live  close  together. 

GHIBELLINE  and  GUELF.— These  party 
names  are  clearly  Itahan  forms  derived  from  the 
German  Waiblingen  and  Welf.  The  princes  of  the 
house  of  Welf  were  a  party  of  opponents  to  the  royal 
power  of  the  Hohenstauffen  whose  original  feudal 
seat  was  in  Waiblingen.  The  Itahan  terms  first 
appear  in  Florence  in  1215  to  distinguish  the 
partisans  and  opponents  of  the  Emperor.  Ghibel- 
line  meant  the  party  of  feudal  nobility  whose 
inherited  interests  raUied  them  to  the  miUtarist  and 
autocratic  Emperor,  while  Guelf  included  all 
who  were  hostile  to  the  Emperor  whether  because 
they  wished  to  secure  the  independence  of  the 
papacy  from  imperial  control,  or,  more  commonly, 
as  representing  the  new  industrial  elements  of  the 
cities  with  a  desire  for  more  democratic  rule. 
Especially  in  Lombardy  Guelf  meant  the  cities  in 
league  with  Milan  and  Cremona  where  the  nobles 
had  had  to  yield  power  to  the  rising  trade  guilds. 
These  parties  developed  into  the  anarchy  of  local 
factions  against  which  Dante  made  a  passionate 
protest.  F.  A.  Christie 

GHOST. — (1)  A  phantom  or  apparition  of  a 
deceased  person,  regarded  among  primitive  peoples 
as  a  disembodied  soul  possessed  of  supernatural 
power  or  frequently  as  a  demon.  See  Demons; 
Spirits.  (2)  The  soul  or  the  immortal  principle 
of  man  as  in  the  phrase  "to  give  up  the  ghost." 
The  Holy  Ghost  is  thus  used  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 

GHOST-DANCE.— A  ceremonial  dance  of  certain 
American  Indian  tribes  in  which  the  participants 
wear  white  cloaks,  and  believe  they  communi- 
cate with  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  The  ceremony 
was  believed  to  be  efficacious  in  freeing  Indians  from 
dominion  of  the  whites. 

GIANTS. — A  behef  in  the  existence  of  giants  in 
early  times  is  almost  universal.  Interest  in  this 
behef  is  stimulated  (1)  by  the  presence  of  a  few 
such  individuals  today;  (2)  by  the  bones  of  such 
figures  found  in  caves  and  strata  of  soil  stretching 
back  to  earUer  ages;  (3)  by  traditions  and  stories 
prevalent  in  the  literary  remains  brought  down 
from  the  earHest  records  of  civilizatioh.  In  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  the  giant  Engidu  stirred  the 
imagination  with  his  might  and  victorious  conflicts. 


Among  the  Hebrew  stories,  we  find  men  of  unusual 
stature  and  power.  The  earliest  mentioned  are 
the  Nephilim,  an  antediluvian  race  (Gen.  6:4)  of 
semi-human  origin,  whose  descendants  were  the 
"heroes"  of  story  and  fame.  The  Rephaim  were 
gigantic  men  who  lived  among  the  Canaanite 
population  of  Palestine  both  east  and  west  of  the 
Jordan,  prior  to  Israel's  conquest  under  Joshua. 
To  the  same  general  class  belong  the  Ana  kirn 
about  Hebron  (Deut.  9:2)  and  in  Philistia.  On  the 
east  of  the  Jordan,  the  shades  (Deut.  2:10-12, 
20-22)  of  the  Zuzim,  the  Emim  (  =  Zamzummim) 
lingered  in  the  traditions  of  the  Israehte  population. 
Among  the  Greeks  the  Gigantes  were  mytho- 
logical beings,  closely  associated  with  the  gods, 
whom  these  gods  could  not  slay  except  by  the 
presence  of  a  mortal.  The  Titans  and  the  Centaurs 
are  also  mighty  monsters  in  Greek  mythology, 
and  they  furnish  a  whole  realm  of  stories  to  stimu- 
late and  entertain  Greek  life.  These  early  semi- 
human  personalities  exerted  an  ineffaceable  influence 
on  the  everyday  life,  on  the  literature  and  the  art 
of  the  Greeks,  the  Romans  and  all  subsequent 
civihzation.  Ira  M.  Price 

GIESELER,  JOHANN  KARL  LUDWIG  (1792- 
1854). — 'German  theologian  and  church  historian. 

GILGAMESH.— The  hero  of  the  great  religious 
epic  of  ancient  Babylonia.  The  epic  is  a  mixture 
of  nature-myth  and  semi-historical  tradition, 
Gilgamesh  playing  a  divine-human  role. 

GLASSITES.— A  small  Christian  sect,  founded 
by  John  Glas,  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  minister 
(1695-1773);  called  Sandemanians  in  America  and 
England,  after  Robert  Sandeman,  Glas'  son-in-law 
and  co-laborator.  They  teach  a  legalistic  adherence 
to  the  teachings  of  Jesus  and  practice  a  modified 
commimism. 

GLORIA. — An  ascription  of  praise,  sung  or 
recited  in  the  services  of  many  churches.  The 
most  famihar  glorias  are  the  Gloria  Patri,  "Glory  be 
to  the  Father,  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  "Glory  be  to 
God  on  high,"  and  the  Gloria  Tibi,  "Glory  be  to 
Thee,  O  God,"  the  latter  being  used  in  the  Eastern 
hturgy. 

GLORY. — Brightness  or  luster,  originally  physi- 
cal as  the  glory  of  the  sun,  but  applied  figuratively 
to  fame  or  honor  acquired  by  men  or  paid  to  them. 

Religiously  the  conception  of  God  associated 
itself  with  the  light  in  contrast  with  the  darkness. 
When  a  theophany  was  related  the  writer  hesitated 
to  say  that  God  appeared  in  person,  and  preferred 
to  say  that  his  glory  was  seen.  In  the  revelation  at 
Sinai  the  glory  of  Yahweh  came  down  upon  the 
mount,  and  the  mount  burned  as  with  fire.  The 
unusual  phenomena  of  the  thunderstorm  with  its 
blinding  lightning  confirmed  the  impression  that 
Yahweh  makes  himself  known  by  bright  light. 
He  was  supposed  to  consecrate  his  dwelling  by 
coming  to  it  in  a  bright  cloud,  and  the  future 
kingdom  of  God  will  be  illuminated  by  his  presence 
so  as  not  to  need  the  light  of  the  sun.  This  con- 
ception has  passed  over  into  Christianity  where 
heaven  is  thought  of  as  a  place  of  supernatural  hght, 
where  the  saint  will  dwell  "in  glory." 

In  the  derived  sense  of  fame  or  reputation  the 
word  is  apphed  to  God  in  religious  thinking.  His 
glory  was  seen  by  the  Jews  in  overcoming  his 
enemies.  Hymns  of  praise  glorify  God,  that  is, 
spread  the  knowledge  of  his  excellence.  Calvinistic 
theology  made  the  glory  of  God  the  supreme  good, 
and  Jesuit  ethics  judges  all  actions  with  reference  to 
the  "greater  glory  of  God."  H.  P.  Smith 


183 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


God 


GLOSSES. — Interpretative  comments  inserted 
in  the  text  or  added  in  the  margin  of  ancient  manu- 
scripts by  copyists  desirous  of  correcting  the  text 
or  making  its  meaning  clear.  When  the  manu- 
script containing  such  notes  came  to  be  recopied 
such  scribal  additions  would  sometimes  be  copied 
as  part  of  the  original  text,  from  which  they  thus 
became  indistinguishable  except  by  criticism. 
Possible  examples  are  Mark  7:196  ("making  all 
meats  clean")  and  John  1:15,  which  simply  dupli- 
cates 1:30.  Edgar  J.  Goodspked 

GLOSSOLALIA.— See  Tongues,   Speaking 

WITH. 

GNOME. — In  mediaeval  folk-lore,  one  of  a 
race  of  tiny  earth  or  mountain  spirits,  conceived 
to  be  the  guardians  of  mines  and  miners.  The 
males  are  pictures  as  ugly  bearded  dwarfs  with 
hoods,  and  the  females  (gnomides)  as  very  beautiful. 

GNOSTICISM. — A  name  for  a  type  of  religious 
activity  that  became  prominent  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean World  in  the  early  Christian  centuries.  The 
Greek  word  gnosis,  from  which  the  term  Gnosticism  is 
derived,  means  knowledge.  But  in  this  connection 
knowledge  was  understood  to  be,  not  so  much  a 
mental  acquisition  arrived  at  through  the  exercise 
of  observation  and  reason,  as  a  mystical  enlighten- 
ment mediated  by  the  supernatural  process  of 
revelation. 

The  chief  tenets  of  Gnosticism  are:  (1)  The 
world  of  matter  is  intrinsically  evil,  the  creation  of 
an  evil  deity.  (2)  The  physical  body  of  man  also 
belongs  to  the  world  of  evil  matter,  but  his  soul  is 
a  spark  of  light  from  an  upper  world  of  purity  where 
the  good  deity  resides.  (3)  In  some  unfortunate 
way,  variously  explained,  originally  pure  souls 
have  become  entangled  in  evil  matter  from  which 
their  deliverance  can  be  secured  only  through  some 
form  of  divine  intervention  on  the  part  of  the  good 
god.  (4)  A  way  of  deliverance  has  been  provided 
through  the  coming  of  a  special  emissary  of  light  into 
the  world  of  darkness.  This  mediator  is  pictured 
in  various  mythical  forms,  but  in  Christian  Gnosti- 
cism he  is  regularly  identified  with  Christ.  (5)  Sal- 
vation is  secured  for  the  individual  by  rites  of 
initiation  and  worship  through  which  the  soul  is 
mystically  reinforced  by  a  new  increment  of  light 
from  the  upper  world  and  taught  certain  magical 
passwords  that  insure  the  safe  transit  of  the  soul 
past  the  demons  stationed  at  the  various  gates 
barring  the  road  to  heaven. 

Originally  Gnosticism  was  not  a  single  and 
definitely  organized  movement,  but  a  syncretism 
of  kindred  tendencies  emanating  from  different 
sources.  Formerly  it  was  thought  to  have  arisen 
first  in  the  Christian  Era  and  to  have  resulted  from 
the  application  of  Greek  speculation  to  Christianity. 
But  the  more  recent  investigations  have  shown 
that  the  movement  was  not  only  pre-Christian  in 
origin  but  also  Oriental  rather  than  distinctively 
Greek  in  character.  It  had  not  a  little  in  common 
with  the  Oriental  Mystery  reUgions  (q.v.),  and  its 
fundamental  notion  of  sharp  conflict  between  the 
evil  world  of  darkness  and  the  good  world  of  light, 
and  their  respective  champions,  is  apparently  a 
heritage  from  Persia. 

The  fusion  between  Gnostic  and  Christian 
conceptions  occurred  to  some  extent  in  the  1st. 
century,  but  distinctively  Christian  Gnostic  move- 
ments do  not  emerge  until  toward  the  end  of  the 
1st.  century.  The  2nd.  century  witnessed  their 
greatest  prosperity,  but  they  rapidly  declined 
during  the  first  half  of  the  3rd.  century.  Among 
the  shadowy  figures  in  the  1st.  century  who  are 
accused  of  Gnostic  leanings  are  Simon  Magus  in 


Syria  and  Cerinthus  in  Asia.  About  the  year 
130  A.D.  in  Alexandria  the  movement  assumed 
more  serious  proportions  under  the  leadership  of 
Basilides.  By  the  middle  of  this  century  it  found  a 
still  more  influential  champion  in  Valentinus, 
who  carried  the  propaganda  from  Alexandria  to 
Rome.  It  was  here  also  that  Marcion  (q.v.)  con- 
ducted his  work.  From  this  center  Gnosticism 
spread  especially  eastward,  its  latest  representa- 
tive of  distinction  being  Bardesanes  of  Syria  whose 
death  probably  should  be  placed  about  the  year  240. 
The  causes  of  Gnosticism's  rapid  decline  are 
easily  perceived.  Its  lack  of  formal  organization, 
the  elements  of  diversity  within  itself,  its  Oriental 
type  of  speculation  in  contrast  with  the  interests  of 
Greek  thinking,  all  placed  it  at  a  great  disadvantage 
before  a  more  powerful  orthodoxy  already  beginning 
to  take  on  the  character  of  a  unified  movement  in 
which  the  Roman  genius  for  organization  and  the 
Greek  taste  for  metaphysical  speculation  were 
dominant  factors.  S.  J.  Case 

GOBLIN. — In  mediaeval  folk-lore,  an  imaginary 
ugly  creature  of  malignant  influence,  supposed  to 
inhabit  caves  or  woods. 

GOD. — The  Supreme  Being,  the  highest  object 
of  worship,  the  creator  and  source  of  the  existing 
universe,  and  the  upholder  of  absolute  justice. 

I.  God  and  Gods. — The  conception  of  one 
supreme  God  is  a  product  of  considerable  maturity 
of  thought.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  religious 
thinking  a  multitude  of  spirits  confront  man  with 
their  demands  for  various  kinds  of  propitiation. 
See  Primitive  Peoples,  Religion  op;  Gods; 
Animism.  Even  in  connection  with  polytheism 
there  is  usually  some  gradation  of  spirits  so  that 
certain  gods  possess  more  extensive  power  than 
others.  When  all  the  forces  of  man's  world  are 
regarded  as  subordinate  to  one  supreme  control, 
the  conception  of  God  as  distinct  from  the  concep- 
tion of  a  pluralistic  spiritual  realm  emerges. 

II.  Typical  Interests  Leading  to  Mono- 
theism.— The  pathway  along  which  this  unification 
of  religious  thinking  takes  place  depends  on  the 
kind  of  culture  existing  and  the  dominant  interests 
of  life.  In  general,  the  following  considerations 
have  been  active  in  the  creation  of  monotheism: 

1 .  The  idea  of  conquest . — One  people  may  conquer 
another.  If  the  war  has  been  waged  under  the 
special  sanction  of  some  deity,  the  conquest  greatly 
enlarges  his  power.  He  may  not  only  displace  the 
god  of  the  conquered  people,  but  the  victory  may 
suggest  his  supreme  power  over  all  possible  foes. 
Sometimes  warfare  is  depicted  in  the  realm  of 
mythology,  where  one  God  conquers  his  right  to 
supremacy  in  the  pantheon. 

2.  The  interest  in  the  political  or  social  unity 
of  a  tribe  or  nation. — For  men  of  primitive  and 
provincial  habits  of  thought,  the  group  is  to  aU 
intents  and  purposes  the  actual  world.  Among 
the  Semitic  peoples  we  find  this  political  interest 
especially  strong.  The  unification  of  men's  loyalty 
was  accomplished  by  the  exaltation  of  the  preroga- 
tives of  the  god  of  the  tribe.  In  the  process  of 
accentuating  this  loyalty,  the  exclusive  claims  of  the 
deity  of  the  political  group  came  to  be  so  empha- 
sized as  to  constitute  a  description  of  an  absolute 
ruler.  In  the  case  of  Israel,  the  great  prophets 
were  able  to  interpret  the  righteous  demands 
of  Yahweh  so  vigorously  that  even  the  political 
downfall  of  the  nation  did  not  weaken  the  position 
of  its  God.  By  emphasizing  the  cause  of  righteous- 
ness, the  prophets  laid  the  foundations  for  the 
belief  in  one  supreme  God  of  righteousness  which 
has  been  characteristic  of  western  religious  belief. 


God 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


184 


3.  The  belief  in  the  ultimate  sovereignty  of 
righteotisness. — Strongly  entrenched  in  human 
experience  is  the  conviction  that  justice  ought  to 
prevail.^  Amid  the  apparent  miscarriages  of 
justice  in  human  affairs,  men  look  to  some  super- 
human power  to  right  the  wrongs  under  which  they 
suffer.  Only  thus  can  moral  unity  be  affirmed.  If 
some  specific  deity  be  regarded  as  entrusted  with  the 
defense  of  justice  this  deity  comes  to  be  exalted  with 
attributes  of  disinterested  righteousness.  In  the 
case  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  the  identification  of  the 
national  interests  with  the  demands  of  justice  gave 
rise  to  so  commanding  a  divine  figure  that  the 
foundations  of  Christian  and  Mohammedan  as 
well  as  Jewish  theology  are  found  in  the  prophetic 
conception  of  God.  The  conception  of  righteous- 
ness is  universal,  transcending  the  interests  of  any 
one  individual  or  group.  Hence  the  possibility 
of  a  genuine^  monotheism,  in  which  all  other  gods 
with  special  interests  disappear. 

4.  The  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  universe.— 
While  the  origin  of  things  is  often  explained  in 
terms  of  a  complicated  interrelationship  of  mytho- 
logical beings,  it  may  also  be  ascribed  to  the  purpose 
and  creative  power  of  a  single  agent.  The  con- 
ception of  Ahura  Mazda  in  Zoroastrianism  presents 
a  majestic  picture  of  an  all-powerful  creator.  By 
virtue  of  this  supreme  creative  power,  such  a  God 
is  also  able  to  control  the  course  of  cosmic  events. 
A  strong  religious  faith  thus  becomes  possible. 

5.  Closely  akin  to  this  conception,  but  less 
anthropomorphic  in  character  is  the  conception  of 
rational  organization  in  the  universe.  This  con- 
ception may  never  assume  distinctly  personal  form. 
The  Chinese  idea  of  T'ien,  or  "Heaven"  indicates  a 
supreme  rational  order,  worthy  of  worship  and 
constituting  the  basis  of  religious  living,  but  not 
personalized.  In  Greek  philosophy  the  conception 
is  more  nearly  personal,  because  its  nature  is 
reached  by  taking  human  reason  as  an  analogy. 
Under  the  influence  of  Christian  thinking,  this 
Greek  ideal  was  distinctly  personalized.  The 
Providence  of  Christian  theology  is  distinctly  per- 
sonal, whereas  the  so-called  providence  of  Stoic 
philosophy  is  by  comparison  impersonal. 

6.  The  conception  of  ultimate,  immutable 
Being  in  contrast  to  the  vicissitudes  of  reality  as  we 
experience  it. — -This  conception  of  God  is  reached 
only  where  the  mystical  or  speculative  desire  for  an 
absolute  unity  is  strong.  It  finds  its  most  complete 
expression  in  the  philosophy  of  the  Vedanta,  but 
through  the  influence  of  Neo-Platonism  has  been  an 
influential  factor  in  the  development  of  western 
theology.  Inasmuch  as  the  desire  to  define  ultimate 
reality  in  terms  of  a  logically  consistent  concept 
is  a  strong  motive  where  the  spirit  of  reflection  is 
developed,  this  conception  of  God  finds  philo- 
sophical reinforcement,  and  is  thus  given  a  promi- 
nent place  where  intellectual  interpretations  are 
vigorously  promoted. 

For  the  specific  conceptions  of  God  which  have 
obtained  in  the  various  religions  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  dealing  with  those  religions. 
The  present  discussion  will  consider  the  three 
important  conceptions  which  are  found  in  the  reh- 
gions  of  today.  These  are  (a)  the  conception  of 
God  as  a  transcendent  personal  sovereign,  whose 
relation  to  the  world  and  to  men  is  primarily  a 
matter  of  his  Will;  (b)  the  conception  of  God  as 
the  ultimate  metaphysical  Being,  defined  largely 
by  contrast  with  the  finite  characteristics  of  reality 
as  we  experience  it;  and  (c)  the  combination  of 
personal  and  metaphysical  interests  expressed  in 
the  conception  of  God  in  Christian  theology.  _  A 
fourth  conception  might  perhaps  be  included,  viz., 
the  idea  of  "Heaven"  so  important  in  Chinese 
religious  and  moral  thinking.     But  the  very  fact 


that  this  conception  is  not  naturally  translated 
by  the  word  "God"  seems  to  exclude  it  from  this 
discussion. 

III.  God  as  Personaij  Lawgiver  and  Ruler. 
— ^The  relation  between  the  Israelitish  nation  and 
God  was  conceived  in  terms  of  personal  loyalty. 
Yahweh  was  a  "jealous"  God.  He  demanded  exclu- 
sive worship  as  the  condition  of  his  favor.  Only 
under  his  leadership  could  armies  be  victorious. 
Only  by  his  guidance  could  judges  and  rulers  exer- 
cise righteous  government.  Disasters  were  inter- 
preted as  marks  of  his  displeasure.  Prosperity 
could  come  only  as  a  mark  of  his  favor.  Yahweh  was 
personally  concerned  with  all  the  doings  of  his 
people.  He  purposed  their  good,  but  withheld  his 
blessings  when  they  were  disobedient.  Commands, 
promises  of  reward,  threats  of  punishment,  exhibi- 
tions of  wrath  or  of  love  were  the  ways  in  which  he 
expressed  himself. 

While  Yahweh  was  for  a  time  considered  as  the 
exclusive  God  of  Israel  the  great  prophets  kept 
faith  alive  through  the  period  of  national  disaster 
by  so  exalting  and  magnifying  the  conception  of 
God  that  his  power  increased  as  the  prestige  of  the 
nation  waned.  Instead  of  disappearing  when  his 
people  were  conquered,  as  many  a  tribal  or  national 
god  had,  Yahweh  was  discovered  to  be  so  supremely 
great  that  his  power  extends  over  all  the  earth. 
Isaiah  declared  that  the  armies  of  the  Assyrians 
were  under  Yahweh's  control.  Ezekiel  por- 
trayed the  surpassing  splendor  of  God's  dominion 
in  a  transcendent  realm  from  which  he  directs  his- 
tory toward  the  consummation  of  his  purposes. 
Later  Judaism  became  a  missionary  religion,  admit- 
ting others  than  native  Jews  to  the  privileges  of 
God's  reign.  The  so-called  gods  of  the  Gentiles 
have  no  real  existence.  There  is  only  one  God, 
and  he  is  supreme  over  all  the  earth. 

The  attributes  of  God,  as  thus  conceived,  are 
obtained  by  universalizing  the  traits  emphasized  by 
the  Hebrew  prophets.  Fundamental  is  his  Sover- 
eignty. His  will  is  the  ultimate  reason  for  any 
regulation  or  law.  But  of  equal  importance  is  his 
Righteousness.  All  of  his  laws  and  his  deeds  are 
dictated  by  his  purpose  to  establish  righteousness. 
This  insistence  on  righteousness  leads  him  to  punish 
the  wicked  and  to  reward  the  righteous.  But  the 
punishment  is  never  due  to  sheer  vengeance.  God 
loves  men,  and  shows  them  imdeserved  mercy  in 
many  ways. 

The  exercise  of  the  divine  sovereignty  is  mani- 
fested in  creation.  The  universe  exists  because  of 
the  divine  fiat.  God  established  the  laws  according 
to  which  the  processes  of  nature  take  place.  Since 
creation  is  due  solely  to  God's  will,  the  arbitrary 
alteration  of  the  course  of  nature  for  beneficent 
purposes  is  entirely  in  keeping  with  God's  character. 
Hence  miracles  are  occasionally  wrought  either  to 
secure  some  blessing  for  God's  people  or  to  attest 
the  genuineness  of  a  prophet's  word.  An  authori- 
tative revelation  of  the  divine  will  has  been  given 
so  that  men  may  have  no  excuse  for  going  contrary 
to  God's  purposes.  His  wrath  against  evildoers 
is  expressed  in  the  punishment  which  awaits  them; 
but  his  mercy  is  even  more  conspicuously  displayed 
by  the  provision  whereby  atonement  for  sins  may 
be  accomplished  and  the  sinner  restored  to  divine 
favor.  The  absolute  perfection  of  God's  righteous 
character  is  secured  by  his  abode  in  Heaven,  where 
all  is  ordered  in  complete  harmony  with  his  will. 
From  heaven  he  rules  the  course  of  history  and 
administers  the  salvation  of  men.  Into  heaven  he 
will  welcome  the  righteous  after  death  to  enjoy 
perfect  bliss  forever. 

This  picture  of  a  distinctly  personal  righteous 
divine  sovereign  has  frequently  been  combined 
with  traits  drawn  from  philosophical  speculation; 


185 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


God 


but  popular  religion  in  Judaism,  in  Christianity, 
and  in  Mohammedanism  moves  almos-t  exclusively 
within  the  limits  of  this  personal  conception. 

IV.  God  as  the  Metaphysical  Ultimate. — • 
The  most  thorough-going  elaboration  of  this  con- 
ception of  God  is  found  in  the  reUgious  thought  of 
India.  In  contrast  with  the  more  militant  religious 
attitude  of  the  west,  which  found  expression  in  the 
conception  of  an  all-powerful  God  imposing  his 
purpose  on  humanity,  Indian  thought  was  contem- 
plative and  mystical.  In  the  Vedas  the  gods  are 
expressions  of  nature  forces  rather  than  tribal 
deities.  In  the  Brahmanas  there  is  a  groping  after 
one  unified  conception  of  divine  Being  which  shall 
under ly  the  character  of  any  god.  Prajapati  is 
called  the  "lord  of  creatures.  In  the  Upanishads 
there  is  developed  the  conception  of  Brahman,  who 
is  the  ultimate  self-existent  reality,  the  unchange- 
able, indissoluble  Being,  the  highest  existence  that 
can  be  conceived.  Brahman  is  the  unseen,  in- 
tangible power  which  brings  into  existence  all  that 
is  and  which  maintains  their  existence,  but  is  itself 
eternally  distinct  from  all  phenomenal  reality. 
Its  true  nature  is  found  by  that  mystical  intro- 
spection which  discovers  the  Atman,  or  ultimate 
inner  reality  of  the  human  soul.  Brahman  is 
identical  with  Atman.  Thus  the  eternal  divine  is  a 
spiritual  metaphysical  something  discoverable  only 
as  one  penetrates  far  beneath  the  surface  appear- 
ance of  human  experience  and  apprehends  the 
indefinable,  ultimate,  all-pervasive,  all-inclusive, 
self-existent  power.  In  the  Vedanta  philosophy 
this  metaphysical  conception  of  God  is  characterized 
by  a  systematic  contrast  between  the  nature  of 
Brahman  and  the  nature  of  the  world  of  our  experi- 
ence. The  nearest  approach  to  a  true  description 
of  Brahman  is  attained  by  saying  that  it  is  not  like 
anything  found  in  our  world.  This  contrast  is 
pushed  so  far  that  the  reUgious  man,  in  affirming  the 
reahty  of  Brahman,  must  also  affirm  that  the  world 
of  his  empirical  knowledge  is  illusion  (maya). 

In  this  logically  complete  philosophy,  the 
absolute  perfection  of  God  is  secured  at  the  expense 
of  any  definite  positive  relationship  between  God 
and  the  world  of  our  common  experience.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  speculative  refinement,  all  finite 
and  anthropomorphic  traits  are  eliminated  from 
the  divine  nature.  But  this  very  metaphysical 
completeness  of  God  relegates  him  to  a  realm  of 
non-human  existence  and  makes  human  participa- 
tion in  his  being  possible  only  by  a  rigorous  dis- 
cipline of  mystical  knowledge  which  necessarily 
abandons  the  world  of  every-day  life.  Conse- 
quently, the  religion  of  ordinary  people  consists  of 
trust  in  the  efficacy  of  popularly  conceived  deities. 
Modern  Hinduism  has  so  far  been  influenced  by  the 
demands  of  practical  religion  that  it  includes  Vishnu, 
Shiva,  and  the  personalized  Brahma  as  the  trini- 
tarian  manifestation  of  Brahman.  See  Brahman- 
ism  :  India,  Religions  of. 

Greek  philosophy  furnished  another  instance 
of  metaphysical  definition,  but  in  terms  which  per- 
mitted a  more  practical  relationship  between  God 
and  the  world  of  human  experience.  The  Greek 
quest  was  for  that  which  abides  amid  all  changes. 
The  first  crude  attempts  to  derive  everything  from 
fire,  air,  or  water,  gave  way  eventually  to  the  con- 
ception of  an  intelligent  order.  Plato  elaborated 
his  doctrine  of  a  hierarchy  of  ideas  all  subordinate 
to  a  supreme  "idea  of  ideas."  Aristotle  furnished 
the  conception  which  entered  into  Christian  doc- 
trine. Distinguishing  between  mere  "matter" 
and  "form,"  he  asserted  that  "  form"  is  the  meta- 
physical cause  of  any  particular  kind  of  organized 
existence.  God  is  "pure  form,"  the  uncreated 
creator  of  a  universe  with  intelligent  organization. 
God  is  thus  a  self-existent,  perfect  transcendent 


Being.  But  instead  of  being  defined,  as  in  the 
Vedanta  system,  by  negatives,  God's  activity 
finds  expression  in  the  creation  of  the  existing 
universe.  Neo-Platonism  (q.v.)  furnished  a  richly 
dynamic  interpretation  of  this  relationship  by 
expounding  a  doctrine  of  emanations,  according 
to  which  the  very  existence  of  things  depends  on  the 
immanent  divine  activity,  although  God-in-himself 
exists  in  such  perfect  purity  of  spiritual  being  that 
he  can  be  defined  only  by  contrast  with  the  material 
world.  Modern  idealistic  philosophy  likewise 
depicts  God  as  the  self-existent  Absolute,  but  affirms 
that  it  belongs  to  the  very  nature  of  this  Absolute, 
to  reahze  himself  in  and  through  the  evolving 
nature  of  things.  See  Hegelianism.  Unlike  the 
Indian  form  of  theological  speculation,  this  western 
type  makes  possible  a  mysticism  which  finds  expres- 
sion in  a  religious  appreciation  of  the  activity  of 
God  throughout  the  universe.  In  the  place  of 
oriental  pessimism,  western  philosophy  developed 
an  enthusiastically  optimistic  view  of  the  world. 

V.  The  Christian  Doctrine  op  God. — 1.  The 
fatherliness  of  God. — ^Jesus  employed  the  famiUar 
Hebrew  conception  of  God  as  a  sovereign  person, 
whose  will  was  the  ultimate  explanation  of  all 
things.  But  he  portrayed  the  divine  will  as  the 
expression  of  a  fatherly  love  for  men.  God  desires 
to  come  into  intimate  spiritual  relationship  with 
men.  His  creative  and  redemptive  work  are  all 
subordinated  to  this  purpose.  This  emphasis  on 
God's  intimate  interest  in  men  is  one  of  the  most 
distinctive  marks  of  Christian  doctrine.  What- 
ever may  be  the  doctrinal  content  of  the  idea  of 
God,  the  attitude  of  loving  care  for  men  enters 
into  every  form  of  Christian  theology. 

2.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. — This  Christian 
emphasis  has  been  technically  expressed  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  During  the  early  period  of 
Christianity  the  missionary  preaching  made  use 
largely  of  popular  and  unsystematized  ideas  con- 
cerning God.  By  the  end  of  the  2nd.  century, 
however,  attempts  were  being  made  to  organize  a 
Christian  philosophy  which  should  be  equal  in 
diginity  to  the  philosophies  of  the  Hellenistic 
world.  In  this  philosophical  organization,  the 
Greek  conception  of  God  as  ultimate  metaphysical 
essence  formed  the  framework.  Origen  defined 
God  as  the  absolutely  perfect  self-existent  spiritual 
Being.  But  when  thus  defined,  God  seemed  to 
belong  to  a  realm  of  existence  far  removed  from  the 
world  of  human  experience.  The  Christian  inter- 
est in  maintaining  an  active  loving  attitude  of  God 
toward  men  found  expression  in  the  use  of  the  hellen- 
istic  term  Logos.  The  Logos  was  a  form  of  divine 
activity  actually  present  in  the  organization  of  the 
world.  Thus  by  asserting  the  essential  unity_  of 
the  Logos  with  God,  a  medium  of  God's  communica- 
tion of  himself  to  the  world  and  to  men  was  at  hand. 
When  this  Logos  was  identified  with  Christ,  the 
Christian  character  of  God's  creative  and  redemp- 
tive activity  was  established.  The  relation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  the  divine  Father  was  the  logical 
completion  of  this  process.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  thus  was  the  means  by  which  the  Greek 
metaphysical  conception  of  God  was  satisfactorily 
Christianized  so  that  the  supreme  Being  was  seen 
to  hold  a  creative  and  redemptive  attitude  toward 
men.  Since  the  4th.  century  this  doctrine  has  been 
officially  regarded  as  the  distinctively  Christian 
conception  of  God. 

3.  The  attributes  of  God. — Scholastic  theology 
proceeded  to  analyze  the  metaphysical  conception 
of  perfect  Being,  thus  deriving  a  long  list  of  the 
so-called  "attributes"  of  God.  Beginning  with 
the  "aseity"  (underived  existence,  from  the  Latin 
a  se)  of  God,  his  immutability,  omnipotence, 
omniscience,    omnipresence,    eternity,    immensity, 


God 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


186 


unity,  etc.,  were  carefully  and  minutely  defined. 
These  metaphysical  attributes  were  supplemented 
by  others  derived  from  analysis  of  the  Christian 
conception  of  loving  personahty,  such  as  hoUness, 
love,  truth,  mercy,  etc.  In  depicting  the  activity 
of  God,  the  influence  of  the  biblical  presentation 
was  dominant.  The  sovereign  will  of  God  was  the 
ultimate  reason  for  his  creative  and  his  redemptive 
work.  But  this  will  is  the  expression  of  his  loving 
character.  The  Middle  Ages,  on  the  basis  of  this 
analysis,  worked  out  a  remarkably  complete  theo- 
logical interpretation  of  all  realms  of  thought, 

4.  The  influence  of  modern  'philosophy  on  ike 
conception  of  God. — God,  as  defined  by  scholastic 
philosophy,  is  a  transcendent  being,  existing 
originally  in  complete  self-perfection.  His  essential 
being  thus  lies  in  a  realm  above  that  of  human 
experience.  Modern  philosophy  since  the  days  of 
Locke  and  Kant  has  undertaken  a  radical  criticism 
of  our  powers  of  knowing.  Under  this  critical 
scrutiny  the  traditional  "attributes"  of  God  are 
seen  to  be  due  to  a  mere  formal  analysis  of  human 
concepts.  To  pass  from  these  concepts  to  the 
affirmation  of  a  corresponding  reality  transcendently 
existing,  involves  a  leap  of  faith.  Kant  left  open 
the  possibihty  of  such  a  leap,  but  could  see  no 
rational  bridge  by  which  to  pass  from  the  reahn  of 
verifiable  experience  to  the  transcendent  realm. 
The  unknowableness  of  a  transcendent  God  has 
today  become  a  philosophical  commonplace. 

ReUgious  philosophy,  then,  undertakes  to 
analyze  actual  experience,  and  to  suggest  tenable 
inferences  from  this  analysis.  God  is  thus  con- 
ceived as  a  reality  immanent  in  experience  father 
than  as  a  being  existing  in  a  realm  beyond  experi- 
ence. Hegel  defined  the  Absolute  in  terms  of  an 
immanent  organizing  process  rather  than  in  terms  of 
the  older  immutable,  self-sufficient  transcendent 
Being.  This  new  metaphysics  creates  new  prob- 
lems. Since  the  content  of  traditional  theology 
was  developed  as  an  interpretation  of  the  transcend- 
ent God,  it  cannot  be  taken  over  without  change 
in  connection  with  the  idea  of  immanence.  There 
has  been  a  general  period  of  attempted  adjustment 
of  the  older  doctrinal  technique  to  the  newer 
situation;  but  there  is  a  growing  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  the  familiar  hst  of  "attributes"  must 
give  way  to  a  mode  of  analysis  appropriate  to  the 
immanent  and  evolutionary  conception  of  ultimate 
reality. 

The  fact  that  under  the  influence  of  the  physical 
sciences  the  evolutionary  process  is  frequently 
expounded  in  purely  physical  terms  leads  naturally 
to  the  feeling  that  the  universe  is  heartless,  and 
therefore  godless.  To  satisfy  religious  demands  the 
suggestion  is  being  made  that  the  sympathetic 
God  of  Christian  faith  is  not  involved  in  the  cosmic 
process.  He  is  said  to  be  a  "finite"  being,  struggling 
with  the  refractory  cosmos.  Such  a  conception 
indicates  the  bankruptcy  of  the  conception  of  a 
God  unrelated  to  the  universe.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  task  of  theology  in  the  near  future 
is  frankly  to  face  the  situation,  and  instead  of 
formally  defending  the  traditional  attributes  which 
belong  to  an  outgrown  philosophy,  reconstruct  the 
fundamental  conception  of  God  in  terms  of  modem 
philosophical  demands. 

5.  The  influence  of  changing  social  ideals  on  the 
conception  of  God. — As  has  been  said,  the  popular 
conception  of  God  was  derived  from  the  political 
idea  of  a  sovereign  person.  The  will  of  God  was 
considered  the  all-sufficient  reason  for  any  activity. 
During  the  past  two  centuries  democratic  ideals 
have  been  steadily  displacing  the  sovereigns  of 
human  history.  The  unlimited  will  of  a  ruler  is  no 
longer  admitted  as  the  final  arbiter.  The  welfare 
of  humanity  rather  than  the  official  pomp  and 


power  of  the  ruler  is  the  supreme  good.  This 
ideal  is  quite  in  accord  with  Jesus'  representation 
of  ministry  as  the  ultimate  test  of  greatness.  In 
accordance  with  this  social  mind,  arbitrariness 
has  been  disappearing  from  modern  theology. 
God's  relation  to  the  universe  is  depicted  in  terms 
of  the  orderhness  of  law  rather  than  in  terms  of 
incalculable  interventions.  His  relation  to  men  is 
one  of  ilUmitable  helpfulness  rather  than  that  of  an 
injured  sovereign.  When  combined  with  the 
philosophical  emphasis  on  immanence  mentioned 
above,  this  new  social  mood  provides  a  conception  of 
God  less  official,  but  more  intimate.  There  is  an 
increasing  willingness  to  think  of  God's  activity 
as  being  olended  with  the  activities  of  men  rather 
than  as  standing  out  distinct  from  them.  The 
working  out  of  the  purpose  of  God  includes  the  co- 
operation of  men  as  part  of  that  purpose.  The 
most  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  reality  of  God 
is  found  in  the  experience  of  a  co-operating  and 
uplifting  "power  not  ourselves  making  for  righteous- 
ness." The  Christian  interpretation  of  God  is 
more  and  more  taking  the  form  of  a  discovery  of 
what  is  implied  in  such  a  personal  relationship  to 
God  as  that  which  Jesus  exemplifies  and  into  which 
his  disciples  may  be  initiated  through  faith  in  him. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 
GOD-FATHER,  GOD-MOTHER.— The  man  or 
woman  who  acts  as  sponsor  for  a  child  at  baptism 
and  undertakes  the  child's  religious  education; 
so  popularly,  the  one  who  gives  a  name. 

GODLINESS. — ^A  term  describing  the  quality 
of  a  life  entirely  dominated  by  reverence  for  God. 
In  the  New  Testament  it  is  commended  as  one  of 
the  supreme  traits  of  religion;  and  in  Christian 
thinking  generally  is  recognized  as  a  prime  essential 
of  rehgious  leadership. 

GODS. — A  god  may  be  any  power  of  the 
environing  world  with  which  a  group  of  men  may 
come  into  social  relations  and  which  is  greater  than 
man,  helpful  to  man  and  master  of  man.  The 
rank  of  godhead  is  often  only  a  slight  grade  above 
the  status  of  the  fetish  (q.v.),  of  ancestors,  of 
demons  or  even  of  hving  human  beings.  It  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  worship  of 
gods  and  the  adoration  and  reverence  addressed 
to  kings,  chiefs,  ancestors  or  even  to  feared,  danger- 
ous powers.  The  gods  have  one  distinction — they 
are  always  at  the  center  of  interest  of  the  social 
group  as  a  whole.  On  this  account  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  chief  or  king  and  the  common 
ancestors  really  rank  as  divine. 

There  is  no  simple  and  single  way  of  accoimting 
for  the  origin  of  gods.  That  they  emerged  at  a 
comparatively  late  stage  in  the  evolution  of  human 
social  life  is  certain.  Many  emotional  and  con- 
ceptual factors  may  have  converged  to  form  any 
one  of  the  early  gods.  The  chief  sources  may  be 
noted.  (1)  The  emotional  life  of  early  groups 
would  center  about  the  great  interests  of  food 
supply,  sex  and  protection.  The  objects  which 
furnished  the  satisfactions  of  these  deepest  needs  of 
life  would  tend  to  become  most  sacred,  most  loved 
and  most  highly  reverenced.  (2)  The  ever-present 
sense  of  mystery,  the  great  unknown  which  called 
out  the  feeling  of  awe  expressed  in  such  terms  as 
mana,  kami,  wakonda  (qq.v.).  (3)  The  projection 
of  human  feeling  and  will  to  the  great  nature 
powers.  (4)  The  unusual  exaltation  of  emotion  in 
group  ceremonies  giving  rise  to  the  concept  of  a 
super-soul  of  the  group.  (5)  The  concept  of  creator, 
first  cause,  maker  of  things.  (6)  The  idealized 
picture  of  the  priest  or  hero,  e.g.,  Brahmanaspati 
(q.v.).  (7)  The  convergence  of  the  two  concepts 
of  spirit  and  hero-soul.    Any  combination  of  these 


187 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Good  and  Evil 


factors  may  enter  into  the  concept  of  gods  in  the 
history  of  religions. 

The  types  of  gods  actually  found  may  be 
roughly  classified:  1.  The  nature  powers. — The 
heavenly  gods  of  light — 'Dawn,  Heaven,  Sun,  Moon. 
See  Aryan  Religion;  Vedic  Religion,  Air 
gods  (q.v.);  and  the  earth  gods,  gods  of  vegetation. 
2.  Fertility  Gods  closely  alUed  to  the  vegetation 
powers,  e.g.,  the  Great  Mother.  See  Mothek 
Goddesses;  Mystery  Religions.  3.  Functional 
or  Departmental  Gods,  e.g.,  creators,  gods  of  the 
four  quarters,  war  gods,  gods  of  healing  and  of  the 
arts.  4.  Mediating  Gods,  functioning  between  a 
high  god  and  the  earth,  e.g.,  aeons  (q.v.),  or,  in 
more  human-divine  form,  as  savior  or  revealing 
gods,  e.g.,  avatars  of  Vishnu,  Mithra,  etc.  5.  High 
Gods  of  cosmic  scope  who  are  the  result  of  theological 
or  philosophic  thought.  These  are  of  three  main 
types:  (a)  The  ultimate  cosmic  order  such  as  the 
Chinese  Ti'en  or  the  Fate  of  the  Aryan  groups. 

(b)  The  spiritual  reality  behind  the  phenomenal  and 
illusory  world  of  common  life  such  as  the  Hindu 
Brahman  (q.v.),  the  absolute  Buddha  or  Dharma- 
kaya  (q.v.)  of  Mahayana  Buddhism,  the  ultimate 
of  the  Yomei  system  of  China  and  Japan.  A 
transitional  stage  between  (a)  and  (b)  is  represented 
by  the  Tao  of  China,  the  Great  Ultimate  of  the 
system  of  Chucius  (q.v.)  and  the  Stoic  Logos.  All 
of  these  gods  are  thought  of  in  general  as  impersonal. 

(c)  The  Supreme  Cosmic  Ruler  conceived  in  terms 
of  personality  such  as  Allah  in  Islam,  and  Ormazd, 
the  battling  god  of  Zoroastrianism.  For  the 
Christian  God,  see  God. 

The  history  of  gods  is  to  be  sought  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  social  life  of  their  worshipers.  This 
social  life  is  always  reflected  in  the  concept  of  god. 
He  is  also  shaped  by  the  natural  environment. 
Tribal  gods  are  often  suppressed  by  conquest  and 
useless  gods  disappear.  Often  rival  gods  are 
transformed  into  devils.  Gods  grow  moral  as  the 
moral  standards  of  their  people  develop.  As 
nations  form  and  are  consolidated  under  a  great 
ruler,  the  earthly  order  is  reflected  in  the  heavenly 
court.  With  the  entrance  of  philosophy  and  the 
quest  for  ultimate  reality,  or  unity,  or  a  cosmic  law 
the  personal,  anthropomorphic  elements  tend  to 
disappear  from  the  god-idea.  It  is  a  question 
whether  the  impersonal  ultimate  of  most  philoso- 
phies can  really  take  the  r61e  of  the  god  of  religion. 
The  constant  return  from  philosophy  to  theism  in 
the  orient  indicates  the  strength  of  the  ancient 
emotional  appeal  of  the  personal  gods.  Modern 
science  is  slowly  organizing  cosmic  realities  under 
a  new  set  of  categories  for  all  the  peoples  of  the 
world  and  religious  emotions,  detached  from  this 
new  conceptual  interpretation  of  the  world,  in 
most  religions,  today,  are  finding  their  outlet  in  a 
vague  mysticism  which  retains  the  emotional  values 
of  the  devotion  to  god  of  the  ages  of  human  history. 
A.  Eustace  Haydon 

GOETHE,  JOHANN  WOLFGANG  VON 
(1749-1832). — German  poet  and  philosopher,  a 
man  of  great  versatihty  and  genius.  In  literary 
circles,  his  greatest  achievement  was  Faust  which 
has  been  called  "the  divine  comedy  of  18th.  century 
human."  In  philosophy,  he  was  considered  by 
the  Romanticists  as  the  father  of  their  movement. 
Yet  he  claims  discipleship  to  Spinoza  who  taught 
him  to  revere  nature  as  "the  Uving  garment  of 
God."  He  exercised  a  profound  influence  on  the 
moral  life  of  Germany. 

GpG  AND  MAGOG.— A  designation  of  the 
Scythian  peoples,  according  to  many  scholars. 
Their  invasions  of  Palestine  led  Ezekiel  (chaps.  38 
and  39)  to  identify  them  with  the  final  enemy  to 
assault  the  Kingdom  of  God.    So  also  in  Rev.  20 


they  denote  the  last  great  world-power,  hostile 
to  God's  kingdom.  The  imagery  is  also  carried 
over  into  Mohammedan  eschatology. 

GOHEI. — Rods  with  shavings  pendant  from  the 
upper  end  used  in  the  Ainu  reUgion  as  protective 
fetishes;  in  Japanese  Shintoism,  where  they  are 
often  made  of  paper,  they  are  sold  at  shrines  as 
amulets  to  guard  against  evil. 

GOLDEN  AGE. — ^An  imagined  period  marked 
by  universal  innocence,  happiness,  and  peace  usually 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  human  history. 

GOLDEN  ROSE.— An  ornament  made  of  gold 
and  decked  with  gems,  usually  sapphires,  blessed  by 
the  pope  on  the  fourth  Sunday  of  Lent  and  given 
to  a  person,  a  community,  or  a  town  as  a  token  of 
his  favor;  a  custom  dating  from  the  11th.  century. 

GONGS  AND  BELLS,  RELIGIOUS  USE  OF.— 

Drums  and  rattles  are  the  most  primitive  and 
universal  of  musical  instruments;  from  the  former 
are  developed  gongs,  from  the  latter  bells, — a  gong 
being  a  resonant  metal  of  disk  or  other  form  sounded 
with  a  stick  of  some  sort,  a  bell  being  a  hollow 
instrument,  usually  metal,  with  an  attached  or 
enclosed  clapper.  Both  types  of  instruments  have 
been  used  in  connection  with  religious  celebrations 
from  remote  times.  They  are  doubtless  primarily 
devices  for  stimulating  emotion  through  noise, 
and  are  especially  associated  with  the  dance ;  but 
definite  ideas  are  also  associated  with  their  use,  as 
(1)  to  expel  or  frighten  away  evil  influences,  (2)  to 
attract  the  attention  of  divinities,  (3)  to  give 
pleasure  to  the  gods  and  their  worshipers.  The 
use  of  bells  in  connection  with  religion  in  the 
Occident  dates  from  classical  times,  Greek  and 
RoHian,  and  it  has  become  a  marked  feature  of 
Christian  churches.  In  the  ancient  East,  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  such  use  was  rare  or  unknown,  and 
the  Mohammedan  world  dishkes  both  gongs  and 
bells  in  connection  with  religion.  Buddhists, 
however,  emplov  bells  freely,  and  the  use  of  gongs  in 
connection  with  temples  is  very  ancient  in  the 
Mongolian  Orient.  In  America  both  gongs  and 
bells  are  pre-Columbian  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  and  sporadically  elsewhere. 

H.  B.  Alexander 
GOOD  AND  EVIL.— The  desirable  and  the 
undesirable.  The  terms  are  used  in  wide  variety 
of  applications,  within  which  the  following  dis- 
tinctions are  significant:  (a)  Good  and  evil  as 
expressing  (1)  what  men  actually  desire,  (2)  what 
they  ought  to  desire.  The  nature  of  this  distinction 
depends  on  one's  theory  of  the  moral  ideal.  An 
ideal  conceived  as  absolute  or  external  requires 
a  sharp  distinction  between  the  actually  desired 
and  the  ideally  desirable.  An  ideal  conceived  as 
a  growing  insight  within  experience  requires  close 
correlation  of  the  standards  of  good  and  evil  with 
actual  desires,  including  developing  tendencies  in 
the  latter,  their  increasing  organization,  and  their 
potential  enrichment.  (6)  Good  and  evil  (1)  as 
characterizing  our  conduct  or  emerging  from  it: 
well-  or  iU-doing  (see  Goodness)  ;  (2)  as  a  condition 
befalling  us:  well-  or  ill-being.  Good  or  evil  in  an 
ethical  sense  applies  primarily  to  conduct  as  pur- 
posive. It  appUes  to  condition  only  in  view  of  the 
possible  control  of  conditioin  by  human  purpose, 
in  the  fashioning  of  environment  and  institutions 
(naturaUsm)  or  in  view  of  a  divine  purpose  directing 
conditions  (theism),  (c)  The  effort  to  harmonize 
theism  with  the  existence  of  evil  in  the  world, 
whether  of  condition — ^suffering — or  of  conduct — 
sin — gives  rise  to  the  "problem  of  evil."  The 
alternatives  ai"e  sometimes  presented,  either  (1)  that 


Good  Friday 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


188 


God  is  not  good,  or  (2)  that  He  is  not  omnipotent,  or 
(3)  that  evil  is  not  real,  or  not  what  it  seems. 
Neither  alternative  seems  to  be  consistent  with 
usually  accepted  theistic  and  ethical  theories. 
The  problem  may  be  humanly  insoluble.  There 
is  logically  a  corresponding  problem  of  the  place  of 
good  in  the  universe,  but  it  is  not  usually  felt  to  be 
so  acute.    See  Evil.  J.  F.  Crawford 

GOOD  FRIDAY.— The  Friday  preceding  Easter, 
commemorated  by  Christendom  as  the  anniversary 
of  the  death  of  Jesus;  called  Great  Friday  by  the 
Greek  Church. 

GOOD  WORKS.— See  Merit. 

GOODNESS.— That  which  merits  unqualified 
approval  because  of  its  inherent  value. 

Whatever  enhances  the  satisfactions  of  life 
is  valued  as  "good."  Goodness  as  a  personal 
trait  indicates  a  solicitude  for  the  promotion  of 
good  things.  It  is  thus  a  supreme  expression  of 
morality.  The  goodness  of  God  signifies  his 
bountiful  provision  for  human  welfare.  See  Good 
and  Evil. 

GORGON.— In  Greek  reUgion  the  horrible 
head  of  Medusa  which  had  power  to  turn  men  to 
stone  with  terror  is  the  best  known  form  of  the 
gorgon.  Historically  the  gorgon  is  of  that  class  of 
fear-producing  symbols  used  by  primitive  peoples 
to  ward  off  evil,  to  protect  from  unknown  dangers 
and  to  frighten  enemies. 

GOSALA. — The  most  important  leader  of  a 
Hindu  atheistic  sect,  the  Ajivikas  (q.v.). 

GOSPEL. — Good  news  of  the  coming  of  the 
Ivingdom  of  God  and  of  the  way  of  salvation  through 
Jesus  Christ.  Also,  one  of  the  four  records  of  the 
life  of  Christ  which  are  contained  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

1.  The  word  was  first  used  by  Jesus  when  he 
called  upon  the  people  to  believe  in  the  coming  of 
the  Kingdom  of  God.  As  later  used  in  the  New 
Testament,  this  thought  persists  but  is  supple- 
mented with  an  account  of  the  events  of  Christ's 
life  as  the  one  through  whom  the  Kingdom  was  to 
be  estabUshed.  Thus,  Paul  spoke  of  his  gospel 
and  included  therein  the  death  and  resurrection 
of  Christ.  He  makes  no  reference  to  the  virgin 
birth.  The  fact  that  Jesus  was  to  be  the  Messianic 
judge  was  also  considered  as  a  part  of  his  gospel. 
The  primitive  Christians  regarded  the  Jews  as  the 
sole  gainers  by  this  good  news,  but  in  the  spread  of 
Christianity  through  the  Gentile  churches  the 
gospel  became  the  property  of  others  than  the  Jews. 
There  seems  to  have  been  no  effort  on  the  part  of 
these  early  Christians,  however,  to  compel  the 
Jews  to  believe  the  gospel  or  to  give  up  their  Jewish 
culture.  To  beUeve  in  Jesus  and  the  coming  King- 
dom was  very  different  from  accepting  an  independ- 
ent reUgion,  yet  from  this  assured  confidence  in  the 
good  news  sprang  Christianity. 

The  fact  that  the  gospel  thus  expressed  a  Mes- 
sianic expectation  has  given  rise  to  a  very  con- 
siderable discussion  as  to  its  permanent  and  essential 
elements.  In  all  such  discussions,  there  has  been 
a  tendency  to  identify  some  particular  world  view 
or  philosophy  with  such  permanent  value.  A  true 
method  of  understanding  it  would  be  to  realize 
what  the  Messianic  message  meant  to  its  day  and 
endeavor,  if  possible,  to  discover  the  equivalent  in 
other  periods.  In  such  an  effort,  the  following 
elements  seem  plain. 

a)  The  God  of  nature  is  the  God  of  love. 

h)  He  has  been  revealed  as  a  saviour  in  and 
through  Jesus  Christ,  a  genuinely  historical  person. 


c)  Christ  brings  to  a  sinful  world  the  revelation 
of  the  forgiving  love  of  God,  the  power  of  trans- 
forming life,  the  ideals  for  Life,  the  assurance  of  an 
individual  immortality  and  the  ultimate  triumph 
of  social  righteousness. 

d)  By  virtue  of  faith  in  Jesus,  the  individual 
comes  into  new  relations  with  God  and  is  aided  both 
to  attain  individual  righteousness  and  to  co-operate 
in  social  regeneration. 

2.  There  are  four  gospels  that  have  become 
canonical,  but  a  large  number  of  others  were  in 
existence  in  the  early  church.  See  Apocrypha. 
The  literary  relation  of  these  four  gospels  has  been 
a  matter  of  very  great  discussion,  but  in  general  the 
results  of  investigation  can  be  stated  something 
as  follows: 

a)  There  are  no  written  gospels  contemporary 
with  Jesus.  The  account  of  his  fife  circulated  as 
a  group  of  traditions,  being  shaped  up  in  different 
localities. 

b)  In  broad  terms,  the  following  groups  of 
material  appear  in  the  synoptic  gospels: 

(1)  The  gospel  of  Mark,  which  apparently  was 
shaped  in  Rome  and  was  beUeved  to  represent  the 
Petrine  teaching.  Mark's  gospel  is  apparently  the 
basis  of  Matthew  and  Luke. 

(2)  Material  which  is  common  to  Matthew 
and  Luke  and  not  found  in  Mark. 

(3)  Material  which  is  peculiar  to  Matthew. 

(4)  Material  which  is  pecuhar  to  Luke. 
Another  classification  regards  the  material  as 

falhng  roughly  into  two  main  groups,  Mark  and  the 
source  (Q.).  In  addition  to  this  would  be  incidental 
material. 

c)  The  fourth  gospel  is  commonly  regarded  as  of 
Johannine  origin  and  organized  in  what  might  be 
called  a  Johannine  school.     See  Gospels,  The. 

Shailer  Mathews 
GOSPELS,  APOCRYPHAL.— See  Apocrypha; 
Apocalyptic  Literature. 

GOSPELS,  THE.— A  name  applied  since  the 
2nd.  century  to  written  accounts  of  Jesus'  life  or 
ministry,  and  especially  to  the  four  gospels  of 
Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and  John. 

The  primitive  church  possessed  a  compact  oral 
account  of  Jesus'  ministry  and  teaching  which 
through  most  of  the  1st.  century  at  least  served  the 
purposes  of  a  gospel  record.  As  Christianity 
spread  to  places  remote  from  Palestine  and  began 
through  the  letters  of  Paul  to  find  written  expres- 
sion, informal  partial  narratives  came  to  be  written. 
The  most  notable  of  these  was  the  gospel  of  Mark, 
which  early  2nd.  century  tradition  connects  with 
the  recollections  of  Peter.  It  is  probable  that 
Mark  was  as  Papias  says,  in  Peter's  later  years  the 
interpreter  of  his  Aramaic  discourses  to  the  Roman 
Christians  and  that  after  Peter's  death,  he  com- 
mitted to  writing  such  portions  of  them  as  related 
to  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus.  The  informal 
and  often  obscure  character  of  Mark  makes  such 
an  origin  very  probable. 

The  Gospel  of  Mark  describes  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah,  possessed  from  his  baptism  by  the  Spirit  of 
God,  proclaiming  the  good  news  of  the  reign  of 
God  on  earth,  easily  mastering  the  demons  he  met, 
and  performing  wonders  of  healing  the  sick  and 
feeding  the  hungry.  He  predicts  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  his  own  Messianic  return.  He  also  fore- 
tells his  resurrection  and  reappearance  to  his 
disciples  in  Galilee,  but  the  concluding  lines  of 
the  gospel  in  which  such  a  GaUlean  reappearance 
must  have  been  recorded  were  early  lost,  probably 
by  accidental  mutilation. 

The  Gospel  of  Matthew  written  probably  at 
Antioch  soon  after  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  sought 
to  reassure  Jewish  Christians  of  the  Messiahship 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Grail,  The  Holy 


of  Jesus,  and  to  show  that  the  destruction  of  the 
beloved  Jewish  nation  for  which  many  prophets 
had  predicted  so  splendid  a  Messianic  destiny, 
was  its  just  punishment  for  rejecting  its  own 
Messiah.  The  writer  thus  harmonized  the  Messiah- 
ship  of  Jesus  the  fate  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the 
rise  of  the  Greek  Mission,  with  the  Messianic 
oracles  of  the  prophets.  Jesus  was  Son  of  God 
not  simply  from  his  baptism  but  from  his  birth. 
His  every  movement  even  in  his  infancy  was  divinely 
directed,  in  accordance  with  prophecy.  In  a  series 
of  great  discourses  like  some  prophetic  law-giver, 
he  declares  the  true  standards  of  righteousness  and 
the  nature  and  apocalyptic  future  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  Driven  to  death  by  Jewish  hostiUty 
he  nevertheless  rejoins  his  disciples  in  their  old 
haunts  in  Galilee,  to  remain  with  them,  a  spiritual 
presence,  to  the  end. 

The  Gospel  of  Luke  was  written  probably  by 
Luke  the  companion  of  Paul,  at  some  place 
about  the  Aegean,  and  not  long  after  Matthew, 
for  the  writer  knows  and  uses  three  of  Matthew's 
chief  sources,  but  does  not  know  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew.  The  aim  of  Luke  is  to  unite  what  is 
best  in  the  partial  narratives  and  oral  accoimts 
then  current,  into  a  trustworthy  historical  record, 
for  the  use  of  inteUigent  Greek  Christians.  He 
followed  Mark's  order  of  events  even  more  closely 
than  the  writer  of  Matthew  had  done,  and  used 
his  Galilean  and  in  a  more  developed  form  his 
Perean  source  with  less  freedom  of  arrangement. 
Besides  these  three  sources  common  to  Matthew, 
Luke  had  other  sources  peculiar  to  himself.  He 
finds  the  beginnings  of  the  universal  mission  in 
Jesus'  own  ministry,  and  shows  an  interest  in 
dates  and  ages,  quite  unUke  the  earUer  evangehsts. 

The  Gospel  of  John  belongs  to  a  time  probably 
early  in  the  2nd.  century,  when  it  had  become 
clear  that  the  future  of  Christianity  lay  not  in  the 
Jewish  but  in  the  Greco-Roman  world,  and  the 
need  was  felt  of  restating  the  gospel  in  Greek 
terms.  It  represents  a  bold  recast,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  spiritual  experience  and  in  terms  intelligible 
to  Greek  thought,  of  the  reUgious  significance  of 
Jesus,  of  his  return,  of  salvation,  sin,  judgment, 
baptism,  the  Christian  ministry,  the  Lord's  Supper 
and  the  church.  It  presupposes  some  at  least  of 
the  earUer  gospels,  and  is  written  in  part  to  supple- 
ment, interpret  and  correct  them.  In  order  to 
expedite  this  process  it  was  later  (probably  about 
A.D.  125)  put  forth  along  with  Matthew,  Mark, 
and  Luke,  Mark's  lost  conclusion  being  replaced  by 
the  present  Long  Conclusion,  and  an  epilogue 
being  added  to  John  to  reinforce  its  message  and 
harmonize  it  in  certain  respects  with  its  new  com- 
panions. This  four-fold  gospel,  combining  the 
several  values  of  each,  and  soon  credited  with 
apostolic  authority,  gradually  displaced  the  various 
local  gospels  (Hebrews,  Egyptians,  etc.)  in  Christian 
esteem.  Edgab  J.  Goodspeed 

GRACE. — A  theological  term  indicating  the 
gift  to  man  of  divine  favor  and  inner  power  without 
which  he  could  not  attain  salvation. 

The  conception  of  grace  presupposes  that  man 
in  a  "state  of  nature"  is  hopelessly  corrupt.  To 
become  a  Christian  he  must  be  transformed  into  a 
"state  of  grace"  by  supernatural  power.  The 
apostle  Paul,  Augustine,  and  Luther  are  the  classic 
expositors  of  salvation  by  grace. 

Roman  Catholic  theology  interprets  the  Christian 
hfe  from  start  to  finish  in  terms  of  grace,  and 
emphasizes  its  entirely  supernatural  character. 
God  comes  to  fallen  man  in  his  impotence  and  by 
prevenient  grace  creates  a  regenerate  disposition 
which  seeks  the  good.  Through  co-operating  grace 
God  assists  the  regenerate  will  in  its  choices  and  thus 


makes  possible  growth  in  grace.  Actual  grace 
is  granted  in  specified  ways  for  definite  purposes,  as, 
e.g.,  regenerating  grace  through  baptism  or  priestly 
efficacy  through  ordination.  The  sacraments,  as 
vehicles  of  actual  grace,  are  of  primary  importance. 
The  endowment  thus  secured  is  defined  as  a  meta- 
physical potency,  actually  infused  into  man. 
Habitual  or  sanctifying  grace  is  a  constant  super- 
natural quality,  making  men  holy,  friends  of  God, 
heirs  of  Heaven,  and  entitling  them  to  actual  graces. 
Sufficient  grace  is  the  objective  provision  made  by 
God  which  is  accessible  to  all,  though  it  may  be  re- 
sisted by  individuals.  Efficacious  grace  is  the  actual 
fulfilment  in  man's  hfe  of  the  redemptive  purpose  of 
God.  For  further  details,  see  Sacraments;  Regen- 
eration. 

In  Protestantism  grace  is  conceived  as  free 
from  ecclesiastical  control  and  the  Catholic  doctrine 
of  a  potency  infused  through  the  sacraments  is 
denied.  Luther  regarded  grace  as  the  merciful 
grant  of  free  forgiveness  to  the  penitent  and  behev- 
ing  sinner.  This  is  mediated  by  the  Word  or 
Promise  of  God.  The  sacraments  are  divinely 
appointed  signs  which  reinforce  the  promise  of 
God  and  hence  make  assurance  doubly  sure.  The 
importance  of  this  sacramental  reinforcement  was  so 
strongly  emphasized  in  Lutheran  doctrine  that  the 
sacraments  are  virtually  additional  channels  of 
grace.  Anghcanism  unequivocally  retained  the 
sacramental  conception  alongside  the  evangelical. 
Protestantism,  hke  CathoUcism,  has  attributed  sal- 
vation solely  to  grace,  denying  the  "natural" 
capacity  of  man  to  please  God.  Recent  develop- 
ments in  theology,  based  on  a  psychological  and 
historical  study  of  reUgion,  tend  to  ascribe  to  man 
a  larger  "natural"  capacity  for  reUgion.  Grace 
is  thus  less  sharply  differentiated  from  the  native 
aspirations  of  human  experience,  and  the  impor- 
tance of  "actual"  grace  is  minimized  in  hberal 
theology.  When  God  is  conceived  as  immanent 
rather  than  transcendent,  the  conception  of  grace 
is  correspondingly  affected. 

Certain  important  theological  controversies 
have  been  concerned  with  the  doctrine  of  grace. 
Is  salvation  solely  and  exclusively  due  to  grace 
(Augustine);  or  does  grace  merely  aid  and  rein- 
force natural  human  virtue  (Pelagius)?  Is  grace 
an  infused  metaphysical  potency  (Catholicism); 
or  is  it  a  purely  spiritual  personal  relationship  of 
God  to  men  (Protestantism)?  Is  grace  offered 
only  to  the  elect  (high  Calvinism)  or  is  it  freely 
available  to  all  men  (Arminianism)?  Is  grace 
irresistible  (Jansenism);  or  is  it  possible  to  "fall 
from  grace"  (Catholic  orthodoxy)? 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

GRACE  AT  MEALS.— A  prayer  offered  either 
before  or  after  meals  either  as  a  thanksgiving  or  an 
invocation  of  divine  blessing,  a  custom  for  which 
there  is  evidence  as  early  as  the  3rd.  century. 

GRADUAL  PSALMS.— Fifteen  Psalms  (Vul- 
gate 119-133,  R.V.  120-134)  bearing  in  the  Hebrew 
text  an  inscription  which  the  Vulgate  translates 
Canticum  Graduum.  The  meaning  is  uncertain,  but 
probably  the  psalms  were  chanted  on  pUgrimages 
to  the  Temple.  They  formerly  formed  part  of  the 
R.C.  canonical  office. 

GRADUALE. — In  R.C.  liturgy,  a  psalm,  or  verse, 
with  Alleluia,  sung  at  the  be^nning  of  Mass,  one 
of  the  oldest  parts  of  the  liturgy.  Its  name  is 
doubtless  from  the  place  where  the  cantor  sang, 
the  steps  (gradus)  of  the  ambo  (q.v.). 

GRAIL,  THE  HOLY. — The  legendary  chalice, 

or  cup,  in  which  Joseph  of  Arimathea  caught  some 
of  the  blood  flowing  from  the  wounds  of  the  crucified 


Granth 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


190 


Christ.     It  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  cup  used 
by  Our  Lord  at  his  Last  Supper. 

The  legends  concerning  the  Grail  are  doubtless 
British  in  origin,  as  most  of  them  are  in  scene; 
but  their  first  known  appearance  in  literature  is  in 
Brittany,  in  certain  Old  French  romances,  both 

Erose  and  verse,  of  the  12th.  and  following  centuries, 
y  Walter  Map,  Robert  de  Borron,  Chretien  de 
Troyes,  and  other  writers.  Sir  Thomas  Malory's 
well-known  Morle  d'  Arthur,  an  English  version 
of  selections  from  these  French  tales,  first  printed 
in  1485  by  Caxton,  is  the  main  channel  through 
which,  with  Tennyson's  poems,  certain  forms  of  the 
legends  have  become  estabhshed  in  modern  EngUsh 
literary  tradition.  The  early  French  romances  by 
their  variations,  inconsistencies,  and  contradictions, 
offer  extremely  perplexing  problems  to  students 
of  their  dates,  sources,  and  interrelations.  The 
apparently  most  primitive  tales  speak  of  the  Grail 
as  a  mysterious  taUsman,  possessed  of  magic 
properties.  It  provides  food,  or  sustains  life 
and  restores  health  and  youthful  vigour  by  the  sight 
of  it.  But  they  do  not  describe  its  shape,  material, 
or  early  history.  Later  come  the  stories  that  con- 
nect it  as  a  dish  or  chahce  with  the  Passion  and  with 
Joseph  of  Arimathea.  According  to  certain  of 
these  narratives  Joseph  in  some  mysterious  way 
brought  the  Grail  to  England  (Glastonbury?)  and 
cherished  it  until  his  death,  when  it  was  carried 
away  by  angels.  But  it  was  believed  to  be  still 
preserved  somewhere  on  earth  under  holy  guardian- 
ship, and  the  subject  of  many  of  the  romances 
mentioned  above  is  the  adventurous  search  after  it 
by  certain  knights,  the  "Quest  of  the  Grail," 
in  which  Gawain,  Perceval,  and  Galahad  are 
chief  actors,  perhaps  in  chronological  origin  in  this 
succession.  Other  forms  of  the  tradition  bring  in  as 
guardians  of  the  Grail  a  quasi-monastic  order  of 
knights,  who  keep  watch  and  ward  over  it  in  a 
castle  on  a  mountain-top  (cf.  Wagner's  Parsifal). 
A  maimed  Fisher-King  plays  a  prominent  part  as 
chief  custodian  in  a  variant  version. 

It  appears  yet  uncertain  whether  an  original 
Christian  myth  has  here  become  enriched  by,  or 
smothered  under,  accretions  of  Celtic  folklore,  or 
whether  Celtic  tales  have  had  rudely  injected  into 
them  a  not  very  congruous  Christian  element.  It 
is  also  disputed  whether  the  Arthurian  and  Grail 
stories  vanished  bodily  from  England  by  being 
transported  in  oral  form  to  Brittany  when  many 
Celtic  inhabitants  fled  to  the  continent  under  the 
pressure  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasions,  or  whether 
they  continued  their  existence  among  the  Celtic 
remnant  in  Wales  until  the  Norman  Conquest, 
when  they  first  became  known  to  the  continental 
poets  through  Anglo-Norman  sources. 

E.  T.  Merrill 
GRANTH.— (^di  Granth.)     The  sacred  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Sikh  Rehgion  (q.v.). 

GRATITUDE. — The  sentiment  of  appreciation 
for  kindness  received  and  of  admiration  and  love  for 
the  benefactor.  In  religion  it  expresses  the  appre- 
ciation of  men  for  favors  conferred  by  the  grace 
of  God. 

GREAT  FRIDAY.— See  Good  Friday. 

GREAT  MOTHER.— The  name  most  commonly 
used  to  refer  to  Cybele  (q.v.). 

GREAT  SYNAGOGUE.— According  to  tra- 
dition, the  body  of  120  scribes  who  formed  the  Jewish 
council  subsequent  to  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
Whether  it  was  an  actual  council  or  the  name  of  a 
school  of  rabbis  is  disputed. 


GREAT  VEHICLE.— The  name  of  one  of  the 
two  great  divisions  of  developed  Buddhism.  See 
Mahay"  ANA. 

GREEK  ORTHODOX  CHURCH  —The  eastern 
branch  of  the  main  ancient  church  originally  known 
as  "The  Catholic  Church."  It  is  distinguished 
from  "The  Latin  Church"  in  its  repudiation  of 
the  papacy  and  its  separation  from  the  Roman 
Communion.  The  name  "Greek"  popularly 
attached  to  its  title  in  the  west  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  had  its  origin  in  the  Greek-speaking  parts  of 
Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  Egypt.  Most  of  its 
great  theologians  wrote  in  the  Greek  language  and 
their  theology  is  specifically  Greek  in  thought, 
with  affinities  to  the  Greek  philosophy  current 
in  their  day.  Thus  while  it  is  the  national  church 
of  modern  Greece,  it  is  also  the  Russian  national 
church,  the  church  of  most  of  the  Balkan  nations, 
and  that  of  a  considerable  number  of  Christians  in 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  other  oriental 
regions.  It  described  itself  as  "The  Holy  Orthodox 
Church."  As  the  defender  of  the  orthodoxy  deter- 
mined by  its  councils  in  patristic  times,  it  stands 
separated  from  the  churches  it  holds  to  be  heretical, 
e.g.,  the  Nestorians  still  lingering  in  Mesopotamia, 
the  Jacobites  who  comprise  the  majority  of  Syrian 
Christians,  the  Copts  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  the 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  who  represent 
western  types  of  religion  imported  into  the  East. 
See  Nestorians;  Jacobites;  Coptic  Church. 

1.  Origin  and  History. — 1 .  The  age  of  Catholic 
unity. — This  church  is  the  direct  descendant  of  all 
the  churches  known  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
Apostles  or  known  to  have  been  visited  by  the 
Apostles  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  primitive 
church  at  Rome.  To  it  belonged  all  the  great 
oriental  Fathers  from  Polycarp  and  Ignatius  to 
John  of  Damascus  in  the  8th.  century,  from  whom 
Rome  itself  accepted  the  bulk  of  its  theology.  All 
the  ecumenical  councils  correctly  so  denominated, 
i.e.,  representative  of  the  great  body  of  Cfiristians  in 
the  Empire,  were  held  in  its  region  and  led  and 
mainly^  constituted  by  its  bishops.  The  Nicene 
Creed  is  its  fundamental  contribution  to  Catholic 
orthodoxy,  and  its  great  theologians,  especially 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Basil,  the  two 
Gregories,  and  Chrysostom  have  shaped  and 
stamped  the  generally  recognized  doctrine  of 
Christendom.  On  the  other  hand  most  of  the 
great  heresies  arose  in  this  church,  the  theology  of 
which  was  mainly  developed  polemically  in  opposi- 
tion to  them. 

2.  Separation  from  the  Western  Church. — At  first 
in  full  communion  with  Rome  and  the  West,  the 
Greek  Church  was  gradually  alienated  from  the 
Church  subsequently  known  as  "Roman  CathoHc," 
but  the  final  and  absolute  severance  did  not 
corne  about  till  the  year  a.d.  1054.  No  doubt 
racial  differences  were  predisposing  causes, 
Greek  habits  of  thought  and  action  differing 
widely  from  the  Latin.  Then  the  founding  of 
Constantinople  as  a  "New  Rome"  caused  jealousy 
between  the  patriarch  of  that  city  and  the  pope. 
On  the  other  hand  the  growing  claims  of  the  papacy 
to  dominate  all  Christendom  were  resented  and 
repudiated  by  the  churches  of  the  East.  The 
actual  breach  was  consummated  by  a  fine  point  of 
theology — ^the  "filioque  clause,"  which  the  western 
church  added  to  the  Nicene  Creed  in  its  definition  of 
the  "procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  so  as  to  say, 
"who  proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the  Son;" 
while  the  Greek  church  would  not  admit  the  addi- 
tion and  denounced  any  attempt  to  alter  the  vener- 
able creed. 

II.  Charactsristics. — 1.  Relation  to  the  state. 
— While  the  papacy  has  claimed  sovereign  rights 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Greek  Religion 


and  independence,  though  accepting  national 
establishment  and  using  the  civil  government  for 
its  own  ends,  the  patriarchs  of  the  Greek  Church 
were  always  more  under  the  power  of  the  Emperor, 
until  the  faU  of  Byzantium.  In  Russia  the  patri- 
archate came  to  be  superseded  altogether  by  the 
Holy  Synod  as  a  department  of  the  government, 

2.  Organization. — The  organization  of  the  Greek 
Church,  hke  that  of  the  Roman,  is  episcopal  and 
sacerdotal,  resting  on  the  doctrine  of  ApostoUcal 
Succession.  In  ancient  times  the  patriarchates  of 
Constantinople,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Jerusalem 
— like  that  of  Rome  which  developed  into  the 

Sapacy — helped  to  maintain  its  unity  and  discipline, 
lut  the  break-up  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
Mohammedan  invasion  and  subsequent  despotisms, 
and  the  establishment  of  national  churches  greatly 
interfered  with  the  position  of  the  patriarchs  and 
their  influence.  The  organization  of  the  church 
anciently  maintained  by  provincial  synods  and 
general  councils  has  been  affected  by  the  same 
political  influences.  Nevertheless,  the  church  main- 
tains its  unity  in  doctrine,  discipline,  and  style  of 
ritual  throughout  all  its  several  branches. 

3.  Discipline,  life  and  worship. — One  great 
difference  between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman 
churches  is  the  rejection  of  the  papal  claim  of 
Rome  by  the  Eastern  Church,  and  this  is  the  most 
formidable  obstacle  to  reunion.  Celibacy  is  required 
only  of  bishops  who  have  been  taken  from  monastic 
orders.  Priests  and  |deacons  are  not  bound  to  celi- 
bacy if  they  married  before  receiving  the  diaconate. 
Therefore  the  episcopate  is  drawn  from  the  monas- 
teries and  is  not  maintained  by  promotion  from  the 
parish  clergy.  As  in  the  Roman  Church  the  cere- 
monies of  worship  center  in  the  Eucharist,  in  which 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  is  accepted,  but 
without  the  western  scholastic  definitions  of  sub- 
stance and  accident  as  metaphysical  explanations  of 
it.  While  statues  are  not  introduced  into  the 
churches,  pictures  are  much  in  evidence  there  and 
also  in_  private  houses,  where  the  icon  in  the 
corner  is  saluted  by  one  who  enters  a  room. 
The  ritual  is  more  lengthy,  varied,  and  elaborate 
in  the  Roman  Church,  and  preaching  is  less  fre- 
quent. Monasticism  is  still  maintained,  the  most 
celebrated  monks  being  those  of  Mount  Athos. 
The  later  theology  of  the  Greek  Church  is  mainly 
apologetic  and  polemical,  in  defence  of  the  estab- 
lished orthodoxy.  The  Greek  Church  favors  read- 
ing of  the  Bible  by  the  laity  and  welcomes  the 
efforts  of  Bible  Societies  to  circulate  the  Scriptures. 
In  Russia  there  are  bodies  of  dissenters,  the  largest 
of  which  consists  of  the  "Old  BeUevers,"  whose 
ground  of  dissidence  is  adhesion  to  the  ancient  ritual 
and  rejection  of  later  alterations  in  it.  The  Molo- 
kans  and  Doukhobors  are  puritans  rejecting  episco- 
pacy and  sacramentarianism.  The  Stundists  are 
disciples  of  Western  Protestantism  of  the  Baptist 
persuasion.  W.  F.  Adeney 

GREEK  RELIGION.— The  earliest  glimpse 
of  Greek  religion  shows  it  as  an  anthropomorphic 
polytheism,  containing  rude  and  primitive  elements, 
as  well  as  highly  developed  concepts  of  divinity. 
Like  other  religions  of  its  kind,  it  formed  a  marked 
contrast  to  Christianity.  It  had  no  body  of  revealed 
teachings,  no  common  dogma  or  fixed  ritual  of 
universal  or  binding  validity;  and  while  many 
myths,  practices,  and  divinities  were  common  to 
the  whole  Greek  area,  each  locality  might  have  its 
own  myth,  ritual,  and  divinity,  and  each  individual 
could  DeUeve  what  he  pleased  with  regard  to  the 
gods,  so  long  as  he  did  not  openly  oppose  the 
accepted  divinities.  Furthermore  the  Greeks  were 
never  subject  to  a  priestly  order,  but  their  reUgious 
practices  were  determined  by  tradition. 


Character. — Greek  religion  represents  a  blending 
of  pre-hellenic  elements  witli  the  beUefs  and  practices 
of  the  Hellemc  peoples  who  descended  into  Greece 
from  the  north  long  before  written  history  began. 
To  the  end  of  paganism  it  contained  such  primitive 
elements  as  the  worship  of  stones  and  other  inani- 
mate objects,  of  sacred  animals  to  a  Umited  extent, 
and  most  notably  the  worship  of  the  altar  fire 
(Hestia),  the  center  of  the  family  and  of  society. 
Certain  divinities  had  their  origin,  no  doubt,  in  the 
worship  of  natural  phenomena;  ancestor  worship 
also  furnished  its  part.  While  all  these  practices, 
and  many  others,  contributed  to  the  total,  it  is 
impossible  today  to  trace  all  the  elements  which 
ent^ered  into  the  Greek  religion  of  historic  times. 
It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  Greeks  worshiped  a 
multitude  of  super-human  beings,  who  occupied 
every  field  of  activity,  and  filled  the  world,  so  that 
man  was  always  conscious  of  being  in  a  social 
relation  to  divinities  of  different  ranks,  whose  favor 
he  must  win  and  whose  maUgnity  he  must  avert 
by  offerings  and  prayer. 

Homer. — In  the  Homeric  poems  we  find  a  circle 
of  great  gods  whose  home  is  placed  on  Olympus, 
organized  into  a  society  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  Homeric  state.  At  the  head  is  Zeus,  whose 
power  on  Olympus  is  like  that  of  Agamemnon  on 
earth.  With  him  Athena  and  Apollo  hold  the 
highest  rank.  Hera,  the  wife  and  sister  of  Zeus, 
is  in  the  second  place,  with  Poseidon  the  god  of  the 
sea.  Below  them  stand  Ares  and  Aphrodite, 
who  represent  respectively  two  passions,  the  former 
that  of  rage  for  slaughter,  and  the  other  that  of 
love.  Artemis,  the  sister  of  Apollo,  Hephestus, 
the  god  of  fire,  Hermes,  an  upper  servant  of  the 
greater  divinities,  stand  on  a  lower  plane;  and 
there  are  many  others  of  still  lower  rank.  On 
occasions  Zeus  may  summon  all  the  gods  from  land 
and  sea  to  a  general  assembly  on  Olympus,  but  those 
that  we  have  named  have  their  permanent  homes 
there,  and  are  supreme.  Demeter  and  Dionysus, 
who  are  so  important  in  later  Greece,  are  not 
members  of  the  Olympic  circle.  These  gods  are 
superior  to  men  chiefly  in  that  they  have  immor- 
tality. Although  they  are  stronger,  wiser,  and 
larger  than  mortal  beings,  they  are  equally  subject 
with  tljiem  to  the  passions  of  body  and  of  mind; 
they  are  neither  omnipotent  nor  omniscient,  but 
are  simply  super-human.  Exactly  this  Olympic 
circle  was  never  worshiped  anywhere  in  the  Greek 
world;  it  was  formed  by  the  poet  by  selecting  from 
local  cults  certain  features,  eUminating  others,  and 
making  a  divine  state  which  suited  his  poetic  purpose 
and  would  please  his  audience.  But  through  the 
universal  influence  of  the  Homeric  poems  this 
concept  of  the  Olympic  gods  prevailed  in  most  of  the 
greater  centers,  so  that  artists  and  poets  represented 
them  as  Homer  had  described  them. 

Hesiod. — In  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  there  is 
almost  no  attempt  made  to  trace  the  genealogies 
of  the  gods  or  to  account  for  the  world.  But 
Hesiod,  who  wrote  about  700  B.C.,  in  his  Theogony 
endeavored  to  bring  the  various  myths  into  a 
harmonious  whole;  and  he  discloses  to  us  certain 
elements  such  as  the  worship  of  the  dead  and  of 
heroes,  about  which  the  Homeric  poems  have 
practically  nothing  to  say.  The  Hesiodic  poems 
also  show  us  higher  ideas  concerning  justice  and 
moraUty,  more  reflection  on  the  relation  of  man  to 
the  gods,  and  disclose  certain  social  divinities,  such 
as  Justice,  which  do  not  appear  in  the  earlier  works. 

Local  divinities. — In  substantially  every  district 
of  Greece  there  was  one  divinity  wno  had  risen  to 
great  importance  above  the  mass  of  divinities  that 
peopled  the  general  area,  so  that  at  Athens  the 
goddess  Athena,  after  a  considerable  period  of 
rivalry  with  Poseidon  for  the  chief  place,  became 


Green,  Thomas  HiU  A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


192 


the  patron  goddess  of  the  land.  In  Argos  a  female 
divinity,  historically  known  as  Hera,  held  sway 
from  a  very  remote  period.  In  Uke  manner  Zeus 
was  pre-eminent  at  Olympia,  Apollo  at  Delphi  and 
at  Delos.  Yet  these  important  divinities  did  not 
expel  the  other  gods,  and  the  Greek  continued  to 
think  of  his  local  god  as  his  patron  divinity  largely 
distinct  from  any  other  god  called  by  the  same 
name.  There  was  a  certain  concentration  of  cults 
in  the  large  cities,  as  these  developed.  But  the 
local  god  continued  to  have  his  home  at  his  ancient 
shrine,  and  often  the  city  shrine  was  recognized 
as  only  a  branch  of  the  old  one.  Gradually  certain 
divinities  acquired  significance  for  all  Greek  people, 
as  the  Zeus  of  Olympia,  at  whose  shrine  all  the 
Greek  world  assembled  every  four  years,  or  Apollo, 
who  at  Delos  was  the  god  for  all  the  lonians,  while 
Apollo  at  Delphi  spoke  in  oracles  to  all  Greeks. 

Social  character  mysteries. — Thus  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  family,  the  clan,  the  tribe  and  the  state 
were  religious  units,  each  one  of  which  had  its 
particular  divinities,  so  that  Greek  reUgion  was 
largely  social  and  local.  Such  a  religion  always 
tends  to  stabihze  society  and  make  the  worship 
of  the  gods  the  common  and  permanent  concern 
of  all.  But  these  conditions  do  not  foster  that  which 
we  understand  by  personal  reUgion.  With  the 
development  of  individualism  in  the  8th.  to  the 
6th.  centuries  men  began  to  endeavor  to  secure 
such  personal  relations  with  the  gods  as  could  give 
them  individual  religious  satisfaction.  Their  efforts 
found  an  outlet  chiefly  in  the  cults  of  Dionysus,  and 
of  Demeter  and  Persephone.  The  Orphic  sect 
in  the  6th.  century,  through  the  mystic  worship 
of  Dionysus  and  by  a  fixed  method  of  Ufe,  gained 
an  outlet  for  their  religious  desires  and  the  warrant 
of  happiness  hereafter.  The  goddess  Demeter 
was  originally  a  goddess  of  vegetation,  one  of  whose 
centers  was  Eleusis,  northwest  of  Athens.  There 
an  agricultural  festival  had  been  celebrated  in  the 
honor  of  this  goddess  and  her  daughter  Persephone 
from  a  remote  period,  intended  to  secure  fertihty 
and  prosperity  to  all  who  were  admitted  to  it. 
As  early  as  the  7th.  century,  and  possibly  still  earUer, 
this  festival  had  grown  into  an  eschatological 
mystery  through  which  the  initiate  was  assured  of 
a  happy  Hfe  hereafter.  These  Eleusinian  Mysteries 
were  the  chief,  but  only  one  of  many  mysteries 
celebrated  throughout  the  Greek  world,  all  aimed  to 
secure  the  same  end.  And  they  remained  until 
the  end  of  antiquity  the  greatest  source  of  religious 
satisfaction  which  the  ordinary  Greek  knew.  They 
did  not,  however,  check  the  ancient  cults,  which 
also  lasted  to  the  very  end  of  paganism,  even  though 
the  educated  world  had  lost  much  of  its  earlier  beUef 
in  their  efficacy. 

Morality  and  philosophy. — Morality  was  united 
with  religion  in  the  minds  of  the  better  Greeks, 
certainly  from  the  5  th.  century  before  our  era. 
From  the  days  of  Socrates  and  Plato  philosophy 
also  concerned  itself  with  the  higher  aspects  of 
reUgion  and  morality.  The  Stoics  also  in  their 
turn  made  philosophy  a  religion,  and  although  they 
admitted  a  multitude  of  gods,  practically  fostered 
the  concept  of  one  single  divinity.  In  fact,  for 
thinking  men  after  the  4th.  century  philosophy  had 
taken  the  place  of  traditional  religion,  although 
there  was  no  break  between  the  two.  The  ancient 
rituals  continued  even  in  the  part  of  the  world  that 
had  lost  its  substantial  faith  in  them  long  before 
the  coming  of  Christianity. 

Clifford  H.  Moore 

GREEN,  THOMAS  HILL  (1836-1882).— Eng- 
lish philosopher  and  founder  of  the  so-called 
Neo-Hegelian  school,  occupied  the  chair  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Oxford.  Green's  epoch-niaking 
work  was  the  Prolegomena  to  Ethics,  in  which  he 


interpreted  moral  conduct  in  terms  of  ideal  self- 
perfection  attained  only  through  social  relation- 
ships. 

GREENLAND,  RELIGION  OF  AND  MIS- 
SIONS TO. — A  large  island  in  great  part  lying 
within  the  arctic  circle  and  belonging  to  Denmark. 
The  population  is  small,  and  the  majority  of  the 
people  are  Eskimos  (q.v.).  Christianity  was 
introduced  by  Leif  Ericsson,  a  Norwegian,  about 
1000  A.D.,  and  for  500  years  the  Norwegian  colonies 
had  an  ecclesiastical  estabhshment.  In  1721 
Hans  Egede,  a  Norwegian,  began  missionary  work 
and  the  tribes  about  Godthaab  have  been  entirely 
Christianized. 

GREGORY. — The  name  of  sixteen  popes  and 
one  antipope. 

Gregory  I. — Pope,  590-604;  also  called  Gregory 
the  Great;  one  of  the  first  four  Latin  doctors  of  the 
church.  The  first  monk  to  become  pope,  he  organ- 
ized the  papal  court  like  a  monastery,  insisting  on 
the  ceUbacy  ot  the  pope,  urging  priestly  cehbacy, 
and  vigorously  opposing  lax  practises.  He  ad- 
vanced the  papal  power,  being  the  first  pope  to  take 
a  prominent  part  in  pohtics,  and  advocating  a 
larger  use  of  ecclesiastical  courts  to  try  cases 
involving  clerics.  He  has  been  called  the  "father 
of  mediaeval  papacy."  He  organized  missionary 
activity,  his  interest  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Angles  being  especially  noteworthy.  The  music 
and  liturgy  of  the  church  were  modified  by  him. 
He  is  venerated  by  the  R.C.  church  as  a  saint. 

Gregory  II. — Pope,  715-731;  promoted  mis- 
sionary effort  in  Germany,  especially  that  of 
Boniface  whom  he  consecrated  as  bishop,  722. 

Gregory  1 1 1. —Pope,  731-741. 

Gregory  /F.— Pope,  827-844. 

Gregory  F.— Pope,  996-999;  estabhshed  the 
papal  authority  in  France  over  against  local  and 
national  attempts  at  independence. 

Gregory  F/.— Pope,  1045-1046. 

Gregory  F//.— Pope,  1073-1085.  Hildebrand, 
a  monk  of  humble  birth,  shared  the  exile  of  the 
reforming  pope  Gregory  VI.  after  whose  death 
(1047)  he  was  a  monk  in  Cluny  until  he  accom- 
panied Leo  IX.  (1049)  to  Rome.  He  was  the 
powerful  mentor  and  administrative  aid  of  suc- 
cessive popes,  a  resolute  champion  of  the  Cluny 
reform  principles.  Made  pope  in  1073  he  aimed 
to  reform  the  warring  world  where  might  was 
right  by  securing  for  a  reformed  papacy  a  theo- 
cratic power  over  both  priest  and  layman.  Batthng 
first  with  simony  and  clerical  marriage  as  worldly 
entanglements  he  tried  next  to  emancipate  the 
church  from  lay  control  by  putting  a  bann  on  lay 
installation  (investiture)  of  prelate  or  priest. 
The  German  king,  Henry  IV.,  declared  thQ  pope 
deposed  and  was  in  turn  excommunicated  and 
deposed  by  Gregory  (1076).  Subrjiitting  and 
restoring  his  power  by  penance  at  Carrossa,  the 
king  resumed  the  conflict,  besieged  Roftie  and 
set  up  a  rival  pope.  Gregory  was  rescued  by 
vassal  Normans  and  withdrew  to  Salerno  where 
he  died.  Though  maligned  by  passionate  partisans, 
he  looms  in  history  as  an  unselfish  reformer  and 
one  of  the  greatest  of  the  popes.    F.  A.  CHrtisTiE 

Gregory  VIII.— (l)  Antipope,  1118-1121.  (2) 
Pope,  Oct.  21-Dec.  17,  1187. 

Gregory  IX. — Pope,  1227-1241 ;  a  man  of  strong 
character  and  erudition;  entered  into  pohtical  life 
which  resulted  in  conflicts  with  Frederick  II.  of 
Germany;  systematized  the  Inquisition;  took 
steps  for  a  reunion  with  the  Greek  church;  issued 
a  new  compilation  of  decretals. 

Gregory  X. — Pope,  1271-1276;  summoned  the 
council  of  Lyons,  1274;    with  the  aid  of  Bona- 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Guilds 


Ventura,  persuaded  the  Eastern  church  to  consent 
temporarily  to  reunion  with  Rome. 

Gregory  XL— Pope,  1370-1378;  reformed  the 
monastic  orders,  and  endeavored  to  suppress 
heresy,  as,  e.g.,  Wyclyffe's  doctrines;  transferred 
the  papal  see  from  Avignon  back  to  Rome. 

Gregory  XII. — Pope,  1406-1415;  during  his 
pontificate  there  were  two  other  rival  claimants 
to  the  papacy.  Gregory  resigned  at  the  council 
of  Constance. 

Gregory  XIII.— Pope,  1572-1585;  He  reformed 
the  calendar,  and  founded  many  new  colleges. 

Gregory  XIV —Pope,  1590-1591. 

Gregory  ZF.— Pope,  1621-1623. 

Gregory  XVI.— Pope,  1831-1846;  expended 
large  sums  on  architectural  and  engineering  enter- 
prises which  financially  embarrassed  the  papal 
States.  During  his  pontificate  Ultramontanism 
(q.v.)  developed  steadily. 

GREGORY  THE  ILLUMINATOR  (ca.  257- 
333). — The  traditional  founder  of  the  Armenian 
church.  Probably  he  found  Christianity  already 
in  Armenia  in  Adoptionist  or  Ebionite  form  and 
undertook  to  convert  the  Christians  to  CathoUcism. 

GREGORY  OF  NAZIANZUS  (329-390).— 
One  of  the  great  theologians  of  the  Eastern  church. 
With  Basil  the  Great  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  he 
is  classed  as  one  of  "the  three  Cappadocians." 
He  was  called  "the  Theologian"  by  the  Greeks,  his 
writings  being  chiefly  in  the  form  of  orations  and 
letters.  Doctrinally  he  held  that  the  one  God- 
head or  Nature  or  Substance  is  distinguishable  in 
three  Persons  or  hypostases.  The  Father  was 
unbegotten,  the  Son  begotten  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
sent  forth,  but  all  three  have  one  substance. 

GREGORY  OF  NYSSA  (ca.  332-398).— Emi- 
nent Greek  theologian,  one  of  "the  three  Cappa- 
docians" and  younger  brother  of  Basil  the  Great. 
As  bishop  of  Nyssa  he  supported  the  Homoousian 
party,  thus  incurring;  the  opposition  of  the  court 
party.  Later  he  rose  to  a  place  of  influence,  being 
a  prominent  member  of  the  council  of  Constan- 
tinople 381.  Doctrinally,  he  helped  to  formulate 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  more  consistent 
philosophical  terms  declaring  God  to  be  one  essence 
existing  in  three  "hypostases"  or  "persons." 

GREGORY,  SAINT,  OF  TOURS  (538-594).— 
Bishop  of  Tours.  His  writings  include  seven 
books  of  miracles,  twenty  biographies  of  bishops 
and  monasteries,  and  notably  ten  books  on  the 
History  of  the  Franks,  one  of  the  sources  for  the 
history  oi  the  early  Frankish  church. 

GREGORY  THAUMATURGUS  (d.  ca.  270).— 
Bishop  of  Neo-Caesarea  in  Pontus  and  author  of 
theological  writings.  He  was  an  enthusiastic 
follower  of  Origen  in  philosophy  and  theology.  His 
ministry  was  crowned  with  much  success  in  the 
conversion  of  pagans  to  Christianity.  Many 
miracles  were  attributed  to  him,  hence  the  name 
'  'Thaumaturgus' '  (wonder-worker) . 

GRONINGEN  SCHOOL.— A  group  of  Dutch 
theologians  so  named  from  the  town  where  the  lead- 
ing representatives  resided.  Most  of  them  were 
disciples  of  Phihp  Willem  van  Heusde  (d.  1839). 
The  school  was  fervently  evangelistic  in  spirit,  but 
introduced  moderately  Uberal  ideas  in  doctrine, 
emphasizing  education  rather  than  regeneration, 
and  adversely  criticizing  the  substitutionary  theory 
of  the  atonement. 

GROOT,  GERRIT,  or  GERHARD  (1330-1384). 
— founder  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life 


(q.v.);  a  Dutchman  who  was  educated  in  Paris, 
and  after  a  profound  religious  experience  labored 
as  a  missionary  preacher  in  Holland,  inveighing 
against  the  sins  of  the  mendicant  monks,  clergy 
and  laity. 

GROTIUS,  HUGO  (1583-1645).— Dutch  jurist, 
theologian  and  publicist,  a  man  of  great  erudition 
and  versatility.  He  occupied  prominent  pohtical 
posts,  and  applied  his  juridical  training  to  pohtical 
problems.  His  great  treatise  (The  Rights  of  War 
and  Peace)  was  significant  as  the  foundation  for 
international  law.  The  basis  of  his  thought  was 
the  unalterable  divinely  constituted  law  of  nature 
to  which  men  and  nations  are  all  subject.  In 
theology,  he  originated  the  "governmental  theory" 
of  the  atonement  which  asserts  that  the  death 
of  Christ  satisfies  God  as  a  penal  example,  showing 
what  the  penalty  for  sin  is,  thus  maintaining  the 
sovereignty  of  law.  His  desire  to  mediate  between 
CathoUcs  and  Protestants  made  him  unpopular  with 
both. 

GROVES.— See  Trees,  Sacred  . 

GRUNDTVIG,  NIKOLAI  FREDERIK 

SEVERIN  (1783-1872)  .—Danish  poet  and  preacher, 
called  "the  Danish  Carlyle";  a  popular  preacher, 
compelled  to  be  silent  for  some  years  owing  to 
his  radical  views;  best  known  as  a  writer  of  hymns 
and  other  sacred  poetry  of  a  rich,  bold  style. 

GUARDIAN-ANGEL.— An  angel  considered 
to  have  the  task  of  keeping  guard  over  or  warding 
oflf  evil  from  a  particular  person;  analogously,  a 
person  consecrated  to  the  welfare  of  another. 

GUDEA. — ^A  reforming  ruler  of  Lagash,  one  of 
the  divisions  of  Babylonia,  in  the  24th.  century  b.c. 

GUEBRES.— See  Gabers. 

GUELF. — See  Ghibelline  and  Gtjelp. 

GUEST-RIGHT.— The  obligations  of  a  host 
to  a  guest  concerning  which  the  various  religions 
and  sects  have  had  a  divergence  of  beliefs.  See 
Hospitality. 

GUILDS. — 'Voluntary  associations  formed  for 
mutual  aid  and  protection,  especially  of  business 
interests  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  term  guild  in  its  broadest  sense  is  identified 
with  various  associations  and  brotherhoods  in 
ancient  and  mediaeval  times.  There  were  associa- 
tions for  social  and  rehgious  purposes.  Among 
the  ancients  poor  people  formed  local  burial  associa- 
tions to  provide  the  means  of  a  decent  burial. 
Devotees  of  a  god  organized  a  brotherhood  to 
support  his  worship.  The  Greeks  had  athletic 
societies.  In  Italy  there  were  local  associations 
of  workingmen  belonging  to  a  common  trade. 
Some  have  even  supposed  that  the  early  Christian 
brotherhoods  belonged  to  the  type  of  rehgious 
guilds.  But  it  IS  difficult  to  find  a  connection 
between  the  ancient  and  the  mediaeval  guilds. 

The  guild  flourished  in  the  Middle  Ages.  There 
was  then  no  such  independence  among  individuals 
as  now.  The  unit  of  social  hfe  was  not  the  indi- 
vidual but  the  group.  Those  who  had  interests  in 
common  Uved  and  worked  together.  Serfs  toiled 
on  the  manorial  estates,  monks  labored  and  prayed 
in  their  convents,  scholars  studied  in  their  uni- 
versities, all  under  the  rule  of  their  social  organiza- 
tion. Economic  associations  for  the  furtherance 
of  industry  sprang  up  in  the  towns,  and  became 
important   with    the   extension   of   trade.     When 


Guilt 


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194 


trade  became  stimulated,  merchants  found  it 
useful  to  associate  in  a  guild  for  the  protection  of 
their  interests.  When  artisans  drifted  into  the 
growing  towns  from  the  country,  they  tended  to 
get  together  with  their  fellow-craftsmen  and 
organize  for  mutual  protection.  This  helps  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  famous  merchant  and 
craft  guilds  of  mediaeval  Europe 

Guilds  are  sometimes  confused  with  trade  unions, 
but  they  were  different  because  they  included  the 
employers  as  well  as  the  employed.  Master, 
journeyman,  and  apprentice,  all  lived  and  worked 
together  and  cherished  their  interests  in  common. 
The  purpose  of  the  guild  was  to  maintain  the 
high  standards  of  the  business,  and  to  monopolize 
as  far  as  possible  its  opportunities.  As  the  guild 
became  powerful,  it  received  special  privileges, 
and  exerted  an  influence  upon  municipal  administra- 
tion. Sometimes  there  were  conflicts  between  the 
craft  guilds  and  the  aristocracy. 

The  merchant  guild  was  the  first  to  become 
powerful,  and  in  the  days  when  production  and 
distribution  were  so  closely  connected  as  to  consti- 
tute one  business  the  craftsman  could  belong  to 
the  merchant  guild,  but  the  tendency  was  for  the 
artisans  of  each  trade  to  organize  their  own  guilds, 
and  with  their  increasing  prosperity  the  merchant 
guild  decUned.  The  craft  guilds  were  most  flourish- 
ing in  the  14th.  and  15th.  centuries. 

For  a  long  time  the  apprentice  looked  forward 
to  becoming  a  journeyman  after  he  had  proved  his 
abihty,  and  the  journeyman  expected  to  become 
a  craftsman,  but  later  their  interests  did  not  so 
closely  coincide,  and  many  of  the  employed  forrned 
journeymen's  associations  which  were  more  like 
the  modern  trade  union.  The  prosperity  of  the 
guilds  was  destroyed  by  modem  discoveries  and 
trade  expansion,  and  the  19th.  century  brought 
most  of  them  to  an  end.  H.  K.  Rowb 

GUILT. — ^The  state  of  deserving  condemnation 
or  of  being  liable  to  punishment  because  of  having 
violated  a  law  or  a  moral  requirement. 

In  legal  practice,  an  accused  person  may  plead 
guilty  or  not  guilty.  Guilt  may  be  alleged  merely 
on  the  ground  of  actual  violation  of  law,  but  the 
degree  of  guiltiness  is  determined  by  an  inquiry  into 
the  intent  which  preceded  the  act.  An  innocent 
intent  mitigates  or  annuls  guilt. 

In  theology  guilt  means  the  condemnation  of 
God.  The  doctrine  of  original  sin  (q.v.)  declared 
all  men  inherently  sinful,  hence  every  individual 
was  a  "guilty  rebel"  in  God's  sight,  and  could  be 
religiously  restored  only  by  the  divine  pardon.  See 
Sin;  Forgiveness,  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

GURU. — The  title  applied  to  a  spiritual  guide  in 
Hinduism.  He  is  usually  considered  to  be  the 
representative  or  earthly  incarnation  of  God  for  his 
follower  and  must  be  given  absolute  obedience  in  all 
things  throughout  life. 

GUSTAVE-ADOLPH-VEREIN.— An  associa- 
tion of  German  Protestants  aiming  to  assist  needy 
Protestant    churches,    especially    those    suffering 


hardship  in  non-Protestant  lands,8o  as  to  encourage 
Protestant  influence.  The  association  was  named 
from  Gustavus  Adolphus,  being  founded  in  1832 
on  the  second  centennial  of  his  death.  It  has  dis- 
bursed more  than  $12,000,000  since  its  foundation. 

GUTHRIE,  THOMAS  (1803-1873).— Minister 
of  the  Free  church  of  Scotland,  and  ardent  Presby- 
terian and  Free-churchman,  an  advocate  of  total 
abstinence,  of  missions  and  of  union  with  the  United 
Presbyterian  church;  a  noted  preacher  and  a  man 
of  literary  distinction. 

GUYON,  JEANNE  MARIE  BOUVIER  DE  LA 
MOTHE  (1648-1717).— French  quietist  and  mys- 
tical author;  exerted  a  wide  influence  throughout 
Europe,  Fenelon  (q.v.)  being  affected  by  her  teach- 
ing. She  advocated  an  "internal"  rehgion  of 
prayer,  resignation,  purity  and  renunciation. 

GYPSIES,  RELIGIOUS  AND  ETHICAL 
IDEAS  OF. — The  Gypsies  (also  known  as  Romani, 
Zigani,  and  by  other  names)  are  a  race  numbering 
altogether  toward  three-quarters  of  a  milhon 
spread  throughout  Europe,  and  found  also  in 
Armenia,  the  Levant,  North  Africa,  America,  and 
AustraUa.  The  name  "Gypsy"  is  a  corruption  of 
"Egyptian,"  due  to  the  belief  formerly  prevalent  and 
encouraged  by  the  Gypsies  that  they  were  of  Egyp- 
tian origin.  Study  of  their  dialects,  however,  has 
proven  that  they  must  have  originated  in  India, 
whence  they  came  via  Persia  and  Armenia  into 
Europe  and  Africa.  Their  spread  into  western 
Europe  occurred  in  the  14th.  and  15th.  centuries, 
probably  as  a  consequence  of  Turkish  conquests  of 
the  Near  East,  and  in  European  countries,  from  that 
time,  they  have  been  alternately  protected  and  perse- 
cuted by  the  peoples  among  whom  they  have  dwelt. 
The  Gypsies,  as  known  in  western  Europe,  have 
generally  claimed  to  be  Christians,  and  are  doubt- 
less to  be  regarded  as  such  in  Christian  countries, 
while  in  Mohammedan  countries  they  are  Muslim. 
They  have,  however,  from  time  to  time  been  perse- 
cuted as  heathen,  and  revolting  rites  have  been 
ascribed  to  them,  upon  little  or  no  evidence. 
Prejudice  against  them  has  been  aroused  because 
of  their  foreign  language,  or  dialect;  their  nomadic, 
and  frequently  vagabond  life;  their  lax  morality, 
both  sexual  and  in  regard  to  property;  and  also 
their  superstitious  claims  to  occult  knowledge.  In 
certain  districts,  especially  in  eastern  Europe, 
the  Gypsy  population  is,  or  is  becoming,  settled; 
but  during  the  whole  period  of  their  sojourn  in 
western  Europe  the  Gypsies  have  been  engaged  al- 
most wholly  in  occupations  suitable  to  wanderers: 
musicians,  mountebanks,  smiths  or  tinkers,  peddlers, 
fortune-tellers,  horse-traders,  animal  trainers,  ballad- 
mongers,  quack-doctors,  etc.,  with  the  consequence 
that  their  morals  have  reflected  their  life,  and  they 
have  won  for  themselves  a  reputation  for  thievery 
and  deceit  which  is  certainly  more  than  they 
deserve,  for  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  Gypsies 
are  peaceable  and  inoffensive,  even  if  ignorant 
members  of  the  communities  within  which  they 
live.  H.  B.  Alexander 


H 


HABDALAH. — (Hebrew  =  distinction.)  Jewish 
ceremony  at  the  conclusion  of  Sabbath  or  festival, 
consisting  of  a  series  of  blessings,  emphasizing 
the  distinction  between  the  holy  day  and  the  pro- 
fane. In  connection  with  the  blessing,  wine  (or 
any  other  drink  except  water),  a  small  box  of  spices, 
and  a  candle-light  are  used  as  symbols. 


HABIT. — An  acquired  mode  of  activity  develop- 
ing by  repetition  relatively  fixed  form,  efficiency, 
and  facility. 

Habit  IS  closely  related  to  instinct.  Instincts 
are  inherited;  habits  are  acquired.  Habits  are 
developed  in  the  service  of  the  instincts.  Modern 
experimental  psychology  has  thrown  much  light 


195 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Hamilton,  Sir  William 


upon  these  phenomena  by  a  comparative  study  of 
animal  and  human  behavior.  The  results  are 
being  appropriated  in  general  education  and  in  the 
reUgious  training  of  children.  Character  is  defined 
in  terms  of  the  individual's  system  of  habits.  It  is 
well  formed  habits  which  give  stability  and  responsi- 
bUity.  At  the  same  time  habits  offer  resistance  to 
new  modes  of  thought  and  action. 

Custom  may  be  viewed  as  social  habit.  The 
tendency  is  for  the  child  to  form  habits  of  speech 
and  conduct  in  harmony  with  the  customs  of  his 
social  group.  Habit  tends  to  be  conservative  and 
by  a  kind  of  inertia  holds  man  to  established 
manners  and  conduct.  This  has  been  particularly 
true  in  the  sphere  of  religion.  Here  the  felt  impor- 
tance of  accepted  forms  and  beUefs  is  so  great  that 
every  influence  is  brought  to  bear  in  the  plastic 
years  of  childhood  and  youth  "to  train  the  child 
in  the  way  he  should  go."  All  ritualistic,  liturgical 
religions  utilize  this  principle.  More  rationalistic 
movements  stress  the  danger  of  bondage  to  routine 
habit  or  custom  and  seek  to  cultivate  religious 
education  in  a  manner  that  will  promote  greater 
flexibihty  and  adaptation  in  a  growing  experience. 
The  relation  between  dogmatic  opinions  or  prejudice 
and  one's  habits  is  so  vital  that  one's  arguments 
are  often  merely  the  expression  of  one's  professional 
or  cultural  standpoint.  Edward  S.  Ames 

HACHIMAN. — A  member  of  the  Japanese  royal 
house  of  the  3rd.  century  a.d.  now  deified  as  the  god 
of  war. 

HADAD.— See  Adad. 

HADES.— (1)  The  Greek  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrew,  Sheol  (q.v.),  designating  the  place  of 
departed  spirits;  sometimes  incorrectly  used  as  an 
equivalent  of  hell.  (2)  In  Greek  mythology,  the 
king  of  the  underworld  and  of  the  dead;  also  the 
underworld  itself,  which  was  divided  into  Elysium, 
abode  of  the  blest,  and  Tartarus,  abode  of  the 
wicked. 

HADITH. — The  authoritative  sayings  of  Mo- 
hammed handed  down  by  trustworthy  persons 
in  an  unbroken  Une  from  the  companions  of  the 
prophet. 

HAD  J  or  HA  J  J. — The  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
expected  of  every  true  Mohammedan  at  least  once 
in  his  life-time. 

HAFTARAH— (Hebrew=  conclusion.)  Biblical 
selection  read  in  the  Synagogues  after  the  reading 
from  the  Pentateuch.  The  passage  is  chosen  from  the 
part  of  the  Bible  designated  in  the  original  Hebrew 
as  "the  Prophets,"  which  part  includes  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
and  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  A  certain  portion, 
which  bears  in  some  way  upon  the  subject-matter 
of  the  -parasha  (q.v.)  is  assigned  for  each  Sabbath 
and  holiday. 

HAGGADA. — A  form  of  Jewish  interpretation 
of  the  Old  Testament,  which  is  hterary,  poetical 
and  allegorical  in  contrast  with  the  Halakha  (q.v.). 

HAGIOGRAPHA.— One  of  the  three  divi- 
sions of  Old  Testament  literature,  including  all 
books  except  the  "Law"  and  the  "Prophets." 

HAGIOLOGY.— That  branch  of  Uterature  which 
treats  of  the  lives  of  the  saints.  For  the  hagiological 
literature,  cf.  Acta  Martybum;  Acta  Sanctorum. 

HAIL  MARY. — Same  as  Ave  Maria  (q.v.). 


HAIR,    RELIGIOUS    SIGNIFICANCE  OF.— 

Hairdressing  is  practiced  by  all  men  excepting  the 
crudest  of  savages,  and  in  nearly  every  society  the 
mode  of  hairdressing  is  of  considerable,  often  of 
great,  social  significance.  Special  modes  of  hair- 
dressing for  priesthoods  and  sacerdotal  classes  is 
characteristic  of  most  societies  where  these  classes 
are  marked.  Shaving  of  the  head,  and  indeed  of 
the  whole  body,  was  required  of  Egyptian  priests; 
Buddhist  priests  also  shave  the  head;  and  the 
tonsure,  in  its  various  Christian  forms,  represents  a 
similar  custom.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Semitic 
peoples  have  immemorially  possessed  a  reverence 
for  hair  and  beard  which  forbade  shaving.  Ideas 
associated  with  the  hair  are  various:  it  is  shaved  or 
cut  on  the  theory  that  the  hair  is  unclean  or  as  a 
sign  of  renunciation  or  of  servitude;  it  is  allowed 
to  grow  on  the  theory  that  it  is  the  source  of  strength 
or  virility,  or  again  as  the  outward  sign  of  a  vow 
or  as  the  image  of  wisdom;  in  the  mourning  for 
the  dead,  it  is  dishevelled  and  torn,  etc.  See 
Tonsure.  H.  B.  Alexander 

HA  J  J.— See  Hadj. 

HAKAM. — (Hebrew=a  wise  man.)  An  official 
title  in  Palestine  in  Talmudic  times  and  of  the  Rabbi 
among  Sephardim  (q.v.). 

HALAKHA  or  HALACHA.— That  portion  of  the 
Midrash  which  deals  with  minute  legal  precepts  of 
Hebrew  tradition  in  contrast  with  the  Haggada  (q.v.). 

HALEVI,  JEHUDAH  BEN  SAMUEL  (ca.  1085- 
1143). — Jewish  poet  and  philosopher,  whose  chief 
work,  Kuzari,  was  a  philosophical  argument  in 
defence  of  the  Jewish  religion  against  the  Karaite 
heresy,  Islam,  and  Christianity.  Halevi  was  the 
greatest  hymn-writer  of  the  Synagogue,  and  an 
ardent  lover  of  the  Holy  Land. 

HALF-WAY  COVENANT.— A  device  of  New 
England  Congregational  churches  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  18th.  century,  according  to  which  the^ 
children  of  the  church  members  in  full  standing 
were  entitled  to  baptism,  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  members  of  the  church,  but  on  becoming 
adults,  if  unregenerate,  they  could  neither  come  to 
the  Lord's  Supper  nor  vote  in  ecclesiastical  affairs; 
if,  however,  they  "owned  the  covenant"  and  were 
of  upright  life,  they  might  in  turn  present  their 
children  for  baptism  and  thus  secure  for  them  the 
same  privileges  in  the  church  which  they  themselves 
enjoyed.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

HALLAJ. — (Al-Hallaj.)  A  Moslem  mystic  of 
the  10th.  century  who  was  put  to  death  at  Bagdad 
for  teaching  the  essential  deity  of  man.  His  most 
often  quoted  saying  is,  "I  am  Reahty." 

HALLEL.— (Hebrew  =  praise.)  A  term  used 
specifically  among  the  Jews  to  designate  Psalms  113 
to  1 18,  which  form  an  important  part  of  the  festival 
liturgy. 

HALLELUJAH. — (Hebrew = Praise  ye  Jehovah.) 
Originally  found  at  the  end  of  certain  Psalms  from 
which  it  came  to  be  used  as  a  doxology  in  the 
synagogue,  and  then  as  an  ascription  of  praise  in 
Christian  churches. 

HAMADRYAD.— In     classical    mythology,     a 

nymph  (q.v.)  portrayed  as  hving  in  a  tree,  and 
dying  with  the  tree. 

HAMILTON,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1788-1856).— 
Scottish  philosopher,  who  attempted  to  uphold  a 


Hammurabi,  Code  of 


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196 


species  of  philosophical  reahsm  in  connection  with 
a  critical  analysis  of  consciousness.  He  affirmed 
that  there  is  an  Absolute  Being  who  is  the  source 
of  all  finite  existence,  but  that  knowledge  of  this 
transcends  human  power.  Faith,  accordingly,  is 
"the  organ  by  which  we  apprehend  what  is  beyond 
our  knowledge."  Hamilton's  metaphysical  agnosti- 
cism was  the  basis  of  Herbert  Spencer's  doctrine  of 
the  Unknowable. 

HAMMURABI,  CODE  OF.— A  legal  code  pre- 
pared by  order  of  Hammurabi,  sixth  king  of  the 
First  Dynasty  of  Babylon,  who  reigned  from  2123 
to  2081  B.C. 

Under  Hammurabi,  Babylon  for  the  first  time 
became  the  supreme  city  in  Babylonia.  Ham- 
murabi sought,  in  his  own  words,  "to  cause  justice 
to  prevail  in  the  land,  to  destroy  the  wicked  and  the 
evil,  to  prevent  the  strong  from  oppressing  the 
weak,  to  go  forth  like  the  Sun  over  the  race  of  men, 
to  enUghten  the  land  and  to  further  the  welfare 
of  the  people."  As  a  means  to  this  end,  he  had 
this  great  Code  prepared  and  published  as  the 
law  of  his  kingdom.  It  was  not  a  body  of  wholly 
new  legislation,  but  rather  a  revision,  expansion 
and  harmonization  of  previously  existing  codes. 

In  Dec.  1901  and  Jan.  1902  a.d.,  the  French 
excavators  at  ancient  Susa  discovered  the  broken 
fragments  of  a  pillar  upon  which  this  Code  was 
inscribed  in  cuneiform  characters.  Almost  the 
entire  code  is  thus  preserved.  The  original  is  now 
in  the  Louvre,  in  Paris. 

The  Code  presupposes  a  very  highly  developed 
and  complex  civilization  in  Babylonia,  much  more 
so  than  that  of  the  Hebrews  whose  oldest  legislation 
did  not  appear  till  approximately  a  thousand  years 
later.  The  Code  remained  in  force  throughout  the 
Babylonian  Empire  for  many  centuries.  It  was  thus 
in  all  probabihty  the  law  of  Canaan  when  the 
Hebrews  entered.  This  accounts  for  the  remark- 
able amount  and  degree  of  similarity  between 
Hammurabi's  Code  and  the  Hebrew  law.  In  the 
Covenant  Code  for  example  (see  Law,  Hebrew), 
35  out  of  55  laws  have  close  points  of  contact  with 
Hammurabi's  Code  and  half  are  almost  identical. 
A  high  sense  of  justice  characterizes  the  282  laws 
of  the  Code  and  Hammurabi  declares  that  his 
organization  of  it  was  inspired  by  Shamash,  the 
god  of  justice.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE.— A 

meeting  summoned  by  James  I.  of  England  at 
Hampton  Court  to  settle  differences  between 
Puritans  and  the  High  church  party.  The  most 
noteworthy  outcome  of  the  conference  was  the 
"King  James  version"  of  the  Bible,  a  new  translation 
made  on  request  of  the  Puritan  representatives. 

HAN. — The  name  of  the  Chinese  dynasty 
ruling  from  ca.  206  b.c.  to  220  a.d.  To  them  is 
credited  the  restoration  of  the  sacred  books.  In 
this  period  also  Buddhism  took  root  in  China  and 
the  two  native  religious  developments,  Confucian- 
ism and  Taoism,  assumed  their  distinctive  forms. 

HANBAL.— (Ibn  Hanbal,  9th.  century.)  The 
founder  of  one  of  the  four  orthodox  schools  of 
Moslem  law. 

HANDS,  LAYING  ON  OF.— A  rite  of  conse- 
cration observed  in  many  religions  including  the 
Christian. 

The  underljang  idea  is  that  of  contagion.  Cer- 
tain persons  being  possessed  of  supernatural  power 
(mana)  may  communicate  it  by  touch,  not  only  to 
other  persons  but  to  material  objects.  This  is 
plainly  indicated  by  the  story  of  EUsha  who  sent  his 


staff  in  the  hope  that  it  would  revive  the  dead  boy, 
and  by  the  New  Testament  statement  that  handker- 
chiefs and  aprons  were  brought  from  contact  with 
Paul's  bodj^  to  heal  the  sick  (Acts  19 :  12).  HeaUng 
by  touch  is  attested  in  many  documents  both 
heathen  and  Christian.  On  the  other  hand  guilt 
may  be  transferred  in  the  same  way.  The  scrip- 
tural example  is  the  scapegoat  on  which  the  high 
priest  laid  his  hands  when  confessing  the  sins  of  the 
people.  In  the  late  Jewish  period  ordination  or 
authority  to  teach  was  given  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands,  and  Christian  ministers  have  been  set 
apart  to  their  office  by  this  rite  from  the  earliest 
times.    See  Order,  Holy. 

In  the  Hebrew  code  laying  on  of  hands  is  en- 
joined upon  the  man  who  brings  a  victim  to  the 
altar.  This  has  usually  been  interpreted  as  similar 
to  the  rite  described  above,  that  is,  a  conveyance  of 
the  sin  of  the  offerer  to  the  victim.  But  this  is 
not  clear,  for  the  infection  of  the  animal  with  guilt 
would  make  it  unfit  for  sacrifice,  as  we  see  in  the 
case  of  the  scapegoat;  which  was  not  sacrificed  but 
sent  off  into  the  desert  for  the  demon  Azazel.  As  the 
sacrificial  animal  was  already  sacred,  a  transfer  of 
sanctity  from  the  victim  to  the  offerer  might  have 
been  effected  by  the  laying  on  of  hands. 

H.  P.  Smith 

HANIFA.— (Abu  Hanifa,  8th.  century.)  The 
founder  of  one  of  the  four  orthodox  schools  of  Mos- 
lem law. 

HANUKKAH.— (Hebrew  =  dedication.)  Jew  sh 
festival  celebrated  for  eight  days  beginning  the 
25th  day  of  Kislev  (the  month  corresponding 
approximately  to  December)  commemorating  the 
Maccabean  victory  over  the  Syrians,  and  the 
rededication  of  the  Temple  in  165  B.C.,  and  cele- 
brated with  joy  in  the  Jewish  home  and  synagogue. 
Lighting  the  Hanukkah  lights,  the  chief  symbol  of 
the  day,  has  given  the  hohday  the  additional  name 
of  "the  Feast  of  Lights." 

HAOMA. — The  plant  from  which  was  made 
the  sacred  drink  used  in  religious  ceremonies  in 
ancient  Persia;  then  the  name  of  the  ceremony 
and  of  the  liquor  itself.  It  is  probably  identical 
with  the  Hindu  Soma  (q.v.). 

HAPI. — ^The  god  of  the  river  Nile  represented  as 
a  male  figure  with  female  breasts.  Although 
Egypt  "is  the  gift  of  the  Nile"  this  god  has  no  great 
prominence  in  the  developed  religion  probably 
owing  to  the  ascendency  of  Osiris  as  a  fertility  figure. 

HAPPINESS. — -The  primary  meaning  is  good 
fortune,  but  with  greatly  divergent  secondary 
meanings.    The  principal  are  as  follows : 

(a)  A  formal  designation  of  the  good  (q.v.)  or 
desirable,  whatever  its  content  may  be. 

(6)  The  possession  of  desirable  external  condi- 
tions. 

(c)  The  fulfilment  of  distinctively  human  func- 
tion. Aristotle's  doctrine  of  eudaimonia  begins 
with  (a),  but  extends  to  (6)  and  (c).  The  human 
function  whose  fulfilment  constitutes  happiness  is 
intellectual,  as  contrasted  with  the  animals;  but 
httle  attention  is  given  by  Aristotle,  as  by  suc- 
ceeding Greek  and  Roman  ethics,  to  the  analysis  of 
function  in  relation  to  social  diversities  and  needs. 

(d)  This  aloofness  of  ethical  attitude  led,  on 
one  hand,  to  the  conception  of  happiness  as  an 
other-worldly  blessedness,  and,  on  the  other,  to 
the  rejection  of  happiness  as  identified  with  pleasure, 
the  feeling  of  momentary  satisfaction;  e.g.,  Stoicism 
(q.v.).  In  modern  ethics  the  term  is  often  thus 
used,  both  by  those  who  defend  and  by  those  who 
reject  hedonism  (q.v.). 


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Hatred 


(e)  More  narrowly,  happiness  designates  the 
"higher"  pleasures  (J.  S.  Mill,  q.v.),  or  the  syste- 
matic organization  of  pleasures,  or  the  feeling  corre- 
lated with  virtue.  Idealistic  ethics  denies  that 
happiness,  even  in  this  higher  sense,  can  be  a  moral 
end,  though  it  is  a  duty  to  foster  it  in  others,  and 
though  its  possibility  is  a  postulate  of  moral  con- 
sciousness (Kant,  q.v.). 

(/)  Under  the  influence  of  the  rejection  of 
hedonistic  psychology,  and  the  fuller  analysis 
of  motive  (q.v.),  value  (q.v.),  and  social  processes, 
with  the  recognition  that  interests  are  capable  of 
objective  development  and  social  organization,  the 
term  happiness,  or  in  this  sense  its  synonym  welfare, 
is  often  used  to  designate  the  maximum  systematiza- 
tion  of  actual  and  potential  interests. 

J.  F.  Crawford 

HARA-KIRI. — Ceremonial  suicide  performed  in 
obedience  to  the  austere  ideal  of  duty  and  loyalty 
at  the  basis  of  the  feudal,  military  ethics  of  old 
Japan. 

HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS.— A  work 
exhibiting  the  text  of  the  gospels  arranged  in 
parallel  columns  so  as  to  exhibit  their  agreements 
and  differences.  The  harmonist  may  undertake 
to  relate  in  this  way  the  four  gospels,  as  in  the 
English  harmonies  of  Robinson,  Broadus,  Stevens- 
Burton,  or  he  may  limit  himself  to  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  (Matthew,  Mark,  Luke)  which  lend  them- 
selves much  more  fully  to  such  parallelization,  as  in 
the  Enghsh  harmonies  of  Burton-Goodspeed  and 
Sharman,  and  the  Greek  harmonies  of  Huck,  Rush- 
brooke,  and  Burton-Goodspeed.  The  material 
may  be  exhibited  paragraph  by  paragraph  or  more 
minutely  equated  so  that  the  eye  at  once  catches 
similarities  or  contrasts.  Such  works  by  putting 
the  various  parallel  accounts  together  before  the 
eye,  greatly  facilitate  the  critical  study  of  them 
and  provide  a  foundation  for  a  study  of  the  life  of 
Jesus.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

HARPER,  WILLIAM  RAINEY(  1856-1906).— 
American  Baptist  educator,  Semitic  scholar,  and 
first  president  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  under 
whose  leadership  it  expanded  rapidly.  He  was  an 
editor,  author,  and  scholar  as  well  as  a  great  organ- 
izer, and  did  much  to  promote  interest  in  the  study 
of  Hebrew  and  the  Old  Testament. 

HARPIES. — Personifications  of  the  good  and 
evil  winds  in  the  thought  of  early  Greece.  Usually 
maleficent,  they  are  represented  as  winged  figiu-es 
bringing  pollution,  pestilence  and  death. 

HARTMANN,     KARL     ROBERT     EDUARD 

VON  (1842-1906).— German  philosopher,  whose 
outstanding  work  was  The  Philosophy  of  the  Un- 
conscious, in  which  he  reflects  the  influence  of 
Schopenhauer  (q.v.).  The  Unconscious  is  a 
mysterious  name  by  which  he  describes  the  Abso- 
lute (q.v.)  of  German  idealistic  metaphysics.  This 
Unconscious  has  will  and  reason,  the  will  being 
dominant.  Salvation  is  possible  only  when  the 
will  becomes  diffused  with  reason.  His  view  of  the 
world  and  the  course  of  history  is  pessimistic. 
We  must  strive  for  a  salvation  which  is  unattain- 
able save  by  elimination  of  consciousness,  which  is 
the  source  of  human  dissatisfaction. 

HARVEST  FESTIVALS.— The  importance  of 
the  harvest  involves,  as  a  natural  result,  the  holding 
of  a  festival  when  the  crop  has  been  successfully 
garnered,  though  the  original  meaning  of  the  feast- 
ing has  largely  been  forgotten.  From  the  primitive 
point  of  view,  the  grain,  especially  the  last  sheaf, 
ia  indwelt  by,  or  is  even  an  embodiment  of,  the 


corn-spirit,  whence  the  gathering  of  the  harvest 
is  a  somewhat  perilous  task;  this  being  particu- 
larly true  as  to  the  last  sheaf,  regarded  as  the 
final  refuge  of  the  spirit.  When  this  sheaf  is 
garnered,  the  corn-spirit  is  either  supposed  to 
be  expelled,  or  to  be  killed,  or  to  be  captured,  or  to 
enter  into  the  reaper.  In  either  of  the  first  two 
hypotheses,  there  is  obvious  ground  for  rejoicing  at 
escape  from  peril  caused  by  the  corn-spirit,  angered 
at  invasion  of  its  domain;  in  either  of  the  latter 
two,  joy  is  enhanced  by  knowledge  that  the  corn- 
spirit  is  held  ready  for  the  next  harvest.  Accord- 
ingly, at  the  banquet,  the  corn-spirit  is  sometimes 
represented  by  a  doll,  regarded  as  the  embodiment 
of  the  corn-spirit,  or  the  reaper  of  the  last  sheaf 
sits  in  the  place  of  honor,  for  a  like  reason.  Occa- 
sionally, a  period  of  licence  succeeds  the  feast, 
the  intention  being  so  to  confuse  the  corn-spirit 
that  it  may  be  unable  to  identify  those  who  have 
infringed  upon  its  rights. 

In  the  primitive  harvest  festival,  there  seems  to 
be  little,  if  any,  thought  of  gratitude  to  a  divinity 
for  the  garnering  of  a  good  harvest.  With  the 
rise  of  special  divinities  of  agriculture,  however, 
and  with  a  higher  development  of  religious  thought, 
the  festival  changes  its  character,  and  becomes  a 
feast  of  gratitude,  in  which  the  divinity  is  praised 
for  his  goodness  to  his  worshippers;  although  this 
sentiment  is  apt,  in  its  turn,  to  be  weakened,  so 
that  the  feast  becomes  a  mere  seasonal  banquet 
devoid  of  signification  to  those  who  observe  it. 

Louis  H.  Gray 

HASIDAEANS,  HASIDIM  ("pious").— A  party 
developed  in  Palestine  in  the  3rd.  and  2nd.  cen- 
turies B.C.  under  scribal  leadership,  including 
those  pious  Jews  who  identified  religion  with  literal 
obedience  to  the  Jewish  Law.  In  their  zeal  for 
it  they  joined  though  somewhat  intermittently, 
with  Mattathias  and  his  sons  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
Jonathan,  and  Simon,  to  resist  the  efforts  of  the 
Syrian  king  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  his  suc- 
cessors to  crush  out  Judaism.  The  Hasidim 
broke  up  toward  the  end  of  the  2nd.  century  B.C. 
into  the  Essenes  and  the  Pharisees.  Their  pious 
hopes  and  aspirations  colored  much  of  the  later 
literature  of  Judaism.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

HASINA.— See  Mana. 

HASMONEANS  (or  ASMONEANS).— A 
family  of  Jewish  patriots  who  led  a  revolt  in  the 
reign  of  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.), 
and  succeeded  in  gaining  a  brief  period  of  free- 
dom for  the  Jews.  Mattathias,  the  head  of  the 
family  with  his  five  sons,  John,  Simon,  Judas 
(Maccabeus),  Eleazor,  and  Jonathan,  were  the 
leaders  of  the  movement;  afterwards  known  as 
Maccabees. 

HATCH,  EDWIN  (1835-1889).— English  theo- 
logian, a  man  of  broad  scholarship,  especially  in 
the  field  of  early  Christian  history.  His  chief 
works  were  The  Organization  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tian Churches  and  The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas 
and   Usages  upon  the  Christian  Churches. 

HATHOR. — A  composite  mother-goddess  of 
ancient  Egypt.  She  is  the  sky-mother,  "eye  of 
Re,"  the  goddess  of  love,  nourisher  of  the  world, 
watcher  over  the  birth  and  destiny  of  men,  helper 
of  the  souls  of  the  dead.  She  appears  as  a  woman 
with  a  cow's  head  and  was  later  blended  with  Isis. 

HATRED. — An  intense  feehng  of  revulsion  or 
aversion,  usually  accompanied  by  the  desire  to 
harm  or  destroy  the  object  of  hatred;  the  anti- 
thetical emotion   of  love.     It   releases  malignant 


Hawaii,  Missions  to 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


198 


human  passions  and  is  opposed  by  both  ethical 
and  rehgious  teaching. 

HAWAII,  MISSIONS  TO.— Discovered  in  1778 
by  Captain  Cook,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  became 
a  mission  field  in  1820.  The  coming  of  Obookiah 
to  America  in  1810,  his  conversion,  education, 
and  passion  for  the  evangeUzation  of  his  people 
inspired  the  first  mission  to  Hawaii  in  1819-20, 
under  the  American  Board  (Congregational).  The 
missionaries  (Bingham;  Thurston)  found  taboos 
broken,  temples  destroyed  and  priesthood  abolished, 
a  people  literally  without  a  religion.  The  language 
was  reduced  to  writing,^  and  the  Bible  translated. 
Stations  were  established  on  the  principal  islands 
(Hawaii,  Maui,  Kauai,  Oahu)  and  schools  were 
opened.  Industrial  education  was  emphasized. 
Oahu  College  became  the  leading  educational 
institution.  The  revival  of  1836-39  (Titus  Coan) 
brought  20,000  (ca.  one-sixth  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion) into  the  church.  By  1852-53  the  native  church 
was  sending  missionaries  to  Micronesia  and  the 
Marquesas.  The  Hawaiian  church  became  autono- 
mous from  1863,  under  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical 
Association,  an  organization  composed  of  Congre- 
gational ministers  (American  and  Hawaiian)  and  lay 
delegates.  Asiatic  immigration,  increasing  rapidly 
after  1876,  inspired  successful  evangelizing  efforts 
(1st.  Chinese  church,  1878;  1st.  Japanese  church, 
1888).  Mormons  began  work,  1850;  Episco- 
paUans,  1862;  Y.M.C.A.,  1869.  Methodists  labor 
among  Japanese  and  Koreans.  Roman  Catholics, 
beginning  in  1839,  have  steadily  increased  until  their 
numbers  approximate  those  of  the  Protestants.  _^ 

One  of  the  most  significant  facts  in  Hawaii  is 
the  phenomenal  change  in  population.  Contact 
with  western  nations  and  western  diseases,  together 
with  inherent  moral  weakness,  has  reduced  the 
native  race  from  an  estimated  200,000  to  ca.  26,000 
in  the  past  century  and  a  quarter.  In  1918  there 
were  ca.  102,000  Japanese,  and  ca.  20,000  Chinese 
out  of  a  total  population  of  ca.  220,000. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

HAWAII,  RELIGIONS  OF.— The  religion  of 
the  aborigines  of  Hawaii,  like  that  of  the  other 
Polynesians,  was  essentially  a  primitive  nature- 
cult,  characterized  by  many  tabus.  The  real  divin- 
ities were  those  of  the  family,  and — as  among  many 
other  primitive  peoples — were  represented  by,  or 
believed  to  dwell  in,  a  stone,  tree,  or  other  natural 
object.  There  were,  indeed,  great  gods,  but  in 
actual  religious  life  they  played  a  relatively  minor 
part,  with  the  exception  of  the  shark-god,  Uku- 
panipo,  who  controlled  the  fisheries  on  which  the 
islanders  largely  depended;  and  the  volcano- 
goddess,  Pele,  who,  in  view  of  the  ever-present 
peril  of  eruptions,  was  the  object  of  an  especially 
active  cult.  Cosmic  deities,  such  as  Algaloa,  the 
god  of  the  sky,  received  a  recognition  more  theo- 
retical than  real. 

The  places  of  worship  (heiau)  could,  with  few 
exceptions,  serve  for  the  cult  of  any  deity.  They 
were  of  the  usual  Poljoiesian  type:  roofless  en- 
closures, usually  oblong,  and  containing  a  place  of 
sacrifice,  a  small  house  for  the  priest,  and  an  anu, 
or  place  where  the  will  of  the  god  was  proclaimed  in 
oracle. 

The  services  of  the  priests  of  the  heiau  were 
for  the  aristocracy  alone;  the  common  folk  were 
compelled  to  be  content  with  the  ministrations  of 
typical  sorcerers  and  shamans  (kahuna). 

The  spirits  of  chiefs,  kahunas,  and  human 
victims  to  the  gods  remained  on  earth  after  death, 
often  causing  harm  to  the  liAdng;  the  souls  of  the 
common  people,  passing  to  Kaui,  traditionally  the 
earliest  home  of  the  Hawaiian  race,  leaped  into 
the  sea  on  their  way  to  the  imder-world,  where 


they  led  a  vague  existence  under  Milu,  the  god  of 
the  dead.  Louis  H.  Ghay 

HEALING,  HEALING  GODS.— The  restora- 
tion of  health  by  supernatural  means,  and  the 
divinities  who  mediate  healing. 

Primitive  peoples  have  usually  believed  that 
sickness  is  caused  by  supernatural  agencies  and 
that  consequently  cures  can  be  effected  by  occult 
means.  This  notion  inspires  the  magical  practices 
of  exorcism  and  the  performances  of  the  medicine- 
man which  are  still  in  evidence  in  some  ethnic 
faiths.  Similar  practices  were  common  in  the 
ancient  world.  For  example,  while  medical  science 
made  some  progress  among  the  Babylonians,  the 
physician  never  supplanted  the  exorcist.  Similarly 
in  Egypt  healing  by  the  use  of  natural  remedies 
was  practiced  at  an  early  date,  but  such  advance- 
ment as  was  made  in  scientific  therapeutics  did 
not  seriously  impair  the  popularity  of  the  magician. 
The  Persians  traced  the  art  of  healing  to  a  super- 
natural source  and  assigned  to  special  divinities  the 
task  of  curing  diseases.  Even  when  the  efficacy  of 
surgery  and  drugs  came  to  be  recognized,  prayer — 
or,  more  properly,  conjuration — was  still  called 
the  "physician  of  physicians."  The  Hebrews  seem 
to  have  regarded  disease  as  a  punishment  from 
their  god  and  so  to  be  alleviated  by  divine  action. 
Asa  was  thought  to  have  made  a  grave  mistake 
when  in  his  sickness  he  sought  not  Jehovah  but  the 
physicians  (II  Chron.  16:12).  In  some  circles  of 
Jewish  thinking  Raphael  was  looked  upon  as  the 
kindly  angel  who  was  set  over  all  the  diseases  and 
wounds  of  men.  The  supernaturalistic  theory  of 
disease  also  prevailed  among  the  Greeks  and  various 
divinities  were  credited  with  special  therapeutic 
functions.  Asklepios  enjoyed  unique  fame  as  a 
healer  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era 
his  sanctuaries  were  widely  scattered  about  the 
Mediterranean.  Another  favorite  healing  divinity 
of  this  period  was  the  Egyptian  goddess  Isis,  and 
many  other  names  of  less  distinction  could  be 
added  to  the  list  of  therapeutic  gods  to  whom  the 
great  mass  of  mankind  in  that  day  looked  for  either 
the  prevention  or  the  cure  of  diseases.  The  early 
Christians  were  following  the  familiar  custom  of 
the  times  when  they  stressed  heahng  as  a  function 
of  their  religion.  The  reputed  success  of  Jesus 
in  casting  out  demons  aftd  in  healing  other  forms 
of  sickness,  and  the  cures  performed  by  the  disciples 
in  his  name,  as  described  in  the  gospels  and  Acts 
cannot  have  failed  to  appeal  powerfully  to  the 
interests  of  the  ancients,  particularly  in  gentile 
circles.  Within  Christianity  the  ascription  of 
therapeutic  powers  to  relics  and  shrines  of  the 
saints  is  often  largely  a  perpetuation  of  a  more 
primitive  behef  in  the  healing  power  of  some  local 
divinity. 

Supernatural  heahng  was  effected  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  The  characteristic  method  of  the  magician 
was  to  repeat  a  formula  of  conjuration;  sometimes 
the  patient  while  sleeping  in  the  sanctuary  was 
told  in  a  dream  how  to  proceed  to  secure  heaUng; 
at  other  times  an  oracle  disclosed  the  proper 
treatment  to  be  followed;  while  on  still  other 
occasions  the  cure  was  accomphshed  suddenly  and 
directly,  without  the  intervention  of  mediating 
instruments  or  agents.  S.  J.  Case 

HEART. — Far  back  in  primitive  behef  the 
heart  supplanted  the  hver  as  the  most  important 
vital  organ.  Among  the  early  Egyptians  ab  was  in 
a  restricted  sense,  the  heart,  the  seat  of  desire,  will 
and  wisdom  and  valor,  and  the  center  of  life  and 
its  activities.  Among  the  Old  Testament  Hebrews 
it  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  and  source  of  life. 
"Keep  thy  heart  with  all  diligence,  for  out  of  it  are 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Heber,  Reginald 


the  issues  of  life"   (Prov.  4:23).    Paul  spoke  of 
the  heart  as  the  organ  of  belief  (Rom.  10:10). 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  this  same  organ 
was  the  seat  of  life,  soul,  intellect  and  emotion. 
In  most  higher  religions  the  heart  is  the  center 
of  religious  experience.  In  the  cult  of  the  "sacred 
heart"  we  have  an  expression  of  the  same  belief.  ^ 

Among  some  uncivilized  peoples  today  there  is 
a  belief  that  man  has  several  souls,  and  that  each  is 
assigned  to  some  organ  of  the  body  as  its  abode. 
But  among  all  tribes  that  cherish  such  a  belief,  the 
heart  is  regarded  as  the  vital  center.  So  persistent 
is  this  belief  that  the  heart  of  a  slain  enemy  is  eaten 
in  order  thereby  to  take  over  his  valorous  qualities. 
The  hearts  of  some  animals  are  devoured  for  the 
very  same  purpose.  In  making  sacrifices,  special  at- 
tention is  paid  to  the  heart,  whet  her  human  or  animal. 

In  the  magical  arts  the  heart  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place.  Amulets  in  the  shape  of  the  heart  are 
used  to  ward  off  evil  influences  of  various  kinds. 
This  custom  is  prevalent  today  in  Portugal,  Spain 
and  Italy.  In  Scotland  they  are  called  "witch- 
brooches."  The  heart  of  a  slain  animal  is  used 
today  among  some  barbarous  peoples  to  combat 
diseases  and  to  bar  the  approach  of  witches. 

Ira  M.  Price 

HEARTH  AND  HEARTH  GODS.— The  hearth 
is  the  natural  altar  for  the  worship  of  household 
gods.  In  Roman  houses,  images  of  the  Lares  and 
Penates,  the  Manes  of  ancestors,  were  placed  above 
the  fireplace  and  worshipped  along  with  the  Vesta, 
or  hearth  goddess.  Similar  practices  prevailed 
among  other  ancient  peoples,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  American  Indian 
prophet  Keokuk,  for  example,  made  devotion  to  the 
hearth-fire  a  prime  tenet  in  the  religion  taught  by 
him.    See  Fire,  Fire- worshippers  and  Fire-GtOds. 

HEATHEN.— (Anglo-Saxon,  heath,  country.) 
In  biblical  usage,  a  non-Jew  or  gentile.  In 
later  usage,  one  whose  religion  was  neither  Judaism 
nor  Christianity.  Mohammedans,  as  worshipers  of 
the  true  God,  are  often  excluded  from  the  category 
of  heathen.  The  term  has  been  frequently  one 
opprobrium,  signifying  one  whose  religion  is  false. 
Strictly  speaking  it  means  one  holding  to  a  primitive 
national  or  tribal  rehgion. 

HEAVEN  AND  HELL.— In  rehgion  and  com- 
mon spee(^h,  respectively  the  placas  or  states  of 
reward  and  punishment  after  death  for  deeds  done 
in  this  life. 

In  early  cosmology  heaven  and  hell  connote  the 
highest  and  lowest  divisions  of  a  tripartite  universe, 
with  the  earth  as  the  central  plane.  Heaven  was 
the  sky,  the  abode  of  the  bright  and  beneficent 
(Japan);  was  often  personalized  as  itself  a  deity 
(India,  Greece,  China,  etc.).  The  Greek  heaven 
held  only  gods  and  deified  heroes.  Hell  was  the 
underworld  with  its  deities,  usually  of  forbidding 
aspect,  the  abode  of  the  dead. 

In  primitive  man's  imagination,  the  future  life 
was  thought  to  reproduce  closely  the  present  life, 
except  that  it  was  "shadowy"  as  befits  "ghosts." 
But  this  conception  implied  place.  To  this  place 
many  if  not  most  early  religions  consigned  all 
departed  spirits.  Hell  in  this  sense  finds  its  equiva- 
lent in  the  Hebrew  Sheol  (of ten  =  "the  grave"), 
Greek  Hades,  Babylonian  "Land  of  No-Return." 
This  phase  of  thinking  embodied  a  "Spiritism  (that 
was)  an  expression  of  fear.  In  large  areas  and  for 
long  periods  ....  the  land  of  shades  was  .... 
not  a  place  of  fulfilment  of  joy,  but  of  feebleness  and 
darkness." 

This  was  prior  to  the  carrying  over  of  ethical 
distinctions  to  the  future  Ufe.  Where  this  occurred 
necessity  was  felt  for  a  place  of  bliss  for  the  good 


(heaven)  and  of  punishment  for  the  wicked  (hell). 
Among  some  the  underworld  was  regarded  as  divided 
into  different  regions — as  the  Greek  Elysium 
for  the  blessed  (Pindar,  however,  placed  this  on 
earth  in  the  extreme  West)  and  Tartarus  for  the 
damned.  This  involved  in  the  great  religions  and 
in  many  of  the  lesser  a  parting  of  the  ways  for  the 
good  and  the  wicked  at  death.  The  means  was 
usually  a  judgment  (explicit  or  implicit)  or  an 
ordeal.  The  blessed  passed  to  an  abode  which 
corresponded  more  or  less  closely  to  our  "heaven" 
("Paradise"),  conceived  appropriately  to  the 
dominant  state  of  culture  as  material  and  sensual 
or  sensuous,  or  spiritual.  The  wicked  were  con- 
demned or  automatically  passed  ("fell")  to  a  place 
of  torment.  The  passage  of  the  soul  from  earth 
might  itself  be  the  ordeal  or  judgment — hke  the 
tree-trunk  of  the  American  Indian  or  the  narrow 
bridge  of  Mohammedanism,  which  the  good  crossed 
with  safety,  from  which,  however,  the  wicked  fell 
into  hell.  In  Egypt  the  alternative  seems  to  have 
been  a  happy  continuance  of  the  soul  after  judgment 
or  its  extinction  by  punitive  destruction.  In  some 
religions  the  conception  of  Purgatory  (q.v.)  obtained 
— a  place  of  post-mortem  expiation  for  the  less 
wicked,  whence  they  passed  purified  to  the  company 
of  the  good. 

In  earlier  Old  Testament  heaven  was  the  abode 
of  God  and  his  angels,  entered  by  no  humans  except 
(constructively)  Enoch  and  Elijah.  Sheol  was 
(with  possible  exceptional  representations)  the 
melancholy  abode  of  the  dead  (Isa.  38 :  18-19),  with- 
out moral  distinction  (even  as  late  as  Ecclus.  41 : 4). 
The  later  Old  Testament  and  inter-Testamental 
literature  introduced  the  idea  of  resurrection  of  the 
righteous  to  enter  the  Messianic  kingdom  (through 
a  judgment  at  the  kingdom's  advent),  and  the 
doctrine  of  a  new  earth  and  a  heaven  as  the  abode 
of  God  and  the  righteous  (Enoch  103-104). 

By  the  time  of  Jesus  heaven  (life  eternal, 
Abraham's  bosom,  Paradise)  and  hell  or  Gehenna 
(final  punishment)  had  come  to  full  expression,  with 
an  impassable  gulf  between  them  ^Luke  16:26), 
entered  immediately  at  death  (Luke  16:19  ff.; 
23:43),  or  through  a  judgment  at  the  Son  of  Man's 
coming  (Matt.  chap.  25). 

The  later  New  Testament  conception  regarded 
heaven  as  the  abode  of  God,  Christ,  and  the  angels, 
whence  Christ  would  make  his  second  advent,  after 
which  the  judgment,  when  the  righteous  would  live 
with  God  and  Christ,  according  to  Revelation,  in  a 
new  heaven  and  a  new  earth,  God's  holy  city  being 
on  earth. 

The  Church's  teaching  has  ever  aimed  essentially 
at  spiritualizing  the  doctrine  of  heaven  and  hell, 
but  has  been  handicapped  by  the  symbohsm,  which 
is  necessarily  material.  The  dominant  _  idea  of 
heaven  is  of  a  holy  place  ("up")  where  sin  is  not 
and  cannot  enter,  where  the  soul  rests,  or  indulges 
in  praise;  or  develops  its  powers,  companying  witli 
God  and  Christ  (they  "see  God"),  the  will  being 
in  accord  with  God's  will.  Subdominant  is  a 
struggle  for  the  idea  of  a  state  rather  than  a  place, 
with  continual  progress  of  the  soul.  Similarly 
"hell"  still  connotes  much  of  place  ("down")  and 
of  material  torment  (fire,  etc).  And  difference  still 
exists  as  to  the  time  of  entrance  into  heaven  (or  of 
consignment  to  hell) — immediately  after  death  (or 
after  a  long  sleep?)  and  subsequent  to  a  future 
judgment  after  the  second  coming.  Hope  of 
heaven  and  fear  of  hell  are,  among  the  masses  who 
still  regard  them  as  more  or  less  materially,  potent 
ethical  and  religious  factors  in  conduct.    See  Future 

LlFE,CONCEPTIONS  OP  THE.  GeO.  W.  GiLMORE 

HEBER,  REGINALD  (1783-1826).— Anglican 
bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Calcutta  which  comprised 


Hebrews 


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200 


all  India,  1823-1826;    the  author  of  many  of  the 
best  known  English  hymns. 

HEBREWS.— See  Israel;  Judaism. 

HEBREWS,  GOSPELACCORDINGTOTHE.— 

See  Apocrypha, 

HEDONISM. — The  theory  that  pleasure  is 
the  criterion  of  moral  conduct  (from  the  Greek 
hedoni,  pleasure).  Hedonism  may  be  an  explana- 
tion of  observed  fact,  that  man  seeks  pleasure  as  the 
end  of  behavior;  or  it  may  be  the  statement  of  an 
ideal,  that  attainment  of  pleasure  is  the  ultimate 
good.  Hedonism  as  an  ideal  may  take  the  form  of 
sentient  pleasure  of  the  individual  as  with  the 
Cyrenaics,  a  life  guided  by  reason  which  culminates 
in  happiness  as  with  the  Epicureans,  or  "the 
greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number"  as  in  Utih- 
tarianism  (q.v.). 

HEFELE,  KARL  JOSEPH  (1809-1893).— 
German  R.C.  scholar,  eminent  as  a  church  his- 
torian, especially  through  his  History  of  the  Councils. 
At  the  Vatican  Council,  he  was  an  opponent  of  the 
doctrine  of  papal  infallibility  but  his  devotion  to 
the  unity  of  the  church  led  him  finally  to  submit  to 
the  will  of  the  majority. 

HEGEL,  GEORG  WILHELM  FRIEDRICH 
(1730-1831). — Influential  German  philosopher,  pro- 
fessor at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  noted  for  his 
exposition  of  Absolute  Idealism. 

Hegel's  great  contribution  to  philosophy  was 
the  logical  schema  by  which  all  finite  forms  of  reaUty 
were  conceived  as  vitally  interrelated  factors  in  a 
dynamic  whole.  In  ancient  metaphysics  universal 
ideas  were  arrived  at  by  a  process  of  abstraction, 
whereby  the  particular  traits  of  an  individual  thing 
were  ehminated,  leaving  in  the  universal  idea  only 
those  characteristics  common  to  all  individuals. 
The  highest  universal  idea,  God,  was  thus  defined 
by  contrasting  the  Absolute  with  the  finite.  The 
consequence  was  a  doctrine  of  transcendence  (q.v.), 
with  the  insoluble  problem  of  bringing  the  abstract 
Absolute  into  vital  relation  with  its  opposite,  the 
world  of  finite  particulars.  Hegel  introduced  in  the 
place  of  the  ancient  abstract  universal  the  concep- 
tion of  a  "concrete  universal"  which  should  posi- 
tively embrace  all  particulars  instead  of  excluding 
them. 

The  key  to  this  philosophy  is  the  process  of 
active  thinking.  All  thinking  proceeds  by  com- 
parison and  contrast  followed  by  a  unification. 
Contrasting  ideas  are  essential  to  definition  and 
comprehension.  Both  have  a  positive  place  in  the 
higher  synthesis  of  knowledge.  Each  is  an  essential 
movement  in  the  evolution  of  thought.  Employing 
this  conception  in  the  reahn  of  metaphysics,  Hegel 
regarded  the  particulars  of  the  finite  world  as 
moments  in  the  evolution  of  Absolute  thought. 
More  concretely,  God,  the  Absolute,  realizes  himself 
in  an  eternal  thought-process  which  includes  all 
realities  of  time  and  space  as  essential  phases  of 
the  divine  self-realization. 

This  philosophy  has  been  widely  influential. 
It  created  a  characteristic  type  of  theology  which 
could  make  use  of  the  conception  of  divine  imma- 
nence (q.v.)  without  faUing  into  pantheism  (q.v.) 
(as  a  metaphysics  of  substance  is  bound  to  do). 
Man,  as  a  finite  being,  needs  to  be  taken  up  into 
the  divine  activity  in  order  to  be  "saved";  but  his 
possession  of  conscious  power  of  thought  enables 
him  inwardly  to  share  the  thought-p»rocess  of 
God  and  so  to  realize  eternal  fife.  It  is  evident 
that  the  content  of  traditional  doctrines  will  be 
radically  modified  by  Hegehan  treatment.    Conse- 


quently there  have  been  Hegelians  who  insisted 
that  the  new  philosophy  does  away  with  Chris- 
tianity, as  well  as  those  who,  with  Hegel,  declared 
that  it  is  the  perfect  religious  system  towards 
which  previous  ages  had  been  imperfectly  striving. 

In  England  and  America  HegeUanism,  with 
some  modifications,  dominated  the  thinking  of 
1'.  H.  Green,  John  and  Edward  Caird,  F.  H. 
Bradley,  B.  Bosanquet,  John  Watson,  and  Josiah 
Royce,  to  mention  a  few  outstanding  names. 

The  influence  of  Hegelianism  has  waned  in 
recent  years  because  of  the  growing  currency  of 
empirical  and  historical  methods  of  study.  When 
the  facts  of  history  and  of  nature  are  accurately 
observed  they  are  seen  to  be  too  varied  to  fit 
into  the  neatly  precise  Hegelian  formulas. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HEGESIPPUS.— A  2nd.  century  writer  who 
defended  orthodox  Christianity  in  opposition  to 
heresy,  especially  Gnosticism.  His  writings,  the 
chief  of  which  was  known  as  the  Hypomnemata, 
are  known  only  in  fragments  quoted  by  Eusebius. 

HEGIRA.— The  withdrawal  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca  to  Medina.  After  the  death  of  the  prophet 
all  documents  and  events  were  dated  from  this 
event  in  the  year  622  a.d.  and  Mohammedan 
history  is  dated  a.h.,  that  is,  "year  of  the  Hegira." 

HEIDELBERG  CATECHISM.— A  catechism 
prepared  by  order  of  the  elector,  Frederick  III.,  in 
order  to  give  correct  answers  on  all  matters  of  faith. 
It  appeared  in  1563,  and  contains  129  questions  and 
answers.  Because  of  its  irenic  spirit  it  has  found 
acceptance  among  the  Reformed  churches  of  Europe 
and  in  the  Presbyterian  church  of  U.S.A.  It 
teaches  the  usual  Calvinistic  views,  with  a  sharp 
polemic  against  Catholicism,  but  with  a  liberal 
spirit  in  regard  to  minor  Protestant  disputes. 

HEIMDALLR.— A  god  of  light  in  the  legends 
of  Iceland  and  Norway  suggestive  of  the  old  Indo- 
European  sky-god — the  source  of  light  and  fertility. 
With  marvelous  powers  of  sight  and  hearing  he  is 
the  watcher  of  the  universe;  his  horn  will  summon 
the  gods  to  their  tragic  battle  with  the  powers  of 
evil  at  the  end  of  the  age. 

HELL. — See  Heaven  and  Hell. 

HELLENISM. — A  designation  for  the  type  of 
culture  produced  by  the  Greeks.  Strictly  speaking 
the  term  applies  to  the  civihzation  of  Greece  proper, 
in  contrast  with  that  later  form  of  Greek  culture 
which  spread  about  the  eastern  Mediterranean  as 
a  result  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  latter  type  is  commonly  called  Hellenistic 
and  the  former  Hellenic.  However,  the  corre- 
sponding distinction  between  "Hellenicism"  and 
Hellenism  is  not  commonly  drawn,  and  the  latter 
term  as  popularly  used  covers  both  topics. 

S.  J.  Case 

HELVETIC  CONFESSIONS.— Two  confessions 
of  faith  of  the  Swiss  Reformed  church.  (1)  The 
First  Helvetic  Confession,  1536,  was  put  forth  by 
the  representatives  of  the  Swiss  cities  in  an  effort 
toward  harmony  with  the  Lutherans,  removing  the 
distinctive  Zwinglian  doctrines  offensive  to  Luther- 
ans. The  doctrinal  formulas  were  given  a  Scriptural 
basis  and  expounded  with  minuteness  of  detail. 
(2)  The  Second  Helvetic  Confession,  1566,  was  the 
work  of  Heinrich  BuUinger,  and  marked  the  union 
of  Zwinghanism  and  Calvinism.  Speculative  tend- 
encies were  absent  and  toleration  in  minor  matters 
was  urged. 

HELVETIC  CONSENSUS.— A  formula  drawn 
up  by  the  Swiss  Reformed  church  in  1675  in  opposi- 


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Heresy 


tion  to  the  liberalizing  tendencies  of  the  French 
academy  of  Saumur.  It  is  strictly  Calvinistic 
and  in  harmony  with  the  declarations  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort.  The  German  and  English  Reformed  churches 
urged  the  Swiss  to  abolish  the  symbol  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  unity  of  Protestantism.  Although  not 
formally  abolished,  it  slowly  fell  into  disuse. 

HENGSTENBERG,  ERNST  WILHELM  (1802- 
1869). — German  theologian,  one  of  the  strongest 
champions  in  his  day  of  evangelical  rehgion,  and  of 
orthodox  Lutheranism  as  expressed  in  the  Augsburg 
Confession. 

HENOTHEISM.— The  name,  coined  by  Max 
Miiller,  for  the  tendency  among  certain  polytheistic 
peoples  to  ascribe  supreme  power  to  a  certain  one 
of  several  gods  in  turn,  as  is  done  in  the  hymns  of 
the  Rig  Veda. 

HENOTICON.— "The  decree  of  union"  pro- 
mulgated by  Emperor  Zeno  in  482  with  a  view  to 
settling  the  monophysite  controversy,  and  which 
failed  because  it  did  not  satisfy  either  side. 

HENRY  IV.  (1589-1610).— King  of  France; 
played  an  important  part  along  with  CoHgny  (q.v.) 
as  head  of  the  Protestant  party  in  the  wars  of 
religion;  became  Cathohc  and  promulgated  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (q.v.),  1598,  granting  religious 
liberty  to  his  Protestant  subjects. 

HENRY  VIII.  (1509-1547).— King  of  England. 
Because  of  a  book  on  the  sacraments  in  defence  of 
the  Catholic  position  against  Luther,  received 
from  Pope  Leo  X.  the  title,  "Defender  of  the 
Faith."  In  1529  desiring  to  divorce  his  wife, 
Catherine,  he  sought  papal  sanction.  FaiUng 
to  secure  this  he  renounced  allegiance  to  Rome 
and  established  the  English  sovereign  as  head 
of  the  national  church.  He  required  of  all 
subjects  assent  to  the  Ten  Articles  (1536)  and  the 
Six  Articles  (1539),  the  first  confessional  documents 
of  the  Anglican  church.  His  reign  embodied  a 
perplexing  combination  of  despotism  and  statesman- 
ship. 

HEPATOSCOPY.— The  practice  of  examining 
the  liver  of  a  sacrificial  animal  in  order  to  discover 
the  will  of  the  god,  to  predict  the  future  and  so  to 
secure  guidance  for  the  affairs  of  life.  It  was  an 
important  phase  of  ancient  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
state  religions  whence  it  spread  to  the  Mediterranean 
world. 

HERA. — A  Greek  goddess,  wife  of  Zeus  (q.v.). 
She  was  probably  the  goddess  of  fertility  in  one 
of  the  regions  conquered  by  the  Aryan  invaders  and 
adopted  into  their  pantheon.  She  functions  as 
goddess  of  agriculture,  of  fertilizing  water,  of  cattle 
and  is  the  patroness  of  women. 

HERACLITUS  (ca.  535-475  b.c.).— Greek  phi- 
losopher, who  taught  that  all  existence  springs 
from  a  primal  fire,  that  everything  is  in  a  state  of 
perpetual  flux,  and  that  the  universe  is  pervaded 
by  reason  or  Logos  (q.v.). 

HERBART  and  HERBARTIANISM.— Herbar- 

tianism  is  the  name  given  to  the  philosophic  system 
of  Johann  Friedrich  Herbart,  German  philosopher 
and  pedagogue^  (1776-1841).  He  rejected  the 
current  faculty'  psychology  and  substituted  an 
explanation  of  mental  phenomena  as  the  result  of 
the  conflicting  aspects  of  human  experience.  He 
defined  the  aim  of  pedagogy  as  the  development 
of  moral  character;    and  in  theology  held  to  the 


teleological  argument  as  vahd.     His  metaphysics 
was  a  "pluralistic  realism." 

HERBERT,  GEORGE  (1593-1633).— EngUsh 
poet  whose  devotional  poems  have  been  classic 
expressions  of  rehgion  since  his  day. 

HERBERT  OF  CHERBURY,  EDWARD  HER- 
BERT (1583-1648).— English  baron,  historian,  and 
rehgious  philosopher.  He  attempted  to  account 
for  the  origin  of  religion  naturally,  and  formulated 
the  five  tenets  which  were  subsequently  regarded 
as  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Deism  (q.v.). 

HERCULES. — A  semi-divine  figure  of  classical 
mythology  who  performed  twelve  vast  labors  in 
the  interest  of  mankind  establishing  justice-  and 
peace  on  earth.  He  is  sometimes  identified  as  a 
sun-god.  His  cult  was  established  in  many  places 
around  the  Mediterranean.  Later,  the  Stoics  used 
him  as  a  divine  type  of  virtue. 

HEREDITY.— The  experimental  study  of  hered- 
ity is  called  "genetics,"  a  field  of  work  which  has  had 
remarkable  development  during  the  last  fifteen 
years.  The  method  is  to  select  plants  and  animals 
of  short  generations  and  breed  them  under  rigid 
control  through  as  many  generations  as  possible. 
In  order  to  discover  the  contribution  of  each  parent 
to  the  offspring,  individuals  with  sharply  contrasting 
characters  are  selected  for  mating.  Work  in 
genetics  began  with  the  breeding  experiments  of 
Mendel,  an  Austrian  monk,  whose  results  led  to  the 
formulation  of  "Mendel's  law,"  which  has  been  the 
basis  of  all  work  in  genetics  ever  since.  Mendel's 
results  were  published  in  1865  in  such  an  obscure 
publication  that  they  attracted  no  attention  until 
1900,  when  they  were  discovered  simultaneously 
by  three  scientific  plant-breeders.  Mendel's  ma- 
terial was  the  common  garden  pea,  whose  strains 
are  sharply  contrasted  in  color  of  flowers,  appear- 
ance of  seeds,  and  stature.  When  a  hybrid  is 
produced  by  crossing  two  strains,  its  progeny  spUts 
up  into  two  groups,  which  resemble  the  two  grand- 
parents, the  ratio  being  3:1.  This  ratio  is  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  two  contrasting 
characters,  one  of  them  is  "dominant"  over  the 
other.  Mendel's  law  has  been  very  much  modified 
and  extended  by  the  study  of  more  complex  material 
than  the  garden  pea;  but  the  factors  involved  in 
inheritance  are  recognized  by  the  definite  ratios 
shown  by  the  progeny.  The  factors  of  inheritance 
in  man  and  the  higher  animals  are  so  numerous  and 
occur  in  such  complex  combinations  that  no  exact 
prediction  of  inheritance  is  possible,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  simpler  plants  and  animals.  Furthermore, 
the  more  complex  forms  are  beyond  the  reach  of 
experimental  control,  so  that  their  behavior  in 
inheritance  must  be  inferred  rather  than  demon- 
strated. John  M.  Coulter 

HERESY. — Doctrine  claiming  to  be  Christian 
but  opposed  to  the  dogmas  of  the  church. 

Heresy  differs  from  schism  in  that  schismatics, 
while  outside  the  Catholic  church,  do  not  necessarily 
hold  views  opposed  to  orthodoxy  (although  from  the 
Roman  CathoUc  point  of  view  it  is  heresy  not  to 
acknowledge  the  headship  of  the  Pope);  and 
from  apostasy  in  that  it  does  not  involve  abandon- 
ment of  the  faith.  Heretics  differ  from  infidels 
in  that  the  latter  do  not  profess  to  be  Chris- 
tians. Heresy  may  concern  one  or  more  dog- 
mas and  vary  in  degree  from  exphcit  opposition 
to  a  clearly  defined  dogma  to  exposition  of  some  doc- 
trine contrary  to  that  commonly  held  by  the  church. 

Technically,  heresy  may  be  either  material,  i.e., 
when  because  of  ignorance,  mistaken  thinking,  or 


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similar  causes  it  is  not  definitely  chosen;  or  formal, 
when  to  their  content  it  adds  the  choice  of  views  not 
sanctioned  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

In  Protestantism  the  terra  has  less  explicit 
meaning  than  in  Roman  Catholicism  and  often 
denotes  only  difference  from  some  denominational 
tenet.  It  may  therefore  be  a  much  less  grave  aber- 
ration than  in  the  case  of  opposition  to  fundamental 
tal  Christian  faith.  Protestants  and  modernists 
(q.v.)  are  all  regarded  as  heretics  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  Shailer  Mathews 

HERMAS,  SHEPHERD  OF.— A  2nd.  century 
apocalypse  written  to  rouse  the  Christians,  espe- 
cially of  Rome,  to  repentance,  and  to  correct  the 
idea  that  sin  after  baptism  could  not  be  forgiven. 
The  work  consists  of  five  visions,  twelve  command- 
ments, and  ten  parables,  some  very  extended. 
It  is  much  the  longest  work  of  Christian  literature 
produced  up  to  its  time  and  is  probably  the  result 
of  a  number  of  editorial  expansions  at  the  hands 
of  its  author,  ca.  120-140  a.d.  Hermas  is  said  to 
have  been  the  brother  of  Pius,  bishop  of  Rome 
ca.  140-1.55  A.D.  The  Shepherd  was  widely;  influ- 
ential in  the  early  church,  and  in  some  districts 
was  long  regarded  as  Scripture. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

HERMENEUTICS.— See  Exegesis. 

HERMES.— (1)  Greek  god,  identified  by  the 
Romans  with  Mercury;  regarded  as  the  messenger 
of  the  gods,  and  as  the  god  of  commerce,  invention, 
athletics  and  travel.  (2)  The  Egyptian  god,  Thoth, 
identified  with  Hermes,  under  the  title  ^  Hermes 
Trismegistus  (thrice-greatest),  as  the  originator  of 
reUgion,  magic,  art,  alchemy,  and  science  in  Egypt. 
(3)  A  pseudonym  for  certain  3rd.  century  writings 
which  tried  to  combine  Neo-Platonic  speculation, 
the  Judaism  of  Philo,  and  theosophy  as  a  rival  for 
Christianity. 

HERMESIANISM.— The  system  of  theology 
emanating  from  Georg  Hermes  (1775-1831),  a 
German  R.C.  theologian  who  was  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Kant  and  Fichte.  He  insisted  that  the 
primary  grounds  of  belief  should  be  rational  con- 
viction rather  than  ecclesiastical  decree.  Her- 
mesianism  was  condemned  in  1835  and  1847  by 
papal  bulls. 

HERMIT. — One  who  has  abandoned  society 
and  adopted  the  life  of  solitariness  and  asceticism 
as  conducive  to  piety  and  communion  with  God. 
See  Anchorite;  Monasticism. 

HEROES,  HERO-WORSHIP.— A  term  origi- 
nally employed  by  the  Greeks  to  designate  beings 
superior  to  men  but  inferior  to  gods,  and  the  cults 
established  in  their  honor. 

Heroes  play  a  part  in  various  religions,  par- 
ticularly in  primitive  stages  of  development. 
Sometimes  they  are  the  spirits  of  dead  ancestors, 
but  more  frequently  they  are  pictured  as  unique 
individuals  who  at  some  time  in  the  shadowy  past 
appeared  among  mortals,  accomplished  certain 
wonderful  feats,  and  thereby  showed  themselves 
worthy  of  the  worship  of  mankind.  In  Japanese 
religion  the  deification  of  heroes  is  a  famiUar 
feature  which  still  survives  in  the  reverence  paid 
to  the  emperor.  The  Chinese  also  have  deified 
certain  traditional  figures  with  whom  they  associate 
the  beginnings  of  the  civilization  and  arts.  India 
has  both  its  ancestral  and  its  epic  heroes.  In 
Zoroastrianism  the  older  Persian  religion  was  purged 
of  its  hero-divinities,  or  else  they  were  fused  with 
the  framshis.  Similarly  among  the  Hebrews  the 
cults  of  heroes  was  gradually  suppressed  in  the 


interests  of  a  growing  monotheism.  On  the  other 
hand,  Babylonian  legend  remained  rich  in  heroic 
figures  who  had  evolved  into  genuine  deities. 
Egyptian  mythology  also  had  its  heroes  who  through 
distinguished  service  upon  earth  had  acquired  the 
status  of  gods.  In  Greek  religion,  as  also  among 
the  Romans,  the  hero  was  a  figure  of  outstanding 
importance.  Many  people  in  that  ancient  world 
were  already  pecuHarly  susceptible  to  the  heroic 
element  in  religion  when  the  early  Christian  preach- 
ers first  pictured  for  Gentiles  the  earthly  life  of 
Jesus  as  one  of  humble  service  followed  by  the 
reward  of  exaltation  in  heaven  to  a  position  second 
only  to  that  of  the  supreme  deity  (Phil.  2:5-11). 

Usually  the  hero's  claim  to  popularity  rested 
upon  an  alleged  earthly  career  of  distinction. 
Frequently  he  was  credited  with  having  taught 
men  the  various  arts  of  civilization.  Sometimes 
he  was  the  traditional  founder  of  a  city,  a  local 
or  national  warrior  of  fame,  or  even  a  religious 
benefactor.  In  further  justification  of  his  unique- 
ness, as  explaining  both  his  wonderful  deeds  and  his 
exaltation  to  the  position  of  a  divinity,  theories  of 
his  miraculous  birth  and  semi-divine  parentage 
were  often  advanced.  See  Deification;  Virgin 
Birth.  S.  J.  Case 

HERRNHUTTERS.— Same  as  Moravian 
Brethren  (q.v.). 

HESTIA. — Oreek  goddess,  personification  of 
the  family  and  community  hearth-fire.  She  grew 
from  the  attitude  of  appreciation  of  the  home  fire, 
the  place  of  security  and  warmth.  In  the  early 
period  there  was  no  personification;  the  hearth-fire 
itself  was  the  centre  of  reverence  and  cult.  See 
Vesta  and  see  Hearth-Gods. 

HETERODOXY.— The  holding  of  a  behef  con- 
trary to  or  divergent  from  what  has  been  ecclesi- 
astically determined  as  orthodox. 

Heterodoxy  simply  indicates  the  fact  of  unortho- 
dox belief,  while  Heresy  (q.v.)  indicates  habihty 
to  ecclesiastical  discipline. 

HETERONOMY.— A  term  used  by  the  phi- 
losopher Kant,  and  contrasted  with  autonomy,  to 
indicate  a  conception  of  morality  in  which  the  end 
or  the  content  of  ethical  conduct  is  supplied  from  a 
source  other  than  one's  own  free  rational  approval 
and  choice.  Since  heteronomy  means  the  abdica- 
tion of  freedom,  Kant  regarded  it  as  an  impossible 
basis  for  ethics. 

HEU  T'U.— "Empress  Earth,"  the  deity  next 
in  importance  to  Shang-ti  (q.v.)  in  the  state  religion 
of  the  Chinese  empire.  Previous  to  the  rise  of  the 
Republic  the  emperor  annually  offered  a  great 
sacrifice  to  Earth  at  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice. 

HEXATEUCH.— A  recently  devised  name  for 
the  first  six  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz.,  the 
Pentateuch  and  Joshua. 

The  Hexateuch  traces  the  origin  and  history  of 
the  Hebrew  people  from  the  Creation  up  to  the  com- 
pletion of  their  conquest  and  settlement  of  Canaan. 

Jewish  tradition,  as  recorded  in  the  Talmud 
and  accepted  by  the  Church,  held  that  Moses 
wrote  the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua  the  book  that 
bears  his  name.  This  tradition  was  very  early  called 
in  question,  but  it  was  not  till  1753  a.d.  that  Jean 
Astruc  began  the  task  of  critical  examination  that 
has  brought  about  the  complete  abandonment  of 
Mosaic  authorship  by  modern  scholarship. 

The  modern  view  of  the  Hexateuch  treats  it  as  a 
composite  work  which  arose  in  the  following  way. 
Somewhere    during    the    two    centuries    prior    to 


203 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Hinduism 


750  B.C.,  two  separate  groups  of  ancient  traditions 
grew  up  which  were  finally  edited  as  two  continuous 
narratives.  These  are  known  as  the  J  and  E  docu- 
ments and  were  prepared  by  prophetie  writers. 
Later  these  were  combined  into  one  narrative,  now 
designated  by  JE,  In  621  b.c.  the  Deuteronomic 
law  was  publicly  adopted.  Somewhat  later  this 
law  was  combined  with  JE  by  editors  dominated 
by  the  spirit  of  Deuteronomy;  the  resulting  com- 
bination is  designated  as  JED.  During  the  Exile, 
the  priests  and  scribes  began  to  collect,  revise  and 
codify  the  existing  ritual  and  law.  The  result  of 
their  labor  was  a  priestly  narrative,  now  known 
as  the  P  document.  This  document  in  some  stage 
of  its  development  was  the  basis  of  Ezra's  reform. 
Finally  P  was  added  to  the  previously  existing 
JED,  thus  forming  the  present  Hexateuch.  See 
Law,  Hebrew. 

The  precise  date  when  this  single  composite 
book  was  divided  into  the  six  books  we  now  know 
cannot  be  determined,  but  it  seems  to  have  ante- 
dated the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into 
Greek.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

HICKSITES.— See  Friends,  Society  of. 

HIERARCHY.— The  totaUty  of  ruling  powers  in 
any  prelatical  institution — a  church,  temple,  or 
religion;  the  government  itself  of  that  institution. 
Also  a  general  name  for  the  clergy,  a  government  by 
priests. 

Its  occasion  is  growth  of  a  sacred  institution 
leading  to  organization  of  the  clergy  for  effectiveness. 
In  ethnic  religions  hierarchies  were  attached  to 
different  deities,  superior  and  inferior  orders  of 
priests  being  subordinated  to  chiefs.  One  of  these 
hierarchies  might  exercise  a  superior  influence  over 
the  rest,  possessing  national  supereminence  (the 
priesthood  of  Asshur  in  Assyria). 

In  Israel  ^  the  Aaronic  priesthood  with  the 
Levitea  constituted  a  hierarchy  which  exercised 
even  political  power.  See  Theocracy.  In  Chris- 
tianity hierarchies  are  confined  to  the  Roman, 
Oriental,  and  Anglican  churches.  The  first  (mon- 
archical) recognizes  two  hierarchies — of  order  and 
of  jurisdiction.  The  hierarchy  of  order  (a  "divine 
institution")  has  three  grades — ^bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons;  that  of  jurisdiction  has  two  grades  (the 
papacy  and  the  episcopate),  or  many  (pope, 
cardinals,  patriarchs,  exarchs,  metropolitans,  arch- 
bishops, bishops). 

The  (oUgarchic)  Oriental  and  Anglican  hierarchies 
combine  the  ideas  of  order  and  jurisdiction,  the 
Oriental  with  patriarchs  or  metropolitans  (or  a 
"Procurator")  at  the  top,  the  Anglican  headed  by 
archbishops  (also  "primates")  at  the  top.  The 
different  grades  are  not  necessarily  exclusive,  e.g., 
the  same  individual  is  both  archbishop  and  primate. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore 

HIERONYMITES.— An  influential  religious 
order  in  the  16th.  and  17th.  centuries.  The 
Emperor  Charles  V.  after  his  abdication  entered  the 
monastery  of  St.  Jerome  at  Yuste, 

HIGH  ALTAR. — The  principal  altar  in  a  church 
or  cathedral,  so  designated  because  of  its  elevation 
and  because  it  is  the  chief  place  for  the  celebration 
of  the  Mass. 

HIGH  CHURCH.— A  section  of  the  Church  of 
England  that  inculcates  priestly  views  of  the 
sacraments  and  emphasizes  the  unbroken  connection 
of  the  Estabhshed  Church  with  the  primitive 
Church. 

The  roots  of  the  party  extend  back  to  the 
Elizabethan  regime,  when  Archbishop  Bancroft 
assailed  the  Purituns  in  their  efforts  to  eliminate 


Romish  features  from  the  ritual  and  formula  of  the 
church.  A  later  exponent  was  Archbishop  Laud, 
whose  doctrine  of  the  church  made  much  of  catho- 
hcity  and  historical  continuity.  During  the  17th. 
and  18th.  centuries  the  progress  of  the  High  Church 
party  was  retarded  by  its  staunch  support  of  the 
Stuart  dynasty,  the  critical  attitude  of  rationahsm 
and  utiHtarianism,  the  Wesley  awakening,  and  the 
Uberal  tendencies  of  the  French  Revolution.  With 
the  Oxford  movement  (q.v.)  its  disintegration 
was  arrested.  Despite  the  scientific  spirit  of  recent 
years  and  the  aggressive  policy  of  the  Free  Churches, 
High  Church  men  have  increased  their  following, 
produced  notable  preachers  and  ecclesiastical  states- 
men, and  made  substantial  contributions  to  theo- 
logical scholarship.  Peter  G.  Mode 

HIGH  PLACE.— The  designation  of  places  of 
worship  among  certain  Semitic  peoples,  as  the 
Assyrians  and  Canaanites,  from  the  fact  that  such 
holy  places  were  on  hill  tops.  The  prophets  of 
Israel  complained  that  the  Israelites  had  adopted 
the  practice  with  its  attendant  corruptions,  as  in 
Isa.  chap.  1,  Amos  chap.  5,  and  Hosea  chap.  4.  Re- 
forming kings,  Uke  Josiah,  destroyed  the  high  places. 

HIGH  PRIEST.— (1)  The  sacerdotal  head  of  the 
Israehtes  whose  functions  were  originally  the  care 
of  the  temple  and  representation  of  the  people  before 
Jehovah  in  the  principal  ceremonies  of  worship  and 
sacrifice,  but  which  in  the  post-exiUc  period  included 
pohtical  leadership.  (2)  The  president  of  the 
higher  or  Melchizedek  order  of  priests  in  the 
Mormon  church. 

HIGHEST  GOOD.— See  Summtjm  Bonum. 

mLARIUS  (or  HILARY).— Pope,  461-468; 
checked  certain  ecclesiastical  abuses  and  advanced 
the  claims  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  toward  metro- 
politan jurisdiction. 

HILARY  OF  POITIERS,  SAINT  (ca.  300-367). 
— Bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  influential  theological 
writer;  was  educated  as  a  Neoplatonist,  but 
converted  about  350  to  Christianity,  and  in  353 
was  elected  bishop.  He  was  a  vigorous  opponent 
of  Arianism  for  which  he  suffered  nearly  four 
years  of  exile. 

HILDEBRAND.— Pope,  under  the  title,  Gregory 
VII.  (q.v.). 

HILLUL  HASHEM.— See  Kiddush  Hashem. 

HINAYANA.— (Pali,  "The  Little  Vehicle.") 
The  name  of  Southern  Buddhism,  being  the  first 
stage  in  the  history  of  Buddhism  in  which  salvation 
and  Nirvana  are  restricted  to  the  few.  See 
Buddhism. 

HINDUISM. — Hinduism  can  be  defined  only  as 
the  sum  total  of  the  acts  and  beUefs  of  217,000,000 
of  the  315,000,000  people  of  India.  It  is  not  a 
religious  organization,  for  it  is  as  much  social  as 
religious.  If  any  organization,  any  unity,  is  to  be 
found  it  must  be  sought  on  the  social  rather  than 
on  the  reUgious  side.  Hinduism  reflects  the  entire 
life  of  the  whole  people  called  Hindus. 

Caste  (q.v.)  and  all  that  is  implied  by  the  term 
is  the  only  thing  universally  recognized  in  Hinduism. 
If  a  man  conforms  to  the  usages  of  his  caste  he  may 
believe  in  any  god  or  gods,  and  may  worship  them 
in  any  way  he  pleases.  There  is  no  bond  of  common 
belief  or  creed,  no  common  confession  of  faith,  no 
congregational  worship,  no  central  administrative 
body.     The  expression  of  personal  reUgious  feeling 


Hinduism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


204 


is  entirely  voluntary  and  optional.  Caste  is  by 
no  means  a  rigid  system.  It  is  a  growing  organism 
which  has  modified  itself  greatly,  and  is  slowly  but 
surely  modifying  itself  at  present  as  social  condi- 
tions change.  Reflecting  the  ideals  and  practices  of 
the  whole  people  Hinduism  has  in  itself  a  place  for 
the  most  diverse  religious  beliefs  from  the  super- 
stitions of  the  masses  to  the  higher  and  more  moral 
synthesis  of  the  few.  Only  one-tenth  of  the  people 
of  India  are  Uterate.  Most  of  them  dwell  in  small 
villages,  are  directly  dependent  on  the  labor  of 
their  own  hands  in  tilling  the  soil,  and  have  no 
larger  poUtical  interests.  Such  static,  agricultural, 
village  life  tends  everywhere  to  the  maintenance  of 
old  ideas  and  does  not  develop  the  leisure  and 
comparative  comfort  of  living  which  alone  can  pro- 
duce culture  and  a  deeper  morality. 

I.  Relation  to  Brahmanism. — The  term 
Hinduism  is  often  applied  to  the  whole  social  and 
rehgious  Kfe  of  India  from  the  time  of  the  Rig- 
Veda  to  the  present.  Brahmanism  is  the  elaborated 
priestly  aspect,  Hinduism  the  basic  popular  aspect 
of  one  and  the  same  social  and  religious  develop- 
ment. It  is  convenient  to  use  Brahmanism  of  the 
older  period  when  the  priestly  ritual  was  widely 
practiced,  Hinduism  of  the  later  period  when  the 
ritual  fell  into  abeyance  and  popular  elements  pre- 
dominated. No  definite  line  of  demarcation  can 
be  drawn  or  date  given.  Brahmanism  centered 
around  the  performance  of  an  elaborate  ritual.  Its 
emphasis  was  on  the  religious  act  itself  and  on  the 
knowledge  of  the  sacred  texts.  The  only  way  to 
salvation  was  through  the  sacrifice.  In  Hinduism 
the  emphasis  is  on  a  personal  god.  A  fervent  love 
and  devotion  takes  the  place  of  formalism  as  a 
means  of  salvation.  _  This  impassioned  love  (bhakti) 
may  be  best  described  in  the  words  of  Augustine, 
"What  is  it  to  have  faith  in  God?  By  faith  to 
love  Him,  by  faith  to  be  devoted  to  Him,  by  faith 
to  enter  into  Him,  and  by  personal  tmion  to  become 
one  with  Him." 

II.  Sacred  Texts. — In  the  background  of 
Hinduism  there  is  not  the  personaUty  of  any  one 
founder.  There  is  no  universally  recognized 
Scripture;  only  a  mass  of  diverse  texts  such  as  the 
two  great  epics,  the  eighteen  Purdruis  with  their 
many  appendages,  the  Taniras,  philosophical 
texts  from  many  different  schools,  and  a  mass  of 
popular  hymns  and  lyrics.  These  texts  are  com- 
pared to  a  vast  ocean.  The  votary  has  only  to 
churn  them  to  obtain  the  nectar  of  truth  which  is 
in  him. 

III.  EjiHiCAL  Concepts. — Permeating  every 
phase  of  Hinduism  are  the  concepts  of  karma  (q.v.) 
and  transmigration  (q.v.).  There  is  no  inherent 
reason  why  these  concepts  should  not  have  devel- 
oped into  an  optimistic  view  of  life.  In  India 
they  have  resulted  in  a  negative  ethical  ideal. 
The  Hindu  ideal  is  that  of  the  limitation  of  desires, 
the  yielding  to  and  withdrawal  from  Nature  rather 
than  a  progressive  adaptation  to  and  mastery  of 
environment.  If  material  things  are  transient,  if 
only  God  and  the  soul  endure,  why  waste  effort  on 
material  things?  The  Hindu  is  filled  with  a  passion 
for  God  and  for  the  soul,  and  disregards  worldly 
comfort  and  social  development.  "Is  it  the  function 
of  religion  to  produce  happiness  and  success  here?" 
Morality  and  religion  do  not  have  in  India  the  close 
connection  that  they  have  in  the  West  where  mo- 
rality is  the  center  of  rehgion.  The  Hindu  gropes 
vaguely  by  experiment  (largely  magical)  for  the 
wiU  of  God.  Morahty  tends  rather  to  innocence 
than  to  a  strong  pragmatic  sense  of  what  is  good 
(for  the  individual  or  for  society)  arising  from  an 
active  life  of  struggle.  In  the  West  conceptions 
of  practical  good  dominate  over  rehgious  scruples; 
in  India  they  yield  to  them. 


IV.  Levels  op  Religion. — The  religion  of  the 
masses  consists  almost  entirely  of  animism,  magic, 
and  demonology.  Worship  centers  around  local 
godlings  and  spirits,  freaks  of  nature,  trees  and 
stones,  inanimate  things  which  have  mysterious 
powers  of  motion  such  as  sun,  fire,  wind,  and  storm, 
animals  which  are  feared  like  the  snake  or  which  are 
useful  like  the  cow,  and  spirits  of  the  dead.  There 
is  a  constant  terror  of  evil  spirits.  Religion  centers 
in  the  propitiation  or  the  driving  away  of  them. 
Sacrifice  to  the  souls  of  the  dead  plays  a  large  part. 
Old  animistic  ideas  survive  in  spite  of  the  develop- 
ment of  karma  and  transmigration.  Pilgrimages 
are_  made  to  sacred  rivers  and  mountains  in  order 
to  imbibe  some  of  the  potency  of  the  spirits  there. 
From  this,  Hinduism,  by  a  deeper  and  deeper 
synthesis,  rises  from  one  level  of  religion  to  another 
by  identifying  local  godUngs  with  the  more  abstract 
and  beneficent  gods;  and  finally  seeks  a  unity 
behind  aU  of  these  and  finds  in  the  universe  the 
manifestation  of  one  god  or  one  power. 

V.  The  Great  Gods. — On  the  higher  levels 
the  chief  gods  are  Vishnu  and  Qiva,  each  formed 
by  the  amalgamation  of  many  different  local  deities. 
Brahma,  who  is  often  joined  with  them,  is  of  small 
importance.  He  was  originally  a  personification 
of  the  neuter  Brahman  and  took  the  place  of 
Prajapati.  This  so-called  trinity,  contrary  to 
popular  exposition,  is  of  no  importance  and  is  in  no 
way  comparable  with  the  Christian  tripity.  In  the 
philosophical  attempts  at  synthesis  the  three 
are  merely  individual  manifestations  of  the  one 
Brahman. 

Vishnu  was  originally  a  sun-god,  the  kindly 
maintainer  of  the  universe.  He  is  a  personal 
anthropomorphic  god  who  reveals  himself  to  men 
by  avatars  (incarnations).  The  most  important 
avatars  are  those  of  Rama  and  Krishna.  Krishna 
worship  has  developed  many  erotic  elements. 
Rama  worship  is  less  frenzied  m  its  devotion,  and 
has  not  lost  its  grip  on  practical  hving. 

Civa  (Shiva)  is  more  abstract  and  impersonal. 
He  represents  Nature  in  all  its  aspects,  largely  the 
destructive  elements,  but  also  the  creative  ones. 
In  India  is  found,  not  an  expression  of  the  harmony 
of  Nature  and  its  adaptability  to  human  needs, 
but  of  its  ruthlessness  and  endless  change.  The 
most  diverse  elements  have  gone  into  Qiva  worship, 
many  taken  from  the  religion  of  the  rude  Dra vidian 
tribes.  (1)  As  an  impersonation  of  the  dissolving 
forces  of  Nature  he  is  fierce  and  cruel,  dwells  in 
cemeteries,  is  attended  by  imps  and  goblins,  and 
carries  a  skull.  (2)  As  an  impersonation  of  the 
reproductive  forces  of  Nature  his  emblem  is  the 
liiiga,  the  male  organ  of  reproduction.  (3)  He  is  a 
learned  _  sage  and  contemplative  philosopher. 
(4)  He  is  the  typical  yogi  (ascetic),  sitting  in  pro- 
found meditation,  naked,  with  ash-smeared  body 
and  matted  locks.  (5)  He  is  a  wild,  jovial  moun- 
taineer, orgiastic,  addicted  to  drinking  and  dancing. 
Thus  Civa  appeals  on  the  one  hand  to  the  higher 
philosophical  elements  in  Hinduism,  on  the  other 
hand  to  the  animistic  popular  elements. 

In  the  temples  of  Vishnu  is  found  an  image  in 
which  the  divine  essence  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
up  its  abode.  The  image  is  worshiped  as  a  symbol 
of  thedeity.  In  the  temples  of  Civa  is  found  only 
the  Uiiga  as  a  symbol  of  the  god,  no  image.  See 
Temples. 

The  worship  of  both  gods  marks  the  spread  of 
the  Aryans  through  India,  the  influence  of  the 
Brahman  priests  on  the  aboriginal  tribes,  their 
acquisition  of  sanctity,  and  the  gradual  amalgama- 
tion of  Aryan  beUefs  and  social  customs  with  those 
of  the  less  civihzed  tribes.  Hinduism  is  the 
resultant  of  conservative  priestly  ideals  and  popular 
behef  and  custom.     This  elevation  of  the  priests  to 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Hittites,  ReUgioa  of  the 


a  position  of  social  pre-eminence  was  not  due  merely 
to  an  assumption  on  their  part.  Their  sanctity 
and  quaUfication  to  act  as  intermediators  between 
gods  and  men  was  tacitly  recognized  by  the  people, 
who  in  India  more  than  elsewhere  are  filled  with 
reverence  for  all  holy  men  and  ascetics,  for  all  who 
in  any  way  seem  to  possess  superhuman  powers, 
to  be  near  the  gods.  In  the  West  the  priests  or 
ministers  of  religion  have  never  been  able  to  win 
and  maintain  a  dominant  place  in  the  social  life  of 
the  people. 

In  the  villages  will  be  found  temples  to  Vishnu 
and  Qiva,  but  also  shrines  to  the  local  godlings. 
There  is  a  nominal  belief  in  the  greater  elevation 
of  the  two  great  gods,  but  in  times  of  stress  the 
tendency  is  to  turn  to  the  local  deities  as  a  present 
help  in  trouble.  They  are  closer  to  village  needs. 
Vishnu  and  Civa  involve  a  more  universal  point 
of  view.  Brahmans  act  as  officiating  priests  at  the 
temples  of  Vishnu  and  C'^a,  and  minister  to  the 
needs  of  the  villagers.  Their  presence  is  necessary 
at  births,  deaths,  marriages,  feasts,  and  all  ceremonial 
occasions.  The  temple  priests  are  looked  down 
upon  by  the  higher  Brahman  castes. 

VI.  Asceticism,  Eroticism,  and  Qakti  Wor- 
ship.— The  power  of  austerities  and  detachment 
from  the  world  as  a  means  of  attaining  superhuman 
powers  or  for  reaching  ecstatic  communion  with 
God  is  a  convention  of  Hindu  thought.  More 
than  five  milhon  sddhus  (holy  men),  revered  for 
their  spirituahty  or  feared  for  their  superhuman 
powers,  wander  about  the  cotmtry,  supported 
entirely  by  alms. 

The  impassioned  religious  fervor  Q)hakti)  may 
degenerate  into  sexual  excitation.  This  is  true 
ofsome  of  the  Krishna  sects  and  of  some  of  the 
^akta  sects.  The  sexual  union  becomes  the 
nearest  approach  to  ecstatic  communion  with 
God.  In  both  cases,  however,  the  sexual  element  is 
worked  over  on  the  higher  levels  into  a  philosophical 
symbolism. 

Cakta  worship  is  directed  to  the  wife  of  Qiva 
(Kali,  Durga,  etc.).  The  feminine  principle  is 
reverenced  as  gdkti  (creative  power,  cosmic  force) 
as  distinguished  from  the  absolute  Being  of  the  male. 
In  its  lower  forms  erotic  rites  and  bloody  sacrifices 
play  a  large  part. 

yil.  Higher  Philosophical  Aspects. — ^There 
is,  in  general,  in  the  higher  levels  of  Hinduism  a 
tendency  toward  a  theism  in  which  the  world  is  not 
regarded  as  a  machine  constructed  and  set  in 
motion  by  a  God  who  remains  apart  from  it  as  a 
responsible  moral  governor.  The  soul  alone  is 
responsible,  determining  its  own  fate,  moulding  it 
by  its  own  karma.  The  trend  of  thought  is  pan- 
theistic. God  is  immanent  in  the  universe  as  well 
as  transcendent;  the  personal  melts  away  into  the 
impersonal.  The  power  at  work  in  the  universe  is 
the  sarne  as  the  power  at  work  in  man,  as  his  soul. 
There  is  a  sameness  or  an  identity  of  the  two. 
There  may  be  a  complete  identity  in  which  the 
world  fades  away  into  a  mystical  imreality;  or  God, 
although  transcendent,  remains  immanent  in  a 
real  world. 

Many  reformers  have  founded  sects  seeking  to 
raise  the  popular  levels  of  rehgion,  but  invariably 
the  force  of  the  reformation  has  spent  itself  when 
the  forceful  personality  of  the  founder  (and  his 
immediate  successors)  was  removed.  The  tendency 
of  Hinduism  is  toward  diversity  rather  than  toward 
unity.  This  will  always  be  so  imtil  there  is  a 
more  unified  social  and  political  life.  India  has 
largely  lacked  a  strong  p>olitical  sense  and  a  i)rac- 
tical  intellectual  sense,  and  has  been  deeply  reUgious. 
India  has  not  had  a  firm  social  and  intellectual 
nucleus  to  hold  reUgion  together  and  prevent 
excesses.    The    mystical    experience,    which,    by 


communion  with  the  mysterious  superhuman 
powers,  has  raised  the  intensity  of  individual  or 
group  life,  has  not  tried  to  socialize  itself. 

W.  E.  Clark 
mPPOLYTUS.— Early  church  writer  in  the 
first  half  of  the  3rd.  century.  He  was  bishop  of 
Rome,  but  his  fame  rests  on  his  numerous  writings, 
the  best  known  of  which  is  a  Refutation  of  all  Heresies 
( Phiiosophumena) . 

HIRANYAGARBHA.— The  "golden  germ" 
which  arose  in  the  chaotic  waste  of  primeval 
waters  according  to  Vedic  creation  stories.  From 
this  came  the  divine  executive  who  created  the 
world  order.  Later  Hindu  thinkers  teach  that  the 
impersonal  Brahman  created  the  waste  of  waters  by 
a  thought,  implanted  in  them  the  germ  of  gold  and 
through  it  assumed  personal  godhead  to  perform 
the  task  of  world  evolution.    See  also  Prajapati. 

HITTITES,  RELIGION   OF  THE.— Under 

the  term  Hittites  it  is  customary  at  the  present 
time  to  include  the  various  racial  groups  which  in 
antiquity  occupied  the  central  highlands  of  Asia 
Minor,  where,  in  spite  of  linguistic  differences  and 
lack  of  pohtical  unity,  they  developed  a  fairly  homo- 
geneous civilization.  Our  scant  knowledge  of  the 
religion  of  these  peoples  is  based  to  a  small  extent 
upon  literary  sources  but  in  the  main  upon  archaeo- 
logical— 'largely  sculptural — remains.  The  former 
give  us  only^  the  most  general  information,  while 
such  inscriptions  as  accompany  the  latter  are  in  the 
as  yet  undeciphered  Hittite  hieroglyphs.  This  com- 
pels us  to  depend  largely  upon  our  knowledge  of 
the  later  cults  of  Asia  Minor  for  the  interpretation 
of  our  main  body  of  evidence. 

The  literary  sources. — The  best  known  docu- 
ment is  the  Egyptian  copy  of  the  treaty  between 
Rameses  II.  and  the  Hittites  (1271  B.C.).  A 
thousand  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  land  of  the 
Hittites  together  with  a  thousand  gods  and  goddesses 
of  the  land  of  Egypt  are  invoked  as  witnesses  to 
the  treaty.  In  detail  we  heal  of  the  "sun-god,  lord 
of  the  heavens,  Sutekh  (evidently  the  Egyptian 
translation  of  a  Hittite  word  meaning  'lord'),  lord 
of  the  heavens" ;  Sutekhs  and  goddesses  of  different 
cities,  the  cjueen  of  the  heavens^  the  mistress  of  the 
soil,  the  mistress  of  the  mountains  and  the  rivers  of 
the  land  of  Kheta.  On  the  silver  tablet  on  which 
the  original  of  the  treaty  was  written  were  foimd  "the 
likeness  of  Sutekh  embracing  the  likeness  of  the 
great  chief  of  Kheta"  and  "the  likeness  of  (some 
goddess)  of  Kheta  embracing  the  figure  of  the 
princess  of  Kheta." 

Similar  lists  of  Hittite  deities  are  found  on  the 
copies  of  the  treaties  drawn  up  between  the  great 
Hittite  king  Subbiluliuma  (ca.  1375  B.C.)  and 
the  rulers  of  smaller  and  dependent  Hittite  states. 
These  treaties  are  part  of  the  extensive  Hittite 
archives,  recently  found  at  Boghaz-Keui,  the  site 
of  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Hittites,  which  also 
contain  rehgious  texts,  hymns  and  prayers,  omen 
texts,  and  a  ritual  text  prescribing  the  offerings  to 
be  made  on  stated  occasions. 

The  sculptural  remains. — Of  the  numerous  and 
widely  scattered  rock-cut  sculptures  of  the  Hittites 
by  far  the  most  important  are  the  rehefs  of  YasiU 
Kaya,  near  Boghaz-Keui,  probably  dating  from  the 
14th.  century  b.c.  On  the  walls  of  the  first  of  two 
natural  galleries  in  the  hillside  are  depicted  two 
processions  of  some  sixty  figures  meeting  at  the 
far  end  of  the  gallery.  The  first  group  is  led  by  a 
male,  the  second  by  a  female  deity,  ^  Following  these 
come  the  lesser  gods  together  with  divine  and  human 
attendants.  In  all  probability  the  scene  represents 
the  yearly  springtime  marriage  of  the  great  mother 
of  the  gods,  called  M4  or  Ammas  in  the  later,  Greek, 


Hobbes,  Thomas 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


206 


sources,  and  her  lover  Attis  or  Papas,  god  of  vege- 
tation, but  also  god  of  the  sky.  His  Hittite  name 
was  Teshub.  In  the  second  gallery  we  find  a  scene 
recaUiag  the  figures  carved  upon  the  silver  tablet  on 
which  the  treaty  between  Ramses  II.  and  the 
Hittites  was  written.  It  represents  a  god  embra- 
cing the  king. 

These  and  other  Hittite  sculptures  show  exten- 
sive borrowing  of  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  religious 
symbols,  but  we  are  not  yet  in  a  position  to  deter- 
mine to  what  extent  the  religions  of  the  older  civiliza- 
tions on  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  affected  the  cults 
of  the  Hittite  peoples.  D.  D.  Ltjckbnbill 

HOBBES,  THOMAS  (1588-1679).— English 
philosopher;  the  outstanding  English  thinker 
between  Bacon  and  Locke.  His  political  philosophy 
was  expressed  in  his  Leviathan.  He  conceived  men 
as  aggressive  individuals,  seeking  each  his  own 
interests.  In  order  to  avert  a  condition  of  uni- 
versal warfare,  the  State  is  organized  to  control  men 
and  prescribe  laws.  Hobbes  held  that  religion 
springs  from  fear,  and  its  public  regulation  is  an 
affair  of  the  State. 

HOBGOBLIN.— (Hob,  clumsy+ goblin.)  A 
maUgnant  grotesque  creature,  as  in  mediaeval 
mythology. 

HODGE,  CHARLES  (1797-1878).— American 
Presbyterian  theologian;  one  of  the  outstanding 
scholars  of  the  Old  School  division  of  the  Presby- 
terian church,  and  author  of  several  works  on 
Calvinistic  dogmatics.  His  Systemaiic  Theology 
was  for  a  long  time  the  best  known  exposition  of 
American  Calvinism. 

HOFMANN  (or  HOFFMANN),  MELCHIOR 
(ca.  1498-ca.  1544). — German  Anabaptist  and 
mystic.  His  teachings  included  a  denial  of  the 
real  presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  although  he 
affirmed  a  spiritual  benefit  (Like  Zwingh)  in  par- 
taking of  it.  He  also  held  detailed  and  fantastic 
views  in  regard  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 

HOLINESS.— The  state  of  being,  holy,  and 
this  word  has  two  distinct  connotations.  It  desig- 
nates persons  or  things  which  are  set  apart  (conse- 
crated) for  rehgious  service,  or,  secondly,  is  appUed 
to  moral  character  when  pure  or  sinless. 

The  fundamental  conception  is  that  by  which  two 
classes  of  things  are  distinguished,  the  sacred  and 
common.  That  which  is  sacred  has  a  mvsterious 
or  uncanny  power  which  may  be  exercised  for  the 
benefit  or  the  harm  of  men.  _  Since  it  may  work 
harm,  and  since  it  is  communicated  by  contact,  it 
must  be  treated  with  special  precautions.  Any 
extraordinary  manifestation  of  strength  may  be 
due  to  it.  The  king,  the  magician,  the  stranger 
are  endowed  with  io,  and  in  still  higher  degree  the 
divinities.  These,  their  belongings  and  the  places 
they  inhabit,  possess  it  or  perhaps  we  should  say 
are  infected  with  it.  For  this  reason  the  sanctuary 
must  not  be  entered  with  the  shoes  on.  The 
danger  is  twofold — on^  the  one  hand  the  shoes 
might  bring  in  something  unclean  (displeasing  to 
the  divinity)  and  thus  arouse  anger;  on  the  other 
they  might  contract  the  sanctity  of  the  place  and 
this  would  imfit  them  for  ordinary  use. 

Where  these  ideas  are  current  elaborate  prohibi- 
tions are  in  force  to  prevent  the  sacred  and  the 
common  from  coming  into  contact.  These  are 
now  known  as  taboos.  Since  they  are  imposed  both 
on  the  sacred  and  on  the  common  we  see  how  the 
idea  of  taboo  may  sometimes  be  equivalent  to 
sacredness,  sometimes  be  equivalent  to  uncleanness. 
Moreover  what  is  sacred  to  one  divinity  may  be  un- 


congenial to  another.  The  dead  are  sacred,  but 
they  are  also  unclean.  This  means  that  persons 
in  contact  with  a  dead  body,  or  who  have  been  in  its 
presence,  are  unfit  for  the  sanctuary  until  their 
taboo  has  been  removed.  Among  the  Greeks  the 
worshiper  of  a  hero  (spirit  of  a  dead  man)  could  not 
enter  the  temple  of  a  God  until  he  had  been  purified. 
Similarly  in  the  Hebrew  code  everj^thing  connected 
with  the  dead  is  unclean.  Other  taboos  in  this 
code  are  doubtless  based  on  this  opposition  between 
different  divinities.  Unclean  meats  are  those 
connected  with  other  religions.  The  uncleanness 
of  the  sexual  fife  (childbirth,  menstruation)  is  due  to 
the  idea  that  this  hfe  is  under  the  control  of,  or  at 
least  is  hkely  to  be  influenced  by,  a  distinct  set  of 
demonic  powers. 

The  development  of  moral  ideas  can  be  traced 
in  the  gradual  change  in  the  meaning  of  the  word 
holy.  At  first  it  was  an  almost  material  conception, 
certainly  not  ethical.  A  man  might  be  holy,  that 
is  consecrated  to  a  divinity  and  therefore  possessed 
of  sacredness,  without  reference  to  his  moral 
character.  In  some  parts  of  the  earth  it  may  still 
be  true  that  a  man  is  reverenced  as  priest  no 
matter  what  sort_  of  man  he  may  be.  But  com- 
paratively early  in  the  history  of  religion  taboos 
were  appHed  to  acts  that  were  harmful  to  the  com- 
mon weal.  In  Egypt  we  find  the  soul  brought 
before  Osiris  for  judgment  and  protesting  that  he 
has  not  committed  sin  against  his  neighbors  as  well 
as  that  he  has  not  violated  the  taboos  connected 
with  worship.  The  process  is  well  illustrated  in 
Israel  where  eating  with  the  blood  (violation  of  a 
taboo)  is  among  the  things  prohibited,  but  along 
with  it  we  find  theft,  adultery,  and  murder.  ^  HoU- 
ness  now  includes  moral  perfection  and  is  the 
crowning  attribute  of  God  himself.  At  first  he 
was  holy  because  he  was  separate  from  all  common 
things.  His  holiness  we  may  say  was  only  another 
name  for  his  divinity.  Its  chief  manifestation 
was  his  power.  But  in  later  Jewish  literature  it  is 
asserted  that  "the  Holy  One  is  made  holy  by 
righteousness."  The  book  of  Job  shows  the 
struggle  which  reflecting  men  went  through  in 
reaching  this  conception.  H.  P.  Smith 

HOLOCAUST.— A  sacrifice  wholly  destroyed 
by  fire,  such  as  "whole  burnt  offering"  of  the  Jews 
described  in  the  Old  Testament. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE. — ^An  agreement  or  declara- 
tion signed  in  1815  by  the  emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  which  these 
powers  purported  to  form  a  fraternal  and  pohtical 
alliance  of  nations  observing  in  politics  the  principles 
of  the  Christian  religion.  The  spirit  of  the  Alliance 
was  hostile  to  Kberal  political  ideas.  The  signa- 
tures of  other  European  monarchs  were  later  added. 
As  a  diplomatic  agency  the  alliance  was  a  failure. 

HOLY  COMMUNION.— See  Lord's  Supper. 

HOLY  DAYS. — Days  set  apart  by  the  church  for 
rehgious  offices  or  in  commemoration  of  an  event 
or  person  of  rehgious  significance. 


HOLY 

Jesus 


:OLY  FAMILY.-j-Joseph,  Maiy  and  the  infant 
,  a  frequent  subject  in  Christian  art. 

HOLY  GRAIL.— See  Grail,  Holy. 


HOLY  OF  HOLIES.— (1)  The  inner  apartment 
of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  where  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  reposed,  and  into  which  the  high  priest 
alone  could  enter,  and  that  only  on  the  day  of 
atonement.  (2)  The  sanctuary  or  bema  in  the 
eastern  churches.    In  the  church  of  the  Nestorians 


207 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Holy  Spirit 


it  contains  a  cross  only  and  none  is  permitted  to 
enter. 

HOLY  ORDERS.— See  Order,  Holt. 

HOLY  PLACE.— (1)  A  place  considered  as 
sanctified  by  the  presence  or  activity  of  a  religious 
leader  (as  Jerusalem  or  Mecca),  by  the  death  or 
tombs  of  martyrs,  or  by  holy  relics.  (2)  The 
outer  apartment  of  the  ancient  tabernacle  of  the  Jews. 

HOLY  ROLLERS.— The  name  given  to  widely 
scattered  and  relatively  small  groups  throughout 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  drawn  largely  from 
the  ranks  of  Methodism,  who  in  their  zeal  for  the 
filling  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  encourage  high  emotional 
excitement  often  accompanied  by  repeated  jump- 
ing up  and  down  (hence  "Jumpers"),  death-like 
prostration,  or  rolling  of  the  body. 

HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE.— The  idealistic 
unification  of  Christendom  into  an  empire  during 
the  Middle  Ages  by  the  perpetuation  of  the  Roman 
Empire  under  the  joint  control  of  the  Pope  and  an 
Emperor. 

The  beginning  of  this  conception  may  fairly  be 
traced  to  the  coronation  of  Charlemagne  (Dec.  25, 
800)  as  Emperor.  This  act  was  not  strictly  ecclesi- 
astical, for  Charlemagne  regarded  himself  not  only 
as  the  successor  of  the  Emperors  of  the  West  (if 
indeed  he  ever  thus  limited  his  position)  but  also 
as  a  divinely  appointed  head  of  the  earthly  kingdom 
of  God.  As  such  he  did  not  admit  any  absolute 
supremacy  on  the  part  of  the  Pope.  The  Empire 
which  he  revived  was  German  in  point  of  peoples 
but  universal  in  theory.  In  its  former  capacity 
it  could  be  inherited  by  his  successors,  but  the 
Emperor,  though  a  German  king,  received  his 
imperial  status  only  by  coronation  by  the  Pope  in 
Italy. 

Both  the  imperial  honor  and  theory  suffered 
eclipse  under  Charlemagne's  successors  but  were 
again  revived  by  Otto  I  (the  Great)  in  962.  His 
bold  plans  included  the  establishment  of  the 
German  kingdom  on  the  foundation  of  the  church. 
In  consequence,  the  unity  of  Christendom  in  the 
West  and  especially  of  the  church  was  guaranteed. 
Otto  II.  and  particularly  Otto  III.  developed  the 
idealistic  conception  of  the  Empire  as  the  joint 
rule  of  Pope  and  Emperor.  This  conception 
involved  the  recognition  of  both  offices  as  representa- 
tive of  Christ  who  had  established  the  power  of  the 
two  swords  (Luke  22 :  37,  38) .  The  one  sword,  that 
of  spiritual  authority,  was  the  Pope's  and  the 
other,  that  of  temporal  power,  the  Emperor's. 
They  were  to  be  wielded  in  harmony. 

The  political  struggles  of  successive  German 
kings  with  the  nobles  and  the  Italian  cities,  were 
complicated  by  this  imperial  ideal,  the  Pope  siding 
now  with  the  nobles  and  cities  and  now  with  the 
king  in  an  effort  to  maintain  the  independence  of  the 
church  from  the  state  (see  Investiture  Contro- 
versy) as  well  as  his  own  supremacy  in  the  Empire. 
The  unity  of  the  idea  was  thus  threatened  by  histori- 
cal circumstances.  Both  Germany  and  Italy  were 
torn  asunder  by  long  struggle  between  the  Guelphs 
(papal)  and  the  GhibelUne  (imperial)^  parties. 
Pope  and  Emperors  were  successively  victorious, 
Boniface  VIII.  in  a  moment  of  triumph  finally 
claiming  to  be  both  Pope  and  Emperor,  but  was 
defeated  before  any  permanent  results  could  follow 
such  a  claim. 

With  the  rise  of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty,  the 
Empire  became  the  unifying  institution  of  Europe 
in  close  affiliation  with  the  papacy.  Charles  V. 
and  Phillip  II.  possessed  the  Empire  at  its  height, 
but  the  wars  of  the  16th.  century  resulted  in  the 


loss  of  its  northern  possessions,  while  the  Protestant 
states  broke  with  the  spiritual  over-lordship  of 
the  Pope.  The  imperial  office  passed  to  Austria 
and  the  Empire  continued  in  name  but  without  its 
mediaeval  importance  or  honor.  It  was  finally 
ended  by  Napoleon,  Aug.  6,  1806. 

Despite  its  political  complications  and  conse- 
quent wars,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  must  be 
regarded  as  a  notable  attempt  to  produce  peace  and 
order  in  Europe.  To  it  must  be  credited  such 
unity  as  prevented  the  complete  disintegration 
of  civilization  during  the  early  Middle  Ages  and 
the  maintenance  of  many  of  the  unifying  forces  in 
government  and  culture  oequeathed  by  the  Roman 
civilization.^  That  it  should  fail  of  its  supreme 
ideal  was  inevitable  not  alone  from  the  rivalry 
of  its  two  supreme  earthly  heads  but  also  from  the 
ever  increasing  power  of  the  cities,  nationahties  and 
intellectual  independence.        Shailer  Mathews 

HOLY  SEE.— The  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope  (q.v.). 

HOLY  SEPULCHRE.— The  rock-cut  tomb 
in  Jerusalem  where  the  body  of  Jesus  is  supposed  to 
have  lain  between  his  burial  and  resurrection,  and 
over  which  a  church  has  been  built.  There  are  two 
sites  claiming  recognition:  the  traditional  tomb  in 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  a  cave  near 
the  so-called  Gordon  Calvary  outside  the  present 
walls  of  Jerusalem. 

HOLY  SPIRIT.— A  special  manifestation  of 
divine  power,  in  Christian  theology  defined  as  the 
third  person  of  the  Trinity,  to  whom  are  ascribed 
specific  activities,  such  as  the  inspiration  of  Scrip- 
ture writers,  and  the  influencing  of  individuals 
or  groups  in  the  direction  of  the  divine  purpose. 

The  Hebrew  antecedent  to  the  conception  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  the_  "Spirit  of  Yahweh,"  which 
endowed  chosen  individuals  with  exceptional 
capacities,  such  as  physical  power  (Samson),  pro- 
phetic ecstasy  (Saul),  capacity  for  leadership 
(Jephthah,  Gideon),  or  abiUty  to  proclaim  the 
mind  of  God  (Micaiah  and  other  prophets). 

The  early  Christians,  after  the  experience  at 
Pentecost,  coveted  and  experienced  the  messianic 
gifts  of  the  Spirit.  To  be  able,  through  the  power 
of  the  Spirit,  to  speak  with  tongues,  to  prophesy, 
to  work  miracles,  or  to  heal,  meant  a  present  realiza- 
tion of  that  messianic  reign  which  should  soon  come 
in  perfection.  The  extravagances  of  some  of  these 
zealous  Christians  led  the  apostle  Paul  and  others 
to  emphasize  the  more  normal  and  ethical  ideal 
expressed  in  I  Cor.  13.  The  conception  of  the 
indwelling  Christ  was  more  inclusive  of  Christian 
values.  In  these  early  Christian  experiences  of 
the  Spirit,  as  in  the  Hebrew  conception,  it  is  the 
supernatural  endowment  which  is  emphasized 
rather  than  any  definite  doctrine  of  the  personality 
of  the  Spirit. 

With  the  formation  of  the  Catholic  church, 
official  control  of  religious  fife  was  encoiu'aged  in 
contrast  to  individual  zeal.  Consequently  the 
work  of  the  Spirit  was  virtually  limited  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  official  Scriptures,  and  the  guid- 
ance of  the  official  church.  So  far  as  individual 
Christians  were  concerned  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  retired  in  favor  of  the  doctrine  of  grace  (q.v.). 

With  the  reformation  and  the  emancipation  of 
the  individual  from  the  control  of  the  church  came 
a  renewal  of  emphasis  on  the  activity  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  Again  extravagances  occurred,  and  again 
regularity  of  religious  experience  was  sought  in 
contrast  to  the  irregular  manifestations  of  ecstasy. 
The  appeal  to  the  Scriptures  strengthened  the  formal 
doctrine  of  inspiration,  and  Calvin  set  forth  the 
supplementary  doctrine  of  the  "inner  testimony  of 


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A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


208 


the  Spirit,"  according  to  which  the  same  Spirit  which 
inspired  the  original  of  Scripture  assures  the 
believer  that  it  is  God's  word,  and  guides  him  in 
the  understanding  of  it.  The  Quakers  placed  the 
authority  of  the  "inner  Ught"  foremost,  holding  that 
no  experience  or  activity  could  be  truly  reUgious 
which  was  not  directly  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
In  the  Wssleyan  revival  the  experience  of  special 
sanctification  by  the  Spirit  was  urged  as  essential 
to  full  Christianity. 

The  theological  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
a  natural  interpretation  of  the  activities  above 
mentioned.  When  Christ  was  defined  in  terms  of 
essential  deity,  the  Messianic  Spirit  which  ^  he 
sent  was  inevitably  defined  in  the  same  fashion. 
The  speculative  problem  of  estabhshing  the  mutual 
relationships  of  the  three  "persons"  of  the  Godhead, 
e.g.,  the  question  as  to  whether  the  Holy  Spirit 
"proceeds"  from  the  Father  alone  (Eastern  Ortho- 
doxy), or  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  (Western 
Orthodoxy)  has  engaged  the  minds  of  theologians 
rather  than  the  interest  of  Christians  generally. 
While  certain  specific  functions  are  theoretically 
assigned  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  yet  Christian  thought 
generally  has  reflected  Augustine's  conviction  that 
the  entire  Godhead  is  present  in  the  work  of  any 
member  of  the  Trinity.  In  much  modem  thought, 
where  God  is  conceived  as  immanent,  the  Holy 
Spirit  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  God  in 
action.    See  Trinity.        Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HOLY  SYNOD.— (1)  The  governing  body  of  the 
Russian  church,  composed  of  the  archbishops  of 
Petrograd,  Moscow  and  Kief,  the  exarch  of  Georgia, 
certain  bishops  and  archimandrites  and  the  pro- 
curator, a  civil  officer  in  whom  resides  the  real 
authority  of  the  synod.  (2)  The  permanent  board 
of  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  called  the 
Holy  Governing  Synod.  (3)  The  governing  body 
of  the  Roumanian  church  consisting  of  all  the 
bishops  in  council.  (4)  The  supreme  council  of  the 
Greek  national  church,  comprising  five  bishops. 

HOLY  THURSDAY.— (1)  Ascension  day.  (2) 
Thursday  of  Holy  Week*  also  called  Maundy 
Thursday. 

HOLY  WATER.— Water  which  has  been  con- 
secrated by  a  priest  and  is  used  for  baptism  and 
lustrations,  and  by  w'orshippers  in  making  the 
sign  of  the  cross  on  entering  or  leaving  church. 

HOLY  WEEK. — The  week  preceding  Easter,  the 
religious  observance  of  which  is  alluded  to  in  the 
ApostoUc  Constitutions  (q.v.)  in  the  3rd.  century. 

HOME  MISSIONS.— Christian  Missions  in 
North  America,  or  with  many  denominations 
simply  missions  in  the  United  States  and  its  depend- 
encies. It  includes  not  only  preaching  and  estab- 
lishing churches  but  also  the  promotion  of  the 
efficiency  of  churches,  the  training  of  leaders  for 
backward  peoples,  and  the  providing  of  buildings  for 
church,  educational,  medical,  and  community  better- 
ment work. 

The  history  of  Home  Missions  is  the  history  of 
the  spread  of  Christianity  after  it  has  been  planted 
in  a  country.  At  first  the  work  is  donein  a  spon- 
taneous, sporadic,  and  imofficial  way  by  individuals 
and  churches.  Later,  groups  of  churches  join  in 
the  imdertaking,  either  through  societies  formed  for 
the  purpose  or  through  their  general  ecclesiastical 
organizations.  Commonly,  the  term  Home  Mis- 
sions is  used  to  designate  this  later  development. 
In  the  United  States  this  more  formal  stage  was 
reached  in  a  wide-spreading  way  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th.  century. 


1.  Fields  of  Home  Mission  Activity. — 
1.  New  settlements. — In  the  United  States  the 
main  spur  to  Home  Missions,  both  in  the  imorgan- 
ized  and  in  the  earlier  organic  development,  was  the 
caU  for  planting  Christianity  everywhere  along  with 
the  rapidly  advancing  occupation  of  a  great  new 
coimtry.  The  comparative  poverty  of  a  majority 
of  new  settlers  and  the  necessity  of  initiating  all 
phases  of  civUized  life  at  once,  required  help  from 
the  older,  well-estabhshed  communities.  This 
aspect  of  Home  Missions  continues  far  into  the 
20th.  century.  While  the  spectacular  advances  in 
continental  occupation  were  largely  achieved  in 
the  19th.  century,  vast  areas  remain  to  be  settled. 
Irrigation  and  drainage  open  great  new  territories. 
The  western  two-fifths  of  the  United  States  is 
capable  of  sustaining  twenty-five  times  the  popula- 
tion it  has  in  1920. 

2.  Foreign-speaking  inhabitants. — ^The  enormous 
immigration  from  Europe  and  the  starthng  immi- 
gration from  Asia,  most  of  that  in  later  years  from 
lands  without  an  open  Bible,  necessitates  large 
evangelizing  activity  if  America  is  to  be  truly 
Christian. 

3.  Negroes. — ^By  forced  immigration  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa  made  a  large  contribution  to  our 
population.  Physical  emancipation  opened  a  way 
and  necessity  for  the  much  longer  and  more  difl^icult 
process  of  spiritual  emancipation.  The  chief 
activity  has  been  in  providing  schools  for  the 
training  of  Negro  leaders. 

4.  American  Indians. — A  prime  motive  in  the 
first  settlement  of  America  exphcitly  named  in 
colonial  charters,  was  the  evangelization  of  the 
natives.  It  was  the  dominant  interest  of  one  or 
two  early  State  builders,  notably  Roger  Wilhams. 
But  less  altruistic  motives  absorbed  most  of  the 
people  and  churches,  so  that  the  early  20th.  century 
finds  one-third  of  the  Indians  in  the  United  States 
without  gospel  privileges. 

5.  Latin  North  Americans. — The  Spanish  con- 
querors talked  constantly  of  their  business  as  the 
Christianization  of  the  heathen.  As  it  turned  out, 
however^  according  to  eminent  Roman  Cathohc 
authorities,  the  process  in  the  end  came  nearer  to 
being  the  heathenization  of  Christianity. 

6.  Backward  neighborhoods. — Many  isolated 
communities  in  the  most  progressive  sections  of  the 
country  have  been  left  to  degenerate  in  backward 
eddies.  In  other  sections  large  areas,  sequestered 
by  mountains  or  otherwise,  have  receded  spiritually 
rather  than  advanced. 

7.  Congested  areas. — Cities  and  manufacturing 
centers.    See  City  Missions. 

8.  Temporary  communities. — Lumber  camps, 
mining  camps,  construction  camps  and,  at  times, 
military  camps,  create  intensely  needy  Home 
Mission  fields. 

II.  Organization  op  Home  Missions. — 
1.  Denominational. — When  the  personal  and  spo- 
radic began  to  develop  into  organic  Home  Missions, 
it  was  first  through  the  smaller  ecclesiastical 
groupings,  associations,  presbyteries,  and  the  Uke. 
Then  larger  aggregates  took  it  up,  conferences, 
sjmods,  state  conventions.  Finally  whole  denomina- 
tions engaged  in  it.  The  two  chief  forms  are  (a) 
Boards  and  (b)  Societies.  In  actual  working,  how- 
ever, that  distinction  is  more  technical  than  vital 
and  arises  from  the  church  poUty  favored.  What- 
ever the  method  of  selection  and  nomenclature 
there  is  (1)  a  committee  or  board  of  considerable 
size  which  has  all  responsibiUty  between  the  annual 
meetings  of  its  denomination  or  society  and  which 
itself  meets  frequently,  in  many  cases  once  a 
month.  This  body  shapes  pohcies,  authorizes 
expenditures  and  selects  (2)  a  staff  of  executives. 
The  chief  executives  are  commonly  called  secre- 


209 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Homiletics 


taries.  They  suggest  to  the  boards  needed  action, 
present  the  cause  to  the  pubhc  and  direct  the  work 
of  the  missionaries  under  the  board.  The  larger 
boards  have  permanent  departments  of  work  and 
committees  looking  after  them  with  especially 
assigned  executives.  Various  phases  of  the  work 
are  conducted  by  distinct  boards  or  societies  in 
some  denominations,  which  differ  considerably 
as  to  division  of  work  but  most  of  which  have  distinct 
organization  for  Sunday-school  and  pubUshing 
work. 

The  actual  administration  on  the  field  is  con- 
ducted commonly  in  co-operation  with  territorial 
bodies  which  vary  greatly  in  area  and  functions 
according  to  the  poUty  of  the  denominations. 
In  some  denominations  the  State  organization  is 
a  growingly  large  factor  in  the  whole  business  of 
Home  Missions.  An  exceedingly  important  aspect 
of  Home  Missions  is  City  Missions  (q.v.). 

One  of  the  great  arms  of  the  service  in  many 
denominations  is  an  organization  of  women.  In 
sorne  cases  this  is  quite  independent  of  and  co- 
ordinate with  the  Church  society,  in  others  it  is 
strictly  auxiUary.  By  use  of  local  church  organi- 
zations and  study  classes  remarkable  interest  is 
created. 

2.  Interdenominational. — (a)  The  Home  Missions 
Council. — This  body  was  organized  in  1907.  Thir- 
teen denominations  now  co-operate  in  it.  It  is 
composed  of  all  the  board  members  and  executive 
officers  whose  field  is  co-extensive  with  the  territory 
of  the  board.  In  the  nature  of  the  case  the  chief 
functions  of  the  Council  are  consultative,  investi- 
gative and  advisory.  It  has  standing  committees 
on:  Spanish-speaking  People;  Comity  and  Co- 
operation; Immigrant  Work;  City  Work;  Rural 
Felds;  Promotion;  Indian  Missions;  Church 
Building;  Recruiting  the  Home  Mission  Force; 
Negro  Work;  Exceptional  Groups;  and  Home 
Mission  Statistics.  It  has  sent  joint  deputations 
to  visit  western  States,  enUsting  the  regional 
forces  in  co-operative  study  of  conditions  and  in 
an  endeavor  to  provide  for  neglected  fields  and  to 
eliminate  wasteful  competition.  In  Utah,  for 
example,  there  has  resulted  carefully  articulated 
interdenominational  planning  and  a  joint  sununer 
institute  of  workers. 

(b)  The  Council  of  Women  for  Home  Missions. — 
This  was  organized  in  1907.  Its  functions  in  rela- 
tion to  Women's  Home  Mission  Boards  are  kindred 
to  those  of  the  Home  Missions  Council  in  relation 
to  the  church  boards.  One  marked  activity  of  the 
Council  of  Women  has  been  the  issuing  of  a  series 
of  inission  study  text-books  which  have  had  wide 
use  in  the  churches  of  all  denominations. 

(c)  The  Committee  on  Co-operation  in  Latin 
America. — This  Committee  represents  both  Home 
and  Foreign  Missions.  The  home  boards  which 
are  at  work  in  Latin  North  America  take  an  active 
share  in  the  work  of  the  Committee.  This  included 
the  caUing  and  conduct  of  the  notable  Congress  on 
Christian  Work  in  Latin  America  held  at  Panama 
City  in  1916,  and  the  holding  of  regional  confer- 
ences afterwards  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  Mexico. 
In  all  these  regions  there  is  now  decided  co-operation 
in  evangelization,  education  and  the  publication 
and  distribution  of  literature. 

(d)  The  Missionary  Education  Movement. — 
This  Movement  is  in  the  interest  of  all  missions. 
It  issues  important  text-books  for  use  in  Home 
Mission  Study  and  other  vital  literature  and  its 
sxunmer  school  trains  leaders. 

III.  Organizations  Composing  the  Home 
Missions  Council. 

American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society, 
Home  Mission  Board  of  the  Christian  Church; 
American     Missionary     Society;      Congregational 


Church  Building  Society;  Congregational  Home 
Missionary  Society;  Congregational  Sunday  School 
and  Publishing  Society;  American  Christian  Mis- 
sionary Society;  Board  of  Church  Extension, 
American  Christian  Missionary  Society;  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  EvangeUcal  Association;  Associ- 
ated Executive  Committee  of  Friends  on  Indian 
Affairs;  EvangeUstic  and  Church  Extension  Board 
of  the  Friends'  Five  Years  Meeting;  Board  of 
Home  Missions  and  Church  Extension,  General 
Synod,  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
States;  Board  of  English  Home  Missions,  General 
Council,  Evangehcal  Lutheran  Church  in  North 
America;  Board  of  Home  Missions  and  Church 
Extensions,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  General 
Missionary  Board  of  the  Free  Methodist  Church  in 
North  America;  Missionary  Society  of  the  Metho- 
dist Church,  Canada;  Board  of  Missions,  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  South;  Board  of  Church 
Extension,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South; 
Board  of  Home  Missions,  Methodist  Protestant 
Church;  Board  of  Church  Extension,  American 
Moravian  Church;  Country  Church  Commission 
of  the  Moravian  Church;  Board  of  Home  Missions, 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America;  Board  of  the  Church  Erection  Fund 
of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America;  Executive 
Committee  of  Home  Missions,  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States;  Executive  Committee  of 
Publication,  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States;  Board  of  Home  Missions,  United  Presby- 
terian Church  of  North  America;  Board  of  Church 
Extension  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
North  America;  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America;  Board  of  Domestic 
Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America; 
Board  of  Home  Missions,  Reformed  Church  in 
the  United  States;  Board  of  Heathen  Missions  of 
the  Christian  Reformed  Church;  Home  Missionary 
Society,  United  Brethren  in  Christ;  Church 
Erection  Society,  United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Lemuel  C.  Barnes 
HOMILETICS.— The  science  that  studies  and 
formulates  the  principles  of  the  preparation  and 
delivery  of  effective  sermons. 

1.  Formal  homiletics. — Historically,  the  sermon 
has  been  a  unique  type  of  discourse.  It  has  been 
concerned  with  the  indoctrination  of  the  people 
in  the  truth  revealed  in  the  Bible.  The  theory  of 
inspiration  has  involved  the  view  that  all  Scripture 
is  of  equal  validity  and  therefore  is  available  as  a 
vehicle  of  doctrine.  The  preacher's  chief  business 
was  the  selection  and  use  of  the  text  and  a  large 
part  of  homiletical  training  was  concerned  with  the 
problem  of  the  text.  The  main  divisions  of  the  ser- 
mon were  the  introduction,  the  proposition,  the 
argument,  the  conclusion.  Great  attention  was 
given  to  the  matter  of  illustration  and  apphcation. 
Sermons  have  been  divided  into  (1)  Textual,  in 
which  the  divisions  of  the  sermon  are  found  in  the 
grammatical  divisions  of  the  text;  (2)  Topical, 
in  which  the  divisions  of  the  sermon  are  the  logical 
divisions  of  the  proposition;  (3)  Expository,  in 
which  a  considerable  portion  of  Scripture  is  inter- 
preted and  practical  conclusions  drawn  therefrom; 
(4)  Descriptive,  in  which  scenes  from  the  Scriptures 
are  portrayed  with  a  view  to  enforce  some  suggested 
lesson;  (5)  Occasional,  in  which  a  timely  subject  is 
dealt  with  after  the  manner  of  ordinary  speech  but 
with  the  text  as  a  kind  of  starting  point. 

2.  The  modern  sermon. — The  sermon  still 
retains  very  largely  its  formal  character  but  it  has 
become  assimilated  more  and  more  to  the  style  of 
ordinary  public  discourse.  The  distinction  between 
the  textual  and  topical  sermon  is  not  felt.     The  text 


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A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


210 


is  thought  of  as  expressing  in  literary  form  an 
experience  rather  than  as  containing  a  doctrine. 
The  divisions  of  the  sermon  are  not  so  much 
emphasized  except  as  the  speaker  naturally  indicates 
the  progress  of  his  thought.  The  application  is 
not  formally  introduced  but  is  present  in  the 
practical  character  of  his  discourse.  Homiletics  is 
becoming  quite  as  much  a  psychological  as  a 
rhetorical  study.  Theodore  G.  Scares 

HOMILIARIUM.— Collections  of  homiUes  or 
sermons  and  homilies,  introduced  among  the  clergy 
of  the  Middle  Ages  as  an  aid  to  those  incapable  of 
preparing  their  own  addresses. 

HOMILY. — ^A  simple  expository  discourse, 
intended  to  explain  and  interpret  a  passage  of 
Scripture  or  an  ethical  topic.  The  custom  of 
deUvering  informal  expository  discourses  began 
in  the  Christian  church  at  least  as  early  as  Justin 
Martyr.  By  the  6th.  century  the  custom  was 
established  of  reading  the  homiUes  of  celebrated 
preachers.  By  the  8th.  century  collections  of 
homilies  were  being  made.  Books  of  Homilies 
were  arranged  for  the  use  of  uneducated  clergy  in 
England  from  the  16th.  century. 

HOMOIOS. — A  term  (literally  meaning  "simi- 
lar") used  by  the  party  which  defended  Arianism 
in  the  post-Nicene  Christological  controversy.  _  It 
involved  an  exaltation  of  the  Son  to  a  divine  position, 
but  denied  his  complete  metaphysical  deity. 

HOMOIOUSIOS.— A  Greek  adjective,  meaning 
of  "similar  essence"  or  "like  substance."  The 
word  became  the  watchword  of  the  mediating 
party  in  the  Arian  controversy.  They  claimed 
that  Father  and  Son  were  distinct  as  regards  hypos- 
tasis, and  hence  the  word  like  was  a  truer  description 
than  the  same  in  regard  to  their  essence,  the  con- 
trolling motive  being  the  eastern  idea  of  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  Son.    See  Arianism. 

HOMOOUSIOS.— A  Greek  adjective,  usually 
translated  "consubstantial,"  meaning  "of  the  same 
essence."  In  the  Christological  controversies  of  the 
4th  century,  the  party  which  advocated  the  consub- 
stantiability  of  the  Son  with  the  Father  triumphed 
at  Nicaea  in  325  and  at  Constantinople  in  381.  At 
Chalcedon  in  451  the  doctrine  was  adopted  that 
Christ  was  "consubstantial  with  the  Father, 
according  to  the  Godhead,  and  consubstantial  with 
us  according  to  the  manhood." 

HONEN  (1133-1212  a.d.).— The  most  influ- 
ential figure  in  the  history  of  Amida-Buddhism  in 
Japan.  He  preached  a  gospel  of  salvation  by  faith 
in  the  free  grace  of  Amida  through  which  the 
believer  gains  at  death  eternal  happiness  in  the 
western  paradise.  This  religion  embraces  one 
third  of  the  population  of  modern  Japan. 

HONESTY.— The  disposition  to  deal  uprightly 
and  justly,  having  especial  regard  for  the  rights 
and  property  of  others;  a  virtue  based  on  a  recog- 
nition of  the  social  order. 

HONOR. — A  dignity  or  position  which  renders 
a  person  worthy  of  esteem  and  which  obligates  him 
to  high-minded  conduct. 

Popularly,  an  honor  is  a  public  recognition  of 
some  achievement,  or  an  election  to  a  place  of 
responsibility. 

In  ethics  the  word  denotes  an  inner  consciousness 
of  worth  which  requires  the  observance  of  a  certain 
"code  of  honor."  It  has  been  historically  connected 
with  aristocratic  conceptions  of  class  superiority. 


The  "honor  of  a  gentleman"  expressed  (1)  the  con- 
viction that  one  must  not  demean  his  rank  by  any 
compromising  relations  with  those  not  belonging  to 
the  gentleman  class.  To  work  for  a  living  was 
dishonorable.  Personal  injury  must  be  dealt  with 
not  by  law,  but  by  a  defense  of  "honor"  in  a  duel. 
In  this  sense  honor  is  an  anti-social  attitude  toward 
democratic  ideals,  and  has  been  progressively 
discountenanced.  But  (2)  honor  required  one  to 
exercise  virtues  which  could  not  be  externally 
compelled.  In  particular,  fidelity  to  one's  impUcit 
or  explicit  obligations,  whatever  these  might  be, 
and  whatever  the  danger  or  loss  involved,  is  expected. 
In  this  sense  honor  is  an  exalted  social  virtue.  To 
"put  a  man  on  his  honor"  is  to  appeal  to  the  highest 
form  of  moral  _  self-direction.  In  the  Japanese 
doctrine  of  Bushido,  honor  is  exalted.  Wlien  freed 
from  provincial  applications  (as  "honor  among 
thieves")  it  is  one  of  the  most  potent  forms  of  moral 
education.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HONORIUS. — The  name  of  fdur  popes  and  one 
antipope. 

Honorius  I. — Pope,  625-638;  continued  the 
work  begun  by  Gregory  the  Great  for  the  church  in 
the  British  Isles;  especially  remembered  for  sup- 
porting the  MonotheUte  doctrine  for  which  he  was 
subsequently  anathematized,  a  piece  of  evidence 
used  in  1870  by  the  opponents  of  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility. 

Honorius  II. — (1)  Antipope,  whose  claim  to 
the  throne  was  from  1061-1072.  (2)  Pope,  1124- 
1130:  sanctioned  the  orders  of  Praemonstratensians 
and  Knights  Templars. 

Honorius  III. — Pope,  1216-1227;  sanctioned 
the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  orders. 

Honorius  IV. — Pope,  1285-1286;  sanctioned 
the  Carmelite  and  Augustinian  Eremites;  the 
first  pope  to  use  the  banks  of  N.  Italy  to  collect 
papal  taxes. 

HOOD. — A  flexible,  conical-shaped  head- 
covering,  sometimes  forming  part  of  a  cloak.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  worn  by  clerics  and  laymen 
alike,  but,  when  the  hat  came  to  be  commonly 
used  as  a  head-covering,  the  hood  became  a  part 
of  the  religious  habit  of  monks.  Hoods  are  also 
worn  by  recipients  of  higher  University  degrees. 

HOOKER,  RICHARD  (1533-1600).— English 
clergyman  and  author  of  the  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical 
Polity.  His  great  work  voiced  the  English  reaction 
against  a  narrow  Puritanism  and  defended  the 
episcopacy  against  the  attacks  of  Presbyterianism. 
The  fundamental  basis  of  his  argument  is  the 
harmony  and  divinity  of  law.  God  speaks  in 
law  and  through  reason  as  well  as  in  Scripture. 
His  political  philosophy  that  government  reposes 
on  the  consent  of  the  governed  anticipated  later 
developments  in  English  thinking. 

HOPE. — An  expectation  that  a  desired  event 
or  situation  may  be  reahzed,  although  certainty  is 
impossible. 

Hope  is  an  optimistic  attitude  where  the  future 
is  unknown.  It  enables  one  to  order  life  so  as  to 
prepare  for  better  rather  than  worse  alternatives, 
and  thus  introduces  factors  making  for  the  desired 
outcome.  Because  of  this  positive  value,  hope  has 
been  reckoned  among  the  virtues. 

In  Christian  ethics  hope  has  been  one  of  the 
three  theological  virtues  added  on  the  basis  of 
I  Cor.  13:13  to  the  four  Greek  virtues.  See 
Virtues  and  Vices.  In  early  Christianity  hope 
was  especially  esteemed  as  a  corrective  of  the  dis- 
couragement engendered  by  persecutions  and  dis- 
appointed expectations.    Thomas  Aquinas  assigned 


211 


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Hospitality 


to  hope  the  function  of  furnishing  emotional  power  for 
a  steadfast  faith.  In  modern  times  the  word  is 
often  employed  to  indicate  an  optimistic  expecta- 
tion of  life  after  death,  in  the  face  of  the  discouraging 
verdict  of  physical  and  physiological  science;  e.g., 
"the  larger  hope."  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HOPKINSIANISM.— A  form  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Theology  (q.v.)  named  from  its  advocate, 
Samuel  Hopkins  (1721-1803). 

HORMISDAS.— Pope,  514-523,  succeeded  in 
consummating  a  reunion  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  churches  in  518  which  had  been  separated 
since  484. 

HORMUZD.— See  Ormazd. 

HORNS. — Primitive  thought  assigns  horns 
an  important  role  in  rehgious  symbohsm,  cult  and 
magic.  The  gods  and  genii  of  Babylonia  appear 
decorated  with  horns,  not  of  an  offensive  kind,  but 
rather  ornamental.  The  early  Hittite  deities 
wore  caps  whose  ornaments  were  horns.  The 
Phoenician  god  Melkarth  of  Tyre  had  two  short 
horns  on  his  head.  The  Syrian  god  Hadad  like- 
wise wore  horns.  Ashtaroth-Karnaim  (Gen.  14:5), 
where  the  Rephaim  dwelt  east  of  the  Jordan,  was 
Ashtaroth  of  two  horns.  Hathor  of  Egypt  is 
represented  as  a  cow's  head  with  horns — ^perhaps 
a  relic  of  animal  worship. 

The  horn  is  a  well-known  symbol  of  strength. 
It  is  celebrated  in  early  religious  poetry  (I  Sam. 
2:10).  Mythology  and  art  frequently  compare 
gods  and  heroes  with  great  horned  animals.  Semi- 
divine  beings  are  described  as  horned.  The  fauns 
and  satyrs  of  the  Old  Testament  (Lev.  17:7  and 
II  Chron.  11: 15)  are  practically  the  same  as  those 
so  picturesquely  described  in  Greek  mythology. 

Another  use  of  horns  pictured  on  the  monuments 
is  that  of  men  who  wore  horned  headgear.  The 
king  of  Egypt  wore  horns  like  those  of  Osiris. 
Moses  has  horns  in  painting  and  statuary.  Chiefs 
of  savage  peoples  appear  with  headdress  decorated 
with  horns. 

Horns  possessed  a  magical  or  superstitious 
value  when  placed  over  doors  of  houses,  or  on  the 
corners  of  altars.  Their  protective  value  made  the 
custom  of  using  them  almost  universal.  A  relic 
of  this  thought  is  seen  today  in  hotels  and  public 
and  private  places  where  the  horned  heads  of 
moose,  deer,  buck  or  buffalo  are  used  as  decorations. 

Horns  likewise  are  worn  as  amulets  to  bar 
evil  influences.  The  cornucopia,  the  horn  of 
plenty,  is  closely  associated  with  the  power  and 
influence  of  the  horn.  The  ram's  horn  trumpet 
(Josh.  6:5)  to  sound  an  alarm,  or  a  call  to  an 
assembly,  marks  the  practical  use  of  this  animal 
weapon.  Musical  instruments  were  also  made  out 
of  this  useful  implement.  Ira  M.  Price 

HOROSCOPE. — An  astrological  chart  indicat- 
ing the  position  of  the  planets  at  any  specific 
time,  but  especially  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  a 
person  and  used  as  a  basis  for  foretelling  his  or 
her  future. 

HORUS. — A  complex  god  of  ancient  Egypt 
who  appears  (1)  in  falcon  form  as  the  sun-god  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  (2)  as  Horus  the  elder  hawk- 
headed,  son  of  Hathor  (q.v.),  (3)  as  son  of  Osiris, 
avenger  of  his  father  and  champion  of  man  in  times 
of  danger  and  death,  (4)  as  the  child  Horus  in  the 
arms  of  his  mother  Isis. 

HOSANNA. — A  shout  of  praise,  Uterally 
meaning    "save   now"    (Ps.   48:25)    used   in    the 


Jewish  lituTffi/^,  and  adopted  as  a  recognition  of 
the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  on  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Jerusalem  (Mark  11:9  seq.),  and  since  then 
used  in  the  Christian  church  in  praise  of  Jesus. 

HOSHA'NA  RABBAH.— (Aramaic  =  the  great 
"Save.")  Special  term  for  the  seventh  day  of  the 
Jewish  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  so-called  because  of 
the  frequent  repetition  of  the  expression  "Hoshana" 
(save)  in  the  ritual  of  the  day. 

HOSIUS  or  OSIUS.— Bishop  of  Cordova,  early 
in  the  4th.  century,  prominent  at  the  court  of 
Constantine,  being  the  emperor's  messenger  to 
Alexandria  in  seeking  a  reconciliation  of  Arius  and 
Alexander.  He  later  became  one  of  the  most 
vigorous  defendents  of  orthodoxy  against  Ajianism 
and  had  great  influence  in  the  adoption  of  the  word 
"consubstantial"  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  325. 

HOSPICE.— A  shelter  provided  for  the  care  of 
travelers,  the  poor,  the  sick,  the  aged,  or  orphans. 
Their  existence  in  connection  with  churches  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  5th.  century.  The  most 
famous  are  those  in  the  Alps,  as  those  of  St.  Bernard, 
where  travelers  are  entertained. 

HOSPITALER.— A  member  of  one  of  the 
rehgious  orders  estabUshed  in  the  Middle  Ages 
among  both  sexes.  A  Hospitaler  took  a  vow  to 
care  for  the  sick  and  poor,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  under 
the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  From  the  Hospitalers, 
certain  military  orders  were  evolved  as  the  Knight 
Hospitalers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

HOSPITALITY.— The  friendly  reception  and 
entertainment  of  those  not  belonging  to  a  household 
or  intimate  group. 

The  practice  of  hospitahty  is  an  important 
aspect  of  social  hfe.  The  sense  of  obligation 
was  originally  tempered  by  a  feeling  of  suspicion 
towards  strangers,  cordial  treatment  being  due 
quite  as  much  to  fear  of  the  powers  protecting  the 
stranger  as  to  generosity;  but  there  were  rehgious 
sanctions  that  compelled  fidelity  to  the  custom 
of  kindly  entertainment,  even  though  the  host 
might  plan  an  attack  upon  his  guest  the  moment 
he  ceased  to  be  imder  the  protection  of  the  law  of 
hospitahty.  The  prevailing  custom  was  to  ofi'er  a 
present,  usually  of  food,  upon  the  entrance  of  a 
stranger  to  tent  or  hut,  to  give  him  accommodations 
for  the  night,  and  to  speed  him  on  his  way.  In  the 
East,  before  travel  by  caravan  became  general, 
it  would  have  been  virtuallj^  impossible  for  an 
individual  to  journey  alone  in  safety  or  comfort 
without  hospitahty.  There  is  abundant  evidence 
that  hospitality  was  general  in  that  part  of  the 
world,  and  that  it  was  based  not  only  on  social 
need  but  on  religious  teaching.  In  the  ancient 
Mediterranean  world  much-prized  articles  were 
exchanged  as  gifts  of  hospitahty,  and  by  this 
method  of  exchange  the  products  of  early  civiliza- 
tion found  their  way  to  distant  lands. 

In  America  the  Indians  practised  hospitahty 
among  themselves  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of 
Europeans.  It  was  an  Iroquois  custom,  if  a 
tribesman  or  stranger  entered  a  house,  that  the 
women  should  set  food  before  him,  and  the  guest 
must  at  least  taste  the  food,  unless  he  would  give 
offense.  Europeans  sometimes  found  it  embar- 
rassing to  be  offered  food  at  every  house  regardless 
of  the  time  of  day,  but  they  felt  it  necessary  to 
respect  the  custom. 

Christianity  spurred  its  followers  to  take 
hterally  the  teachings  of  Jesus  and  Paul  concerning 
kindness  to  those  in  need.     Out  of  the  custom  of 


Hospitals 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


212 


hospitality  there  came  the  hospital  for  the  sick  and 
the  hospice  for  the  traveler.  Throughout  the 
Middle  Ages  the  monasteries  were  refuges  for  the 
sick  and  poor.  Where  nature  was  most  inhos- 
pitable, a  hospice  greeted  the  weary  traveler. 

In  modem  times  the  art  of  private  hospitahty 
has  given  way  gradually  as  pubhc  accommodations 
have  increased.  Railway  travel  and  numerous 
hotels  have  made  it  imnecessary.  With  the  change 
of  custom  the  spirit  of  goodwill  has  not  lapsed. 
Rehef  of  the  needy  has  taken  the  place  of  the  more 
general  hospitahty  to  all  comers.  Philanthropists 
began  to  open  houses  of  refuge  for  men  and  women 
needing  asylum.  Especially  in  cities  there  increased 
a  class  of  homeless  ones,  and  in  the  country  were 
vagrants  needing  shelter.  Almshouses,  workhouses, 
homes  for  convalescents  and  the  aged,  orphanages, 
and  asylums  are  the  various  forms  that  hospitahty 
has  taken  for  those  in  need.  The  Salvation  Army 
has  been  conspicuous  among  such  agencies,  and 
church  organizations  have  imitated  it  in  social 
service.  Not  least  among  such  modern  institutions 
are  the  Associations  for  young  men  and  women  who 
throng  to  the  cities.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  methods  of  hospitahty  in  peace  and 
war  are  among  the  most  striking  of  social  phenomena, 
and  one  of  the  best  evidences  that  Christianity 
finds  increasing  expression  in  service. 

Henry  K.  Rowb 

HOSPITALS. — Religious  and  humanitarian  feel- 
ing provided  care  for  the  sick  in  ancient  China,  in 
India  (Buddhist  convents),  in  Greece  (temples  of 
Asklepios),  in  Imperial  Rome,  in  Jewish  life,  and 
Christ's  compassionate  work  and  word  made  it  a 
distinguishing  Christian  interest.  When  the  church 
became  state  estabhshed  and  commanded  large 
wealth,  the  bishops  created  special  homes  for  the 
hospitality  long  shown  to  travelers  and  pilgrims  and 
in  these  as  well  as  in  separate  hospitals  (Greek: 
Nosocomia)  the  poor  and  the  sick  were  received. 
Basil  opened  a  hospital  for  lepers  in  Caesarea  in  368, 
Chrysostom  and  Augustine  were  conspicuous  in  the 
provision  of  hospitals,  and  the  infirmaries  of  monas- 
teries were  of  pubhc  utihty.  The  nurses  (parabo- 
lani)  formed  a  lower  grade  of  the  clergy.  The 
earhest  special  fraternity  for  nursing  the  sick  was 
founded  by  St.  Sorore  in  Siena  in  the  9th.  century. 
Stimulated  in  part  by  the  discovery  of  Mohammedan 
philanthropic  care  of  the  sick,  the  crusaders  devel- 
oped hospital  brotherhoods  which  became  mihtary 
orders  like  that  of  the  Hospitalers  (Knights  of 
St.  John)  Order  of  Lazarus  and  Teutonic  iSiights. 
Hospitals  of  these  orders  and  fraternities  were 
independent  of  diocesan  control  but  the  Council  of 
Trent  restored  Episcopal  visitation  and  super- 
vision. However,  in  Germany  and  the  Nether- 
lands hospitals  had  already  begun  to  fall  under 
the  mimicipal  administration  and  the  preference 
in  Protestantism  has  been  for  hospitals  conducted 
by  lay  boards  under  state  inspection,  endowments, 
and  contributions  continuing  to  be  an  expression 
of  the  Christian  brotherly  love  fostered  in  the 
churches.  F.  A.  Christie 

HOST. — In  the  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Lutheran  churches  the  consecrated  bread  or  wafer 
used  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  the  body  of 
Christ  is  substantially  present,  and  is  therefore 
received  from  the  hand  of  the  minister,  either  at 
the  altar,  or  elsewhere  as  in  the  case  of  the  sick. 

HOURS,  CANONICAL.— See  Canonical 
Hours. 

HUBMAIER,  BALTHASAR  (1480-1528).— 
German  Anabaptist,  possessed  of  much  abihty  as 
a  theological  controversialist,  opposing  both  Zwingli 


and  Luther;  participated  in  the  Peasants'  Revolt 
in  1525;  was  burned  at  the  stake  for  his  Anabaptist 
views. 

HUGO  (OR  HUGH)  OF  ST.  VICTOR  (ca. 
1078-1141).  Mystic  and  philosopher,  active  in  the 
abbeys  of  St.  Victor  at  Marseilles  and  Paris.  More 
concerned  with  mystic  satisfaction  than  with  critical 
scholarship,  he  was  widely  influential  in  promoting 
arhetorial  and  emotional  type  of  rehgious  literature. 

HUGUENOTS.— French  Protestants  of  the  16th. 
and  17th.  centuries,  a  nickname  given  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  from  their  meeting  place  near  the 
gate  of  King  Hugo.  When  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion began,  there  were  those  in  France  who  went 
over  to  the  reformed  faith,  but  in  1535  an  edict 
ordered  the  extermination  of  heretics,  whereupon 
1500  refugees  fled,  including  John  Calvin.  Perse- 
cution did  not  kiU  the  movement,  but  it  grew 
rapidly  and  enhsted  some  noble  Frenchmen, 
including  CoUgny,  Marot  and  others.  In  1562 
an  edict  was  passed  promising  religious  liberty, 
but  it  was  only  a  prelude  to  civil  war.  Peace 
seemed  to  be  in  sight  when  the  royalist  Cathohc 
party  treacherously  instigated  the  Massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew's  day  (q.v.),  1572.  The  struggle 
continued  until  in  1598  by  the  terms  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (q.v.)  a  charter  of  rehgious  and  poUtical 
hberty  was  granted.  But  the  Cathohc  party  con- 
tinued its  policy  of  opposition  and  persecution, 
and  finally  in  1685  Louis  XIV.  revoked  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  as  a  result  of  which  400,000  Huguenots 
emigrated  to  other  European  countries  and  to 
America  rather  than  be  apostates  to  the  faith. 
The  remaining  Protestants  renewed  the  struggle, 
and  at  length  in  1787  civil,  and  in  1789  rehgious 
hberty  was  restored,  while  in  1801  the  legal  rights 
of  the  Protestant  church  were  recognized.  A 
schism  occurred  in  1848  whereby  the  Union  des 
&glises  Evangeliques  de  France  separated  from  the 
Reformed  Synod,  and  thus  the  old  Huguenot 
church  was  perpetuated  in  two  divisions, 

HUITZILOPOCHTLI.— The  greatest  god  of 
the  Aztecs  to  whom  vast  numbers  of  human  victims 
were  offered  yearly.  He  is  a  combination  of  war- 
god  and  god  of  vegetation. 

HUMAN  SACRIFICE.— The  dehberate,  cere- 
monial killing  of  a  human  being.  The  practice  has 
been  found  among  practically  every  race  that  has 
advanced  beyond  the  stage  of  savagery.  The 
explanation  of  the  act  must  be  sought  in  the  nature 
of  the  gods,  in  the  feeling  of  communal  responsi- 
bihty  and  in  the  idea  of  magical  power.  The 
chief  reasons  are  the  removal  of  pollution  from 
the  group  by  the  sacrifice  of  one  individual  (if  the 
individual  is  the  culprit  this  is  equivalent  to  group 
revenge  or  penal  "justice");  to  satisfy  a  god  whose 
revenge  is  feared  or  to  secure  the  favor  of  a  god 
by  offering  the  choicest  gift;  to  remove  an  epidemic 
or  public  calamity;  to  commune  with  the  god  by 
eating  human  flesh  which,  as  a  sacrificial  embodi- 
ment of  the  god,  is  divine  (Mexico);  to  send  a 
messenger  to  the  gods;  to  give  servants  to  the 
gods  or  to  the  dead;  to  acquire  supernatural 
power;  to  secure  control  over  the  souls  of  the  slain; 
to  compel  the  gods  to  grant  a  boon  in  time  of  dis- 
tress; to  help  the  gods  when  they  seem  to  be 
enfeebled;  to  save  the  life  of  some  other  individual; 
or  to  acquire  some  quality  or  power  such  as  fer- 
tility. 

HUMANISM,  HUMANISTS.— A  term  histori- 
cally applied  to  the  movement  in  western  Europe 
during  the  14th.  and  15th.  centuries  that  broke 


^13 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Hus,  John 


away  from  mediaeval  traditions  of  philosophy 
and  theology  and  gave  itself  to  the  study  of  the 
ancient  classics. 

Petrarch,  who  wrote  numerous  epistles  and 
dissertations;  Boccaccio,  who  translated  into  the 
Latin  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey;  Salutato,  who  founded 
a  Greek  chair  at  Florence;  and  Chrysoloras,  who 
began  instruction  in  this  chair;  NiccoU,  who  spent 
his  fortune  in  buying  manuscripts;  BraccioUni, 
who  rescued  from  a  prison  and  translated  QuintiUan; 
Cosimo  de  Medici,  prince,  musician,  theologian, 
connoisseur  in  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture, 
who  founded  a  platonic  academy;  Guicciardini,  the 
historian — -these  are  representative  of  the  many 
pursuits  and  interests  of  Humanism.  Its  exalted 
estimate  of  man  is  expressed  in  the  words  ascribed 
by  Mirandella  to  God  in  addressing  Adam:  "I 
created  thee  a  being  neither  heavenly  nor  earthly, 
neither  mortal  nor  immortal,  only  that  thou 
mightest  be  free  to  shape  andf  overcome  thyself. 
Thou  mayest  sink  into  a  beast  and  be  born  anew  to 
a  divine  hkeness.  The  brutes  bring  from  their 
mother's  body  what  they  will  carry  with  them  as 
long  as  they  hve.  The  higher  spirits  are  from  the 
beginning  or  soon  after  what  they  will  be  forever. 
To  thee  alone  is  given  a  growth  and  a  development 
depending  on  thine  own  free  will.  Thou  bearest 
in  thee  the  germs  of  universal  life." 

Though  cultured  and  ambitious  for  knowledge, 
the  Humanist  in  Italy  was  conspicuous  for  moral 
aberration. .  Flattered  in  youth,  living  in  an 
atmosphere  of  excitement,  the  victim  of  fortune 
that  one  day  gave  abundance  and  the  next  poverty, 
compelled  to  court  the  favor  of  princes,  the  Human- 
ist almost  invariably  represents  superficial  worldli- 
ness  and  untamed  passions.  Outside  of  Italy, 
however,  he  represented  a  finer  moral  tone.  Typical 
representatives  are  Erasmus,  Reuchlin,  Colet, 
More,  and  Zwingli.    See  Renaissance. 

Peter  G.  Mode 

HTJMANITARIANISM.— Any  philosophy  or 
doctrine  which  makes  human  values  supreme. 

1.  Theologically,  the  definition  of  the  character 
of  Christ  entirely  m  terms  of  human  nature.  Any 
doctrine  which  denies  the  deity  of  Christ. 

2.  An  optimistic  beUef  in  the  perfectibility  of 
human  nature  without  recourse  to  supernatural 
aid.  In  this  sense  it  was  applied  to  the  theories  of 
the  disciples  of  the  social  philosopher  Saint-Simon. 

3.  A  moral  and  social  program  aiming  at  the 
complete  satisfaction  of  all  worthy  human  needs 
and  aspirations  by  removing  harsh  conditions  of 
life.  In  this  sense  it  stands  for  an  emotional 
devotion  to  social  reform.  It  includes  such  move- 
ments as  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  removal  of 
social  and  poUtical  restrictions  from  women,  the 
elimination  of  poverty,  the  creation  of  better 
conditions  of  life  for  working  people,  the  better 
care  and  education  of  children,  reform  of  penology, 
the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals,  etc.  While 
often  used  to  depreciate  a  supposed  impractical 
emotionahsm,  the  word  is  increasingly  coming 
to  stand  for  the  broadest  spirit  of  constructive 
social  sympathy.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HUME,  DAVID  (1711-1776).— EngUsh  phi- 
losopher and  writer,  noted  for  his  thorough-going 
exposition  of  empiricism  (q.v.). 

Following  Locke  _  (q.v.),  Hume  carried  the 
opposition  to  innate  ideas  so  far  that  he  retained 
only  a  time-sequence  of  experiences  as  material  for 
philosophy.  "Impressions"  are  made  upon  our 
minds,  which,  if  repeated  frequently  enough,  lead  to 
the  expectation  on  our  part  that  experiences  will 
continue  to  occur  in  certain  ways.  Beyond  these 
experiences  and  expectations  we  cannot  pass. 
Skepticism  in  the  realm  of  metaphysics  is  the  only 


defensible  attitude.  This  position  involved  agnosti- 
cism concerning  God  and  the  sotd,  hence  aroused  the 
opposition  of  theologians. 

Hume  wrote  a  Natural  History  of  Religion, 
in  which  he  attempted  to  show  how  religious  ideas 
arise  in  human  experience.  The  omission  of  the 
supernatural  seemed  to  discredit  religion.  Personally 
Hume  admitted  that  the  conception  of  a  rational 
author  of  the  universe  is  philosophically  defensible, 
but  he  made  no  use  of  positive  reUgion. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HUMERAL  VEIL.— A  veil,  now  of  silk,  formerly 
of  linen,  worn  by  the  subdeacou,  formerly  by  the 
acolythe,  at  certain  parts  of  the  Mass. 

HUMILIATI.— A  R.C.  religious  order  of  men 
and  women.  Several  noblemen  of  Lombardy, 
after  an  unsuccessful  rebellion,  were  taken  captive 
by  Emperor  Henry  V.  to  Germany,  where  they 
devoted  themselves  to  the  service  of  the  poor. 
On  being  allowed  to  return  to  Italy,  they  founded 
the  order,  later  adopting  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict 
(q.v.),  and  were  active  in  social  work,  greatly 
promoting  economic  advancement  in  the  com- 
munity wherever  they  were.  Growing  wealthy 
and  lax,  they  were  suppressed  in  1571.  The 
order  of  women  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of 
lepers.    Five  houses  still  exist  in  Italy. 

HUMILIATION  OP  CHRIST.— A  theological 
term  denoting  the  Umitations  and  sufferings  to 
which  Christ  submitted  in  consequence  of  his 
humanity,  in  contrast  with  his  exaltation  (q.v.) 
or  such  events  as  gave  evidence  of  his  deity.  See 
Kenosis. 

HUMILITY. — An  attitude  of  personal  modesty 
forbidding  pride  in  one's  attainments  or  achieve- 
ments. 

HumiUty  is  a  virtue  much  emphasized  in  Christi- 
anity. _  Religiously  it  indicates  a  sense  of  un worthi- 
ness in  God's  sight,  and  involves  a  constant 
dependence  upon  divine  grace.  It  is  thus  indis- 
pensable to  salvation.  It  is  especially  emphasized 
in  monastic  discipUne,  being  involved  in  the  funda- 
mental vows  of  poverty  and  obedience.  It  figures 
prominently  in  discussions  of  Christian  virtues  in 
both  Catholic  and  Protestant  ethics.  When  sincere 
it  is  a  beautiful  trait,  leading  to  unselfish  consecra- 
tion. ^  Its  exaltation  as  a  Christian  virtue  leads 
occasionally  to  a  hypocritical  profession,  a  famous 
caricature  of  which  is  given  in  Dickens'  Uriah 
Heep.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

HUNTINGDON'S,  COUNTESS  OF,  CON- 
NEXION.—A  sect  of  Calvinistic  Methodists 
founded  by  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  (1707- 
1791),  who  was  a  friend  of  Whitqfield  and  utiUzed 
her  income  in  the  establishment  of  chapels  for 
evangelical  preaching  throughout  England.  The 
Connexion  has  a  coUege  at  Cambridge  and  a  small 
number  of  churches  and  ministers. 

HUPPAH.— (Hebrew.)  A  portable  canopy, 
supported  by  four  sticks,  under  which  the  Jewish 
bride  and  groom  stand  during  the  marriage  cere- 
mony— symboUc  of  the  union  of  the  two  under  one 
roof.  Its  use  has  been  discontmued  by  many  Jews, 
who  sometimes  substitute  a  canopy  of  flowers. 

HUS,  JOHN  (ca.  1370-1415).— Bohemian 
reformer;  taught  in  the  University,  and  preached 
in  Bethlehem  Chapel,  Prague.  His  sympathy 
with  the  teachings  of  John  WycUffe  (q.v.)  aroused 
the  animosity  of  the  CathoUc  church,  and  in  1411 
he  was  placed  under  its  ban.  He  defiantly  dis- 
regarded all  papal  denunciations,  and  insisted  on 


Hussites 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


214 


criticizing  and  testing  the  church  by  the  authority 
of  Scripture.  At  the  council  of  Constance,  1414r- 
1415  Hus  was  condemned  to  the  stake.  Although 
less  radical  in  doctrine  than  Wycliffe,  he  was  a  great 
popular  agitator  and  stands  historically  between 
Wychffe  and  Luther  as  the  spiritual  teacher  who 
paved  the  way  on  the  continent  for  the  Protestant 
Reformation. 

HUSSITES.— See  Bohemian  Brethren. 

HUTCHINSON,  ANNE  (1600-1643).— Ameri- 
can rehgious  zealot,  who  led  a  protesting  movement 
against  the  legahsm  of  Massachusetts  Puritanism, 
claiming  to  be  under  a  "covenant  of  grace"  as 
opposed  to  the  "covenant  of  works"  of  the  orthodox. 
In  the  pohtical  struggle  which  ensued,  the  orthodox 
party  won,  and  Mrs.  Hutchinson  was  banished, 
being  subsequently  killed  by  Indians  on  Long 
Island. 

HUXLEY,  THOMAS  HENRY  (1825-1875).— 
EngUsh  biologist;  took  a  Uvely  interest  in  the 
problems  of  philosophy  and  theology,  his  general 
attitude  being  one  of  theological  agnosticism. 
He  beheved  the  cosmic  process  had  no  relationship 
to  moral  ends,  moral  purpose  being  of  human  origin. 

HYACINTHE,  FATHER  (1827-1912).— A 
French  monk  (Charles  Loyson)  of  unusual  power 
who  on  account  of  his  Uberal  views  was  discipUned 
and  excommunicated;  after  which  he  organized  a 
free  Cathohc  church  in  Paris. 

HYBRIS. — A  Greek  word  meaning  the  insolent 
overstepping  of  the  rights  belonging  to  one's 
place  in  the  cosmic  order.  As  a  detestable  moral 
fault  it  is  set  over  against  sophrosune,  the  attitude 
of  the  man  who  avoids  excess,  following  the  way 
of  wisdom,  the  "golden  mean." 

HYGINUS.— Bishop  of  Rome,  137-140,  eighth 
in  the  official  Ust  of  popes. 

HYKSOS.— "Shepherd  Kings";  the  earUest 
invaders  of  Egypt  whom  Josephus  identified  with 
the  Israelites,  others  with  the  Arabs,  and  still 
others  with  the  Syrians.  They  were  worshipers 
of  Seth,  an  Egyptian  deity  who  represented  for 
them  an  Asiatic  deity 

HYLOZOISM.— The  theory  that  so-called  "mat- 
ter" has  certain  vital  or  psychical  quahties  and  is 
thus  competent  to  produce  all  reahty. 

The  doctrine  provides  for  a  kind  of  monism 
(q.v.)  which  shall  include  both  material  and 
immaterial  reality.  It  appeared  in  early  _  Greek 
philosophy,  and  finds  expression  in  modem  times  in 
Haeckel's  monism. 

HYMNS. — In  old  Greek  hymnos  was  a  festival 
song  to  the  gods  or  heroes.  The  LXX  (Ps.  72:20) 
appHed  it  to  the  psalms  of  Israel;  Paul  to  social 
songs  of  Christians  (with  "psalms"  and  "spiritual 
songs";  e.g.,  Eph.  6:19).  In  the  Latin  Vulgate 
and  Christian  writings  from  Augustine  hymnus 
covered  all  "song  with  praise  to  God."  Now 
hymnus  is  technically  a  hymn  of  the  Breviary.  In 
Enghsh  hymn,  implying  praise,  is  appUed  (1)  gener- 
ally to  any  composition  suitable  for  singing  or 
chanting  in  rehgious  service;  (2)  specifically  to 
metrical  compositions  in  stanzas  for  congregational 
singing;  (3)  narrowly  to  those  humanly  composed  as 
against  inspired  Scripture  songs. 

I.  Hymns  in  the  NATioNAii  Religions. — 
Their  use  antedates  aU  records.  The  Egyptian 
"Pyramid  Texts"  contain  hymns  in  couplets  like 


Hebrew  psalms,  recited  in  mortuary,  perhaps 
temple,  ritual.  The  (Hindu)  Rigveda,  giving  a 
picture  of  early  Aryan  hfe,  is  a  collection  of  1028 
hymns  of  praise  and  prayer,  in  stanzas  like  our 
own;  nearly  all  for  reciting  or  chanting  at  the 
sacrifices.  Babylonian  hymns  praise,  or  propitiate, 
the  powers  that  bless  or  threaten  life.  They 
include  penitential  htanies,  introspective  with  a 
deep  sense  of  guilt,  and  often  responsive  in  form; 
and  pubUc  lamentations  wailed  in  troubled  times, 
anticipating  Hebrew  "Lamentations."  In  the 
Iranian  Avesta  the  hymn  becomes  a  medium  of 
Zoroastriau  instruction  and  exhortation. 

These  hymns,  of  priestly  composition,  invoking 
and  celebrating  the  gods  in  direct  address,  descrip- 
tion or  narrative,  represent  the  higher  side  of  reli- 
gion. Sometimes  rising  to  pure  worship  and  poetry, 
the  ancient  motif  of  the  hymn  is  disclosed  as  an 
offering  gratifying  the  gods,  and  sharing  the  pro- 
pitiatory efficacy  of  the  sacrifice.  Hymns  must  be 
distinguished  from  metrical  charms  or  spells  of 
incantation  (see  Magic),  even  though  developed 
from  or  serving  as  charms. 

Japanese  and  Chinese  reUgions  made  less  of 
hymns,  but  Taoism  has  its  own.  Buddhism  intro- 
duced hymns  into  both  countries,  though  its  ethical 
verse  is  more  characteristic.  Hinduism  and  Islam- 
ism  make  Uttle  of  the  hymn.  The  priestly  chants 
of  early  Greece  have  perished,  but  melie  poetry 
developed  processional  and  sacrificial  chorals.  Of 
Roman  hymns  little  survives:  of  Celtic  less. 
Hebrew  hymns  stand  apart  for  their  confident 
proclamation  of  the  one  God,  their  true  rehgious- 
ness,  high  poetic  level  and  universahty.  Canonized 
as  The  Book  of  Psalms  they  constitute  the  founda- 
tion of  both  Jewish  and  Christian  praise. 

II.  Christian  Hymns. — 1.  Before  the  Reforma- 
tion.—T\yq  Psalter  was  the  Church's  first  hymn 
book.  Other  Scripture  songs  and  new  Christian 
hymns  (prose,  like  the  LXX  Psalms)  inevitably 
followed.  Recited,  with  congregational  refrains, 
their  introduction  was  easy,  and  passages  like 
II  Tim.  2: 11-13  may  quote  them.  The  circulation 
of  heretical  hymns,  Greek  and  Syriac,  created 
opposition  to  extra-Biblical  hymns;  but  this 
failed  to  exclude  them  from  the  developing  Liturgy. 
Hymn  writing  in  the  decaying  quantitative  metres 
began  with  Clement  of  Alexandria,  but  the  hymnody 
used  in  worship,  developed  through  the  8th.  and 
9th.  centuries,  and  estabhshed  in  the  Greek  service 
books  (11th.  century)  was  on  an  accentual  system, 
reading  like  rhjrthmical  prose. 

Latin  metrical  hymnody  began  with  Hilary 
(4th.  century),  but  Ambrose  (d.  397)  introduced 
simple  iambic  hymns  at  Milan,  widely  popular 
while  Latin  continued  a  living  tongue,  which  won  a 
place  in  monastic  breviaries,  eventually  in  the 
Roman,  as  features  of  the  Daily  Office.  Hymn 
writing  of  the  Ambrosian  school  tended,  with 
reversions,  from  quantitative  to  accentual  verse, 
culminating  by  the  12th.  century  in  a  wealth  of 
rhythmical  hymnody  modelled  on  Notker  of  St. 
Gall  (d.  912).  His  "sequences"  originally  furnished 
words  for  a  run  of  meaningless  notes  in  the  liturgy. 
With  the  sequence  (e.g.,  Stabat  Mater)  hymns  won 
admission  to  the  Mass. 

2.  After  the  Reformation. — Hus  revived,  Luther 
and  Calvin  re-established,  vernacular  congrega- 
tional song,  with  differing  methods.  Luther  pro- 
vided hymns  (1524),  the  first  of  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  German  hymn  writers,  Lutheran,  pietistic, 
Moravian,  modern.  Calvin,  zealous  that  God's 
Word  should  dominate  worship,  excluded  "hymns 
of  human  composure,"  substituting  versified  Psalms 
(1538-62).  He  was  followed  in  part  by  German, 
wholly  by  Dutch,  Enghsh,  Scottish  and  lesser 
Reformed  Churches,  whose  exclusive  addiction  to 


215 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Idea 


psalm-singing  for  over  two  centuries  postponed 
the  writing  of  Protestant  hymns,  outside  of  Luther- 
anism,  till  a  modern  period.  English  hymn  writing 
began  late  in  the  17th.  century,  but  Isaac  Watts^ 
Hymns  and  Spiritual  Songs  (1707)  was  the  wedge 
that  spUt  the  stolid  mass  of  the  old  psalmody,  and 
gave  form  as  well  as  favor  to  the  English  hymn: 
the  Wesleys  followed  with  their  Methodist  hymns. 
With  these  and  its  own  evangelical  hymns  the  fervor 
of  the  18th.  century  revival  established  hymn 
singing  in  England  and  America.  The  experiential 
content  and  homiletical  tone  of  the  evangeUcal 
hymn  were  modified  by  the  literary  influences  of 
the  Romantic  Movement,  the  liturgical  ideals  of  the 
Oxford  Movement,  and  recently*  by  the  social 
awakening.  Lotjis  F.  Benson 

HYPOCRISY.— Pretending  to  be  what  one  is 
not;  particularly  insincere  profession  of  virtue 
or  religion  in  concealment  of  some  ulterior  motive, 
or  in  feigned  compliance  with  a  custom  or  standard. 

HYPOSTASIS.— A  Greek  word,  literally  mean- 
ing that  which  stands  under  or  supports  as  the 
basis  or  support  of  a  theory  or  fact.  In  meta- 
physics, the  ascription  of  individual,  substantial 
existence  to  any  reality.  In  theology,  the  word 
was  at  first  used  to  mean  substance,  essential 
nature  or  modality,  being  applied  to  the  Father, 
Son  and  Holy  Ghost.     The  Cappadocians  used  it  in 


the  sense  of  individual  reality,  and  spoke  of  three 
hypostases  in  one  ousia.  Later  it  came  to  be  used 
as  equivalent  to  the  Latin  persona  in  the  formulation 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

HYPOSTATICAL  UNITY.— The  unity  of  the 
two  natures,  divine  and  human,  in  the  one  hypos- 
tasis (q.v.)  or  person  of  Christ.    See  Chiustoi/)gy. 

HYPOTHESIS.— A  tentative  supposition 
offered  as  an  explanation  of  a  phenomenon  or  fact, 
and  used  as  a  basis  for  observation  and  investiga- 
tion with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  true  explanation. 
Hence  a  hypothesis  has  reference  to  an  end  beyond 
itself,  as  a  hypothetical  imperative  in  ethics  in 
contrast  with  a  categorical  imperative  (q.v.). 

HYSTERIA. — ^A  special  form  of  neurotic  or 
psychopathic  instability.  The  symptoms  are 
extreme  impressionability,  liability  to  intense 
emotional  excitation  through  sUght  stimulation 
and  undue  attention  to  self.  There  are  great 
differences  of  degree  in  the  phenomena.  The 
causes  of  hysteria  are  emotional  shock,  over-fatigue, 
and  various  sensory  and  motor  disorders.  A 
frequent  characteristic  is  the  appearance  of  disease 
symptoms  in  hysterical  patients  for  which  expert 
(fiagnosis  discovers  no  true  causes. 

Edwabd  S.  Ames 

HYTASPES.— See  Vishtaspa. 


IB  AS  (d.  457). — Bishop  of  Edessa  and  theologian 
of  the  Antiochan  school.  He  was  condemned  by 
by  Justinian  I.  and  the  Fifth  Synod  of  Constanti- 
nople for  his  Nestorian  views  to  which  he  gave 
expression  in  a  letter  to  Maris  the  Persian.  See 
Three  Chapter  Controversy. 

IBLIS. — The  devil  of  Mohammedanism,  an 
angel  smitten  by  the  curse  of  God  for  refusing  to 
prostrate  himself  before  Adam.  He  now  has  the 
function  of  tempter  of  men  and  adversary  of  the 
good.     He  is  the  captain  of  the  hosts  of  evil  spirits. 

IBN  GABIROL,  SOLOMON  (1021-1058).— 
Known  also  as  Avicebron.  Spanish  Jewish  poet  and 
philosopher.  His  chief  philosophic  work,  Fons 
Vitae,  written  in  Arabic  and  translated  into  Latin, 
restored  Neo-Platonism  to  Europe  and  exerted 
considerable  influence  on  medieval  scholasticism. 
Gabirol  wrote  also  valuable  ethical  treatises,  and  many 
beautiful  poems,  the  finest  of  which  are  liturgical. 

ICELAND,  RELIGIONS  OF.— The  original 
religion  was  that  of  the  primitive  Teutons  who 
settled  there,  and  the  sagas  of  the  11th.  century 
record  much  of  their  mythology  and  magical 
practises.  Christianity  was  introduced  by  the 
Norwegians  ca.  1000  a.d.,  and  within  two  centuries 
Iceland  was  converted  to  the  Christian  faith. 

ICON. — A  sculptured  or  painted  image  of  a 
person  or  scene  toward  which  reUgious  worship  or 
reverence  is  devoted.    See  Iconoclasm. 

ICO NOCLASM.— (Literally:  image  breaking.) 
Destruction  of  images  to  protest  against  super- 
stitious worship  of  Christ  or  the  saints  led  to  actual 
warfare  in  the  Byzantine  empire  in  the  8th.  century. 
After  the  seventh  ecumenical  council  (787)  had 
sanctioned  the  worship  by  a  verbal  distinction 
from  the  adoration  given  to  God,  Leo  the  Armenian 
(813-820)  renewed  the  iconoclastic  war,  but  the 


regent  Theodora  in  the  synod  of  842  had  the 
decree  of.  787  confirmed.  Charlemagne's  Libri 
Carolini  repudiated  image  worship  but  it  grew  in 
the  Latin  church.  Another  protest  with  the 
destruction  of  church  art  marked  the  Reformation, 
in  Wittenberg  under  Carlstadt,  in  Switzerland,  and 
notably  in  the  Netherlands  (1566). 

F.  A.  Christib 
ICONOCLASTIC  CONTROVERSY— A  con- 
troversy respecting  the  use  of  images  in  Christian 
worship,  occasioned  by  the  desire  of  Emperor  Leo 
(718-741)  and  his  son  to  establish  peace  with  the 
Saracens.  The  papal  defense  of  miage  worship 
developed  strained  relations  in  which  papal  revenues 
were  cut  off  by  the  emperor  and  the  lUyrian  churches 
attached  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople. 
At  the  second  Council  of  Nicaea  (787)  a  compromise 
was  effected  by  distinguishing  between  bowing  to  an 
image  and  worshiping  it.  Image  worship  was  finally 
restored  in  the  East  (842). 

ICONOSTASIS.— A  picture  screen  stretching 
across  the  apse  of  a  Greek  Church,  separating  the 
sanctuary  from  the  nave.  It  is  the  most  conspicu- 
ous distinction  between  Roman  and  Greek  Churches, 
the  pictures  on  it  taking  the  place  of  images,  not 
allowed  in  Greek  Churches  since  the  time  of  Icono- 
clasm  (q.v.). 

IDEA. — ^The  earliest  significance  of  the  Greek 
original  was  what  the  eye  recognized  in  the  object, 
the  form.  Hence  in  common  usage  it  signified  the 
type.  In  the  philosophy  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  it 
was  the  universal,  which  had  a  real  existence  of  its 
own  and  constituted  the  reality  of  particular  objects 
of  sensuous  experience.  By  way  of  medieval  Platon- 
ism  it  passed  into  the  psychological  usage  of  modem 
thought,  carrying  both  significations,  that  of  the 
\form  and  that  of  the  nature  of  the  thing  known,  as 
Vthese  appeared  in  the  mind  of  the  Jtnower  Thus 
\Locke  used  it  indifferently  for  the  immediate  object 
m  the  mind,  whether  this  was  sensation  or  concept, 


Ideal 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


216 


a  double  usage  which  was  quite  sympathetic  to  the 
nominalism  of  Berkeley.  Hume  confines  idea  to  the 
mental  image  of  the  sensation.  In  current  usage 
it  has  come  to  answer  very  generally  to  the  concept 
of  a  thing,  though  it  is  still  haunted  by  the  ghost  of 
the  image  of  the  thing.  It  is  no  longer  a  sharply 
defined  technical  term  in  current  English  philosophy 
and  psychology.  The  various  significations  of  idea 
are  now  assigned  to  different  terras,  such  as  sensa- 
tion, image,  presentation,  representation,  meaning, 
and  concept.  In  German  philosophy  Kant  revived 
the  objective  signification  of  the  term,  in  the  "ideas 
of  the  reason;"  in  his  system  these  were  directive 
principles  of  thought  that  assumed  the  existence 
of  eternal  realities,  which  were  independent  of  our 
phenomenal  experience.  In  the  systems  of  Roman- 
tic Idealism,  that  succeeded  Kant's  Transcendental 
Idealism  the  object  of  rational  thought  was  given 
in  thought  itself,  and  the  idea  in  Hegel's  doctrine 
stood  for  the  complete  expression  of  aU  reality 
in  the  Absolute.  The  influence  of  German  idealism 
in  England  and  America  carried  over  this  signifi- 
cance of  the  word  into  the  terminology  of  the 
neo-HegeUans  in  English  and  American  Universities. 

George  H.  Mead 
IDEAL. — The  term  may  be  used  simply  as  the 
adjective  of  idea,  in  the  various  senses  of  idea  noted 
above.  Its  more  customary  usage  both  as  adjec- 
tive and  noun  refers  to  a  1  perfected  reality  that  is 
not  given  in  actual  experience,  though  the  perfec- 
tion would  be  but  the  realization  of  natures,  tenden- 
cies, and  forms  which  are  found  in  actual  experienc^ 
Such  an  ideal  in  aesthetics  the  Plato nist  conceives  as 
self-existing  and  offering  the  perfect  beauty  of  which 
all  beautiful  objects  are  but  copies.  The  aesthetic 
ideal  may  be  the  expression  of  the  characteristics 
of  a  race  in  an  individual  or  the  creation  of  an 
artist.  It  may  be  the  exact  expression  of  what 
a  conceptual  definition  demands  in  the  sciences, 
e.g.,  an  ideal  elasticity,  or  it  may  be  that  which 
would  satisfy  the  aesthetic  demands  of  an  artist 
or  a  man  of  taste.  In  ethics  the  ideal  has  been 
conceived  as  the  essential  good  in  the  Platonic 
sense,  as  the  end  of  moral  conduct,  whether  this 
be  the  satisfaction  of  the  hedonist,  or  the  seK- 
realization  of  the  Hegelian.  On  the  other  hand 
it  may  be  regarded  as  the  expression  of  the  standard 
of  moral  conduct,  where  the  actual  end  is  one  which 
is  beyond  our  knowledge  or  adequate  comprehen- 
sion. In  that  wide  range  of  moral  conduct  in 
which  there  is  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  ultimate 
good  toward  which  we  assume  the  moral  order 
moves,  we  guide  ourselves  by  ideal  standards  of 
character,  especially  those  of  authoritative  person- 
ahties,  of  justice,  of  freedom,  and  of  humanity.  It  is 
such  standards  that  we  have  in  mind  when  we  speak 
of  a  man  of  high  ideals.  They  have  especial  reference 
to  men's  conceptions  of  institutions  whose  actual 
operations  leave  much  to  be  desired.  Thus  our  j  udi- 
cial,  governmental,  educational,  and  religious  institu- 
tions all  fall  short  of  the  standards  which  men  of 
high  ideals  entertain.  On  the  other  hand  such 
standards  are  abstract  just  because  we  do  not  know 
the  concrete  end  toward  which  conduct  should  be 
directed,  and  a  man  of  high  ideals  may  find  that 
they  interfere  with  the  unprejudiced  search  for 
what  is  best  under  actual  conditions.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  our  ideals  are  tested  by  our  ability  to 
translate  them  into  concrete  ends  in  the  presence 
of  those  moral  problems  in  which  we  are  in  doubt 
as  to  what  is  the  good.  George  H.  Mead 

IDEALISM. — 1.  A  personal  attitude  of  confi- 
dence in  the  supremacy  of  moral  or  spiritual  ideals. 
2.  A  philosophical  position  holding  that  reaUty  is 
ultimately  constituted  of  ideas  or  of  reason  rather 
than  of  material  forces. 


1.  Personal  idealism  is  closely  akin  to  religious 
faith.  Unseen  imperatives  of  goodness  or  of  beauty 
are  held  to  be  of  supreme  importance,  and  the 
world  of  nature  or  of  human  society  is  to  be  shaped 
accordingly.  Such  men  as  Carlyle  and  Ruskin 
were  idealists  in  this  sense.  While  ideaUsts  may 
often  be  "impractical,"  the  moral  and  rehgious 
conceptions  of  men  have  been  largely  shaped  by 
them. 

2.  Philosophically,  idealism  represents  a  method 
of  explanation  which  starts  with  the  undeniable 
fact  that  we  know  immediately  only  the  ideas  in  our 
consciousness.  The  problem  of  philosophy  is  to 
show  what  these  ideas  point  to  as  ultimate  reality. 
Subjective  idealism  holds  that  we  can  never  get 
beyond  the  contents  of  our  consciousness.  Every 
effort  to  affirm  something  other  than  an  idea  turns 
out  to  be  simply  the  assertion  of  another  idea. 
Berkeley  is  the  classic  representative  of  this  view. 
Transcendental,  or  critical  idealism,  as  represented 
by  Kant,  asserts  that  certain  ideal  forms  or  cate- 
gories are  furnished  a  priori  in  consciousness 
prescribing  laws  to  experience  of  reality  and  deter- 
mining how  it  shall  become  an  object  of  knowledge. 
All  reality  is  thus  conditioned  by  these  a  priori  prin- 
ciples, and  cannot  be  known  in  any  other  form. 
Objective,  or  absolute  idealism,  as  expounded  by  Hegel, 
represents  reality  in  all  its  aspects  as  expressions 
of  the  Absolute  Intelligence  which  dynamically 
unifies  the  manifold  nature  of  finite  existences. 
See  Hegel;  Monism. 

The  religious  significance  of  idealism  lies  in  the 
fact  that  it  furnishes  a  philosophical  weapon  with 
which  to  refute  materialism,  and  thus  gives  the 
right  of  way  to  spiritual  conceptions.  Absolute 
idealism  easily  reinforces  theism.  At  the  same 
time,  idealism  is  as  damaging  to  realism  in  theology 
as  in  philosophy.  Roman  Catholicism  repudiates 
it  because  it  bases  all  argument  on  an  appeal  to 
experience  and  logically  excludes  the  thought  of 
doctrines  delivered  by  authority.  For  the  same 
reasons,  _  Protestant  orthodoxy  is  wary.  The 
danger  in  idealism  is  that  it  may  become  too 
easily  subjective,  and  neglect  to  take  full  account 
of  the  hard  facts  of  the  world. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

IDOLATRY.— The  worship  of  a  physical 
object  as  a  god.  It  has  been  sometimes  held  that 
idolatry  represents  a  falling  away  from  a  worship 
of  the  infinite  God  in  an  effort  to  make  that  God 
more  real  to  the  worshiper.  Such  a  view,  however, 
is  not  borne  out  by  archaeology  or  anthropology, 
except  in  cases  of  the  degeneracy  of  developed 
religions.  Yet  idolatry  has  not  always  marked  the 
early  stages  of  religion  (e.g.,  the  early  Vedic).  See 
Idols  and  Images. 

IDOLS  AND  IMAGES.— The  two  words  were 
originally  synonymous,  but  idol  is  now  apphed  to  an 
image  which  is  an  object  of  worship. 

Men  at  an  early  stage  of  civihzation  attribute 
what  we  should  call  supernatural  powers  to  certain 
physical  objects.  It  is  thought  for  example  that  a 
stone  of  unusual  shape  will  bring  good  luck.  When 
the  distinction  between  matter  and  spirit  is  drawn 
these  powers  are  supposed  to  be  exercised  by  a 
spirit  dwelling  in  the  stone.  Reverence  is  shown 
to  the  physical  object  to  secure  the  favor  of  the 
spirit.  Hence  the  adoration  paid  to  sacred  stones 
and  sacred  trees,  one  of  the  most  widespread  forms 
of  reUgious  worship.  Thinking  anthropomorphi- 
cally  as  he  did,  man  pictured  the  spirit  in  human 
form,  and  to  indicate  its  residence  in  the  stone  he 
gave  the  stone  human  features  or  members  by 
carving  it.  The  same  process  could  be  applied  to 
the  sacred  tree  or  the  wood  which  retained  its 
sacredness  after  the  life  of  the  tree  was  gone.    This 


217 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Illusion 


seems  to  be  the  origin  of  image-worship.  ^  There  was 
also  an  idea  that  the  spirits  are  subject  to  the 
magician,  and  could  therefore  be  conjured  into 
objects  which  otherwise  they  might  not  choose  for 
their  habitation.  A  man  might  therefore  carve  a 
statue  and  have  the  spirit  invited  into  it,  in  this 
way  procuring  for  his  household  a  guardian  and 
protector. 

The  image  need  not  necessarily  be  of  human 
form,  for  the  animals  were  supposed  to  be  possessed 
of  superhuman  power,  and  the  image  of  an  animal 
would  be  as  appropriate  for  a  divinity  as  a  human 
figure.  In  Egypt  where  animal  worship  was  more 
fully  developed  than  elsewhere  we  find  animals 
carved  in  stone,  and  also  all  sorts  of  composite 
figures — human  bodies  with  animal  heads  being  the 
most  common,  although  animal  bodies  with  human 
heads  (the  sphinx  is  an  example)  are  not  rare. 
Portrait  statues  might  of  course  become  idols,  and 
this  would  occur  most  naturally  in  those  cases  where 
the  original  was  regarded  with  special  reverence. 
Kings  and  great  warriors  were  in  some  sense  divine 
before  their  death,  and  would  continue  to  be 
worshiped  as  though  still  living  in  their  statues.  So 
much  basis  there  may  be  in  the  theory  of  Euhemerus 
that  the  gods  in  all  cases  are  deified  men.  The 
Greeks  however,  whom  he  had  especially  in  mind, 
always  drew  a  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  the 
gods  and  the  heroes,  though  both  received  wor- 
ship. 

Since  the  idol  is  inhabited  by  a  spirit  there  is 
no  reason  why  it  should  not  give  manifest  tokens  of 
being  alive,  and  the  pious  worshiper  often  thought 
he  discovered  such  tokens.  Many  are  the  stories 
of  images  which  responded  to  the  prayer  of  the 
devotee  by  turning  the  head,  winking  the  eye, 
moving  the  hands  or  bursting  into  perspiration. 
Such  wonders  have  found  a  place  in  the  legends  of 
Christian  saints. 

It  is  outside  the  scope  of  this  article  to  discuss 
the  influence  of  idolatry  on  art.  We  may  however 
notice  that  the  reaction  against  images  was  led  by 
the  Jewish  people  or  rather  by  enlightened  indi- 
viduals from  that  race.  At  a  comparatively 
early  date  their  law  forbade  them  to  make  gods  of 
silver  or  of  gold.  It  was  only  in  the  exile,  however, 
when  they  came  into  touch  with  the  elaborate 
idolatry  of  their  oppressors,  that  they  began 
to  realize  the  force  of  this  prohibition.  Then 
their  eyes  were  opened  and  their  religious  teach- 
ers poured  unmeasured  scorn  on  the  stocks 
and  stones  to  which  the  gentiles  bowed  down. 
Possibly  they  are  not  always  just  in  their  criticisms, 
for  the  more  thoughtful  of  the  heathen  knew  that  the 
idol  was  only  a  symbol  and  that  they  were  really 
paying  reverence  to  the  spiritual  being  that  was 
symbolized.  The  Jewish  polemic  was  necessary, 
however,  to  prepare  the  way  for  worship  in  spirit 
and  in  truth.  H.  P.  Smith 

IGIGI. — ^A  group  name  for  the  secondary  gods  of 
Babylon  often  associated  with  a  similar  supernatural 
group  of  earth-spirits,  the  Annunaki. 

IGNATIUS. — Bishop  of  Antioch,  condemned  to 
the  wild  beasts  about  a.d.  107-17.  While  being  taken 
through  Asia  Minor  to  Rome  for  execution,  he  wrote 
seven  letters:  from  Smyrna  to  the  churches  of 
Ephesus,  Magnesia,  Tralles,  and  Rome;  from  Troas 
to  those  of  Philadelphia  and  Smyrna;  and  to 
Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna.  These  remarkable 
letters  m  most  cases  acknowledge  the  kindness 
shown  him  on  his  journey  by  those  to  whom  he 
writes,  strongly  urge  upon  them  harmony  with  their 
bishop  and  adherence  to  the  three-fold  ministry 
(bishop,  presbyters,  deacons),  and  warn  them 
against  fantastic  docetic  views  of  Jesus'  messiah- 


ship.     Ignatius   probably  suffered   martyrdom   in 
the  Colosseum  at  Rome.     Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

IGNORANCE.— Lack  of  knowledge.  Some 
ethical  teachers,  as,  e.g.,  Socrates,  have  identified 
virtue  with  knowledge  and  vice  with  ignorance. 
But  knowledge  ^  does  not  always  induce  moral 
activity;  and  ignorance  may  be  unavoidable, 
in  which  case  it  cannot  be  considered  blameworthy. 
Invincible  Ignorance  is,  in  R.C.  doctrine,  ignorance 
of  the  Church's  demands  due  to  inherent  limitations 
or  wrong  environment,  involving  no  guilt;  whereas 
Vincible  Ignorance  implies  a  consciousness  of  and 
neglect  to  remove  a  lack  of  knowledge,  which  is  sin. 

I  H  S. — A  monogram  meaning  Jesus  Christ, 
originally  derived  from  an  erroneous  Latinizing 
of  the  first  three  letters  in  the  Greek  word  for 
Jesus,  and  used  in  Christian  symbolism.  It  has 
been  wrongly  interpreted  as  meaning  lesus 
Hominum  Salvator  (Jesus,^  Savior  of  Men),  and 
In  Ha^  [cruce]  Salits  (In  this  [cross]  safety). 

IJMA. — ^The  Mohanamedan  principle  of  agree- 
ment. Mohammed  said,  "My  religious  community 
will  never  be  unanimous  in  error."  On  this  basis 
the  consensus  of  Islam  or  of  scholars  of  recognized 
standing  becomes  authoritative  for  the  Moslem 
world. 

IKHNATON.— Ruler  of  the  Egyptian  empire 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  14th.  century  B.C.  He 
is  notable  for  his  attempt  to  found  a  religion  of 
mystical  monotheism.  He  set  aside  the  old 
traditions,  the  established  cult  and  priesthood, 
and  chiselled  even  the  names  of  the  gods  of  the 
past  from  the  monuments.  His  hymns  are  beautiful 
expressions  of  religious  devotion.  Though  he  gave 
his  life  and  the  resources  of  the  empire  to  his  faith  he 
remained  in  reahty  a  solitary  individual,  for  at  his 
death  the  old  Egypt,  the  old  gods,  and  the  old 
priesthood  returned  and  swallowed  up  his  work. 

ILLEGITIMACY.— The  condition  or  character 
of  being  born  out  of  lawful  wedlock,  involving  not 
only  legal  disabilities  but  also  social  and  reUgious 
disapproval,  which  often  deprives  a  person  of 
desirable  opportunities.  Statistics  show  a  decline 
in  illegitimacy  in  proportion  _  to  the  practise  of 
Christianity.  The  tendency  in  civilized  nations 
is  toward  a  more  ethical  recognition  of  the  rights  of 
illegitimate  children. 

ILLUMINATL— (1)  In  the  early  church,  bap- 
tized persons  who  received  a  lighted  taper  as 
symbolic  of  spiritual  enlightenment.  (2)  Certain 
reUgious  groups  laying  claim  to  special  endowment, 
such  as  the  Hesychasts  (14th.  century),  Alumbrados 
(16th.  century),  the  Rosicrucians  (16th.  century), 
Guerinets  (17th.  century),  and  Belgian  Mystics 
(18th.  century). 

ILLUMINATION.— See  Enlightenment,  The. 

ILLUSION. — Mistaken  inference  from  real 
data  with  reference  to  the  nature  or  action  of  the 
objects  presented.  Examples  are  mistaking  the 
sound  of  the  telephone  for  the  door  bell;  seeing 
"men  as  trees,  walking."  Isaac  was  deceived  into 
giving  Jacob  his  blessing  by  the  illusion  of  touch 
mist^ing  the  goat-skin  for  the  hairy^  hands  of 
Esau.  Illusions  are  very  common  in  ^  normal 
persons  but  are  apt  to  be  dominant  in  delirium  and 
in  extreme  preoccupation.  _  Mystics  and  ascetics 
eagerly  looking  for  signs  of  divine  presence  are  easily 
subject  to  illusions.  Dreams  are  frequently  illu- 
sions.   Hallucination    is    a    mental    constructioA 


Image  of  God 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


218 


with  much  less  or  no  actual  data.  Both  dreams 
and  hallucinations  abound  in  all  religions  and  are 
prominent,  without  intention  of  fraud,  in  many 
phenomena  of  spiritism,  clairvoyancy  and  so-called 
divine  healing.  Edward  S.  Ames 

IMAGE  OF  GOD.— A  term  setting  forth  that 
man  was  created  in  the  image  of  God,  as  stated  in 
Gen.  1:26,  27.  The  likeness  has  been  variously 
interpreted  as  referring  to  man's  rational  and 
voluntary  powers,  his  moral  state  and  his  entire 
spiritual  and  physical  character.  Most  supporters 
of  the  doctrine  believe  in  a  fall  whereby  the  likeness 
was  partially  or  entirely  lost. 

IMAGINATION  IN  RELATION  TO  RELI- 
GION.— The  usual  definition  of  imagination  is  the 
consciousness  of  objects  not  present  to  the  senses. 
In  one  form,  i.e.,  the  reproduction  of  images  in  the 
manner  of  past  experience,  it  is  the  same  as  memory. 
But  the  term  is  more  often  identified  with  the  con- 
structive function  of  creating  new  combinations 
from  the  images  of  experience. 

It  is  not  always  recognized  that  the  mind  is 
Kmited  to  new  combinations  of  old  material  but 
such  is  the  case.  Another  error  is  to  identify 
imagination  with  fancy  and  therefore  with  the 
chimerical  association  of  ideas.  It  is  important 
to  realize  that  all  scientific  experimentation,  all 
progressive  social  leadership  involves  imagination. 
In  no  sphere  is  imagination  more  in  evidence  than 
in  religion.  It  framed  the  myths  and  dream 
pictures,  the  gods  and  demons,  the  underworld 
of  the  shades  and  the  upper  reahns  of  the  blest. 
This  power  worked  always  with  the  material  at 
hand.  Shepherds  imagined  their  deity  as  a  marvel- 
ous sheep,  mysterious  and  Ufe-giving.  The  Egyp- 
tians conceived  the  sim  as  a  hving  being,  capable  of 
marvelous  exploits.  When  human  beings  exalted 
their  own  members  to  kingly  power  they  ascribed 
to  the  king  superhuman  qualities  and  imaged  the 
gods  as  men.  The  idealizmg  impulse  springs  from 
the  will,  from  desire,  but  the  form  which  the  ideal 
takes  is  determined  by  the  activity  of  the  con- 
structive imagination  working  over  and  refining 
the  actual  experiences  of  life. 

Psychology  gives  no  stipport  to  the  notion 
that  it  is  possible  by  "concentration"  or  other 
means  to  attain  other  forms  of  insight  or  knowledge 
than  that  which  comes  by  the  use  of  the  normal 
processes.  At  the  same  time  the  progress  which 
the  race  has  made  in  invention  and  in  social  organi- 
zation has  been  by  the  gradual,  progressive  extension 
of  imaginative  ideals  and  plans.  This  suggests  the 
relation  which  the  arts  have  to  religious  ceremonial. 
They  aid  in  presenting  in  ever  more  vital  and 
appealing  expressions  the  ideals  which  religion 
seeks.  These  arts  succeed  at  times  in  embodying 
the  ideals  in  such  vivid  forms  that  they  create  the 
exhilarating  illusion  of  reaUty.  Without  doubt  this 
is  an  impressive  and  elevating  function  of  religious 
ceremonials — to  enable  the  struggling  soul  to 
enjoy  in  anticipation.  Man  is  often  helped  to 
become  better  by  being  stimulated  to  imagine  him- 
self as  already  having  achieved  his  ideal.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  by  the  imaginative  dramatic 
rehearsal  of  the  consequences  of  his  misdeeds  that 
he  is  restrained  and  purified  from  evil  tendencies. 
It  is  in  this  inner  drama  of  the  imagination  that  the 
highest  achievements  of  the  moral  and  reUgious 
character  are  wrought.  Edwaed  S.  Ames 

IMAM. — ^In  Shi  'ite  Islam  the  belief  is  maintained 
that  there  exists  in  the  world  in  each  age  an  infalUble 
and  perfect  spiritual  successor  of  Mohammed  who  is 
the  reUgious  head  of  Islam  by  divine  right.  He  is 
the  Imam,  in  most  sects  thought  to  be  concealed 


awaiting  the  time  to  establish  the  era  of  righteous- 
ness. 

IMITATION. — ^The  conscious  or  unconscious 
repetition  of  the  act,  thought  or  general  form  of 
behavior  of  another,  or,  more  loosely,  the  reproduc- 
tion of  an  example  or  model  of  any  sort,  as  in 
music,  art  or  architecture. 

General  nature  of  imitation. — ^When  the  imitator 
is  conscious  of  his  act  he  usually  copies  for  the  sake 
of  incorporating  into  his  own  experience  some 
value  felt  to  exist  in  the  thing  copied.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  imitative  character  of  his 
act  stands  out  prominently  in  his  mind.  Such  an 
act  of  conscious  imitation,  so-called,  is  not  essentially 
different  from  an  ordinary  voluntary  process.  Imi- 
tation of  this  sort  is  an  important  but  not  an 
elementary  social  category.  It  presupposes  the 
essential  social  quality  of  the  human  mind  whereby 
we  are  especially  conscious  of  and  appreciative  or 
critical  of  other  persons  and  their  behavior. 

Significance  in  moral  and  religious  education. — 
The  view  of  imitation  as  a  method  of  learning  has 
led  to  its  over-emphasis  in  education.  It  does, 
however,  have  much  significance  in  the  formation 
of  character.  The  child  readily  adopts,  as  his  own, 
those  modes  of  behavior  that  are  daily  presented  to 
him,  especially  by  those  in  whom  he  is  interested 
or  whom  he  admires.  He  thus  absorbs  with  httle 
conscious  effort  the  prevaihng  habits  and  ideas  of 
hig^  associates.  His  early  religious  ideas  and 
notions  of  right  and  wrong  are  thus  built  up.  He  is 
in  this  way  accustomed  to  religious  rites,  devotional 
attitudes  and  to  ideals  of  Christian  helpfulness. 
This  early  conformity  of  behavior  plays  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  later  conscious  appreciations  of 
moral  and  religious  values.  In  fact  it  is  doubtful 
if  deep  religious  consciousness  can  later  be  more 
readily  acquired  than  on  the  basis  of  this  early 
half -conscious  absorption  by  imitation  of  the  vital 
ideals  of  one's  admired  associates.     Irving  King 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION.— A  dogma  of 
the  Roman  CathoHc  Church  (pronounced  by 
Pius  IX.,  Dec.  8,  1854)  that  the  Virgin  Mary  in  the 
first  instant  of  her  conception,  by  a  singular  privilege 
and  grace  granted  bjHStKl  in  view  of  the  merits  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Savior  of  the  human  race,  was 
preserved  exempt  from  all  ^^  of  original  sin". 
This  dogma  is  defined  as  applying  to  tnepSrson 
of  Mary  from  the  first  moment  of  animation,  that 
is,  when  her  soul  was  created  and  infused  in  the 
body;  at  which  moment  original  sin  was  excluded 
from  her  soul  and  original  sinlessness  was  given  her. 
That  is,  as  the  new  Eve,  the  mother  of  the  new 
Adam,  she  was,  through  Christ's  merits,  withdrawn 
from  the  general  law  of  original  sin. 

Although  not  made  a  dogma  until  modem  times 
and  long  the  subject  of  discussion,  the  doctrine 
that  Mary  was  conceived  without  sin  has  been 
commonly  held  and  taught  in  the  R.C.  Church 
since  the  13th.  century,  and  from  an  earlier  date 
there  was  celebrated  the  Feast  of  the  Conception 
of  Mary.  The  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception should  not  be  confused  (as  is  popularly 
the  case)  with  that  of  the  Virgin  Birth  of  Jesus. 

Shailer  Mathews 

IMMANENCE.— The  quahty  of  being  inti- 
mately, vitally  or  structurally  identified  with  the 
inner  nature  or  law  of  a  thing.  That  which  is 
intrinsic  or  operates  from  within. 

Immanence  is  an  identification  so  complete  and 
inward  thatit  is  of  the  very  essence  or  being  of  a 
thing.  An  immanent  law  of  growth  in  biology  is 
a  law  which  expresses  the  characteristic  unfolding 
or  development  of  the  life;  e.g.,  an  acorn  unfolds 
into  an  oak  tree  by  an  immanent  law.    Immanent 


219 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Incarnation 


reason  is  the  rational  nature  that  is  indelibly- 
stamped  upon  a  thing,  or  the  rational  principle 
which  expresses  the  nature  of  a  thing. 

In  ethical  philosophy,  thoroughgoing  empiricism 
regards  ethical  principles  as  acquired  from  without 
through  cumulative  race  experience;  subjective 
ethics  regards  ethical  principles  as  fundamentally 
immanent  laws  of  mind,  forms  of  insight  and 
judgment  that  would  not  arise  were  they  not 
immanent,  or  native  aspects  of  mind. 

In  religion,  immanence  is  broadly  contrasted  with 
transcendence,  which  conceives  the  divine  power  as 
operating  from  above,  and  apart  from  the  world. 
The  doctrine  of  the  divine  immanence  conceives  Him 
as  the  dynamic  power  energizing  within  the  world's 
life,  the  principle  of  intelligence  and  causation  and 
purpose.  Immanence  as  such  is  discriminated  from 
pantheism  in  that  it  does  not  make  God  and 
the  world  identical.  Pantheism  says,  God  and  the 
world  are  one:  immanence  says,  God  dwells  in  his 
world  and  identifies  himself  with  it.  The  difference 
is  in  the  clear  postulating  of  intelligence  and  wiU 
by  the  doctrine  of  Immanence. 

The  implications  of  the  divine  immanence  are 
best  understood  against  the  background  of  the 
doctrines  of  Supernaturalism  in  which  God  is  con- 
ceived as  operating  from  without  the  natural  order  of 
the  world.  In  this  view,  "nature"  and  the  "super- 
natural" are  mutually  external  to  each  other.  This 
is  the  prevailing  form  of  the  earlier  religious  world 
views.  The  doctrine  of  the  divine  Immanence  elimi- 
nates this  mutual  externality,  conceiving  nature  as 
the  law-expressing  form  of  the  divine  life,  the  mode 
in  which  the  indweUing  energy  and  purpose  realizes 
itself.  The  dynamic,  creative  fact  in  all  the  world 
of  nature  and  the  world  of  persons  is  the  immanent 
God,  the  true  Creative  Source  of  the  natural. 
This  modern  emphasis  of  Immanence  in  expounding 
the  theistic  world-view  destroys  the  old  antithesis 
between  natural  and  supernatural  and  has  far- 
reaching  implications  for  religious  and  ethical 
and  social  doctrines.  Herbert  A.  Youtz 

IMMERSION.— Baptism  (q.v.)  by  entire  sub- 
mersion in  water,  the  mode  practised  in  the  early 
church  and  certain  modern  religious  bodies,  as  the 
Baptists. 

IMMORTALITY.— The  imperishability  of  life, 
involving  personal  survival  of  death,  a  belief  in 
which  occurs  in  various  forms  in  all  religions.  See 
Future  Life,  Conceptions  of  the. 

IMMUNITY. — Exemption  from  legal  juris- 
diction. International  usage  provides  for  the 
immunity  of  public  ministers  and  members  of  a 
diplomatic  mission  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
nation  to  which  they  are  sent.  Certain  immunities 
are  usually  granted  to  ministers  of  religion  such  as 
freedom  from  military  service.  Churches  and 
other  sacred  places  enjoy  certain  immunities  as, 
e.g.,  from  secular  taxation. 

IMP. — A  devil  of  inferior  rank.  Until  the  17th. 
century  a  scion  or  child;  hence  "imp  of  Satan" 
meant  "child  of  evil."  From  that  usage  the  present 
one  developed. 

IMPANATION.— The  doctrine  that  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  really  present  in  the  bread 
and  wine  of  the  Eucharist  after  consecration,  but 
without  transubstantiation  (q.v.).  It  is  hence  re- 
garded by  the  R.C.  church  as  heretical. 

IMPEDIMENT. — A  hindrance  or  obstruction 
legally  preventing  the  agent  from  fulfilling  certain 
conditions  requisite  to  an  act  or  state.     In  ecclesi- 


astical usage  impediments  to  matrimony  are  those 
prescribed  in  the  Levitical  legislation  and  church 
regulations.  Impediments  to  Holy  orders  are 
called  irregularities  (q.v.). 

IMPLICIT  FAITH.— The  loyal  acceptance  of  all 
that  the  church  affirms  as  divinely  true,  even  though 
one  may  be  ignorant  of  the  details;  a  conception 
provided  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  the  uneducated 
laity  and  lower  clergy.    See  Explicit  Faith. 

IMPRIMATUR.— (Latin,  "let  it  be  printed.") 
The  official  permission  given  by  a  Roman  Catholic 
Bishop  or  other  authorized  person  for  the  publishing 
of  a  book  dealing  with  religious  subjects.  The 
permission  indicates  that  the  contents  of  the  book 
have  been  examined  by  the  censor  and  found  to 
contain  nothing  derogatory  to  true  CathoUc  faith. 

IMPUTATION.— A  theological  term  borrowed 
from  judicial  practices  by  which  God  is  represented, 
because  of  certain  conditions,  as  attributing  to 
men  adequate  grounds  for  the  assignment  of  pimish- 
ment  or  reward. 

Thus  imputation  is  considered  a  real  action  on 
God's  part,  but  as  not  affecting  the  moral  character 
of  the  recipient  of  whatever  is  imputed.  Adam's 
guilt  is  said  to  have  been  imputed  to  his  descendants 
by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  he  is  the  head  of  the  race, 
or  its  representative.  This  is  in  addition  to  the 
corruption  of  nature  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
race. 

Paul  teaches  that  God  imputes  the  faith  of  the 
believer  to  him  as  righteousness.  Various  theo- 
logians hold  that  God  imputes  to  the  beUever 
the  merits  of  Christ,  or  the  righteousness  of 
Christ.  On  the  basis  of  this  imputation,  which 
is  wholly  by  grace,  and  is  made  ethically  possible 
by  the  atonement  wrought  by  Christ,  God  is  free  to 
justify  the  behever. 

The  objective  and  inherent  worth  of  that  which 
is  taken  into  consideration  as  a  basis  of  such  imputa- 
tion also  varies  in  different  theologies.  In  the 
view  of  one  school,  the  only  conceivable  basis  of 
justification  is  the  inherent  worth  of  the  death  of 
Christ.  According  to  another  school,  God  chooses 
to  regard  the  death  of  Christ  as  meeting  moral 
conditions  which  make  justification  possible. 
See  Acceptilation.  Shailer  Mathews 

INARI. — The  food  or  rice  goddess  of  Japanese 
Shintoism.  The  fox  is  her  sacred  animal.  In 
modern  Shinto  the  fox-cult  is  more  important  than 
the  cult  of  the  goddess. 

INCANTATION.— The  singing  or  repeating  of 
magical  phrases  or  formulas  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
peUing  mysterious  power  to  act,  as  in  bewitching  a 
person  or  exorcizing  a  demon,  a  practise  common 
among  primitive  peoples.  The  magical  formulas 
or  rites  so  used  are  also  called  incantations. 

INCARDINATION.— In  the  R.C.  church:  (1) 
elevation  to  the  rank  of  cardinal;  (2)  installation  of 
a  principal  priest  or  deacon  in  a  specific  diocese  or 
church. 

INCARNATION.— The  assuming  of  a  body  of 
human  flesh  by  a  divine  being. 

Incarnation  is  to  be  distinguished  on  the  one 
hand  from  transmigration  (q.v.),  in  which  not  a 
deity  but  a  soul  enters  a  fleshly  body,  and  on  the 
other  from  possession  as  apphed  to  the  temporary 
indwelling  of  a  demon  or  a  god  in  a  human  person. 
Belief  in  the  possibility  and  reality  of  incarnations 
has  had  a  wide  vogue  in  the  past,  the  chief  motive 
for  the  belief  apparently  being  the  desire  of  man  to 


Incense 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


220 


procure  for  himself  the  assistance  of  deities  that  are 
truly  human  in  their  sympathies  and  interests. 

Among  primitive  peoples  there  are  approxima- 
tions to  the  idea  of  incarnation  in  the  reverence  paid 
to  sacred  animals  and  holy  men,  although  these 
objects  of  worship  may  have  been  regarded  more  as 
actual  deities  than  as  incarnations.  In  the  Hindu 
religion  Vishnu  was  credited  with  a  series  of  suc- 
cessive incarnations,  or  avataras,  beginning  with 
Krishna  and  eventually  including  not  only  Buddha 
but  religious  teachers  in  general.  In  the  case  of 
the  Egyptians,  gods  were  believed  to  be  incarnate 
both  in  sacred  animals  and  in  reigning  Pharaohs. 
Similar  ideas  were  current,  though  less  pervasively, 
in  Babylonia.  Among  the  Persians  there  were  no 
real  incarnations,  but  the  king  was  thought  to 
possess  a  supernatural  endowment  of  glory  or  light 
which  practically  amounted  to  an  incarnation. 
In  early  times  the  Hebrews  apparently  thought 
that  their  deity  occasionally  took  upon  himself 
human  form,  as  when  he  appeared  to  Abraham 
(Gen.  18:1  ff.)  or,  again,  to  Gideon  (Judg.  6:14); 
but  as  time  passed  this  realistic  imagery  was  dis- 
placed by  so  rigid  a  notion  of  divine  transcendence 
that  the  notion  of  an  actual  incarnation  became 
unthinkable  for  the  Jews.  On  the  other  hand, 
among  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  the  idea  flour- 
ished. Temporary  assumption  of  human  form  on 
the  part  of  different  deities  was  common,  and  in 
later  times  incarnations  of  a  more  enduring  char- 
acter were  seen  in  the  persons  of  distinguished  indi- 
viduals such  as  Alexander  the  Great,  Demetrius, 
Augustus,  and  many  others  who  were  believed  to 
have  rendered  unique  service  to  mankind. 

The  notion  of  incarnation  received  its  fullest 
developrnent  within  Christianity,  where  it  was 
used  to  interpret  the  person  of  Jesus.  Among  the 
earUest  Christians  the  distinctively  Jewish  category 
of  messianism  (see  Messiah)  seems  to  have  been 
thought  an  adequate  imagery  for  estimating  the 
uniqueness  of  Jesus,  but  as  the  new  reUgion  pressed 
its  way  beyond  Palestine  the  conception  of  incarna- 
tion, already  so  familiar  and  highly  esteemed 
among  gentiles,  was  early  appropriated  as  a  means 
of  impressing  gentiles  with  the  superior  signifi- 
cance of  Jesus.  The  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke 
tell  of  Grod's  intervention  to  bring  about  the  birth 
of  Jesus  (see  Virgin  Birth),  and  the  Gospel  of 
John  presents  him  as  an  outright  incarnation — "the 
Logos  became  flesh"  (John  1:14).  Just  how 
Jesus  could  be  both  deity  and  man  in  one  person 
aroused  much  controversy  among  theologians  in 
ancient  times.  Occasionally  his  deity  was  cham- 
pioned so  vigorously  that  the  genuineness  of  his 
humanity  seemed  in  jeopardy,  while  at  other  times 
his  true  deity  seemed  to  be  threatened  by  stress  upon 
his  humanity.  Ultimately  the  problem  was  solved, 
or,  perhaps  better,  shelved,  by  laying  hold  of  both 
horns  of  the  dilemma.  The  creed  put  forth  at  the 
council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  is  typical  of  the  trend 
ever  since  followed  by  popular  Christian  belief. 
In  this  creed  two  natures  and  one  person  were 
attributed  to  Jesus  Christ  but  no  explanation  of 
bow  the  two  natures  were  united  was  given.  See 
Christology.  S.  J.  Case 

INCENSE. — An  aromatic  substance  exuded 
by  certain  trees  and  early  made  an  article  of 
general  use  in  worship. 

The  fondness  of  men  for  perfumes  naturally 
suggested  that  the  deity  would  be  gratified  by 
offerings  of  this  kind.  Probably  there  was  also 
the  idea  that  the  fragrance  was  evidence  of  some 
supernatural  quality  which  made  the  incense  the 
property  of  the  god.  As  it  overcomes  evil  odors 
so  it  might  drive  away  the  demons.  Its  use  in 
worship  is  attested  among  Babylonians,  Egyptians, 


and  Romans,  as  well  as  in  the  rehgion  of  Israel. 
Incense  was  introduced  into  Christian  worship, 
though  not  at  a  very  early  date,  and  is  still  used 
in  the  more  ritualistic  Churches.    H.  P.  Smith 

INDEPENDENCY.— The  ecclesiastical  prin- 
ciple that  each  separate  congregation  is  an  inde- 
pendent body,  owning  no  superior  authority  other 
than  Jesus  Christ;  especially  the  doctrine  of  the 
Independents  or  English  Congregationahsts.    See 

CONGREGATIONAUSM. 

INDEX.— A  Ust  issued  by  the  R.C.  church, 
enumerating  books  prohibited  (Index  librorum 
prohibitorum)  and  books  from  which  certain  parts 
must  be  expurgated  before  being  read.  (Index 
librorum  expurgandorum.)  The  Congregation  of 
the  index  prepares  such  Usts.     See  Censorship. 

INDIA,  MISSIONS  TO.— At  the  time  of 
the  writing  of  the  apocryphal  Acts  of  Thomas  (3rd. 
century)  there  was  already  a  Christian  community 
in  N.  W.  India.  These  Christians  claimed  to  be 
descended  from  converts  made  by  the  apostle 
Thomas.  Data  are  lacking  to  confirm  the  tradition 
of  Thomas'  missionary  journey  to  Malabar  and 
Madras.  At  the  Nicene  Council,  325,  Bishop  John 
represented  "Persia  and  Great  India."  A  Syrian 
mission  went  south  to  the  Malabar  coast  in  the  4th. 
century,  where  the  Syrian  Christians  still  have  a 
considerable  community.  Gregory  of  Tours  (538- 
594)  has  quite  a  description  of  Nestorian  Christian- 
ity as  it  then  existed  in  the  vicinity  of  Madras. 
During  the  century  from  750  to  850  Nestorian 
missions  were  prosecuted  with  great  vigor  and 
made  considerable  progress,  but  from  that  time 
their  energy  was  abated. 

The  first  Roman  Catholic  missionary  to  India 
was  John  de  Monte  Corvino,  a  Franciscan,  who  was 
sent  from  Rome  to  the  orient,  and  labored  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Madras,  beginning  ca.  1291-92. 
But  the  first  serious  efforts  made  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  began  with  the  advent  of  the  Portuguese 
traders.  In  1500  eight  Franciscans  and  eight 
secular  priests,  and  in  1503  a  group  of  Dominicans 
arrived  to  begin  work  on  the  west  coast,  which 
work  soon  extended  both  northward  and  eastward. 
In  1541  the  Society  of  Jesus  began  to  work  in  the 
Indian  mission  field.  The  most  renowned  of  its 
missionaries  was  St.  Francis  Xavier  (q.v.).  During 
the  16th.  and  17th.  centuries  CathoUc  missions 
made  great  progress,  so  that  by  1700  there  were 
between  1,500,000  and  2,500,000  converts.  But 
after  that  came  a  period  of  persecution  and  trial, 
so  that  a  hundred  years  later  there  were  not  more 
than  500,000  converts  living.  With  the  toleration 
under  the  British  government  CathoKc  missions 
have  flourished  again.  They  are  represented  by 
several  missionary  societies,  as  well  as  by  the 
Jesuits  and  Capuchins,  and  today  their  converts 
number  nearly  2,000,000. 

The  beginnings  of  Protestant  missions  were 
made  by  the  Danes.  The  Danish-Halle  Mission 
did  noble  work  in  the  18th.  century.  The  names 
of  B.  Ziegenbalg,  C.  F.  Schwartz  and  B.  Schultze 
will  always  be  remembered.  Schultze  translated 
the  Bible  into  Tamil,  the  first  complete  translation 
into  an  Indian  vernacular.  In  the  18th.  century 
there  was  a  beginning  made  also  by  two  English 
societies,  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 
Ejiowledge  and  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel,  their  work  being  more  especially  as 
producers  and  distributers  of  Christian  literature. 
With  the  19th.  century  Protestant  missions  began 
in  earnest.  The  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
sent  William  Carey  in  1793.  He,  with  Marshrnan 
and  Ward   (the  Serampore  trio),   gave   Christian 


221 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


India,  Religions  of 


literature  its  real  impetus.  There  followed  the 
London  Missionary  Society  (1798),  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 
(1813),  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
(1814)  whose  first  appointee  was  Adoniram  Judson, 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  (1814),  and  the 
Church  of  Scotland  Mission  (1823)  under  whom 
Alexander  Duflf  labored.  _  These  are  still  among 
the  leading  missionary  societies  both  in  the  extent 
of  their  plants,  the  number  of  their  missionaries, 
and  the  size  of  their  Indian  Christian  communities. 
The  catalogue  of  Protestant  societies  operating 
in  1912  in  India  included  136  different  societies, 
British,  European,  American,  Canadian,  Austrahan, 
and  indigenous.  There  were  at  that  time  over 
5200  foreign  missionaries  and  over  38,000  Indian 
workers  in  the  employ  of  these  societies,  and  the 
work  had  extended  to  every  part  of  the  Indian 
empire.  The  Bible  has  been  translated  into  all 
the  greater  languages,  and  is  being  circulated  as  a 
whole  or  in  parts  in  85  different  Indian  vernaculars. 
The  work  of  evangelization  is  being  supplemented 
by  large  educational,  medical,  industrial  and  literary 
missions.  Elementary  education  as  conducted  by 
the  various  missions  has  done  much  to  reduce 
illiteracy  and  to  raise  the  standard  of  living. 
The  Madras  Christian  College  is  the  largest  of  the 
higher  educational  institutions  under  Christian 
auspices.  The  outstanding  agencies  for  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  Christian  literature 
are  the  Christian  Literature  Society  for  India, 
and  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 
Knowledge,  as  well  as  the  Bible  societies. 

There  are  more  than  4,000,000  adherents  to 
the  Christian  reUgion.  Of  the  Indian  Christians 
about  80  per  cent  are  to  be  found  in  South  India 
where  the  work  was  begun  earlier  and  the  prog- 
ress has  been  best  maintained.  The  majority 
of  converts  have  been  from  the  non-caste  com- 
munities (especially  the  Telugus)  who  are  also 
more  susceptible  to  mass  movements.  Other 
large  ingatherings  have  been  from  the  hill  tribes. 
The  influence  of  Christianity  is  much  larger  than 
is  indicated  by  the  number  of  converts.  Edu- 
cational and  medical  missions  especially  have  had 
a  broadening  cultural  effect,  as  is  evidenced  by 
the  Reform  movements  within  the  Indian  religions 
and  the  indigenous  movements  such  as  the  Brahma- 
Samaj  (q.v.),  with  a  generous  adoption  of  Christian 
ideas.  A.  S.  Woodbukne 

INDIA,  RELIGIONS  AND  PHILOSOPHIES 

OF. — India  is  the  only  Aryan  country  which  has 
develop>ed  enduring  religions.  Every  other  Aryan 
country  has  adopted  a  religion  of  foreign  origin; 
the  old  religions  live  on  only  in  folklore. 

In  1911  the  adherents  of  the  different  religions 
of  India  were  (in  round  numbers):  Hindus  (217,- 
000,000),  Mohammedans  (67,000,000),  Buddhists 
(11,000,000),  Animists  (10,000,000),  Christians 
(3,800,000),  Sikhs  (3,000,000),  Jains  (1,250,000), 
Parsis  (100,000),  Jews  (20,000).  Hinduism  is 
found  over  the  whole  country,  the  lower  forms 
shading  off  into  the  demonology  and  magic  of 
animistic  Dravidian  tribes  (many  of  which  have 
been  received  into  Hinduism).  The  Mohammedans 
(found  mostly  in  the  northwest)  fall  into  two 
groups:  (1)  The  descendants  of  invaders  from 
Afghanistan  and  Central  Asia,  who,  after  1200  a.d., 
came  in  increasing  numbers,  conquered  India,  and 
settled  there.  (2)  Hindu  converts,  many  of  whom 
differ  little  in  practical  rehgion  from  the  Hindus 
from  whom  they  sprang.  Buddhism  (q.v.)  has 
been  extinct  in  India  since  about  1200  a.d.;  the 
Buddhists  listed  above  are  nearly  all  found  in 
Burma.  The  Sikhs  (q.v.),  who  combine  Hindu 
and    Mohammedan   elements,    are    found   almost 


exclusively  in  the  Punjab.  The  Jains  (cj.v.)  are 
found  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  Rajputana, 
Gujarat,  and  the  Central  Provinces.  The  Parsis, 
who  are  found  in  and  around  Bombay,  are  wealthy 
and  vastly  more  influential  than  their  numbers  would 
indicate.  They  migrated  to  India  when  persecution 
broke  up  Zoroastrianism  in  Persia.  Of,.the-Chris- 
tians  slightly  more  than  one-half  belong  to  the 
Catholic,  one-twelfth  to  the  Syrian  church.  The 
gfeat  majority  is  found  in  southern  India.  Most 
come  from  the  outcastes  or  from  the  very  lowest 
castes  which  are  regarded  as  degraded  by  the 
Hindus. 

Indian  philosophy  originated  in  speculations 
about  cosmogony  and  the  soul,  and  in  symbolistic 
interpretation  of  the  ritual.  It  is  attached  closely 
to  the  Vedas,  each  system  claiming  to  be  the  true 
interpretation  of  the  revealed  Scripture.  Philoso- 
phy never  tore  itself  completely  away  from  reUgion. 
The  fundamental  works  of  the  systems  are  called 
Sutras,  texts  of  almost  algebraic  brevity,  around 
which  grew  up  commentaries,  super-commentaries, 
and  commentaries  on  these.  This  systematization, 
which  used  to  be  placed  in  the  3rd.  and  2nd.  cen- 
turies B.C.,  is  now  dated  with  better  reason  between 
200  and  500  a.d.  Six  systems  are  especially 
famous  as  being  most  consistent  with  the  Vedas, 
and  meeting  higher  Brahman  approval. 

1.  The  Fedawto  falls  into  two  divisions.  Firstly, 
a  monistic  form  which  can  be  traced  with  certainty, 
as  a  developed  system,  back  to  only  about  500  a.d. 
Its  roots,  however,  go  back  to  the  Upanishads. 
Brahman,  the  spiritual  principle,  alone  is  real; 
the  material  world  is  illusion  (maya);  the  indi- 
vidual soul  is  absolutely  identical  with  the  world 
soul,  Brahman.  Secondly,  a  pantheistic  form 
teaches  that  Brahman  is  endowed  with  all  quaUties 
and  powers,  that  the  material  world  is  real  and 
emanates  from  Brahman,  that  the  individual  soul 
(although  the  same  in  essence)  is  as  distinct  from 
Brahman  as  the  spark  from  fire.  Other  forms 
combine  closely  with  the  Sdmkhya  into  a  sort  of 
dualism. 

2.  The  Mimdnsd  is  a  rationalization  of  the 
ritual.  It  attempts  to  prove  the  eternity  of  the  Veda ; 
discusses  Dharma  "duty,"  its  origin  and  the  nature 
of  its  rewards. 

3.  The  Sdmkhya  is  duahstic.  There  are  two 
entirely  distinct  principles,  Purusa  (spirit)  and 
Prakjii  (unevolved  matter).  All  activity,  thought, 
pleasure,  and  pain  are  in  Prakrti.  Puru§a  is 
merely  a  self-illumining  consciousness  reflecting 
in  itself  the  activity  of  Prakfti  and  erroneously 
considering  that  the  activity  of  Prakrti  is  connected 
with  itself.  Soul  has  no  necessary  connection 
with  matter  and  may  detach  itself  from  matter 
permanently. 

4.  The  Yoga  takes  the  Sdmkhya  as  a  philo- 
sophical background.  It  differs  in  its  process 
of  release.  It  works  over  the  ideas  of  asceticism  into 
a  system  of  mental  concentration  by  postures  a,nd 
by  control  of  the  breath,  seeking  to  produce  imion 
with  God  (Purv^a)  by  ecstatic  trance  states. 

5.  The  Nydya  is  a  system  of  formal  logic  and 
epistemology.  It  works  out  an  elaborate  syllogism 
very  similar  to  the  Aristotelian  one. 

6.  The  Vdice§ika  is  an  atomic  theory. 

The  materialistic  Charvdkas  (who  deny  the 
soul  and  recognize  only  permutations  of  matter, 
consciousness  being  hke  the  fermentation  of  yeast) 
and  the  various  Buddhist  and  Jain  systems  are 
regarded  as  heretical.  Many  Vaishnava  and 
Caiva  sects  have  developed  elaborate  systems  as  the 
theistic  sides  of  Hinduism  tried  to  work  out  a 
philosophical  basis  of  religious  beUef . 

W.  E.  Clark 


Indiction 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


222 


INDICTION. — A  period  of  fifteen  years  used 
by  the  popes  in  their  system  of  calculation,  begin- 
ning January  1,  December  25,  or  March  25.  In 
calculating  an  indiction  three  is  added  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  year  in  the  Christian  era,  and  the  result 
is  divided  by  fifteen.  The  quotient  is  the  number  of 
the  indiction,  and  the  remainder  is  the  position  of 
the  year  in  that  indiction. 

INDIFFERENTISM.— (1)  In  ethics,  the  doc- 
trine that  certain  things  are  neither  helps  nor 
hindrances  to  moral  conduct.  The  Stoics  included 
health,  wealth,  strength,  etc.,  in  this  category. 
(2)  In  theology,  the  doctrine  that  certain  differences 
of  rehgious  beUef  are  not  significant.    See  Adia- 

PHORA. 

INDIGITAMENTA. — In  Roman  religion,  ppr- 
tions  of  the  pontifical  books,  originating  with 
King  Numa  Pompilius,  containing  the  names  and 
epithets  of  the  deities,  and  the  specific  occasions 
for  invoking  them. 

INDIVIDUALISM.— In  political  theory  and 
ethics  the  term  impUes  a  community  in  which  the 
good  of  the  whole  is  the  mere  summation  of  the 
goods  of  all  the  individuals,  and  in  which  the  spring 
for  social  conduct  must  be  found  in  individual 
initiative.  It  is  generally  opposed  to  socialism. 
Jeremy  Bentham,  John  Stuart  Mill  and  Herbert 
Spencer  are  its  most  distinguished  exponents, 
and  as  a  doctrine  and  attitude  of  mind  it  has 
characterized  the  18th.  and  19th.  centuries  in  the 
western  world.  It  maintained  itself  at  first  by 
its  hostility  to  the  outworn  feudal  institutions  of 
Europe,  and  later  by  combatting  an  equally  abstract 
doctrine  of  socialism.  The  theoretical  inadequacy 
of  the  doctrine  lies  in  the  abstract  conception  of  the 
individual,  an  abstractness  which  has  been  the 
source  of  both  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of 
the  practical  movements  it  has  served.  Like  other 
abstractions  which  define  more  or  less  fixed  insti- 
tutions, it  is  waiting  for  a  competent  psychology  to 
put  a  vaUd  working  content  into  what  has  been  a 
rigid  concept.  George  H.  Mead 

INDRA. — One  of  the  most  important  gods  of 
the  Vedic  period  of  Indian  religion.  As  a  heavenly 
hurler  of  the  thunder-bolt  he  battles  with  the 
enemies  of  his  people;  as  giver  of  fertifity  he  slays 
the  Vritra  demon  of  drought,  pouring  over  the 
lands  the  life-giving  waters.  A  very  anthropo- 
morphic god,  he  drinks  and  boasts,  yet  is  easily 
placable,  in  return  for  the  intoxicating  soma  giving 
his  worshipers  wealth,  crops,  cows,  horses,  children 
and  protection. 

INDULGENCE. — An  indulgence  is  now  defined 
as  "the  remission  of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to 
sins,  the  guilt  of  which  has  already  been  remitted." 
Indulgences  supplement  the  Roman  Catholic 
sacrament  of  penance,  and  therefore  presuppose 
confession  and  absolution  which  removes  the  guilt 
of  mortal  sin  and  the  sentence  of  eternal  punishment. 
After  absolution  the  divine  justice  still  requires  a 
satisfaction  to  be  made  either  on  earth  or  in  purga- 
tory. By  securing  indulgence  one  may  make  this 
satisfaction  on  earth. 

1.  History. — Indulgences  grew  out  of  the  sub- 
stitution of  one  penance  (q.v.)  for  another.  In  the 
11th.  century  he  who  went  on  a  pilgrimage  or  gave 
to  a  hospital  might  be  rewarded  by  a  reduction  of 
penances  he  was  otherwise  bound  to  perform. 
Indulgences  were  also  used  as  enUstment  bovmties 
in  wars  against  the  Saracens.  In  1095  Urban  II. 
offered  the  remission  of  all  penance  to  those  who 
would  go  on  the  First  Crusade.     In  1188  plenary 


remission  was  offered  to  those  who  would  make  a 
proper  financial  contribution  to  the  Third  Crusade. 
Further  steps  are  the  theory  of  the  treasury  of 
merits  (q.v.),  championed  by  Alexander  of  Hales; 
the  Jubilee  indulgence  of  1300;  and  the  official 
adoption  of  the  beUef  that  the  living  could  through 
prayer  {per  modum  suffragii)  secure  the  transfer  of 
their  own  acquired  indulgences  to  souls  in  purgatory. 
2.  Misconceptions. — ^An  indulgence  is  not  a 
license  to  sin,  nor  is  it  a  promise  to  pardon  future 
sins.  Since  1562  the  sale  of  indulgences  has  been 
forbidden  (Council  of  Trent,  sess.  xxi  de  ref,  c.  9),  as 
the  traffic,  though  a  great  source  of  income,  had 
been  the  occasion  of  many  attacks  (Luther). 
This  prohibition  has  not,  however,  stopped  the 
sale,  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese  dominions  and  in 
South  America,  of  indulgences  based  on  the  Bulla 
Cruciatae  or  Bull  of  the  Crusade.  Indulgences  have 
never  been  aboUshed;  they  still  operate  as  valued 
premiums  for  the  performance  of  numerous  acts  of 
Roman  CathoUc  devotion.       W.  W.  Rockwell 

INDULT. — A  papal  privilege  (not  to  be  con- 
founded with  indulgence)  granted  to  a  specified 
individual  for  himself  or  others,  for  a  definite  time 
or  number  of  cases,  of  doing  what  is  not  permitted 
by  the  Common  Law  of  the  Church.  It  dates  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  4th.  century. 

INFALLIBILITY. — ^A  sanction  or  an  authority 
residing  in  an  utterance,  a  person,  or  an  institution, 
rendering  it  incapable  of  error. 

The  idea  of  infalUbiUty  is  a  particular  instance 
of  a  dogmatic  conception  of  divine  guidance.  God, 
of  course,  cannot  err.  Any  decree  or  utterance  of 
God's  therefore  must  be  infalhble.  Any  institution 
specifically  authorized  to  proclaim  God's  will;  or 
any  literature  dictated  by  God  must  be  infalhble. 
"The  king  cannot  err"  is  an  expression  of  this  ideal 
in  connection  with  the  doctrine  of  divine  right  (q.v.). 
The  doctrines  of  an  infalhble  church  and  of  an 
infalhble  Bible  are  analogous  interpretations  in  the 
realm  of  rehgion. 

Catholic  doctrine  emphasizes  the  divine  author- 
ity of  both  Scripture  and  church.  In  practice, 
the  infalhbihty  of  the  church  is  put  to  the  front; 
for  it  alone  is  divinely  authorized  to  determine 
the  precise  Ust  of  inspired  books,  and  it  alone  can 
infalhbly  declare  the  true  meaning  of  Scripture. 
While  the  conception  of  an  inerrant  church  has 
been  steadily  maintained,  disputes  and  disagree- 
ments have  arisen  in  Catholicism  as  to  what  is  to 
be  regarded  as  an  authoritative  decision  of  the 
church.  Coimcils  of  bishops  are  often  not  unani- 
mous. Is  a  majority  opinion  surely  correct? 
Might  not  a  minority  more  accurately  apprehend 
God's  truth?  The  necessity  for  an  unequivocal 
location  of  the  voice  of  the  church  led  to  the  dogma 
of  papal  infalhbihty.  The  Vatican  Council  (1870) 
declared  "that  the  Roman  Pontiff  when  he  speaks 
ex  cathedra,  that  is  when  in  discharge  of  the  office  of 
Pastor  and  Doctor  of  aU  Christians,  by  virtue  of  his 
supreme  apostohc  authority  he  defines  the  doctrine 
regarding  faith  and  morals  to  be  held  by  the  uni- 
versal church,  by  the  divine  assistance  promised 
to  him  in  Blessed  Peter  is  possessed  of  that  infalh- 
bihty with  which  the  Divine  Redeemer  willed  that 
the  church  should  be  endowed  for  defining  doctrine 
regarding  faith  and  morals." 

Protestantism  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the 
infalhbihty  of  the  church,  restricting  the  idea  to 
Scripture  alone.  This  conception  was  reinforced 
by  the  doctrine  of  verbal,  or  at  least  plenary, 
inspiration  (q.v.)  in  order  to  obviate  any  human 
frailty  in  the  bibhcal  message.  The  usual  formula 
of  Protestant  orthodoxy  is  that  the  Bible  is  "the 
infallible  rule  of  faith  and  practice."     Difficulties, 


223 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Initiation 


however,  arise  from  the  privilege  of  private  inter- 
pretation of  Scripture.  It  is  open  to  any  Protestant 
to  identify  his  own  position  with  the  infalMble  Word 
of  God,  and  to  denounce  all  who  differ  from  him. 
The  doctrine  of  infaUibiUty  thus  too  often  ministers 
to  bigotry  and  dogmatism.  In  recent  years  the 
historical  study  of  the  Bible  and  a  comparison  of 
its  teachings  with  scientifically  verified  facts  have 
shown  conclusively  that  inerrancy  cannot  be 
affirmed  of  all  biblical  statements.  The  doctrine 
of  infallibility  is  thus  being  abandoned  by  many 
Protestant  scholars  and  ministers. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
INFAMY. — Loss  of  good  name  by  notorious 
moral  delinquency  publicly  known  or  juridically 
established,  unfitting  one  for  certain  social  positions 
or  public  trust. 

INFANCY,  ARABIC  GOSPEL  OF  THE.— See 

Apocrypha. 

INFANT  SALVATION.— The  question  as  to 
the  salvation  of  infants  has  been  much  debated 
in  the  history  of  Christianity,  when  salvation  has 
been  conceived  to  depend  on  some  specific  means 
of  regeneration  such  as  baptism.  The  R.C. 
church  while  regarding  baptism  as  normally 
necessary,  assigns  unbaptized  infants  to  a  place 
called  limbus  (q.v.),  where  their  discipline  is  not 
unduly  severe.  Zwingli  broke  with  the  idea  of 
sacramental  regeneration,  and  asserted  the  salvation 
of  all  elect  infants,  whether  baptized  or  not.  Calvin 
and  the  Calvinistic  churches  taught  the  salvation 
of  elect  infants.  The  present  tendency  is  to 
include  in  the  election  all  who  are  in  infancy. 

INFANTICIDE.— The  practise  of  destroying  a 
newly-born  child  or  the  matured  foetus.  Among 
sophisticated  peoples,  it  is  a  criminal  act.  But  less 
cultured  peoples  have  practised  it  sometimes  as  a 
religious  rite  where  the  belief  is  that  the  gods 
require  human  sacrifice ;  sometimes  as  a  cannibahstic 
act;  sometimes  for  economic  reasons;  and  some- 
times where  the  poUtical  or  social  norm  requires  the 
destruction  of  the  physically  defective. 

INFIDELITY.— (1)  The  disavowal  or  repudia- 
tion of  the  tenets  of  any  rehgion;  especially  used 
of  denial  of  the  tenets  of  Christianity.  Since 
rejection  of  authorized  doctrine  was  assumed  to  be 
an  evil  attitude,  the  word  implies  a  dishonorable 
stand.  (2)  Lack  of  fideUty  with  respect  to  any 
obHgation;  specifically,  a  breach  of  the  marriage 
vow  by  adultery. 

INFINITY. — Mathematicians  have  defined  the 
infinite  as  a  quantity  which  is  always  greater  than 
any  assignable  quantity,  and  the  infinitesimal  as  a 
quantity  that  is  always  smaller  than  any  assignable 
quantity,  and  have  used  these  conceptions  to  deal 
with  quantities  which  vary  continuously.  More 
recent  mathematical  thought  has  defined  the 
infinite  number  by  certain  characters  which  are 
not  possessed  by  finite  numbers  and  have  in  this 
way  been  able  to  formulate  the  conception  of  com- 
pactness, which  enables  the  mathematician  to 
conceive  of  the  continuum  in  terms  of  the  discrete. 
In  practice  the  infinite  has  been  a  conception  by 
means  of  which  men  have  been  able  to  deal  with 
certain  problems  of  the  continuum  and  the  discrete, 
such  as  that  of  a  continuously  changing  velocity, 
the  relation  of  curves  to  inscribed  and  circumscribed 
lines,  the  relations  of  points  and  instants  to  continu- 
ous space  and  time  and  many  others.  In  a  manner 
not  logically  unlike  this  Hegel  undertook  to  state 
the  positive  character  of  the  infinite  as  the  reference 
of  being  that  binds  it  to  itself  when  passing  into 


the  other.  This  Hegel  called  the  true  infinity  and 
illustrated  it  by  the  circle  as  contrasted  to  the 
indefinite  straight  line.  But  it  cannot  be  said  that 
in  philosophy  or  elsewhere  in  thought  Hegel's 
undertaking  has  solved  any  problems.  So  far  as  a 
positive  character  appears  in  our  thought  of  the 
infinite,  it  is  emotional  not  discursive.  Ancient 
Greek  thought  found  the  highest  perfection  in  the 
finite,  the  defined.  It  remained  for  the  latest  phase  of 
Greek  speculation  and  modern  theology  and  philoso- 
phy to  identify  perfection  and  the  highest  reality 
with  the  infinite.  George  H.  Mead 

INFRALAPSARIANISM.— The  modified  Cal- 
vinistic position  which  places  the  decrees  of  pre- 
destination and  election  subsequent  to  that  of  the 
fall  of  man.    See  Decrees. 

INHIBITION.— (1)  The  prevention  of  one 
mental  process  by  the  conflicting  interest  of  another. 
The  inhibition  of  impulses  that  are  harmful  is  a 
condition  in  the  formation  of  good  habits,  (2)  The 
official  denial  to  a  priest  of  the  right  to  perform 
the  functions  of  his  office. 

INITIATION. — The  process  of  admission  into 
some  office  or  order.  As  used  by  anthropologists, 
the  term  refers  especially  to  the  procedure  by  which 
young  persons  of  both  sexes  are  formally  mvested 
with  the  privileges  of  maturity.  The  present 
article  is  confined  to  boys'  initiation  rites,  on  which 
the  corresponding  rites  for  girls  seem  to  be  modeled. 

1.  Nature  op  Initiation  Rites. — Among  the 
great  majority  of  savage  and  barbarous  peoples  the 
transition  from  childhood  to  manhood  is  marked 
by  secret  ceremonies,  which  transfer  the  youth 
from  association  with  the  women  and  children  and 
introduce  him  to  the  society  of  men.  The  cere- 
monies usually  take  place  at  the  age  of  puberty  and 
probably  originated  in  the  superstitious  concern  with 
which  the  savage  views  this  great  functional  crisis 
of  human  Kfe.  See  Taboo.  In  their  existing  form 
they  have  both  a  civil  and  a  rehgious  character, 
being  designed  at  once  to  prepare  the  candidate  for 
the  duties  of  tribal  citizenship  and  to  admit  him  to 
the  mysteries  of  the  tribal  rehgion.  See  Secret 
Societies.  They  are  organized  and  conducted 
by  the  older  men — the  "elders" — who  are  the 
responsible  guardians  of  the  community.  Initiation 
is  practically  compulsory,  since  failure  to  imdergo 
the  rites  means  disgrace  for  fife.  It  is,  moreover, 
strictly  a  tribal  privilege,  for  ahens  and  half-castes 
are  rigorously  excluded.  The  gatherings  for 
initiatory  purposes  form  large  assemblies  attended 
by  all  the  members  of  a  tribe  or  of  several  related 
tribes.  On  such  occasions  there  will  be  numerous 
festivities,  lasting  for  weeks  and  even  months, 
and  accompanied  by  much  friendly  intercourse, 
bartering,  and  transaction  of  public  business. 
In  short,  the  initiation  ceremonies  may  be  described, 
without  exaggeration,  as  the  most  important  of  all 
primitive  social  institutions. 

II.  Features  of  Initiation  Rites.-^1.  Seclur- 
sion  and  ordeals. — Boys  undergoing  initiation  are, 
carefully  removed,  often  for  a  lengthy  period 
from  the  society  of  women  and  children.  During 
the  initiatory  seclusion  they  have  to  submit  to 
many  ordeals,  which  are  primarily  tests  of  endur- 
ance and  self-control.  These  include  flagellation, 
long  fasts,  deprivation  of  sleep,  compulsory  silence, 
and,  in  general,  concealment  of  fear  and  pain. 
Sometimes  the  ordeals  are  so  severe  as  to  ruin  the 
health  and  even  to  cause  the  death  of  the  weaker 
novices.  Those  who  succumb  are  thought  unfit  for 
manhood,  and  for  them  there  are  few  regrets. 

2.  Mutilations. — Serving  partly  as  ordeals  and 
partly  as  permanent  evidences  of  initiation  are 


Initiation 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


224 


various  mutilations,  ofteil  extremely  repulsive  in 
character.  These  include  extracting  teeth,  sacri- 
fication,  tattooing,  depUation,  perforation  of  the 
septum,  and  the  wide-spread  practice  of  circum- 
cision (q.v.). 

3.  The  new  life. — Almost  universally  initiation 
rites  present  a  simulation  of  the  death  and  resur- 
rection of  the  novices.  The  ceremony,  whatever  its 
remote  origin,  clearly  expresses  the  idea  that  they 
have  now  "died"  to  their  old  childish  ways  and 
have  entered  upon  the  new  hfe  of  manhood,  with 
aU  its  attendant  privileges  and  responsibiUties. 
At  the  close  of  the  ceremony  they  receive  new  and 
secret  names,  by  which  they  are  known  among  the 
initiated,  and  may  even  learn  an  esoteric  language. 

4.  Exhibition  of  the  sacra. — At  some  period  of 
the  initiation  rites  the  elders  show  the  novices 
certain  mysterious  and  sacred  objects,  which  are 
never  seen  by  uninitiates.  Among  most  of  the 
Australian  tribes,  for  instance,  the  revelation  of  the 
bull-roarer  (q.v.)  and  the  explanation  of  the  manner 
by  which  its  sounds  are  produced,  is  the  chief 
mystery  disclosed.  The  hideous  masks,  worn 
by  the  directors  of  the  rites  to  represent  deities  or 
spirits  of  the  dead,  may  also  be  shown  to  the  boys  at 
this  time.  Instead  of  sacred  objects  there  may  be 
esoteric  dramatic  dances  and  other  performances 
calculated  to  impress  the  novices  with  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  proceedings. 

5.  Instruction. — During  their  initiatory  seclusion 
the  candidates  receive  careful  training  in  everything 
that  pertains  to  their  future  life.  They  learn 
various  practical  arts,  the  native  songs,  dances,  and 
games,  the  traditions  and  taboos,  and  the  customs 
relating  to  marriage.  The  moral  code  imparted  at 
this  time  is  of  surprising  excellence,  though,  of 
course,  it  relates  only  to  fellow-tribesmen  (foreign- 
ers not  being  considered).  The  neophytes  are 
also  told  the  legends  concerning  the  deity  who 
founded  and  still  watches  over  the  ceremonies; 
sometimes  they  are  shown  an  image  of  him;  and 
they  are  allowed  to  utter  his  real  and  secret  name, 
which  women  and  children  never  know.  The 
initiatory  rites  form,  in  short,  a  covenant  with  the 
tribal  god  and  a  sacred  bond  of  brotherhood  between 
all  who  participate  in  them. 

6.  Restrictions. — It  is  obvious  that  the  effect 
of  the  initiation  rites  is  to  heighten  the  respect  felt 
by  the  young  men  for  their  elders.  The  latter 
make  good  use  of  the  supernatural  machinery  which 
they  control  to  impose  various  restrictions  upon  the 
novices,  especially  as  regards  the  food  supply  and 
women.  In  many  cases  the  full  privileges  of 
manhood  are  conferred  only  after  a  long  period  of 
probation  and  attendance  at  several  initiatory 
gatherings. 

III.  Development  op  Initiation  Rites. — 
Ceremonies  of  the  kind  described  are  found  among 
the  lowest  of  existing  peoples.  In  later  stages  of 
savage  or  semi-civilized  hfe  the  tribe,  with  its  all- 
inclusive  initiation  rites,  tends  to  become  sub- 
divided into  a  number  of  secret  societies  (q.v.),  each 
with  its  initiatory  ritual,  secret  lodge,  and  system 
of  grades  or  degrees  through  which  members  may 
progress.  Melanesia,  Polynesia,  Africa,  and  North 
America  present  many  examples.  What  httle  is 
known  of  the  mysteries  (q.v.)  of  Oriental  and 
classical  antiquity  suggests  some  sort  of  connection 
between  them  and  these  earUer  magico-rehgious 
associations.  The  Christian  Church,  which,  as  a 
voluntary  association,  ultimately  took  the  place  of 
the  ancient  mysteries,  retained  the  reUgious  aspect 
of  initiation  in  its  baptismal  and  confirmational 
rites.  As  a  civic  ceremony  initiation  among 
civilized  peoples  has  dechned  into  a  mere  domestic 
celebration  of  youth's  coming  to  age. 

Hutton  Webster 


INNER  LIGHT.— According  to  the  Quakers, 
religious  certainty  is  based  on  the  direct  presence 
of  the  Divine  Spirit  in  the  consciousness  of  the 
individual.  ^  Assurance  is  thus  an  immediate 
experience  instead  of  being  dependent  on  external 
authority.    See  Friends,  Society  of. 

INNER  MISSION.— (German,  Innere  Mission.) 
A  movement  in  the  evangehcal  church  of  Ger- 
many, whose  object,  as  stated  by  Wichem,  its 
organizer,  was  "to  renew,  within  and  without,  the 
condition  of  those  multitudes  in  Christendom 
upon  whom  has  fallen  the  power  of  manifold  external 
and  internal  evils,  which  spring  directly  or  indirectly 
from  sin,  so  far  as  they  are  not  reached  by  the  usual 
Christian  offices  with  the  means  necessary  for  their 
renewal." 

In  the  evangelical  church  of  Germany  toward 
the  end  of  the  18th.  and  early  in  the  19th.  centuries, 
a  number  of  earnest  Christian  men  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  service  of  the  masses.  Most  notable 
was  Theodor  Fhedner  (1800-1864)  who  founded 
the  first  society  for  prison  reform  in  Germany  in 
1826,  in  1833  a  refuge  for  discharged  female  prisoners 
at  Kaiserswerth  where  he  was  pastor,  and  in  1836 
the  deaconess  movement.  By  some,  Fhedner  is 
regarded  as  the  originator  of  the  Inner  Mission. 

Johann  Heinrich  Wichern  (1808-1881)  of 
Hamburg  gave  to  the  unrelated  Christian  impulses 
and  activities  of  the  time,  an  organization  and  a 
name.  He  introduced  the  Sunday  School  into 
Hamburg,  and  in  1833  had  founded  the  Rauhes 
Haus,  an  institution  for  the  education  and  traming 
of  neglected  children.  Through  his  efforts  the 
Protestant  Sjmod  at  Wittenberg  in  1848  appointed 
a  central  committee  for  Innere  Mission.  Since  that 
date  the  Inner  Mission  has  been  one  of  the  most 
important  features  of  German  religious  and  philan- 
thropic life.  It  is  independent  of  but  not  antago- 
nistic to  the  church  and  asks  nothing  of  the  state  but 
the  privilege  of  free  association  and  work.  Its 
object  is  twofold:  First,  to  awaken  and  deepen 
the  reUgious  life  of  those  who  have  lapsed  from  their 
baptismal  vows,  and  second,  to  stimulate  Christian 
character  and  hving.  It  is  thus  both  reHgious  and 
himianitarian. 

While  similar  to  the  Home  Mission  movement 
in  America,  it  has  no  direct  relations  with  the  church, 
and  devotes  itself  more  largely  to  Christian  charity. 
In  pursuing  these  objects  it  employs  preachers  and 
a  great  number  of  trained  women  and  lay  workers. 
It  seeks  to  reach  neglected  children  through  schools 
and  orphan  houses,  to  aid  discharged  prisoners  and 
fallen  women  by  means  of  refuges  and  homes,  to 
improve  working  conditions  especially  those  of 
women,  to  provide  protection  and  help  for  working 
girls  in  the  cities,  to  ameUorate  the  hard  conditions 
of  the  sailors  both  in  home  and  foreign  parts.  In 
these  and  many  other  ways  it  seeks  to  exemphfy 
Christian  principles  in  the  service  of  the  immoral, 
the  neglected,  the  suffering  and  the  unfortunate. 

W.  J.  McGlothlin 

INNOCENCE.— (1)  The  condition  of  freedom 
from  corruption,  taint  or  evil.  Christian  theology 
has  denied  this  attitude  to  all  mankind  except  Adam 
and  Eve  before  their  fall.  In  a  less  theological 
sense  the  word  is  used  in  the  case  of  an  infant 
before  reaching  the  period  of  accountability  for 
conduct.  (2)  Freedom  from  guilt  of  a  particular 
crime,  or  from  habiUty  to  legal  pimishment. 

INNOCENT. — ^The  name  of  thirteen  popes  and 
one  antipope. 

Innocent  I. — Pope,  402-417.  During  his  pontifi- 
cate Rome  was  sacked  by  Alaric.  He  was  active 
in  the  Pelegian  controversy  and  extended  the 
papal  authority. 


225 


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Inspiration 


Innocent  II. — Pope,  1130-1143,  was  a  supporter 
of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  in  opposition  to  Abelard 
and  Arnold  of  Brescia. 

Innocent  III.— {I)  Antipope,  1179-1180.  (2) 
Pope,  1198-1216;  one  of  the  most  outstanding 
potentates  in  the  history  of  the  papacy,  a  man  of 
unusual  ability  as  a  ruler  and  diplomat  as  well  as  of 
scholarly  attainments.  He  made  a  political  reality 
of  the  theory  of  the  supremacy  of  the  spiritual 
over  the  temporal  power,  his  greatest  victory  being 
the  subjugation  of  King  John  of  England.  He 
organized  several  Crusades.  The  twelfth  Lateran 
council  was  convened  by  him. 

Innocent  IV. — Pope,  1243-1254.  Like  Innocent 
III.,  he  carried  on  the  struggle  for  the  supremacy  of 
the  Roman  See  over  the  temporal  power,  his  long 
strife  with  Frederick  II.  being  a  significant  feature. 

Innocent  V. — Pope,  Jan.  21  to  June  22,  1276. 

Innocent  F/.— Pope,  1352-1362;  one  of  the 
strongest  of  the  Avignon  popes,  reducing  court 
extravagance,  obliging  his  clergy  to  reside  at  their 
sees,  and  taking  a  prominent  part  in  European 
poUtics. 

Innocent  VII.— Pope,  1404-1406. 

Innocent  VIII.— Fope,  1484-1492. 

Innocent  /X.— Pope,  Oct.  29-Dec.  30,  1591. 

Innocent  Z.— Pope,  1644-1655. 

Innocent  XI. — Pope,  1676-1689;  a  man  of 
blameless  life,  who  strove  sincerely  to  elevate  the 
moral  and  spiritual  life  of  the  church;  played  an 
important  part  in  European  poUtics,  checking  the 
ambition  of  Louis  XIV.  and  sharing  in  the  relief  of 
Vienna,  1683. 

Innocent  XII. — Pope,  1691-1700;  used  his 
office  to  accomplish  reforms  and  repress  the  heresy 
of  Jansenism. 

Innocent  XIII.— Pope,  1721-1724. 

INNOCENTS'  DAY.— A  festival  in  com- 
memoration of  the  slaughter  of  the  children  by 
Herod,  kept  by  the  Roman  church  on  Dec.  28, 
and  the  Greek  church  on  Dec.  29.  Also  called 
Childermas. 

INQUISITION.— An  ecclesiastical  tribunal  for 
the  suppression  of  heresy. 

1.  Origin. — To  stay  the  progress  of  heresy  which 
had  been  unsuccessfully  combated  by  bishops 
and  secular  rulers  conforming  to  the  decrees  of 
church  councils  (Toulouse,  1119;  Tours,  1163; 
Verona,  1184;  Lateran,  1123, 1139, 1179, 1215),  and 
to  checkmate  Frederick  II.,  whose  legislation 
against  heretics  had  been  encroaching  upon  ecclesi- 
astical rights,  Gregory  IX.  delegated  to  judges 
acting  in  his  name  and  in  harmony  with  the  estab- 
lished rules  of  canonical  procedure,  the  task  of 
dealing  with  offenses  against  the  Faith.  Because 
of  their  zeal  and  theological  training,  these  judges 
were  chosen  almost  exclusively  from  the  Dominican 
Order.^  From  Lombardy  they  carried  their  opera- 
tions into  all  sections  of  Western  Europe  save 
England  and  Scandinavia.  Northern  Italy  and 
Southern  France  were  visited  with  particular 
thoroughness. 

2.  Procedure. — After  a  "period  of  grace"  during 
which  the  self-confessed  could  clear  themselves  by  a 
light  penance,  especially  if  they  furnished  deposi- 
tions against  fellow  citizens,  this  court  proceeded 
to  summon  "suspects."  Into  a  court  conducted 
in  secret,  the  defendant  could  bring  no  legal  adviser 
or  witnesses.  He  was  not  permitted  to  confront  his 
incriminators,  or  even  to  know  who  they  were. 
He  was  allowed  only  to  name  such  as  cherished  ill- 
will  against  him.  Torture  applied  once  by  lay 
officials  outside  the  court  was  administered  to  such 
as  prevaricated  or  proved  obstinate.  Appeal  to 
the  Pope  was  hedged  about  with  hopeless  complica- 


tions. Punishnient  took  the  form  of  fasts,  prayers, 
flagellations,  pilgrimages,  crosses  sewn  to  one's 
apparel,  fines,  and  imprisonment.  The  last  some- 
times extended  over  a  life  time  in  most  unsanitary 
conditions.  A  small  proportion  of  the  accused, 
mostly  relapsed,  was  surrendered  to  the  secular  arm 
and  burnt.  The  houses  of  such  were  destroyed  and 
their  property  was  confiscated.  Through  this 
confiscation  court  expenses  were  largely  financed. 
It  proved  profitable  to  prosecute  the  dead,  whose 
estates  lay  in  legal  jeopardy  for  at  least  forty  years. 
3.  Results. — The  most  significant  was  the 
effective  check  administered  to  the  spread  of  heresy. 
It  also  operated  against  economic  stability.  The 
use  of  torture  was  revived  in  certain  areas,  notably 
in  the  Papal  States.  Court  procedure  in  France 
became  more  summary.  P.  G.  Mode 

INSANITY. — A  deranged  mental  condition 
caused  by  a  disease  or  defect  of  the  brain.  From 
early  times  there  has  been  legal  recognition  of 
insanity  as  excusing  from  responsibility  for  criminal 
conduct  and  from  capacity  for  civil  obUgations. 
Before  the  days  of  medical  knowledge,  insane 
persons  were  generally  regarded  as  "possessed"  by 
evil  spirits,  or  were  classed  with  criminals.  Today 
the  care  of  the  insane  is  recognized  as  a  problem  of 
social  obhgation,  and  is  assumed  by  the  state. 

INSPIRATION.— The  breathing  in  or  com- 
munication of  divine  wisdom  to  men  or  literature. 

1.  Inspiration  of  persons. — Psychologically  this 
may  be  described  as  the  state  in  which  the  human 
mind  is  particularly  susceptible  to  divine  influence, 
in  consequence  of  which  it  interprets  human 
experience  both  individual  and  social  so  as  to 
indicate  the  values  which  are  believed  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  divine  will. 

The  belief  in  such  divine  action  is  common 
among  religions.  In  some  cases  it  takes  the 
form  of  possession  (q.v.),  in  other  cases  the  exten- 
sion of  divine  will  by  word  of  mouth,  and  in  still 
others  some  written  form.  The  claim  to  inspiration 
has  generally  been  granted  by  the  members  of  the 
group  to  whom  the  inspired  person  comes,  but  this 
is  by  no  means  the  same  as  saying  that  his  direc- 
tions have  always  been  beUeved  or  followed.  In 
the  case  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  the  claim  to 
speak  the  word  of  God  was  not  always  believed, 
and  the  prophets  were  sometimes  subjected  to 
indignity,  even  death. 

Inspiration,  however,  of  individuals  was  by  no 
means  limited  to  teaching  purposes.  The  spirit 
of  Yahweh  came  upon  men  for  different  purposes, 
such  as  carpentering,  war,  music.  The  coming  of 
the  spirit  of  Yahweh  upon  a  person  was  the  usual 
explanation  of  anything  unique  in  his  experience. 
But  as  the  term  is  commonly  used  in  theology, 
inspiration  is  limited  in  usage  to  the  experience  of 
certain  persons  which  enable  them  to  set  forth  in 
unique  fashion  the  will  of  God. 

2.  Inspiration  of  literature. — From  this  applica- 
tion to  persons,  the  usage  of  the  term  was  extended 
to  include  the  utterances  of  these  persons  with 
particular  reference  to  their  hterary  form.  God 
"spake  in  partial  forms  and  in  many  ways  to  the 
fathers  by  the  prophets."  When  a  piece  of  htera- 
ture  became  regarded  as  possessed  of  prophetic 
origin  either  directly  or  indirectly,  it  very  naturally 
came  to  share  in  the  authority  which  the  prophet 
himself  possessed.  Thus  gradually  and  quite 
beyond  the  possibility  of  being  traced  historically, 
there  grew  up  the  conviction  that  certain  writings 
of  the  Hebrew  nation  possessed  a  divine  value  not 
possessed  by  others.  This  beUef  seems  to  have 
served  as  a  basis  for  authoritative  teaching  in  the 
1st.  century  of  our  era.    Philo  held  to  the  mechauic»l 


Inspiration 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


226 


theory  of  inspiration  which  made  it  possible  for 
him  to  feel  that  all  truth  was  in  the  Scripture. 
The  only  difficulty  was  to  discover  the  method  by 
which  it  might  be  obtained.  Out  from  this  general 
conception  of  the  worth  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
came  the  allegorical  and  other  extravagant  methods 
of  interpretation.  Any  sort  of  ingenuity  in  arriving 
at  a  conclusion  was  regarded  as  legitimate  so  long 
as  it  was  associated  with  the  manipulation  of  the 
scriptural  text.  Josephus,  while  not  hesitating 
to  extend  inspiration  to  himself  and  others  {Jewish 
War  i.  2.  8;  iii.  8.  3;  iv.  10.  8)  makes  a  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  the  writings  which  he  regards 
as  inspired  and  others  which  are  valuable  for 
instruction. 

Thus  there  was  established  a  normative  con- 
ception of  inspired,  and  so  authoritative  literature 
which  was  ready  at  hand  for  a  developing  Chris- 
tianity. The  early  Christians,  imhke  their  suc- 
cessors, had  at  the  start  only  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
In  consequence  a  large  part  of  their  program  con- 
sisted in  their  use  of  these  Scriptures  to  legitimatize 
claims  of  the  new  faith.  Many  of  the  church 
fathers  spoke  of  the  prophecies  as  oracles  of  Grod 
that  were  being  fulfilled  in  Jesus. 

As  the  literature  of  the  new  religion  grew,  the 
distinction  which  had  previously  been  made  in 
the  Hebrew  hterature  was  perp>etuated.  While  the 
issue  of  inspiration  was  not  explicitly  discussed, 
a  sharp  distinction  was  made  between  the  writings 
of  apostolic  origin  and  others.  The  former  were 
regarded  on  the  same  laasis  as  the  Hterature  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  so  became  _  authoritative  in 
the  formulation  of  the  Catholic  doctrine.  See 
Canon.  At  the  same  time  there  was  no  distinct 
theory  as  to  verbal  accuracy,  neither  was  there  any 
sensitiveness  as  to  precision  in  quotation  from 
the  Christian  writings.  They  were  regarded  as  the 
authoritative  source  of  CathoUc  doctrine,  but 
particular  teaching  as  to  their  inspiration  was 
lacking.  The  development  of  the  Cathohc  church 
was  accompanied  by  the  rise  of  ecclesiastical  tra- 
dition regarded  as  possessed  of  equal  authority  to 
that  of  the  Scripture,  while  the  church  itself  as  the 
body  of  Christ  possessing  the  authority  of  the  keys 
was  regarded  as  being  divinely  led  both  into  the 
interpretation^  of  the  Scripture  and  tradition, 
and  the  enunciation  of  truth. 

The  medieval  church  extended  the  conception 
of  inspiration  in  a  modified  sense  to  the  saints  to 
whom  were  vouchsafed  visions  and  certain  revela- 
tions. Such  material,  however,  never  acquired 
authority  as  the  basis  of  dogma,  and  even  the  most 
treasured  writings  of  the  fathers  were  never  placed 
on  the  same  plane  of  authority  as  were  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 

Secondary  Christianity  which  developed  in 
western  Europe  was  not  the  product  of  the  scrip- 
tural teaching,  but  rather  a  legitimatizing  of 
custom  by  the  use  of  Scripture  when  available. 
It  tended,  however,  to  develop  greatly  the  authority 
of  the  ecclesiastical  organization,  and  thus  to  place 
the  decisions  of  the  councils  and  of  the  popes,  and 
the  opinions  of  the  fathers  as  well  as  tradition, 
in  more  or  less  co-ordinate  authority  with  that  of 
the  Bible.  The  reformation  movement  restricted 
inspiration  to  the  Bible,  denied  ecclesiastical 
authority  or  relegated  it  to  secondary  importance. 
From  one  point  of  view  the  struggle  between  the 
new  state  churches  of  the  reformers  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  centered  itself  around  the  Scrip- 
ture. Having  denied  supreme  authority  to  the 
church,  the  reformers  located  authority  wholly 
in  the  Bible.  Although  "The  Word  of  God"  was 
used  by  Luther  at  the  beginning  with  reference  to 
the  gospel,  it  subsequently  came  to  be  extended 
to  the  entire  Scripture  and  thus  gave  theological 


basis  for  Protestant  orthodoxy.  The  stress  of 
controversy  tended  to  elaborate  this  authority,  and 
the  doctrine  of  inspiration  was  extended  to  cover 
not  only  the  content  but  also  the  words  of  the  two 
Testaments.  The  theory  of  verbal  inspiration, 
according  to  which  the  writer  became  the  "pen  of 
the  Holy  Ghost"  led  to  the  consequent  doctrine 
of  literal  inerrancy,  and  this  was  made  to  include 
even  the  vowel  points  of  the  text  introduced  by 
Hebrew  copyists  hundreds  of  years  after  the 
writing  of  the  Hebrew  scripture. 

As  a  basis  of  doctrinal  development  such  a 
view  of  the  Bible  reached  its  chmax  with  the  Protes- 
tant scholastic  theologians  of  the  17th.  century. 
Assent  to  i  t  became  the  very  shibboleth  of  orthodoxy. 
Since  inspiration  covered  words  they  could  be 
detached  from  their  context  and  used  as  a  basis 
for  theological  conclusion  wholly  apart  from  their 
historical  origin.  Authorship  of  the  various  books 
was  covered  by  the  same  doctrine  of  inspiration 
so  that  the  Protestant  theology  became  confessedly 
the  exposition  of  infallible  truth  in  aU  realms  con- 
tained in  a  literature  which  had  been  verbally 
inspired. 

Such  a  doctrine  soon,  however,  fell  by  its  own 
weight.  The  various  discrepancies  in  the  scriptural 
text  could  not  be  avoided.  The  study  of  newly 
discovered  manuscripts  showed  scores  of  thousands 
of  variations  with  the  accepted  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  study  of  the  various  versions  of 
the  Old  Testament  also  made  it  impossible  to  assert 
with  finality  the  possession  of  an  infaUible  Bible. 
In  consequence  men  were  driven  to  assert  that 
while  the  existing  copies  of  the  Bible  had  been 
subjected  to  errors  in  copying,  the  original  was 
inspired  both  in  word  and  letter.  Practically, 
however,  no  attempt  is  made  to  separate  between 
these  lost  autographs  and  the  Bible  as  known  to 
the  theologians. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  a  number  of 
theories  of  inspiration  which  may  be  briefly  described 
as  (1)  the  verbal,  hteralistic,  as  described  above; 
(2)  the  dynamic,  to  the  effect  that  the  biblical  writers, 
while  retaining  their  stylistic  and  other  peculiarities, 
were  moved  by  the  spirit  of  God  to  discover  truth. 
Opinion  as  to  the  extent  to  which  this  inspiration 
enabled  writers  to  discover  scientific  and  ethical 
truth  in  advance  of  their  age  varies ;  (3)  the  historical- 
critical,  which  leads  to  the  recognition  of  the  supreme 
worth  and  religious  authority  of  the  contents  of 
the  Bible  as  a  product^  and  interpretation  of  an 
historical  religious  experience.  Such  a  view  of  the 
Bible  does  not  deny  the  possibility  of  inspiration  of 
the  writers,  but  emphasizes  the  original  psycho- 
logical rather  than  the  later  literary  aspects  of  the 
term.  Shailer  Mathews 

INSTALLATION.— (1)  In  churches  of  episcopal 
government,  the  ceremony  of  inducting  a  canon 
into  his  stall  or  seat  in  the  choir  of  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  church.  (2)  In  non-episcopal  churches 
the  induction  of  a  minister  into  the  pastorate  of  a 
specific  church. 

INSTINCT. — An  inherent  activity  or  impulse 
to  activity  existing  in  the  physical  constitution  of  a 
hving  being,  serving  for  the  preservation  and  wel- 
fare of  the  species.  In  animals,  behavior  is  largely 
instinctive.  In  man,  education  may  transform 
instincts  and  introduce  rational  control.  Instinc- 
tive behavior  is  subject  matter  for  psychological 
investigation.  A  scientific  understanding  of  the 
nature  of  instinctive  action  precludes  the  accept- 
ance of  the  theory  of  specific  moral  and  reUgious 
instincts.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  trace  the 
genesis  of  the  moral  and  religious  attitudes  to 
instinctive  dispositions  and  behavior,  which  tends 


227 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Interchurch  Movement 


to  establish  the  biological  theory  of  the  origin  of 
ethics  and  religion.     See  Behavior;   Habit. 

INSTITUTION.— (1)  The  official  authorization 
of  a  minister  to  perform  spiritual  functions.  (2)  The 
establishing  by  Christ  of  an  ordinance  or  sacrament, 
as  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

INSTITUTIONAL  CHURCH.— The  name 

given  to  a  church,  generally  located  in  a  crowded 
district,  which  has  incorporated  into  its  work 
varied  forms  of  social  ministry. 

The  type  of  church  which  is  conventionaUzed 
in  American  life  is  that  which  was  developed  while 
people  were  Uving  in  the  country  and  in  the  smaller 
town.  The  meeting  house,  the  pastor,  the  sermon, 
the  Sunday  school,  the  prayer  meeting,  are  much  as 
they  were  one  hundred  years  ago.  Yet  industrial 
communities  have  grown  up  with  vastly  different 
problems  from  any  that  belonged  to  that  early  life. 
Foreign  peoples  congregate  in  great  groups  in  the 
cities.  CommerciaUzed  amusement,  running  out 
into  open  vice,  is  a  most  serious  problem.  Condi- 
tions of  unemployment,  the  necessity  of  relief, 
the  opportunities  of  helping  people  to  keep  an 
independent  status  or  to  rehabilitate  themselves 
after  misfortune,  call  for  a  much  more  varied  service 
than  the  church  has  been  accustomed  to  undertake. 
The  social  settlement  is  an  attempt  to  meet  these 
conditions  in  certain  aspects.  The  rescue  mission 
is  an  attempt  to  save  men  after  they  have  fallen 
and  to  help  them  to  get  upon  their  feet.  The 
institutional  church  is  an  attempt  to  adapt  the 
great  central  religious  organization  to  the  actual 
needs  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  all  the  needs  of  the 
community. 

1.  The  religious  theory. — Fundamental  is  the 
idea  that  the  gospel  of  Christ  is  the  hope  of  salva- 
tion for  the  whole  man  in  the  present  human  society 
as  well  as  in  the  life  after  death.  If  then  the  church 
is  to  preach  the  gospel  it  must  do  its  utmost  to  make 
effective  its  message.  Men  and  women,  old  and 
young,  cannot  live  a  rich  life  unless  they  are  intelli- 
gent, therefore  educational  classes,  lectures,  reading 
opportunities  are  organized;  they  need  recreation 
as  a  very  vital  element  of  complete  living,  therefore 
the  fullest  possible  opportunities  for  play,  sport, 
amusement,  are  provided;  they  need  to  make  a 
Uving,  therefore  there  may  be  an  employment 
agency,  perhaps  a  bank,  and  certainly  vocational 
guidance  and  instruction.  All  of  these  are  sanctified 
by  reUgion,  and  therefore  appropriate  reUgious 
classes,  meetings,  talks,  services  are  held. 

2.  The  physical  plant. — The  institutional  church 
is  distinguished  by  its  building.  Neither  the  Gothic 
cathedral  nor  the  New  England  meeting  house  is 
adapted  to  the  kind  of  work  above  described. 
There  may  be  a  distinct  house  of  worship  if  desired, 
but  there  must  be  a  commodious  building  with  large 
rooms  for  lectures,  debates,  forum  meetings, 
dramatic  performances,  moving  pictures,  smaller 
rooms  for  classes  and  social  purposes,  a  gymnasium, 
a  bowhng  alley,  if  possible  a  swimming  pool.  A 
biUiard  and  pool  room  is  very  important,  as  these 
interesting  games  are  almost  always  associated  with 
vicious  influences  in  the  public  pool  rooms. 

3.  The  ministry. — Such  a  vigorous  and  varied 
work  requires  a  corps  of  professional  leaders.  Large 
use  may  be  made  of  volunteer  services  in  the  leader- 
ship of  classes,  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  of  athletic 
activities,  etc.  But  there  must  be  a  minister  over 
the  institution  who  understands  the  genius  of  the 
enterprise.  He  must  have  several  assistants  trained 
for  the  direction  of  the  various  branches  of  the 
work.  Such  an  organization  is  to  be  found  very 
well  worked  out  in  St.  George's  parish  in  New  York. 

Theodore  G.  Soabes 


INTELLECTUALISM.— The  doctrine  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  intellect  in  human  life.  AppUed 
to  ethics,  it  means  the  belief  that  knowledge  is  the 
sole  and  sufficient  criterion  for  moral  behavior,  as  in 
the  ethics  of  Socrates.  Applied  to  reUgion,  it 
means  the  conception  that  correct  formulation  of 
theological  doctrine  is  considered  pure  religion. 
In  philosophy,  it  is  the  interpretation  of  reality  as 
ultimately  intellect  or  pure  reason.  The  defect 
of  intellectuahsm  is  its  failure  to  realize  the  unity 
of  life,  including  the  emotional  and  conative,  as 
well  as  the  cognitive  elements. 

INTEMPERANCE.— Excessive  indulgence  of 
the  appetites;  especially  immoderate  use  of  alco- 
hoUc  beverages.     See  Temperance  Movements. 

INTENTION.— (1)  The  fixed  purpose  of  the 
mind  to  accomplish  a  particular  end.  In  determin- 
ing the  moral  character  of  an  act  intention  is  impor- 
tant as  indicating  the  bearing  of  the  will  on  the 
act.  (2)  In  R.C.  usage,  the  purpose  of  the  priest 
to  fulfil  the  requirements  of  the  church  essential  to 
the  validity  of  a  sacrament. 

INTERCESSION.— Pleading  or  praying  on 
behalf  of  another  to  mitigate  or  remove  adverse 
judgment  or  penalty. 

Human  examples  of  intercession  are  famiUar. 
In  religion  wherever  there  is  a  vivid  sense  of  judg- 
ment and  penalty  to  be  inflicted  by  God,  prayer  for  a 
merciful  attitude  is  an  inevitable  expression  of  love 
for  the  condemned  person.  Official  intercession 
may  be  made  by  those  who  stand  in  closer  relation 
to  God  than  do  ordinary  men.  Priests  may  offer  the 
intercession  of  the  church  on  behalf  of  those  in  the 
care  of  the  church.  Intercessory  prayer  is  the  name 
given  to  the  pastoral  prayer  in  which  the  needs  of  the 
congregation  are  voiced. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  Catholic 
churches,  intercession  by  angels  and  saints  is  held 
to  be  possible.  The  Council  of  Trent  declares  that 
"the  saints  who  reign  together  with  Christ  offer 
up  their  prayers  to  God  for  men."  The  tenderness 
of  the  Virgin  makes  it  especially  appropriate  to 
seek  her  intercession. 

In  Protestant  theology  it  has  usually  been  held 
to  be  wrong  to  seek  the  intercession  of  the  saints, 
Christ  being  affirmed  to  be  the  sole  mediator 
between  man  and  God.     Gerald  Birney  Smith 

INTERCHURCH    WORLD     MOVEMENT.— 

A  co-operative  effort  of  the  evangelical  churches  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  to  secure  the  neces- 
sary resources  of  men,  money,  and  inspiration  for 
the  tasks  at  home  and  abroad. 

Believing  that  the  world  war  had  prepared 
men's  minds  for  religious  impressions,  removed 
barriers  to  missionary  advance,  and  created  an 
atmosphere  favorable  to  the  readjustment  of  indus- 
trial, social,  and  international  relations,  representa- 
tives of  the  various  boards  of  the  evangeUcal 
churches  of  America  regarded  the  time  as  provi- 
dentially opportune  for  organizing  a  co-operative 
movement.  While  in  no  sense  an  ecclesiastical 
organization  nor  an  effort  at  organic  Christian  union 
wfich  might  disturb  the  autonomy  of  any  church 
or  board,  this  was  projected  to  perform  the  tempo- 
rary mission  of  securing  comprehensive  surveys  of  all 
the  fields  at  home  and  abroad  lying  within  the  range 
of  Christian  interest,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  from 
the  churches  the  money  necessary  to  efficiently 
grapple  with  the  problems  involved.  The  pro- 
spectus called  for  a  united  study  of  the  world  field, 
a  united  budget,  a  united  cultivation  of  the  home 
church,  a  united  financial  appeal,  and  a  united  pro- 
gram   of    work.    Underwritten    by    enthusiastic 


Interdict 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


228 


laymen,  a  large  corps  of  experts  was  set  to  work  to 
make  the  surveys.  The  united  financial  appeal  of 
1920  disclosed  a.  lack  of  confidence  in  a  movement 
regarded  by  some  as  bureaucratic  in  its  methods, 
extravagant  in  its  use  of  funds,  and  subversive  of 
denominationalism.  Lacking  moral  and  financial 
support,  it  has  abandoned  its  program,  leaving  as  its 
most  substantial  contribution  a  mass  of  valuable 
data  embodied  in  its  incompleted  surveys. 

Peter  G.  Mode 
INTERDICT. — A  prohibitive  decree  restraining 
a  member  of  the  R.C.  church  or  the  members  in  a 
certain  territory  from  enjoying  the  privileges  of  the 
church;  a  device  sometimes  employed  by  the 
papacy  in  the  days  of  its  temporal  power  for 
coercing  princes  to  submission. 

INTEREST. — The  spontaneous  direction  of 
attention  toward  objects  or  ends  of  action. 

All  objects  which  call  out  emotion  are  likely  to 
be  interesting;  that  is,  all  objects  and  activities 
which  arouse  and  satisfy  the  instincts.  Thus  a 
hungry  man  is  interested  in  food,  a  mother  in  ner 
children,  a  workman  in  his  trade.' 'Spontaneous 
conversation  and  the  overt,  natural  lines  of  action 
reveal  in  individuals,  interests.  What  is  called  a 
natural  bent,  such  as  a  zest  for  music  or  mechanical 
operations  is  a  source  of  interest  in  the  things  per- 
taining to  those  fields.  Acquired  habits,  as  those 
of  one's  profession,  become  also  the  basis  of  genuine 
interests.  The  nature  of  interest  where  attention 
is  non-voluntary  is  brought  out  by  comparing 
it  with  experiences  in  which  attention  is  voluntary 
and  is  only  held  to  the  subject  in  hand  by  effort. 
The  ease  with  which  a  school  boy  remembers  the 
records  of  athletes  in  various  sports  as  contrasted 
with  his  inability  to  recall  the  events  and  dates  of 
his  history  course  is  due  to  his  interest  in  the  former. 
Such  effective,  spontaneous  interest  gives  the 
quality  of  play  to  the  most  serious  tasks.  Social 
approval  and  sympathy  have  much  to  do  with  the 
depth  and  persistence  of  one's  interest  in  any  field. 

Edward  S.  Ames 

INTERIM. — The  name  given  to  certain  proposed 
adjustments  between  the  German  Protestants  and 
the  church  of  Rome  during  the  Reformation,  e.g., 
that  of  Augsburg  1548. 

INTERMEDIATE  STATE.— The  condition  of 
the  dead  between  death  and  the  resurrection. 

The  condition  of  the  dead  immediately  after 
death  has  always  interested  humanity.  See  Future 
Life,  Conceptions  of.  Men  have  been  concerned 
with  the  possibility  of  consciousness  and  moral 
purification.  The  less  speculative  religions  have 
not  felt  these  difficulties,  but  have  seen  the  dead 
proceed  immediately  to  their  eternal  status,  which 
in  many  cases  was  determined  by  a  divine  judgment. 

Christian  eschatology,  however,  has  been 
estopped  from  such  views  by  its  expectation  of  a 
general  resurrection  sometime  in  the  future.  The 
question  of  the  state  of  the  dead  prior  to  that  time 
is  one  upon  which  the  Scriptures  give  no  distinct 
information.  At  least  four  views  are  more  or  less 
generally  held: 

(1)  The  immediate  entrance  on  the  part  of  the 
righteous  into  Paradise,  while  the  wicked  enter 
upon  the  prehminary  suffering  which  will  be  com- 
pleted when  they  are  given  back  their  bodies. 

(2)  The  sleep  of  the  dead,  which  as  the  name 
imphes,  means  that  the  dead  are  without  conscious- 
ness until  summoned  from  the  grave  by  the  resur- 
rection. 

(3)  Purgatory,  in  which  persons  who  have  not 
committed  sins  which  make  their  salvation  impos- 
sible, are  cleansed  in  preparation  for  entrance  into 
Paradise. 


(4)  That  there  is  no  intermediate  state,  but  that 
the  bibhcal  references  are  the  survivals  of  early 
eschatologies,  and  that  the  dead  immediately  enter 
upon  a  course  of  development  which  is  deter- 
mined by  their  moral  attitudes  and  tendencies. 

Shailer  Mathews 

INTERNATIONAL  BIBLE  STUDENTS' 
ASSOCIATION.— See  Millennial  Dawn. 

INTERNUNCIO.— (1)  A  representative  of  the 
Pope  at  smaller  courts  in  contrast  to  the  nuncio 
(q.v.).  (2)  One  who  acts  in  the  interval  between 
the  recall  of  one  nuncio  and  arrival  of  another. 

INTERPOLATION.— A  statement  inserted  in  a 
manuscript  or  document  by  a  later  copyist  or  editor 
usually  with  the  purpose  of  interpreting  the  docu- 
ment in  some  specific  sense  not  indicated  in  the 
original.  The  identification  of  interpolations  is 
important  in  the  critical  study  of  rehgious  literature 
such  as  the  Bible  and  Koran. 

INTERPRETATION.— The  art  of  unfolding  the 
sense  of  spoken  or  written  words.  It  involves  three 
main  branches  of  knowledge — psychology,  history, 
and  philology. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  history  of  biblical  inter- 
pretation m  the  Church  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  first  extending  from  the  composition  of 
the  N.T.  to  the  Reformation,  and  the  second  from 
the  Reformation  to  the  present.  In  the  first  of 
these  periods  interpretation,  being  seriously  defect- 
ive in  knowledge  of  the  history  of  bibUcal  times 
and  of  the  languages  in  which  the  bibUcal  books 
were  written,  was  dominated  by  the  behef  that  the 
text  was  to  be  allegorized.  In  the  second  period, 
characterized  increasingly  by  investigation  of  the 
bibhcal  languages  and  history,  interpretation, 
having  escaped  from  the  burden  of  allegorizing, 
has  been  dominated  more  and  more  by  a  scientific 
spirit.  In  the  first  period  Origen  of  Alexandria 
a  thorough  allegorist  (t254),  was  the  interpreter  of 
greatest  influence;  and  the  Syrians,  Diodore, 
bishop  of  Antioch  from  378,  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 
(t428),  and  John,  bishop  of  Constantinople  (t407), 
were  the  chief  men  who  vainly  sought  to  stem  the 
tide  of  allegory  by  a  more  rational  exegesis. 

From  the  5th.  century  to  the  15th.  the  reign 
of  the  allegorical  type  of  interpretation  was  un- 
broken, and  knowledge  of  the  Bible  sank  to  the 
lowest  level.  Independent  study  of  the  text  was 
wholly  lacking. 

The  second  or  modern  period  of  interpretation 
was  ushered  in  by  the  enthusiastic  study  of  Hebrew 
and  Greek — a  contribution  of  the  Renaissance  to 
bibhcal  interpretation.  The  age  of  the  Reforma- 
tion had  in  Calvin  (tl564)  the  first  thorough 
opponent  of  allegorical  interpretation.  But  the 
tyranny  of  ecclesiastical  tradition  still  warped  all 
exegesis,  Calvin's  included.  The  tyranny  was  some- 
what lessened  in  the  17th.  century  by  RationaHsm, 
and  in  the  next  two  centuries  by  the  development  of 
textual,  hterary  and  historical  criticism. 

By  far  the  most  important  era  in  the  entire 
history  of  interpretation  has  been  the  last  hundred 
years.  In  this  period  the  work  has  been  stimulated 
and  enriched  Dy  important  archaeological  dis- 
coveries, by  the  new  view  of  Nature,  and  by  com- 
parative reUgion.  Lower  criticism  has  restored 
the  earliest  ascertainable  text  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  higher  criticism  has  done  much  for  the  historical 
setting  of  the  various  bibhcal  writings.  During 
this  era  interpretation  has  enjoyed  a  greater  free- 
dom from  ecclesiastical  rule  than  ever  before. 

As  a  result  of  this  modern  investigation  many 
of  the  older  views  of  the  Bible  have  been  radically 


22§ 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Ishtar 


modified,  and  its  historical  meaning  has  been  for 
the  first  time  clearly  and  inspiringly  unfolded. 

George  Holley  Gilbert 
INTERSTICE.— In  the  R.C.  church  the  interval 
of  time  required  by  canon  law  between  promotions 
from  one  order  to  a  higher. 

INTICHIUMA. — Elaborate  ceremonies  con- 
ducted by  certain  primitive  tribes  of  AustraUa, 
and  designed  to  increase  the  supply  of  edible 
animals,  in  this  instance  the  totem  animals  of  the 
tribes.    See  Totemism. 

INTOLERANCE.— Refusal  or  unwillingness  to 
endure  or  bear  with  others  who  hold  to  beUefs  at 
variance  with  one's  own.  It  arises  from  an  exag- 
gerated sense  of  loyalty  to  ideas  and  a  lack  of  social 
sympathy.  It  inevitably  turns  reUgious  devotion 
into  anti-social  charmels. 

INTROIT.— That  portion  of  R.C.  Mass  sung 
as  the  ministrant  and  clerics,  entering  the  church, 
approach  the  altar;  or  a  similar  introductory  portion 
of  the  service  in  any  church. 

INTROSPECTION.— The  examination  of  one's 
own  thoughts,  desires,  ideals  and  other  contents 
of  consciousness;  a  method  used  both  in  psycho- 
logical analysis  and  reUgious  self-discipline. 

INTRUSION.— The  act  of  encroaching  upon 
the  property  of  others;  in  canon  law,  the  illegal 
encroachment  on  an  ecclesiastical  benefice;  in 
the  Scottish  church,  the  assumption  of  pastoral 
functions  by  a  minister  undesired  by  the  congre- 
gation. 

INTIHTIONALISM.— The  philosophical  theory 
that  certain  universal  principles  are  immediately 
apprehended  as  true  independent  of  experience  or 
demonstration.  Applied  to  ethics  it  involves  the 
immediate  apprehension  of  right  and  wrong,  and 
the  a  priori  ability  of  conscience,  viewed  as  a 
special  faculty,  to  apprehend  the  moral  bearing  of 
any  action.  The  apparent  lack  of  intuitional 
ethics  among  many  primitive  peoples,  and  the 
divergence  of  ethical  standards  at  various  periods 
and  among  various  peoples  argue  against  the 
theory. 

INVESTITURE  CONTROVERSY.— An  issue 
between  Pope  Gregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV.  of 
Germany  involving  the  problem  of  the  relation  of 
Church  and  State.  Involved  in  the  feudal  system 
by  landed  possessions,  bishops  were  servants  of  the 
king  and  almost  as  much  a  caste  of  warriors  as  the 
nobles.  In  revolt  against  feudal  conditions  Gregory 
aimed  to  rescue  church  patronage  from  worldUng 
hands  and  (1075)  laid  the  penalty  of  the  bann  on 
any  lay  bestowal  of  clerical  office.  The  vast 
financial  and  miUtary  power  of  feudal  bishops 
would  be  lost  to  the  crown  if  they  became  only 
officers  of  the  papacy  and  war  ensued.  The  king 
banned,  deposed,  humiliated  but  restored  by 
penance  at  Canossa,  drove  Gregory  from  Rome  and 
appointed  a  rival  pope.  The  dispute  was  com- 
promised in  1122  (Concordat  of  Worms)  after  which 
the  pope  gave  religious  functions,  and  the  king 
political  and  property  rights  to  one  canonically 
elected  in  the  king's  presence.        F.  A.  Christib 

INVITATORIUM.— The  ritual  invitation  to 
participate  in  Divine  Worship.  The  95th  Psalm  is 
frequently  thus  used. 

INVOCATION.— The  act  of  calling  upon  the 
divinity. 


Although  to  the  more  advanced  thought  the 
Deity  is  everywhere  present  yet  it  is  thought 
proper  to  invite  his  special  presence  at  the  opening 
of  any  solemn  act  of  worship.  Where  the  thought 
of  his  omnipresence  is  not  yet  grasped,  he  must  of 
course  be  called  to  the  feast  prepared  for  him. 
In  the  stories  of  the  Patriarchs  in  the  book  of  Genesis 
the  building  of  an  altar  is  accompanied  by  a  "calling 
upon  the  name  of  Yahweh"  (Gen.  12:8,  etc.). 
Naaman  expected  Elisha  to  call  upon  the  name  of 
Yahweh  in  order  to  induce  him  to  heal  the  leprosy 
(II  Kings  5:11).  Among  the  Romans  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  call  the  divinity  by  his  true 
name,  otherwise  a  prayer  would  be  without  effect. 

In  Christian  worship  an  invocation  properly 
introduces  the  pubUc  service.  In  the  hturgical 
Churches  a  special  invocation  is  pronounced  in 
consecrating  the  Eucharist — in  order  to  induce  the 
Real  Presence.  An  invocation  also  accompanies  the 
laying  on  of  handa  at  baptism  and  confirmation, 
rites  which  impart  the  Holy  Spirit.    H.  P.  Smith 

IRAN. — See  Persia,  Religions  op. 

IRENAEUS.— Bishop  of  Lyons,  influential 
Christian  leader  of  the  2nd.  century  and  most 
important  ancient  writer  upon  the  heretical  sects. 
Born  in  Asia  (ca.  135-42)  he  was  in  his  youth  a 
hearer  and  perhaps  a  pupil  of  Polycarp  of  Smyrna. 
Soon  after  the  persecution  of  the  Galhcan  churches 
in  A.D.  177-78,  Irenaeus  became  bishop  of  Lyons,  and 
between  181  and  189  he  wrote  his  important  work, 
Against  Heresies,  aimed  especially  against  Valen- 
tinus  and  his  Gnostic  school.  He  died  about  a.d. 
200.  The  only  other  complete  work  of  his  extant 
is  that  In  Proof  of  the  Apostolic  Preaching,  dis- 
covered in  1904.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

IRENICS. — ^An  exposition  of  theology  which 
seeks  to  unify  Christendom  by  emphasizing  the 
common  beUefs,  and  minimizing  differences. 

IRISH  ARTICLES.— A  statement  of  Calvinistic 
faith  comprising  104  articles  adopted  by  the  Irish 
Episcopalian  Church  in  1615,  and  apparently  a 
forerunner  of  the  Westminster  Confession. 

IRISH,  RELIGION  OF.— See  Celtic  Religion. 

IRREGULARITY.— In  the  Anglican  and  Roman 
churches,  an  impediment  to  assuming  the  offices  of 
holy  orders,  arising  from  crime  or  defect.  _  Irregu- 
larities may  be  partial,  obstructing  promotion  from 
a  lower  to  a  higher  order  or  the  performance  of  a 
specffic  office;  or  total,  i.e.,  preventing  the  taking  of 
orders  at  all. 

IRVING,  EDWARD  (1792-1834).— A  vigorous 
preacher,  at  first  in  the  church  of  Scotland,  then  in 
London,  where  his  introduction  of  new  doctrines, 
religious  activities  and  church  officers  led  to  his 
expulsion  from  the  church  in  1833.  The  apocalyptic 
millenarianism  of  the  N.T.,  and  eventually  ecstatic 
gifts  of  the  Spirit,  such  as  speaking  with  tongues  and 
healings,  were  approved  by  him.  See  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church. 

ISAIAH,  ASCENSION  OF.— An  apocalyptic 
book  of  early  Christianity  (ca.  200)  doubtless 
derived  from  Jewish  sources. 

ISAIAH,  MARTYRDOM  OF.— A  pseudepi- 
graphic  work  of  Judaism  descriptive  of  the  death 
of  the  prophet  Isaiah. 

ISHTAR. — The  goddess,  par  excellence,  of  the 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  pantheon.    She  is  the 


Isiivara 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


290 


mother  of  life  in  the  fertility  cult,  the  goddess  of 
love  and  war.  In  astrology  she  was  identified  with 
the  planet  Venus.  A  primitive  Semitic  goddess, 
she  finds  a  place  under  various  names  in  all  the 
rehgions  of  western  Asia.    See  Mother-Goddesses. 

ISHVARA. — The  general  term  for  the  supreme 
God  of  religious  worship  in  India  as  contrasted 
with  the  philosophical  and  quahtyless  Brahman, 
the  impersonal  Supreme.  The  word  is  specifically 
used  sometimes  to  mean  the  immanent  causal  reaUty 
of  the  cosmos.  In  the  sectarian  religions  Ishvara 
is  the  supreme  personal  God. 

ISIDORE  OF  SEVILLE  (ca.  560-636).— 
Spanish  ecclesiastic  and  encyclopaedist,  an  efficient 
administrator  and  erudite  author.  His  Encyclo- 
paedia of  the  Sciences  was  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  influential  works  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

ISIS. — ^The  most  outstanding  goddess  of  the 
rehgion  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  wife  of  Osiris 
and  Mother  of  Horus,  symboHzing  fertihty.  See 
Egypt,  Religion  op;  Mother-Goddesses. 

ISLAM. — The  correct  name  of  the  religion  of 
Mohammed.  The  root  meaning  of  the  word  is 
"submission"  and  impUes  complete  resignation  to 
the  wiU  of  God  on  the  part  of  the  believer  who  there- 
fore is  called  a  Moslem.     See  Mohammedanism. 

ISMA'ILlS. — ^A  remarkable  division  of  Shi'ite 
Islam  established  by  Abdallah  ibn  Maymun  early 
in  the  9th.  century.  In  theology  it  was  largely  Neo- 
Platonism.  In  avowed  purpose  it  was  an  attempt 
to  prepare  for  the  revelation  of  the  concealed  Iman 
(q . V. )  of  the  house  of  Ali.  Its  method  was  to  under- 
mine the  existing  religions  by  initiating  men  to  its 
secret  organization  after  destroying  their  faith  by 
doubts.  There  were  seven  (or  nine)  grades  of 
initiation  and  all  members  were  bound  to  secrecy 
and  absolute  obedience.  The  result  for  individual 
religion  seems  to  have  been  a  complete  emancipa- 
tion from  old  religious  bonds  and  scruples  and  entire 
devotion  to  a  great  religio-political  conspiracy. 

The  Karmatian  uprising  in  southern  Mesopo- 
tamia which  spread  to  Arabia  and  threatened  the 
supremacy  of  the  Abbasids  was  supported  by  the 
Isma'ilis.  They  were  the  power  behind  the  Fatimid 
dynasty  of  Africa.  Two  sects  remained  after  the 
breaking  of  their  hold  over  the  Fatimids — the 
Druses  (q.v.)  who  still  worship  Al-Hakim,  the  sixth 
Fatimid  kahf ,  as  divine  and  the  Assassins  who  terror- 
ized Asia,  Africa  and  eastern  Europe  from  the 
mountain  fortresses  of  Persia  until  the  Mongol 
invasion  stamped  them  out.  Groups  of  Isma'ilis 
still  exist  in  India,  Arabia  and  Egypt. 

ISRAEL,  RELIGION  OF.— The  faith  and 
worship  of  the  Hebrew  people  from  the  time  of 
Moses  to  the  days  of  the  Maccabees. 

I.  Pre-Mosaic  Religion. — The  Hebrews  be- 
longed to  the  great  Semitic  family.  Prior  to  their 
organization  within  that  group  into  a  separate  unit 
with  its  own  characteristic  religion,  they  shared  the 
common  Semitic  reUgious  ideas  and  practices.  See 
Semites,  Religion  op.  Nothing  that  was  common 
to  the  Semites  was  foreign  to  them.  But  they  were 
at  this  stage  primitive  Semites,  and  must  not  be 
credited  with  all  the  attainments  in  religion  and 
civiUzation  which  were  possessed  by  contemi>orary 
Babylonians,  who  were  already  far  advanced  in  the 
scale  of  civiUzation.  They  worshiped  many  gods; 
they  practiced  necromancy  and  ancestor-worship 
(q.v.);  they  were  in  bondage  to  taboo  (q.v.);  they 
followed  after  blood-revenge;  they  feared  demons 
and  devils,  and  they  were  victims  of  sorcery  and 


witchcraft,  against  which  they  fended  themselves  by 
charms  and  speUs.  Nor  was  all  this  primitive  super- 
stition left  behind  with  the  appearance  of  Moses; 
it  died  hard;  and  much  of  the  struggle  of  the 
advancing  religion  was  due  to  the  tenacity^  with 
which  these  hoary  institutions  held  their  own  in  the 
social  fabric  of  the  Hebrews. 

II.  Pre-Prophetic  Religion. — ^The  Hebrews 
seem  to  have  entered  into  and  possessed  Canaan 
at  two  different  periods.  From  the  Amarna 
letters  which  tell  us  of  invading  Habiri  and  from 
the  traditions  regarding  Abraham,  Isaac  and 
Jacob  we  infer  that  there  were  Hebrews  in  Canaan 
as  early  as  the  15th.  century  b.c.  It  seems  probable 
that  these  held  their  residence  there  continuously 
until  joined  by  a  second  group  that  came  in  from 
the  South  in  the  time  of  Moses.  ^  The  entry  into 
Canaan  involved  a  great  change  in  the  reUgion  of 
Israel.  The  nomads  from  the  desert  had  to  learn 
the  arts  and  sciences  of  an  agricultural  civiUzation. 
But  reUgion  is  a  part  of  civilization  and  changes  in 
the  latter  bring  changes  in  the  former.  Nomadic 
religion  had  to  give  way  to  agricultural  religion. 
But  the  teachers  of  agriculture  were  worshipers  of 
the  BaaUm  and  their  whole  agricultural  practice 
was  shot  through  with  Baalism.  Hence  the  Israel- 
ites inevitably  learned  agriculture  ,and  Baalism 
together.  During  this  period  of  initiation  Israel 
took  up  many  institutions  which  came  to  be  perma- 
nent. Among  these  were  such  things  as  the  local 
sanctuaries,  the  agricultural  feasts,  and  many  of  the 
social  customs  and  laws  later  embodied  in  the 
Covenant  Code  (see  Law,  Hebrew).  The  Code 
of  Hammurabi  (q.v.)  lay  at  the  basis  of  the  economic 
and  social  life  of  Canaan  and  thus  contributed  to  the 
foundations  of  Hebrew  law. 

The  Mosaic  movement  brought  to  the  Hebrews 
already  in  Canaan  an  ethical  reinforcement  (see 
Decalogue)  and  a  new  accession  of  enthusiasm 
for  and  loyalty  to  the  god  Yahweh.^  It  is  this 
contribution  that  gives  Moses  his  significance  and 
justifies  the  traditional  recognition  of  him  as  the 
real  founder  of  Hebrew  law  and  reUgion.  There 
now  set  in  a  conscious  struggle  between  the  worship 
of  the  Hebrew  Yahweh  and  that  of  the  Canaanite 
BaaUm.  It  was  a  life-or-death  conflict  settled 
only  after  centuries  of  combat  by  the  total  defeat 
of  the  BaaUm.  Yahweh  finally  took  unto  himself 
all  the  functions  of  the  BaaUm.  Two  things  con- 
tributed much  to  the  expansion  of  Yahweh's  power. 
One  was  the  hard-fought  battles  which  gave  Israel 
supremacy  over  her  foes  and  made  the  reign  of 
David  glorious.  Yahweh  thus  proved  himself  the 
God  of  battles.  The  other  was  the  disruption  of 
the  kingdom  after  Solomon's  death.  ^  This  created 
a  new  situation  in  that  two  peoples  claiming  Yahweh 
as  God  were  now  independently  organized  as 
nations  and  were  arrayed  in  battle  one  against  the 
other.  If  Yahweh  could  be  God  of  two  nations, 
why  not  of  many?  This  situation  gave  food  for 
thought  and  helped  along  the  movement  toward 
monotheism. 

III.  Prophetic  Religion. — The  period  during 
which  prophetic  activity  was  the  dominant  influence 
in  the  Hebrew  reUgion  lasted  from  the  8th.  cen- 
tury B.C.  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the 
Hebrew  state  in  586  b.c.  Under  the  leadership  of 
the  prophets  the  conflict  between  Yahweh  and  the 
BaaUm  was  carried  to  a  successful  issue.  Not  only 
so,  but  idolatry  of  every  sort  was  opposed  by  the 
prophets  and  an  uncompromising  monotheism  was 
reached  by  the  time  of  Jeremiah.  One  factor  that 
aided  greatly  in  the  furtherance  of  the  monotheistic 
idea  was  the  appearance  in  Western  Asia  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire.  This  was  a  great  unifying 
force,  and  it  made  the  minds  of  men  familiar  with 
the  idea  of  a  single  world-ruler.    The  great  task 


231 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Israel,  Religion  of 


of  the  prophets  was  to  interpret  the  activity  of 
Assyria  in  world-history  from  the  point  of  view  of 
Yahweh.  They  did  this  by  making  Assyria 
Yahweh's  agent  for  the  punishment  of  Israel's  sins. 
This  was  a  long  step  toward  regarding  Yahweh  as 
the  supreme  and  only  God. 

A  second  aspect  of  the  religion  of  the  prophets 
was  its  emphasis  upon  the  ethical  element  in  reUgion. 
This  was  brought  out  in  contrast  to  and  conflict  with 
the  rituahstic  conception  of  reUgion  represented  by 
the  priesthood.  The  prophets  did  not  wish  to 
eliminate  ritual,  but  they  insisted  that  ritual  apart 
from  right  morals  could  avail  nothing.  This 
position  gives  imperishable  glory  to  the  prophets 
from  Amos  to  Jeremiah.  Whereas  the  popular  mind 
thought  of  Yahweh  as  first  of  all  God  of  Israel,  the 
prophets  held  that  he  was  primarily  God  of  right- 
eousness (cf.  Amos  5:23-25;  Isa.  1:10-17;  Mic. 
6:6-8).  Even  Israel,  his  chosen  people,  must 
fall  if  they  fail  in  recognizing  their  moral  obligations 
to  their  fellows.  But  ethics  knows  no  national 
limitations.  Hence  the  prophets'  emphasis  upon 
ethics  contributed  much  to  the  attainment  of 
monotheism. 

While  the  prophets  were  carrying  religion  for- 
ward with  such  giant  strides,  the  priests  were  not 
wholly  idle.  They  furnished  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  party  of  opposition  to  the  prophets' 
progress  and  thus  by  their  conservatism  tempered 
the  zeal  of  the  prophets  with  discretion.  But  more 
than  this,  they  were  busy  with  their  own  interests. 
The  erection  of  Solomon's  temple  had  given  Jemsa- 
lem  and  its  priesthood  the  leading  place  among  the 
shrines  of  Yahweh.  Here  inevitably  after  the  fall 
of  the  northern  kingdom  in  721  b.c.  the  worship 
of  Israel  found  its  richest  and  most  adequate 
expression.  The  ritual  was  here  preserved  and 
enriched  from  time  to  time  and  the  priesthood 
here  came  to  exercise  great  influence  upon  public 
thought  and  royal  policy.  After  the  escape  of 
Jerusalem  in  701  b.c.  from  the  destruction  wrought 
by  Sennacherib  upon  the  rest  of  Judah,  the  prestige 
of  the  temple  was  immeasurably  enhanced.  This 
was  the  only  shrine  not  desecrated  by  the  Assyrian 
hordes.  Thus  naturally  the  way  was  prepared  for 
the  great  reform  in  the  days  of  Josiah  (621  B.C.). 
By  this  movement,  based  upon  the  Deuteronomic 
Code,  the  temple  was  made  the  exclusive  shrine  of 
Yahweh  and  thus  the  Hebrew  religion  was  put  in  a 
fair  way  to  free  itself  from  the  BaaUstic  corruption 
that  always  attended  the  worship  at  the  local 
shrines.  This  reform  represents  in  the  Deutero- 
nomic law  a  priestly  rehgion  that  had  learned 
much  from  the  prophets.  The  spirit  of  Deuter- 
onomy is  genuinely  philanthropic  and  humanitarian. 
But  in  its  apparent  triumph  over  ritualism  and 
legaHsm,  prophecy  has  lost  its  birth-right.  For 
with  the  adoption  of  Deuteronomy  as  the  law-book 
of  Judah,  the_  religion  of  the  spirit  was  put  in  the 
way  of  becoming  the  religion  of  the  book. 

IV.  Judaism. — The  term  Judaism  is  here  used 
to  connote  the  reUgion  of  the  Jews  from  the  Exile  to 
the  Maccabaean  Kingdom.  It  will  here  be  treated 
from  the  point  of  view  of  three  of  its  most  outstand- 
ing interests,  viz.,  (1)  Legalism,  (2)  Messianism  and 
Apocalypticism,  (3)  Universalism. 

1.  Legalism. — Ezekiel  has  been  weU  called 
"the  Father  of  Judaism."  He  marked  out  clearly 
the  lines  along  which  later  religious  leaders  traveled. 
He  gave  the  individual  due  recognition  as  responsible 
in  the  sight  of  God  only  for  himself  and  as  not 
involved  hopelessly  in  the  sins  of  his  progenitors. 
He  aided  mightily  in  stamping  the  consciousness  of 
sinfulness  upon  the  mind  of  Judaism.  He  formu- 
lated a  definite  Messianic  program  involving  a 
complete  system  of  law  for  the  control  of  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  Messianic  community. 


This  emphasis  upon  law  and  ritual  was  shared 
by  succeeding  prophets,  e.g.,  Isa.  56-66,  Haggai 
and  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  But  naturally 
other  leading  exponents  of  the  importance  and 
necessity  of  right  ritual  were  the  priests,  who  now 
came  into  their  own.  Some  time  during  the  exile 
the  Holiness  Code  (Lev.  chaps.  17-26)  was  formu- 
lated along  the  fines  laid  down  by  Ezekiel.  This 
was  expanded  and  modified  from  time  to  time 
until  the  full  Priestly  Code  was  produced.  When 
this  development  was  nearing  completion,  Ezra 
came  from  Babylon  with  a  copyof  the  law  as  it  then 
stood  and  secured  its  adoption  by  the  Jews  of 
Jerusalem.  The  Priestly  Code  was  intended  to 
safeguard  the  conduct  of  Jewry  so  adequately  that 
there  might  be  no  loophole  for  the  entry  of  sin. 
Only  by  the  full  observance  of  the  whole  law  could 
the  favor  of  God  be  guaranteed.  This  heavy 
load  of  ritual  was  not  regarded  by  its  devotees  as 
oppressively  burdensome;  on  the  contrary  they 
delighted  in  its  observance,  as  is  witnessed  by  many 
psalms  (e.g.,  Pss.  119;  19:8-15).  Indeed,  under 
the  ruthless  hand  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  law- 
loving  Jews  went  to  death  rather  than  violate  the 
precepts  of  the  Law. 

2.  Messianism  and  Apocalypticism. — The  term 
Messianism  is  here  used  to  designate  Israel's  hope 
for  a  blessed  and  glorious  national  future.  Ezekiel, 
as  we  have  seen,  confidently  looked  forward  to  and 
planned  for  a  Jewish  state  to  be  re-established  in 
Palestine,  but  on  a  thoroughly  ecclesiastical  basis 
(Ezek.  chaps.  40-48).  As  a  preparation  for  this 
state,  he  foresees  the  total  destruction  of  the  foes  of 
Israel  and  of  Yahweh  in  the  valley  of  Ungiddo. 
This  victory  is  accomplished  wholly  by  Yahweh 
himself;  Israel  has  only  to  bury  the  slain  foe. 
With  the  appearance  of  Cyrus,  a  new  voice  sounded 
among  the  exiles  confidently  annoimcing  deliverance 
and  return  (Isa.  chaps.  40-55).  Here  too  Israel 
has  only  to  receive  the  blessings  wrought  out  for  her 
by  Yahweh  who  through  her  is  revealing  his  power 
and  glory  to  the  world  at  large.  Through  this 
revelation  the  nations  will  be  brought  humbly  and 
gratefully  to  accept  the  leadership  of  Israel 
and  Yahweh.  But  relatively  few  embraced  the 
opportunity  to  return,  and  conditions  of  life  in 
Palestine  were  hard.  Then  after  the  death  of 
Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  the  Persian  Empire 
seemed  in  danger  of  dissolution.  Again  did  the 
prophetic  voice  summon  to  preparation  for  the 
coming  of  the  Messianic  age — Haggai  and  Zechariah 
united  in  urging  the  building  of  the  temple  as  the 
indispensable  prerequisite  to  the  bestowal  of  Yah- 
weh's favor  and  in  pointing  to  Zerubbabel,  governor 
of  Judah  and  builder  of  the  temple,  as  the  Messianic 
King.  Similar  hopes  perhaps  centered  in  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  6:6,7).  The  darker  the  political  outlook  the 
brighter  did  these  hopes  burn.  God  was  equal  to 
any  demands  that  might  be  made  upon  him.  His 
power  needed  not  the  puny  strength  of  his  people. 
So  apocalyptic  and  messianic  expectations  flourished 
in  successive  generations  and  found  utterance  in  such 
writings  as  Joel,  Zech.  chaps.  9-14,  Enoch,  and  Daniel. 

3.  Universality. — The  legalistic  aspect  of  Juda- 
ism was  essentially  and  intensely  particularistic. 
Its  aim  and  effort  were  to  keep  Judaism  unspotted 
from  the  pagan  world.  But  there  were  not  lacking 
in  Judaism  those  who  had  a  broader  outlook.  The 
prophecies  in  Isa.  56-66  distinctly  recognize  loyal 
proselytes  as  in  every  way  reUgiously  equal  to 
native  Jews.  The  book  of  Ruth  protests  against 
narrow  exclusivism  by  pointing  to  the  beautiful 
character  of  Ruth,  the  Moabitess,  the  grandmother 
of  the  greatest  of  kings,  David  himself.  Jonah 
pleads  with  Jewry  to  recognize  its  obfigation  as 
Yahweh's  missionary  to  the  world  at  large  which 
Yahweh  loves.    The  Wisdom  literature  knows  no 


Israfil 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


232 


national  borders  but  deals  with  man  as  man  and  not 
as  Jew  and  Gentile.  Yet  the  later  Wisdom  writings, 
e.g.,  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  fell  imder  the  sway  of 
legalism  and  identified  wisdom  with  the  law  of 
Moses.  The  outcome  of  legalism  was  Pharisaism. 
The  spirit  of  universality  found  expression  again  in 
Christianity.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

ISRAFIL. — One  of  the  four  archangels  of  Islam. 
His  chief  function  is  to  transmit  the  commands  of 
God.  At  the  end  of  the  world  he  will  blow  the 
trumpet-blasts  of  destruction  and  of  resurrection. 


ITINERARIUM.— In  R.C.  usage  a  form  of 
prayer  prepared  for  the  use  of  clergy  and  monks 
when  departing  for  a  journey. 

IZADS.— See    Yazatas. 

IZANAGI  and  IZANAML— The  male  and 
female  creator  deities  of  Shinto  who  by  physical 
generation  produced  the  islands  of  Japan.  In 
various  ways  they  then  created  the  gods  to  whom 
they  gave  the  control  of  the  world. 


J. — In  O.T.  criticism,  the  symbol  for  the  oldest 
document  of  the  Hexateuch  in  which  the  name 
Yahweh  (  =  Jehovah)  is  used  for  God.  See  Biblical 
Criticism;  Hexateuch. 

JACOBITES.— The  Syrian  Monophysite  church, 
so  named  from  Jacobus  Baradacus  (d.  578),  the 
Syrian  monk  who  fathered  the  movement.  The 
Egjrptian  Monophysites  were  also  formerly  Jacob- 
ites. There  is  bitter  animosity  between  them  and 
the  Nestorians. 

JAGANNATH.— At  Puri  in  Orissa  there  is  a 
famous  temple  guarding  a  rude  image  of  Krishna- 
Vishnu  called  Jagannath,  "lord  of  the  world." 
At  a  great  annual  festival  the  image  is  drawn 
through  the  streets  by  thousands  of  worshippers. 
Western  stories  of  the  voluntary  death  of  devotees 
under  the  wheels  of  the  car  are  overdrawn.  Many 
accidental  deaths  may  have  occurred  in  such  crowd- 
ing multitudes  but  self-destruction  has  no  reUgious 
value  in  Vaisnaivism. 

JAHWEH.— See  Yahweh. 

JAINISM. — The  rehgion  of  a  sect  founded  by 
Vardhamana  (later  called  Mahavira  "Great  Hero 
Jina  "or  Conqueror"),  an  older  contemporary  of 
Buddha.  According  to  tradition  he  was  born 
599  B.C.  as  the  son  of  the  chief  of  a  warrior  clan, 
renounced  the  world  when  about  thirty  years  old, 
spent  fourteen  years  in  the  practice  of  asceticism 
and  of  meditation  on  the  misery  of  the  world,  and 
returned  to  preach  salvation  as  he  had  found  it. 
Thp  present  membership  of  the  sect  is  about 
1,250,000. 

Jainism  used  to  be  regarded  as  a  sect  of  Bud- 
dhism. Recent  researches  have  clearly  proved  its 
complete  independence. 

I.  Relation  to  Buddhism. — Jainism  Uke  Bud- 
dhism rejected  the  Brahman  ritual  and  sacred 
books,  and  laid  emphasis  on  ethics,  but  unlike 
Buddhism  emphasized  asceticism  as  a  means  of 
salvation,  and  carried  the  doctrine  of  ahinsd  (non- 
killing)  to  an  extreme  degree.  Unhke  Buddhism  it 
was  philosophical,  and,  keeping  its  grip  on  Ufe  by  a 
firm  conviction  of  the  reality  of  the  world,  did  not 
become  so  mystical  in  practice. 

II.  Philosophy. — The  universe  is  made  up  of 
soul  and  non-soul.  There  are  souls  in  animals, 
plants,  air,  fire,  water,  earth,  and  minerals.  The 
essential  quahty  of  souls  is  consciousness.  Non- 
soul  consists  of  the  independent  substances  matter, 
time,  space,  the  principles  of  action  and  inaction. 
There  is  no  creator  god.  Gods  in  immense  numbers 
(elaborately  graded)  exist,  but  men  through  good 
deeds  may  become  gods,  and  the  gods  are  subject 
to  transmigration.  The  world  of  matter  is  eternal, 
developing  by  the  power  of  its  own  elements  (the 
atoms).  Karma  (action)  causes  the  bondage  of 
souls  to  matter.  Man  is  himself  responsible  for  all 
the  good  and  bad  of  life. 


III.  Ethics. — Suppression  of  karma  is  brought 
about  by  a  hard  disciphne  of  the  body,  by  the 
control  of  the  senses  and  thoughts.  Salvation 
makes  the  soul  eternally  free,  conscious,  and  intelli- 
gent. _  The  ascetic  must  take  the  five  great  vows  of 
non-kilhng,  truthfulness,  non-steaUng,  complete 
chastity,  and  rehnquishment  of  all  possessions. 
The  twelve  vows  of  the  layman  are  strict,  but  not 
so  severe.  The  former  lead  to  release  in  less  time. 
In  Jainism  there  is  a  much  closer  relation  between 
the  monks  and  laymen  than  in  Buddhism. 

IV.  Ritual. — The  ritual  (which  has  approxi- 
mated to  the  idolatry  of  Hinduism)  is  based  on 
reverence  for  the  founder  and  his  twenty-three 
(mythical?)  predecessors.  Images  of  these  are 
found  in  the  temples. 

V.  Sects. — Jainism  split  into  the  two  sects  of 
Digambaras  (who  go  naked)  and  Qvetambras  (who 
wear  white  garments).  The  former  are  closer  to 
the  original  practice  of  the  founder.  One  branch 
of  the  latter  (Sthanakavasis)  is  non-idolatrous; 
has  no  temples  or  images. 

The  literature  in  its  present  form  is  not  earlier 
than  the  5th.  century  a.d.,  though  much  of  it  may 
be  based  on  older  traditions.  W.  E.  Clark 

JAMES. — (1)  The  name  of  two  of  the  apostles 
of  Jesus,  often  called  "James  the  Greater,"  and 
"James  the  Less."  (2)  The  first  bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem, by  some  identified  with  James  the  Less. 
(3)  One  of  the  brothers  of  Jesus.  (4)  One  of  the 
New  Testament  epistles,  traditionally  regarded  as 
written  by  James  the  Less. 

JAMES,  WILLIAM  (1842-1910).— Son  of  Henry 
James,  the  Swedenborgian  theologian,  and  brother 
of  Henry  James,  the  novelist.  He  was  early  a 
teacher  of  physiology,  and  later  professor  of  phi- 
losophy and  psychology  at  Harvard  University.  A 
voluminous  writer,  his  style  is  delightfully  readable 
and  his  exposition  clear  and  skillful.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  great  work,  Principles  of  Psychology 
(1890),  which  has  become  a  classic,  and  upon  his 
championship  in  philosophy  of  what  he  called 
"radical  empiricism"  and  "pragmatism."  His 
most  important  writings  on  the  latter  subjects  are 
The  Will  to  Believe  (1897),  Pragmatism  (1907), 
A  Pluralistic  Universe  (1909),  The  Meaning  of 
Truth  (1909),  Some  Problems  of  Philosophy  (1911), 
Essays  in  Radical  Empiricism  (1912) .  He  imparted 
a  new  vitality  to  the  psychological  study  of  religion 
by  his  The  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience  (1902). 
His  philosophical  writings  are  suggestive  rather 
than  systematic,  his  chief  note  being  a  vigorous 
anti-intellectualism.  A.  Clinton  Watson 

JANSENISM. — A  reform  movement,  based 
upon  an  attempted  revival  of  the  teaching  of 
Augustine,  which  seriously  threatened  the  unity  of 
the  French  Church  in  the  17th.  and  18th.  cen- 
turies. 


233 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Japan,  Religions  of 


Cornelius  Jansen  (1585-1638),  Dutch  theologian 
(Louvain),  having  early  interested  himself  with 
Duvergier  ia  the  study  of  Augustine,  and  having 
subsequently  reacted  from  the  dominant  Jesuit 
Semi-Pelagianism  (q.v.),  wrote  his^  Augustinus 
(pubhshed  posthumously,  1640).  This  work  pre- 
cipitated a  century-long  conflict  between  his  fol- 
lowers and  the  Jesuits.  Persistent  efforts  (Jesuits: 
Papacy:  Court)  were  made  to  force  Jansenist  sub- 
scription to  five  propositions  purporting  to  represent 
Jansen's  heresies,  aa  extracted  from  his  Augustinus 
and  formulated  by  his  critics.  The  followers  of 
Jansen,  while  expressing  willingness  to  condemn  the 
heretical  implications  involved  in  these  propositions, 
denied  that  such  imphcations  could  properly  be 
drawn  from  Jansen's  work.^  The  long  and  bitter 
controversy  resolves  itself  into  an  interpretation 
first  of  Augustine  and  second  of  Jansen.  Involved 
in  it  also  is  the  divergent  attitude  toward  religion 
as  conceived  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  on  the  other  by  those  minds  which  were  under 
the  influence  of  the  mystical  tendencies  involved  in 
Augustine,  tendencies  which  led  on,  ultimately,  to 
the  Reformation.  Henry  H.  Walker 

JANUS. — A  Roman  god  of  beginnings,  origi- 
nally the  doorway  of  the  house  or  the  gateway  of  the 
city.  The  door  and  gate  acquired  a  sacred  char- 
acter m  early  Aryan  times  securing  those  within  an 
opening  out  to  the  unknown.  The  god  is  repre- 
sented with  two  faces.  He  was  appealed  to  at  the 
beginning  of  day,  month  and  year  and  on  imder- 
taking  important  projects.  The  first  month  of  the 
year  bears  his  name. 

JAPAN,  MISSIONS  TO.— I.  The  Old  Catho- 
lic Mission  (1549-1640). — Foreign  intercourse 
with  Japan  began  with  the  arrival  of  Portuguese 
merchant  ships  in  1542,  during  the  reign  of  Go- 
Nara  Tenno  (1526-57).  Close  in  the  wake  of 
commerce  came  the  three  Jesuits,  Xavier,  Torres, 
and  Fernandez,  who  landed  at  Kagoshima,  August 
15,  1549,  to  be  followed  shortly  by  Dominican, 
Augustinian  and  Franciscan  missionaries.  The 
early  reception  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese  was 
favorable  and  by  the  year  1582  southwest  Japan 
was  dotted  with  some  two  hundred  churches.  The 
number  of  communicants  at  the  time  of  greatest 
development  has  been  variously  estimated  in  fig- 
ures ranging  between  300,000  and  1,500,000. 

Christianity  seemed  about  to  become  the 
dominant  reUgion  of  Japan  when  suddenly  the 
Mission  fell  under  the  suspicion  of  the  Shogun, 
Toyotomi  Hideyoshi  (1585-1598)  and  Tokugawa 
leyasu  (1603-1605),  and  a  period  of  severe  perse- 
cution set  in.  This  official  attack  on  Christianity 
continued  with  increased  severity  under  the  second 
and  third  Tokugawa  Shogun,  Hidetada  (1605- 
1623)  and  lemitsu  (1623-1650),  and  by  the  year  1640 
had  led  to  the  practical  extinction  of  the  Christian 
Church  as  a  pubHc  force  in  Japan.  The  causes 
of  persecution  were  mainly  pohtical,  (1)  the  fear 
that  Christianity  was  merelv  the  entering  wedge 
of  a  foreign  domination,  and  (2)  the  effect  of  the 
poHcy  of  centralization  adopted  under  the  Tokugawa 
regime,  which  aimed  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of 
such  disturbances  as  the  Amakusa  rebellion  (1637- 
38)  in  which  Christianity  was  made  the  instrument 
of  political  protest  against  the  Shogunate. 

II.  Modern  Missions  (1859-1921). — Japan  be- 
came again  a  field  of  Christian  missionary  activity 
immediately  after  the  opening  of  the  land  to  foreign 
intercourse  subsequent  to  the  visit  of  Perry  m 
1853  and  the  establishment  of  treaties  of  trade  and 
commerce  in  1859.  The_  various  denominations 
and  the  most  important  religious  societies  maintain- 
ing work  in  Japan  are  grouped  below  in  the  chrono- 


logical order  in  which  missionary  activity  was  begun : 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America,  1859 
(first  missionaries  Rev.  John  Liggins  and  Rev.  CM. 
WilUams);  Presbyterian  Church  North,  U.S.A., 
1859  (first  missionary  J.  C.  Hepburn,  M.D.); 
Dutch  Reformed  Church  of  America,  1859  (Drs. 
S.  R.  Brown,  D.  B.  Simmons,  and  G.  F. 
Verbeck);  Roman  Cathohc  Church,  1859  (the 
first  priests  were  sent  out  nominally  to  minister  to 
European  CathoUcs  in  Japan);  Woman's  Union 
Missionary  Society,  1871;  American  Board  (Congre- 
gational), 1869  (Dr.  D.  C.  Green);  EngUsh  Church 
Missionary  Society,  1865;  Presbyterian  Church  of 
England  (operating  in  Formosa),  1869;  ^  Russian 
Orthodox  Church,  1870  (Nicolai  Kasatkin,  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Japan);  American  Baptist 
Foreign  Mission  Society,  1872  (Dr.  Nathan  Brown) ; 
Canadian  Presbyterian  Mission  (operating  in 
Formosa),  1872;  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel,  1873;  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of 
the  U.  S.  and  Methodist  Church  of  Canada,  1873  • 
Japan  Book  and  Tract  Society,  1874;  Evangelical 
Association,  1876;  Reformed  Church  in  the  U.S., 
1879;  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  1880; 
Churches  of  Christ  Mission,  1883;  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.S.  (South),  1885;  American 
Christian  Convention,  1887;  Canadian  Church 
Mission  (Anglican),  1888;  Southern  Baptist 
Convention,  1889;  Unitarian  Church,  1889;  Uni- 
versaHst  Mission,  1890;  Scandinavian  Japan  AlU- 
ance,  1891;  EvangeUcal  Lutheran  Church,  1892; 
United  Brethren  in  Christ,  1895;  Salvation  Army, 
1895;  Y.M.C.A.,  1896;  Seventh  Day  Adventist 
Church,  1896;  Oriental  Missionary  Society,  1901; 
Y.W.C.A.,  1905;  Japan  Evangelistic  Band,  1905; 
Christian  Literature  Society  (an  organ  of  the 
Federated  Missions  of  Japan),  1912;  Australian 
Church  Mission,  1914. 

Most  of  the  different  Protestant  Missionary 
bodies  are  organically  related  in  "The  Conference  of 
Federated  Missions  of  Japan,"  a  body  that  exercises 
a  wide  and  indispensable  influence  in  co-ordinating 
and  unifying  Christian  missions  in  Japan. 

The  early  part  of  the  modern  period  between 
1859  and  the  removal  of  the  anti-Christian  edicts 
in  1873  was  naturally  one  of  slow  and  difficult 
expansion.  The  first  Japanese  convert  was  baptized 
in  1864.  The  first  Protestant  Japanese  church  was 
organized  at  Yokohama  in  1872.  After  1872  Chris- 
tianity passed  through  a  period  of  popularity,  to 
be  followed  immediately  by  an  anti-foreign  reaction. 
A  steady  and  essentially  sound  development  has 
continued  since  the  opening  of  the  20th.  century. 
Present  church  membership,  both  Protestant  and 
Cathohc,  is  in  round  numbers  240, 000.  Government 
attitude  has  changed  greatly  since  prior  to  1873, 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  in  March,  1912,  the 
government  called  a  national  conference  of  repre- 
sentatives of  Christianity,  Buddhism  and  Shinto  and 
gave  what  amounts  to  an  official  recognition  of 
Christianity  on  a  par  with  these  other  two  reUgions. 

D.  C.  HOLTOM 

JAPAN,  RELIGIONS  OF.— For  many  centuries 
Shinto,  Confucianism  and  Buddhism  (Shin,  Ju, 
Buisu),  have  been  considered  the  chief  rehgions  of 
Japan,  the  main  fountain  heads  of  moral  teaching 
for  the  people.  Of  these,  however,  Confucianism 
{Jukyo)  in  Japan  never  attained  the  position  of 
a  true  rehgion ;  but  remained  a  moral  code  especially 
for  the  scholars  and  the  hterary  class.  Shinto  and 
Buddhism,  in  more  or  less  mutual  absorption, 
formed  the  dual  rehgion  of  Japan,  uncontested  by 
any  until  the  coming  of  Christianity.  Christianity's 
first  entrance  to  the  coimtry,  in  the  16th.  century, 
was  dramatic  but  short-hved;  its  later  coming,  at 
the  opening  of  the  Empire  to  foreign  intercourse  in 
1858,  has  continued  until  today  so  that  the  dual 


Japan,  ReGgions  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


234 


religion  of  the  land  is  now  clearly  being  superseded 
by  what  has  been  called  a  triple  group:  Shinto, 
Buddhism,  and  Christianity.  Exclusive  of  Christian 
communities  all  Japanese  are  nominally  Buddhist 
and  at  the  same  time  they  are  adherents  of  Shinto. 
I.  Shinto  is  indigenous  to  Japan,  a  natural 
growth  of  the  primitive  faith.  Under  the  name 
are  grouped  a  great  variety  of  cults  for  the  worship 
of  Kami  or  _  gods  countless  in  number.  Chief 
among  these  is  the  Sun  Goddess,  Amaterasu,  the 
ancestress  of  the  Imp>erial  Family,  enshrined  at  Ise. 
Among  others  are  many  of  her  relatives  and  descend- 
ants, great  national  patriots,  generals  and  others  of 
distinction,  and  a  large  number  of  various  natural 
objects,  animate  and  inanimate.  There  are  in  the 
whole  Empire  180,815  Shinto  shrines.  They  are 
classified  as  state,  national,  prefectural,  district, 
village  shrines,  etc.,  and  are  supported  by  their 
respective  government  units. 

In  1868,  Shinto  shrines,  as  distinct  from  Buddhist 
temples,  were  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the 
central  government,  and  have  been  held  distinct 
from  popular  Shinto  as  institutions  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  patriotism  and  the  maintenance  of  historic 
reKcs  rather  than  for  truly  reUgious  purposes. 
Popular  or  religious  Shinto  is  divided  into  thirteen 
sects  with  a  number  of  churches  or  guilds.  ^  These 
are  supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of 
their  adherents. 

These  sects,  with  the  number  of  their  preachers, 
76,635  in  all,  are  as  follows:  (1)  Shindo,  8,659; 
(2)  Kurozumi,  4,089;  (3)  Shusei,  8,380;  (4)  Taisha, 
5,251;  (5)  Fuso,  2,910;  (6)  Jikko,  2,797;  (7)  Taisei, 
3,310;  (8)  Shinju,  3,744;  (9)  Ontake,  9,068;  (10) 
Shinn,  2,098;  (11)  Misoffi,  806;  (12)  Kmktoo, 
1,181;  (13)  Tenn,  21,342. 

II.  Buddhism  was  first  introduced  to  Japan  in 
the  reign  of  Emperor  Kinmei,  552  a.d.,  when  the 
King  of  Kudara,  Korea,  sent  as  presents  to  the 
Emperor  of  Japan  Buddhist  images  and  scriptures 
with  a  letter  in  which  he  recommended  Buddhism 
as  "the  most  excellent  of  all  teachings." 

A  fierce  struggle  followed  between  the  party 
opposed  to  the  worship  of  alien  deities  and  the 
party  favoring  the  adoption  of  the  new  faith,  with 
not  a  little  bloodshed  which  finally  ended  in  the 
victory  of  Buddhism.  Its  most  earnest  and 
powerful  adherent  was  found  in  Shotoku  Taishi 
(573-621),  who  had  control  of  the  government 
during  the  reign  of  Emperor  Suiko.  He  prepared 
a  constitution  for  the  Empire  in  seventeen  articles 
in  which  Buddhism  was  proclaimed  the  foundation 
of  the  state  and  the  highest  religion  in  the  universe. 
There  are  at  present  twelve  leading  sects, 
divided  into  fifty-six  sub-sects.  There  are  71,375 
Buddhist  temples  and  50,983  priests  in  charge  of 
these  temples. 

1.  Tendai  Shu,  introduced  from  China  in  805 
A.D.  by  Deng;y^o.  The  first  Buddhist  sect  in  Japan 
that  based  its  doctrines  on  the  Mahayana  or 
"Great  Vehicle"  Scriptures,  and  the  mother  of 
several  sects.  Enryakuji  on  Mt.  Hiei  near  Kyoto 
is  the  head-quarters  of  the  sect.  Temples,  4,570. 
Priests,  2,755. 

2.  Shingon  Shu,  introduced  by  Kobo  from 
China  in  806  a.d.  Kobo  aimed  to  harmonize 
Buddhism  with  the  national  consciousness  of 
Japan,  and  advocated  Ryobu  or  Twofold  Shinto,  a 
blending  of  Buddhism  with  the  old  reUgion  of 
Japan.  A  conspicuous  feature  of  this  sect  is  its 
excessive  use  of  mystic  rites.  Its  head-quarters  are 
Toji  in  Kyoto  and  the  temple  on  Mt.  Koya  in  the 
province  of  Kii.    Temples,  12,244.     Priests,  6,715. 

3.  Jodo  Shu.  This  is  the  first  Japanese  Bud- 
dhist sect,  founded  by  Honen  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
12th.  century.  He  proclaimed  salvation  by  faith 
in  Amida,  and  made  Buddhism  easily  accessible 


to  the  populace.     The   head-quarters  is  Chionin 
Temple  m  Kyoto.    Temples,  8,352.    JPriests  6,417. 

4.  Rinzai  Shu,  Sodo  Shu,  and  Obaku  Shu. — ■ 
These  three  sects  are  of  Zen  order,  which  put 
emphasis  up>on  the  enlightenment  of  mind  and 
stoicism  of  character.  It  was  the  reUgion  of  the 
miUtary  class,  and  thus  contributed  not  a  little  to 
the  development  of  Bushido.  The  sect  was  intro- 
duced from  China  by  Dogen  in  1227  a.d.  Rinzai: 
Temples,  6,082.  Priests  4,369;  Sodo:  Temples, 
14,226.  Priests  11,024;  Obaku:  Temples,  525. 
Priests,  333. 

5.  Shin  Shu. — Founded  by  Shinran,  a  disciple 
of  Honen  in  the  first  part  of  the  13th.  century. 
He  proclaimed  that  the  beUevers  can  attain  salva- 
tion by  faith  or  by  simple  repetition  of  the  holy 
name  of  Amida.  It  is  the  most  popular  and  widely 
spread  of  all  Buddhist  sects  in  Japan.  A  special 
characteristic  of  the  Shin  sect  is  its  abolition  of  the 
practice  of  ceUbacy  among  priests  and  of  the  ban 
upon  the  clergy's  eating  flesh.  Its  head-quarters 
are  the  two  great  temples.  East  and  West  Hongwanji 
in  Kyoto.  The  sect  supports  foreign  missions  in 
America  and  China.  Temples,  19,642.  Priests, 
14,874. 

6.  Nichiren  Shu. — ^Also  called  Hokki,  the  holy 
flower,  for  it  proclaims  salvation  through  the  prais- 
ing and  chanting  the  name  of  the  Sacred  Scripture — 
the  Sutra  of  the  Lotus  of  the  True  Law.  Next  to  the 
Shin  sect  Nichiren  is  the  most  democratic  of  all 
Buddhist  sects.  The  founder  is  Nichiren,  who 
died  in  1282.    Temples,  5,022.    Priests,  3,871. 

7.  Yudsu-nembutsu  Shu  and  Ji  Shu. — The 
former  was  founded  by  Ry5nin  in  1124  a.d.  and 
the  latter  by  Ippen  in  1275,  being  the  latest  sect 
in  Japan.  Yudsu- Nembutsu.  Temples,  361.  Priests, 
117.    Ji.    Temples,  495.    Priests,  335. 

8.  Hosso  Shu  and  Kegon  Shu. — Two  of  the  six 
sects  introduced  in  the  Nara  Period  from  China, 
the  oldest  and  smallest  at  present.  Hosso: 
Temples,  43.  Priests,  14.  Kegon:  Temples,  32. 
Priests,  17. 

III.  Christianity. — Francis  Xavier  was  the 
first  preacher  of  Christianity  in  Japan.  Roman 
CathoUcism  spread  rapidly  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Empire  numbering  at  one  time  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  converts,  including  not  a  few  Daimyo 
and  others  of  ^  rank.  The  movement,  however, 
because  of  pohtical  comphcations  was  soon  stamped 
out  by  severe  persecution,  its  last  struggle  being 
the  rebelUon  of^  believers  in  Shimabara  which  was 
put  down  in  1637. 

1.  Roman  Catholic  Church.— ^With  the  modern 
opening  of  Japan  in  1858  Roman  CathoUc  mis- 
sionaries renewed  their  activities.  The  first  church 
was  built  at  Yokohama  in  1862  and  another  was 
erected  at  Nagasaki  in  1865.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Communion  today  includes  352  foreign  missionaries, 
179  Japanese  workers,  and  75,983  members.  ^ 

2.  Greek  Orthodox  Church. — Dates  its  origin  from 
the  arrival  of  Father  Nicolai  to  be  chaplain  of  the 
Russian  Consulate  in  Hakodate  in^  1861.  Its 
Communion  includes  1  foreign  missionary,  159 
Japanese  workers,  36,262  members. 

3.  Protestant  Churches. — In  1859  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  the  Presbyterian  Church  and  the 
Reformed  Church,  all  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  began  work  through  missionaries  in 
Japan.  These  were  the  pioneers  of  the  Protestant 
missions  in  Japan  which  at  present  number  forty- 
five  societies,  represented  by  1,084  missionaries 
in  Japan  and  Formosa.  There  are  1,128  Japanese 
churches  of  which  324  are  self-supporting,  2,861 
workers  of  whom  790  are  ordained  men,  and  96,827 
communicants.  In  Korea  there  are  306  foreign 
missionaries,  1,292  Korean  workers  and  82,922 
Communicants.  Tasuka  Harada 


235 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Jesus  Christ 


JATAKAS. — ^A  collection  of  Buddhist  literature, 
appended  to  the  sacred  scriptures,  supposed  to  be 
narratives  of  the  acts  and  sayings  of  the  Buddha 
in  his  hundreds  of  former  births.  They  are  really 
collections  of  folklore  adapted  by  the  Buddhists. 

J  E. — In  O.T.  critieism,  the  symbol  for  that 
portion  of  the  Hexateuch  which  shows  traces  of  both 
Yahwistic  and  Elohistic  authorship.  See  Biblical 
Criticism;  Hexateuch. 

JEALOUSY . — Suspicious  apprehension  of 
being  supplanted  by  a  rival  in  some  coveted  relation- 
ship, as  in  the  affection  of  a  friend,  wife,  or  husband. 
It  may  engender  an  ungenerous  attitude  and  lead 
to  unethical  behavior. 

JEHOVAH. — A  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  name 
for  Lord,  compounded  of  the  consonants  of  the  name 
name  Yahweh  (q.v.)  and  the  vowel  points  of  the 
name  Adonai ;  the  form  arose  somewhere  in  the  14th. 
century  a.d. 

JEROME  (Hieronymus)  (ca.  a.d.  340-420).— 
Eminent  Christian  scholar  and  traveler  of  the  4th. 
century,  editor  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  one  of  the 
four  doctors  of  the  Latin  church.  Born  in  Dal- 
matia,  and  educated  at  Rome,  he  traveled  in  Gaul 
and  the  east,  and  for  a  few  years  lived  as  a  hermit 
near  Antioch  in  Syria.  He  became  a  presbyter  in 
379  and  in  382  was  called  to  Rome  and  there  com- 
missioned by  Pope  Damasus  with  the  revision  of  the 
Latin  Bible,  which  became  his  great  work.  His 
later  years  were  spent  as  head  of  a  convent  at 
Bethlehem,  where  he  produced  a  number  of  coni- 
mentaries  and  learned  works,  among  others  his 
De  Viris  Illustribus,  a  dictionary  of  ancient  Chris- 
tian biography.  In  the  numerous  controversies  of 
his  time,  he  participated  with  unfortunate  bitter- 
ness, but  his  services  to  Christian  learning  were 
very  great.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

JERUSALEM.— The  capital  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Israel  from  the  time  of  David  until 
the  accession  of  Rehoboam  (933  B.C.),  the  capital 
of  Judah  from  that  date  till  the  downfall  of  the 
Jewish  state  in  586  B.C.,  and  the  home  of  later 
Judaism. 

Our  first  information  regarding  Jerusalem  is 
obtained  from  the  Amarna  letters  in  which  Abdi- 
hipa,  King  of  UrusaUm,  asks  the  Pharaoh  of  Egypt 
for  aid  against  invading  Bedouins.  The  Israehtes 
did  not  fully  conquer  the  town  till  the  reign  of 
David.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  held  in  turn 
by  Hebrews,  Persians,  Greeks,  Jews  (under  the 
Maccabees  who  succeeded  in  maintaining  an  inde- 
pendent Kingdom  for  a  brief  period),  Romans, 
Arabs,  Turks,  Crusaders,  and  again  by  the  Turks, 
whose  desecrating  tenure  of  the  Holy  City  is  now 
ended.  At  the  present,  the  city  has  a  polyglot  popu- 
lation of  about  80,000,  more  than  half  being  Jewish, 
with  Christians  and  Moslems  furnishing  most  of 
the  remainder.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

JERUSALEM,   PATRIARCH   OF.— Bishop   of 

the  Eastern  church  in  Jerusalem.  Tradition  traces 
the  foimdation  of  the  succession  to  James,  the 
brother  of  Jesus.  The  Roman  church  had  a 
patriarchate  there  until  1291,  after  which  it  was 
titular  until  restored  by  Pius  IX.  in  1847.  The 
Melchites  and  Armenians  also  have  patriarchates 
there. 

JERUSALEM,  SYNOD  OF.— A  synod  of  the 
representatives  of  the  Eastern  church  which  con- 
vened in  Jerusalem  in  1672  to  offset  tendencies 
toward    Calvinism.    The    declaration    drawn    up 


is  entitled  the  "Shield  of  Orthodoxy,"  and  reiterates 
the  ecumenical  Catholic  doctrines,  as  held  by  the 
Eastern  church. 

JESUITS. — See  Jesus,  Society  of. 

JESUS  CHRIST.— A  designation  in  which  the 
Messianic  title  becomes  part  of  the  personal  name. 
It  is  first  found  in  the  writings  of  Paul,  and  expresses 
the  assurance  that  the  exalted  Lord,  who  is  the 
object  of  Christian  faith  and  worship,  is  one  with 
the  historical  Jesus. 

Attempts  have  often  been  made  to  resolve  the 
hfe  of  Jesus  into  myth  or  allegory,  and  it  has  been 
one  of  the  chief  services  of  modern  criticism  to 
place  the  main  facts  beyond  reasonable  question. 
It  can  be  proved,  by  strict  enquiry  into  the  evidence, 
not  only  that  Jesus  was  a  historical  person,  but  that 
our  records  of  his  life  are  based  on  trustworthy 
sources.  At  the  same  time,  criticism  has  made  it 
clear  that  these  records  cannot  be  used  indiscrimi- 
nately. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  genuine 
tradition  was  overlaid,  almost  from  the  first,  by 
popular  legend  and  theological  reflection.  The 
problem  of  modern  investigation  is  to  get  behind 
these  accretions  to  the  actual  history,  and  this 
can  only  be  done  by  hterary  analysis  of  the  Gospels. 
See  Gospels. 

No  "Life  of  Jesus"  is  p)ossible,  for  the  earUer 
records  dealt  solely  with  the  period  of  his  ministry, 
and  of  this  gave  merely  episodes,  bearing  for  the 
most  part  on  his  Messianic  claim.  Luke  is  the  one 
evangehst  who  attempts  something  like  a  biography, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  his  additional  matter  has 
real  historical  value.  It  has  to  be  admitted,  there- 
fore, that  of  the  hfe  of  Jesus  previous  to  his  ministry 
we  know  almost  nothing.  His  birth  appears  to 
have  taken  place  in  the  closing  year  of  Herod  the 
Great  (4  b.c.)  ;  and  according  to  Matthew  and  Luke 
he  was  born  at  Bethlehem,  of  Davidic  descent. 
But  we  have  here  to  reckon  with  the  anxiety  of  the 
early  church  to  bring  his  life  at  aU  points  into 
harmony  with  Messianic  prophecy.  _  It  cannot 
be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  the  opening  chapters 
of  Matthew  and  Luke  are  on  a  different  historical 
level  from  the  rest  of  the  Gospels.  To  treat  them 
without  further  examination  as  of  equal  value  with 
the  Gospel  story  as  a  whole  is  to  make  no  distinction 
between  popular  traditions  in  the  second  or  third 
generation  and  authentic  documents,  almost  con- 
temporary with  the  events. 

With  the  beginning  of  Mark's  narrative  we  set 
our  teet  on  solid  ground.  We  find  Jesus  hving  at 
Nazareth,  one  of  a  family  which  included  a  number 
of  brothers  and  sisters,  and  following  the  occupation 
of  a  carpenter.  He  was  drawn  from  his  retirement 
by  the  appearance  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  offered 
himself  for  baptism  by  John  in  the  waters  of  Jordan. 
At  his  baptism  he  became  conscious  of  a  divine 
call,  but  before  entering  on  the  vocation  which  he 
now  felt  to  be  laid  on  him  sojourned  for  a  short 
time  in  the  wilderness.  The  story  of  the  Temptation 
may  preserve,  in  vivid  imaginative  form,  his  own 
account  of  the  inward  struggle  through  which  he  then 
passed.  Returning  from  the  wilderness  he  began 
his  public  work,  and  his  hfe  henceforth  falls  into 
three  main  periods:  (1)  the  ministry  in  Gahlee; 
(2)  an  interval  of  wandermg;  (3)  the  journey  to 
Jerusalem,  followed  by  his  arrest  and  crucifixion. 
The  duration  of  the  ministry  as  a  whole  has  been 
much  disputed.  In  the  Fourth  Gospel  it  seems  to 
be  reckoned  at  something  over  three  years,  but  the 
data  are  far  from  certain.  From  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  we  know  that  it  included  one  harvest  season 
(Mark  2 :  23)  before  the  closing  Passover,  from  which 
we  may  infer  that  it  covered  a  period  of  about  a  year 
and  a  half. 


Jesus  Christ 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


236 


First  period. — During  the  Galilean  ministry- 
Jesus  made  his  abode  in  Capernaum,  at  the  house  of 
Simon  Peter.  He  gathered  around  him  a  group  of 
twelve  disciples,  and  proclaimed  the  advent  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God — the  new  age,  in  which  God  alone 
would  reign.  He  called  on  men  to  prepare  for  this 
new  age,  not  merely  by  a  change  of  conduct,  but 
by  a  change  of  heart  and  will  Sometimes  in  the 
synagogue,  more  often  to  informal  gatherings  in 
fields  or  private  houses,  he  taught  the  new  righteous- 
ness which  would  prevail  in  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
The  people,  accustomed  to  the  dreary  casuistry  of 
the  Rabbis,  gave  an  eager  welcome  to  his  teaching — 
so  vital  in  its  substance,  and  illustrated  by  countless 
parables  from  nature  and  life.  They  were  the  more 
impressed  as  the  teaching  was  accompanied  by 
wonderful  works,  attesting  the  nearness  of  the  new 
age,  when  all  evU  would  be  overcome.  That  Jesus 
was  famed  as  a  worker  of  miracles  can  hardly  be 
doubted,  in  view  of  the  evidence  afforded  by  the 
Gospels.  But  there  seems  reason  to  believe  that 
his  miracles  were  confined  to  acts  of  heaUng,  exer- 
cised particularly  on  nervous  diseases,  and  that  a 
tendency  began  at  an  early  date  to  heighten  this 
side  of  has  activity.  It  can  be  gathered,  too,  that  he 
exerted  his  power  sparingly,  afraid  that  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  mere  wonder-worker  might  distract  atten- 
tion from  his  message.  From  Capernaum  as  a 
center  Jesus  extended  his  work  into  the  surrounding 
region,  and  latterly  sent  out  his  disciples  over  the 
whole  country,  apparently  to  prepare  the  way  for  a 
far  wider  mission.  But  at  this  point  the  Gahlaean 
ministry  was  suddenly  broken  off.  This  inter- 
ruption of  a  work  which  had  been  growingly  suc- 
cessful is  one  of  the  problems  of  the  history;  but 
there  are  indications  that  it  was  due  to  Herod 
Antipas,  who  had  lately  put  John  to  death,  and  was 
now  plotting  against  his  successor. 

Second  period. — There  now  commences  an 
interval  in  which  Jesus  hved  the  life  of  an  exile, 
and  of  which  we  only  have  passing  gUmpses.  He 
went  northward  from  Gahlee,  and  sojourned  for 
a  while  near  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Then  he  journeyed 
south,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Caesarea  PhiUppi 
elicited  from  his  disciples  the  momentous  confession 
that  he  was  the  Messiah.  It  is  clear  that  until  now 
he  had  never  openly  declared  himself — returning  a 
guarded  answer  even  to  the  urgent  enquiries  of 
John  the  Baptist.  The  motive  of  this  reserve  can 
only  be  conjectured,  but  most  probably  there  was 
still  a  lingering  doubt  in  his  own  mind.  Even 
after  Caesarea  Philippi  be  continued,  almost  to  the 
very  end,  to  keep  his  Messianic  claim  a  secret  within 
the  immediate  band  of  his  disciples.  From  the 
first  it  was  bound  up  for  him  with  the  conviction  that 
he  would  accomplish  his  Messianic  work  by  suffering 
and  death.  Perhaps  it  was  the  growing  sense  that  his 
death  was  inevitable  which  finally  resolved  his  doubts. 

Third  period. — From  his  sojourn  in  the  north 
Jesus  returned  to  Gahlee,  but  did  not  resume  his 
work.  After  a  brief  stay  he  set  out  with  his 
disciples  for  the  Passover  feast  at  Jerusalem,  taking 
the  route  that  passed  along  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Jordan.  The  reticence  he  had  observed  with 
regard  to  his  Messiahship  was  now  thrown  aside,  and 
he  made  a  solemn  entry  into  the  city,  and  subse- 
quently cleansed  the  temple,  in  fulfilment  of 
Messianic  prophecy.  He  had  long  been  suspected 
by  the  Pharisees,  who  felt  that  his  teaching  was 
subversive  of  the  Law,  and  his  avowal  of  Messiah- 
ship  now  aroused  the  fears  of  the  chief  priests.  In 
order  to  avoid  a  pubhc  commotion,  Judas,  one  of  his 
disciples,  was  induced  to  betray  him  secretly. 
Jesus  was  fully  conscious  of  his  peril,  and  bade 
farewell  to  his  disciples  at  a  Supper,  which  the 
Fourth  Evangelist  is  probably  right  in  placing  on 
the  night  before  the  Passover  meal.    After  the 


Supper  he  retired  to  the  garden  of  Gethsemane, 
to  reconcile  himself  by  prayer  to  the  divine  will, 
and  was  there  arrested  by  a  band  of  the  temple 
poUce,  guided  to  the  secluded  spot  by  Judas.  He 
was  taken  before  a  midnight  meeting  of  the  San- 
hedrin  and  put  on  trial  for  blasphemy,  on  which 
charge  he  was  condemned  -to  death.  But  since  the 
Jewish  court  had  no  right  to  inflict  capital  punish- 
ment, he  was  transferred  at  day-break  to  Pilate, 
the  Roman  governor,  and  the  charge  of  treason 
was  now  substituted  for  that  of  blasphemy.  That  he 
was  condemned  as  a  Messianic  agitator  is  certain 
from  the  inscription,  "The  King  of  the  Jews,"  which 
was  placed,  according  to  Roman  custom,  over  the 
cross.  The  whole  proceedings  of  the  trial  were  hurried 
and  secret,  and  the  crowd  which  clamoured  for  Jesus' 
death  may  have  consisted  of  the  hired  retinue  of 
his  accusers;  but  when  he  was  once  deUvered  for 
execution  no  effort  was  made  to  rescue  him.  After, 
six,  or,  according  to  the  Johannine  account,  three 
hours  of  agony  he  died,  with  the  cry  on  his  hps, 
"My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me?" 
The  words  form  the  opening  of  the  22nd  Psalm, 
in  which  a  sufferer,  in  the  depths  of  anguish,  throws 
himself  upon  God,  as  his  one  help  and  stay. 

The  accounts  of  the  Resurrection,  with  which 
our  Gospels  close,  are  confused,  and  it  is  certain 
that  the  greater  part  of  Mark's  account  has  been 
lost.  (The  best  manuscripts  all  end  abruptly  at 
Mark  16 : 8.)  From  the  outset,  however,  the  church! 
believed  that  Jesus  arose  on  the  third  day,  and 
appeared  to  Peter  and  other  disciples.  For  this 
we  have  the  evidence  of  Paul  in  I  Cor.  15:4-8, 
the  fundamental  passage  on  which  all  discussion 
of  the  subject  ought  to  be  based.  From  Paul's 
statement,  which  is  supported  by  indications  in 
Mark,  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  the  appear- 
ances took  place  in  Galilee,  and  were  similar  to  that 
which  was  vouchsafed  to  Paul  himself  on  the  way 
to  Damascus.  It  may  be  regarded  as  certain 
that  the  disciples  had  some  experience,  whatever 
may  have  been  its  nature,  which  convinced  them 
that  Jesus  had  survived  death  and  was  now  the 
exalted  Lord.  As  a  result  of  this  conviction  the 
church  came  into  being. 

Almost  from  the  beginning  the  idea  of  Jesus  as 
the  glorified  Messiah  took  full  possession  of  his 
followers.  The  memory  of  his  actual  fife  was  partly 
obscured  by  the  mysticalpiety  and  theological  specu- 
lation of  which  he  became  the  center.  But  the 
faith  that  recognized  inhim  a  divine  being  had  its 
ultimate  ground  in  the  impression  he  had  made  by 
his  historical  personality.  To  those  who  had  been 
nearest  him  the  hfe  which  he  had  lived  on  earth 
had  brought  a  new  revelation  of  God.  In  the 
Gospel  records  that  Kfe  is  only  preserved  to  us  in 
imperfect  outhne,  but  it  has  made  the  same  impres- 
sion on  all  generations  of  the  church  as  on  the 
first  disciples.    See  Messiah.  E.  F.  Scott 

JESUS,  SOCIETY  OF.— A  famous  reUgious 
order,  called  also  the  Company  of  Jesus  or  Jesuits, 
organized  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (q.v.)  at  Montmartre, 
Paris,  in  1534. 

The  society  received  papal  approbation  in  1540. 
Suppressed  by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773  at  the 
instance  of  the  Bourbon  courts,  it  was  revived  by 
Pius  VII.  in  1814.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  in  1914  regular  settlements  of  the  Jesuits  were 
still  forbidden  in  many  countries:  Russia  (1820), 
Switzerland  (1847),  Germany  (1872),  France  (1901), 
and  Portugal  (1910).  In  the  British  Empire  and 
in  the  United  States  they  enjoy_  freedom.  The 
highest  number  of  members  was  in  1710  (19,978, 
of  whom  9,957  were  priests).  In  1908  they  num- 
bered 15,930,  of  whom  7,564  were  priests,  and  the 
rest  scholastics  or  coadjutors. 


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Jodo 


1.  Organization. — Loyola,  originally  a  soldier, 
adopted  military  principles:  gradations  of  rank 
and  function,  intellectual  and  emotional  drill 
(Spirittial  Exercises),  an  information  service  from 
whose  vigilance  not  even  the  general  is  exempt,  and 
the  requirement  that  full  members  (professes) 
render  to  the  pope  absolute  obedience.  The  com- 
plete Jesuit  must  be  passively  obedient  in  the 
hands  of  his  superior.  The  general  is  chosen  by 
the  professes  in  general  congregation;  and  this 
body  limits  the  tendency  toward  autocracy  which 
inheres  in  the  system. 

2.  Aims. — The  earliest  dominant  purpose  was 
foreign  missions.  War  blocked  the  Near  East,  so 
the  Jesuits  turned  to  home  missions;  and  they 
soon  found  their  major  opportunity  in  education. 
Though  not  founded  expressly  to  combat  Protes- 
tantism, no  Roman  Catholic  agency  save  perhaps 
the  Inquisition  has  been  more  effective  in  that 
direction  (see  Counter-Reformation). 

3.  Foreign  missions. — Francis  Xavier  (q.v.)  led 
the  advance  to  the  Far  East.  Jesuits  were  among 
the  pioneers  in  Canada,  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America,  and  the  Philippines.  They  endeav- 
ored to  control  early  Maryland  and  succeeded  in 
erecting  a  unique  missionary  state  in  Paraguay.  In 
disguise  they  penetrated  many  Protestant  countries 
at  times  when  secrecy  made  them  doubly  feared  and 
even  when  discovery  meant  death. 

4.  Education. — Desiring  to  train  the  leaders  of 
aristocratic  Europe,  the  Jesuits  specialized  in 
secondary  and  university  education.  They  still 
emphasize  Latin  and  reUgion.  Their  methods  are 
authoritarian,  with  a  strong  appeal  to  rivalry.  They 
aim  to  produce  obedience  rather  than  independence. 
In  the  19th.  century  their  curriculum  was  revised  in 
conservative  fashion. 

5.  Authorship. — No  order  outshines  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  the  number  of  its  pubhcations,  signed, 
anonymous  or  pseudonymous. 

6.  Ethics. — Pascal  (q.v.)  and  others  have  attacked 
Jesuit  casuistry  (q.v.).  Many  Jesuit  moralists 
have  permitted  probabiUsm  and  mental  reservation 
(qq.w.).  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  casuistry  and  probabilism  are  children  of  the 
confessional  (q.v.);  and  that  many  of  the  positions 
for  which  the  Jesuits  were  attacked  they  had  taken 
over  from  Franciscan  and  Dominican  Summae  con- 
fessorum.  Moreover  it  cannot  be  proved  that  any 
Jesuit  ever  formally  taught  that  the  end  justifies  the 
means,  though  some  have  approved  modes  of  action 
said  to  be  reducible  to  that  principle. 

7.  Piety. — Jesuit  piety  aims  to  secure  joyous 
enlistment  on  the  side  of  Christ  whose  vicar  on 
earth  is  the  pope.  It  favors  good  music,  cheerful 
churches,  concrete  appeals  (Sacred  Heart),  and 
vivid  impressions  (images,  training  of  imagination 
in  Exercises),  frequent  communion  with  its  con- 
comitant confession,  and  retreats  for  laity  as  well  as 
for  clergy.  The  present  ideal  Jesuit  priest  is  power- 
fully depicted  in  the  biography  of  Father  Pardow. 

W.  W.  Rockwell 
JESUS,  THE  SON  OF  SIRACH.— The  author 
of  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  an  apocryphal  book 
of  the  same  type  as  the  canonical  book  of  the 
Proverbs. 

JEWISH  CHRISTIANITY.— This  expression, 
in  contrast  with  Gentile  Christianity  (q.v.),  is 
applied  to  the  early  Christian  movement  as  it 
existed  in  Palestine.  At  the  outset  these  early 
Christians  constituted  a  group  of  Jews  who  felt 
themselves  to  be  differentiated  from  their  Jewish 
kinsmen  chiefly  by  the  fact  that  they  believed  the 
crucified  and  risen  Jesus  to  be  the  promised  Jewish 
Messiah.  These  Christians  of  Palestine  were 
never  very  numerous,   although   they   were   very 


influential  in  the  history  of  the  new  reUgion  during 
the  first  generation.  In  Paul's  day  they  were  recog- 
nized as  the  originators  of  the  movement,  and 
Paul  and  Barnabas  felt  the  necessity  of  visiting 
Jerusalem  to  win  the  approval  of  the  Palestinian 
group  for  the  Gentile  mission.  In  the  succeeding 
generations  Jewish  Christianity  diminished  in 
importance  as  Gentile  Christianity  increased,  and 
by  the  middle  of  the  2nd.  century  Christianity 
in  Palestine  as  a  distinctly  Jewish  movement  became 
practically  extinct.  S.  J.  Case 

JEWS. — See  Israel,  Religion  op;  Judaism. 

JIHAD. — The  "holy  war"  of  Islam,  waged  as 
a  religious  duty  by  Moslems  against  unbelievers. 
The  world  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  realm  of 
Islam  and  the  "abode  of  war."  Theoretically 
it  is  the  duty  of  beUevers  to  sacrifice  themselves, 
when  called  upon,  in  order  to  bring  the  whole 
world  to  the  true  faith.  In  Shi'ite  Islam  the 
Jihad  is  postponed  until  the  return  of  the  Hidden 
Imam  (q.v.). 

JINN. — Spirits;  personified  forces  of  nature, 
which  were  not  understood  and  not  controlled; 
very  like  Irish  fairies  and  goblins.  Accepted  by 
Mohammed  as  part  of  the  thought  of  his  day, 
sUghtly  modified  in  the  interest  of  monotheism. 
Distinct  from  angels.  Assume  many  forms,  often 
animal  (serpents);  are  both  good  and  bad;  go  to 
paradise  or  hell,  as  they  accept  or  reject  Islam. 
Believed  in  by  most  Moslems,  learned  and  lay, 
today.     "Genii"  of  Arabian  Nights. 

M.  Sprengling 

JIZO. — A  Japanese  Buddhist  god  imported 
from  China  where  he  had  a  long  history.  In  Japan 
he  is  known  especially  as  the  protector  of  little 
children,  though  at  times  he  appears  as  god  of 
soldiers  and  of  travellers. 

JNANA-MARGA. — The  general  name  for  ways 
of  salvation  by  knowledge  in  Hindu  religions. 
The  knowledge  which  gives  salvation  is  different 
in  the  various  systems.  See  articles  Brahmanism; 
Vedanta;  Sankhya;  Buddhism;  Yoga. 

JOACHIMITES.— The  followers  of  Joachim  of 
Fiore,  an  Italian  Cistercian  monk  and  mystic  of  the 
13th.  century,  who  taught  that  a  new  dispensation 
of  love,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  would  be 
inaugurated  in  1260. 

JOAN. — A  fabulous  female  pope  usually  dated 
between  Leo  IV.  (847-855)  and  Benedict  HI. 
(855-858).  The  myth  first  appeared  in  the  13th. 
century. 

JOAN  OF  ARC  (1411-1431).— French  patriot, 
known  as  "The  Maid  of  Orleans";  laid  claim  to 
divine  inspiration  and  guidance  and  successfully 
aroused  the  French  to  throw  off  the  English  domin- 
ion. She  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  who 
turned  her  over  to  the  Inquisition  by  which  she  was 
burnt  for  heresy,  a  sentence  revoked  by  the  pope 
in  1456.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  19th. 
century  the  custom  of  venerating  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  arose  in  France,  and  in  1909  she  was 
beatified  and  canonized  in  1920. 

JODO. — ^A  sect  of  Japanese  Buddhism  foimded 
by  Honen  in  the  later  12th.  century.  He  abandoned 
philosophy  and  elaborate  cult  practices  as  unneces- 
sary and  taught  that  salvation  was  to  be  attained 
through  the  free  grace  of  Amita  in  the  Western 
Happy  Land  Isy  all  who  would  accept  him  in  simple 


Johanan  Ben  Zakkai 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


238 


faith.    Iij  this  form  Buddhism  made  a  convincing 
appeal  to  the  masses.    See  Honen. 

JOHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI.— Greatest  Rabbi 
of  the  1st.  century  a.d.  He  founded  the  academy 
at  Jabne,  thereby  contributing  more  than  any 
other  man  of  his  time  to  the  perpetuation  of  Judaism 
when  the  Temple  fell.  His  work  along  with  that  of 
the  other  Tannaim  is  foimd  in  the  Mishna  (q.v.). 

JOHN. — (1)  One  of  the  apostles,  known  as  a 
son  of  Zebedee,  and  as  "the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved."  (2)  Father  of  Peter  the  Apostle.  Cf .  John 
1:42.  (3)  Surname  of  Mark.  Cf.  Col.  4: 10.  (4)  A 
presbyter  or  elder  mentioned  by  Papias  as  an 
authoritative  source  of  information  about  Jesus. 

JOHN. — The  name  of  twenty  popes,  two  anti- 
popes  and  one  mythical  pope. 

John  /> — Pope,  523-526;  imprisoned  by  Theo- 
doric,  ho  died  in  prison  and  was  enrolled  a  martyr. 

John  //.—Pope,  533-535. 

John  ///.—Pope,  561-574. 

John  /F.— Pope,  640-642. 

John  F.— Pope,  685-686. 

John  F/.— Pope,  701-705. 

John  F//.— Pope,  705-707. 

John  VIII.— Pope,  872-882;  engaged  in  a 
constant  struggle  to  defend  the  Roman  state  and 
the  papal  authority  against  the  Saracens  and  the 
encroachments  of  the  Italian  feudal  dukes. 

John  IX.— Pope,  898-900. 

John  X. — Pope,  914-928;  severely  defeated  the 
Saracens. 

John  XL— Pope,  931-935. 

John  XII. — Pope,  955-964;  a  man  of  scandalous 
life  and  a  ruler  of  intriguing  poUcy  whose  machina- 
tions involved  him  in  a  struggle  with  Otto  the  Great. 

John  XIII.— PoDe,  965-972. 

Jo/in  Z/F.— Pope,  983-984. 

John  XV. — (1)  Some  Usts  include  a  John  who 
reigned  four  months  after  the  death  of  Boniface  VII. 
in  985.  His  existence  is  fictitious.  (2)  Pope, 
985-996. 

John  ZF/.— Antipope,  997-998,  during  the 
pontificate  of  Gregory  V. 

John  XVII. — ^Pope  for  five  months  in  1003. 

John  XVIII.— Pope,   1003-1009;    abdicated. 

John  XIX.— Pope,  1024-1033. 

John  XXI. —Pope,  1276-1277.  (Through  an 
error  owing  to  the  insertion  of  an  antipope,  there  is 
no  John  XX.  in  the  official  hst  of  popes.) 

John  XXII. — Pope,  1316-1334;  was  noted  as  a 
jurist,  defending  papal  absolution  with  legalistic 
logic.  His  papal  rule  was  marked  by  two  struggles, 
a  poUtical  conflict  with  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  a 
theological  struggle  in  which  he  was  opposed  by  the 
Spiritual  Franciscans,  John  contending  against 
the  principle  of  evangelical  poverty. 

John  XXIII. — Antipope,  1410-1415;  in  opposi- 
tion to  two  other  claimants  of  the  papal  office,  one 
at  Rome  and  one  at  Avignon,  the  representative  of 
the  Pisan  party,  and  recognized  by  England,  France 
and  parts  of  Germany  and  Italy.  He  summoned  the 
council  of  Constance  in  1414  which  eventually 
deposed  him,  in  which  judgment  he  acquiesced. 

JOHN  OF  DAMASCUS  (ca.  700-754).— The 
last  of  the  Greek  fathers,  is  venerated  as  a  saint, 
by  the  Eastern  church  on  Dec.  4th.  and  by  the 
Western  church  on  May  6th.  His  chief  dogmatic 
work  was  The  Fount  of  Knoivledge  which  speaks  the 
final  word  in  doctrine  for  the  Eastern  church  in 
most  matters,  and  apphes  the  scholastic  method  to 
theology.  John  was  also  the  best  esteemed  of  the 
hymn-writers  of  the  Greek  church. 


JOSEPH,  SISTERS  OF  SAINT.— A  R.C. 
female  rehgious  community,  founded  in  1650  by 
Jean-Paul  Medaille,  a  French  Jesuit.  The  order  is 
found  in  many  countries,  and  the  members  engage 
in  hospital,  educational  and  mission  enterprises. 

JOSEPHUS  (ca.  37-100  a.d.)  .—Greatest  ancient 
historian  and  apologist  of  the  Jewish  people.  Born 
and  educated  at  Jerusalem,  prominent  in  public 
affairs.  After  70  a.d.  he  lived  and  wrote  at  Rome 
under  imperial  patronage  until  his  death.  Compe- 
tent and  trustworthy  historian,  especially  for 
Jewish  hfe  of  his  own  century,  he  aimed  to  make 
the  Greco-Roman  world  appreciate  the  Jews  and 
their  type  of  civiUzation.  War  of  the  Jews  ca.  75  a.d.. 
Antiquities  of  the  Jews  93(4)  a.d.,  Ldfe,  and  Against 
Avion  (93-100  a.d.).  C.  W.  Votaw 

JOTUNN. — ^The  name  of  the  race  of  giants  in 
Norse  mythology.  They  are  the  earhest  existing 
beings  sometimes  helping  and  at  other  times  oppos- 
ing the  gods.  Their  home  is  called  Jotunheim. 
Many  of  their  names  signify  frost,  ice,  and  snow 
which  may  give  a  clue  to  their  origin. 

JOWETT,  BENJAMIN  (1817-1893).— EngUsh 
educationahst,  theologian  and  author;  came  to 
Oxford  when  the  Tractarian  movement  was  in  its 
zenith  and  tended  for  a  time  toward  the  High 
Church  position;  but  more  liberal  views  eventually 
prevailed,  making  him  the  object  of  petty  persecu- 
tions. His  great  literary  achievement  was  the 
translation  of  Plato. 

JUBILATE.— (1)  The  100th.  Psahn  and  the  music 
set  thereto,  so  named  from  the  opening  word  in  the 
Latin.  In  the  Vulgate  and  Douai  versions  the 
psalm  is  number  99.  Popularly,  any  hymn  of 
praise.  (2)  The  3rd.  Sunday  after  Easter,  so 
named  from  the  opening  word  of  the  66th.  Psalm 
in  Latin,  sung  on  that  day. 

JUBILEE,  YEAR  OF.— The  name  appUed  in  the 
Hexateuch  to  every  50th.  year  (the  close  of  seven 
seven-year  periods)  observed  by  the  Hebrews  as 
a  year  of  rest,  and  marked  by  certain  ritualistic 
and  social  customs. 

JUBILEES,  BOOK  OF.— An  apocryphal  book  of 
Pharisaic  origin,  giving  a  history  of  the  world  from 
the  creation  to  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai. 

JUDAH  HA-LEVI  (ca.  1085-1140).— Spanish 
Jewish  poet  and  philosopher.  His  poems,  both 
sacred  and  secular,  written  in  Hebrew  (many  are 
now  translated  into  modern  languages)  are  among 
the  loftiest  in  hterature.  His  philosophy  finds  its 
best  expression  in  his  "Ha-kuzari,"  which  is  a  philo- 
sophic apology  of  Judaism. 

JUDAISM.— The  word  "Judaism"  to  signify 
the  Jewish  religion  is  first  met  with  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha (II  Mace.  2:21,  8:1,  14:38;  IV  Mace.  4:26, 
in  the  New  Testament  Gal.  1:13-14)  and  in  the 
works  of  the  early  church  fathers  like  Ignatius.  In 
rabbinic  hterature  the  first  instance  of  the  use  of 
the  word  Yekuduth,  which  would  |be  the  equivalent 
of  Judaism,  is  found  in  Midrash  Rabba,  Esther, 
ad  3,  7.  This  work  is  of  uncertain  origin  and  in  its 
present  shape  not  older  than  the  9th.  century. 

I.  Fundamental  Principles  in  Rabbinic 
Literature. — -While  the  rabbis  did  not  coin  a  word 
for  Judaism,  they  often  attempted  to  present  the 
essentials  of  the  Jewish  religion  in  a  systematic  form. 
In  this  respect  the  maxim  of  Hillel  is  the  most  concise 
expression.  He  said  in  reply  to  a  heathen  who 
I  wished  to  learn  "the  whole  Torah,"  while  he  was 


239 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Judaism 


standing  on  one  foot:  "What  is  hateful  to  thee  do 
not  unto  thy  neighbor.  This  is  the  whole  Torah,  all 
the  rest  is  its  explanation.  Go  and  study."  (Talm. 
Sabbath,  31a.)  The  chronology  of  Hillel  is  uncer- 
tain, but  he  lived  in  the  last  decades  before  or  in 
the  first  decades  after  the  Christian  era,  and,  as  the 
parallel  passages  in  the  New  Testament  prove,  this 
conception  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  Judaism 
was  the  view  held  by  the  prominent  teachers  of 
the  age. 

The  conflict  with  growing  Christianity  and  with 
Greek  philosophy  created  in  the  2nd.  century  a 
more  frequent  attempt  at  presenting  Judaism  as  a 
theory.  The  nature  of  this  motive  is  responsible 
for  the  negative  presentation  of  the  subject  which 
is  almost  invariably  the  rule.  The  Mishnah,  com- 
piled about  200,  gives  the  following  summary: 
Those  who  deny  the  resurrection  of  the  body  (the 
present  text  adds:  "as  taught  by  Scripture"), 
the  revelation  of  Scripture  and  the  Epicurean  are 
excluded  from  future  life  (Sanhedrin,  90a).  R.  Akiba 
adds:  "also  he  who  reads  non-canonical  books 
(gospels  or  apocrypha)  and  who  whispers  on  a 
wound"  (TherapeiUae).  Eleazar  of  Modin,  a  con- 
temporary of  Akiba  (ca.  100-135),  gives  also  a 
negative  definition  of  the  essential  of  Judaism, 
likewise  showing  the  antagonism  to  Christian, 
especially  to  Pauline,  ideas.  He  excludes  from 
the  bhss  of  the  future  world  those  who  despise 
sacrifices  and  holy  days,  who  neglect  circumcision, 
and  interpret  the  law  allegorically  (Abot,  3:15). 
We  may  safely  presume  that  the  antagonism  to  the 
Christian  teachings  which  oppose  the  maintenance 
of  Israel's  separate  nationality,  and  its  corollary,  the 
literal  observance  of  the  ceremonial  law,  underlies 
the  development  of  the  liturgy  of  the  synagog. 
Instead  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  "Shema," 
consisting  of  Deut.  6:4-9,  11:13-21,  and  Num. 
15:37-41,  was  made  the  daily  confession  of  faith 
"because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Minim"  (Judaeo- 
Christians).  The  meaning  of  this  statement  is 
obvious.  The  essence  of  Judaism  was  the  belief  in 
one  God  in  opposition  to  the  divinity  of  Jesus,  the 
practice  of  the  Mosaic  law  and  the  belief  in  Israel's 
national  existence. 

II.  Latitudinarian  and  Ritualistic  Ideaxs. — 
The  greatest  difficulty  in  dealing  with  a  definition  of 
Judaism  is  the  lack  of  all  ecclesiastical  authority, 
intensified  by  the  uncertainty  about  the  biography 
of  its  leaders.  So  we  see  occasionally  broad  humani- 
tarian principles  side  by  side  with  strict  ritualistic 
requirements  presented  as  the  essentials  of  Judaism. 
The  true  IsraeHte  is  once  characterized  by  kindness, 
modesty  and  charity  (Yebamot,  79a,  Yer,  Kiddu- 
shin,  IV,  1),  and  again  by  observance  of  the  law  of 
phylacteries,  fringes,  the  Mezuzah  on  the  doorpost 
and  the  like  (Peshaim,  113b).  In  the  same  passage 
meekness,  temperate  habits  and  willingness  to 
yield  to  others  are  presented  as  cardinal  virtues. 
Against  the  613  Commandments,  incumbent  upon 
the  Israelite  and  the  seven  commandments  incum- 
bent upon  all  mankind,  we  find  in  anotiier  place  the 
latitudinarian  definition  that  abstaining  from 
idolatry  makes  a  Jew  (Megillah,  13a,  Nedarim,  28a). 
A  remarkable  combination  of  the  ritualistic  with 
the  ethical  definition  of  Judaism  is  found  in  a  homily 
ascribed  to  R.  Simlai  (probably  3rd.  cent.)  who 
says  the  613  commandments  were  reduced  byDavid 
to  eleven  (Ps.  15)  by  Isaiah  to  six  (33:15-16),  by 
Micah  (6:8)  to  three,  by  Isaiah  to  two  (56:1),  by 
Amos  (5:4)  and  Habakuk  (2:4)  to  one  (Makkot, 
23b  to  24a).  In  all  these  passages  the  ethical  ele- 
ment of  religion  is  accentuated,  while  the  two  last 
named  are  to  present  the  two  principal  sources  of 
religious  conviction,  reason  and  faith. 

III.  Philosophic  Apologists. — The  later  Tal- 
mudic  period  and  the  subsequent  centuries  even 


after  the  rise  of  Islam  furnished  no  opportunity  for 
a  conception  of  Judaism  other  than  in  the  definition 
of  legal  practices  and  in  homiletical  explanations  of 
Scripture.  When  through  the  influence  of  the 
Arabic  interpreters  of  Aristotle  and  Plato  and 
through  the  schism  of  the  Karaites  a  literature  of 
apologetics,  entirely  dormant  since  Philo  and 
Josephus,  arose,  these  studies  beginning  with  Saadya 
in  the  10th.  century  necessitated  a  systematic 
theology.  Of  the  numerous  authors  Judah  Ha-Levi 
(12th.  cent.)  deserves  particular  mention  for  his 
national  presentation  of  Judaism  {Kuzari,  II,  32) 
which  Graetz  declares  to  be  the  only  possible  inter- 
pretation of  Judaism.  The  most  popular  presenta- 
tion of  Judaism  from  a  strictly  dogmatic  point  of 
view  is  given  by  Moses  Maimonides  (1135-1204) 
who  lays  down  13  cardinal  dogmas,  namely: 
God  as  creator,  God's  unity,  incorporeality  and 
eternity,  guidance  of  human  life,  prophecy,  Moses' 
absolute  superiority,  revelation,  unchangeableness 
of  the  law,  providence,  reward  and  punishment, 
Messiah,  and  bodily  resurrection.  These  dogmas, 
originaUy  embodied  in  Maimonides'  Commentary 
on  the  Mishnah,  were  in  a  somewhat  different 
formulation  intruded  into  the  daily  ritual  of  the 
synagog  and  when  versified  became  the  most  popular 
hymn  of  the  synagog.  It  will  be  noticed  that  some 
of  the  dogmas  are  so  framed  as  to  define  the  differ- 
ences between  Judaism  on  one  hand  and  Christianity 
and  Islam  on  the  other.  This  is  especially  evident 
in  the  proclamation  of  Moses'  absolute  superiority 
over  all  prophets,  in  the  prohibition  to  address  a 
prayer  to  anybody  except  God,  and  in  the  unchange- 
ableness of  the  law.  None  of  the  later  attempts  to 
summarize  the  doctrine  of  Judaism  had  a  similar 
popularity.  Neither  did  Crescas'  (14th.  cent.) 
six  dogmas — omniscience,  providence  and  omnipo- 
tence of  God,  prophecy,  free  will  and  divine  purpose 
— nor  Albo's  (15th.  cent.)  simplified  presentation 
of  the  theology  of  Maimonides  on  whom  he  is  largely 
dependent  and  whose  dogmas  he  reduced  to  three 
(belief  in  God,  revelation,  and  future  life)  obtain 
general  recognition. 

The  development  of  Jewish  theology  after  the 
15th.  century  was  almost  exclusively  along  the  lines 
of  strict  legalism  and  vague  mysticism,  neither  of 
which  was  adapted  to  stimulate  dogmatic  definite- 
ness.  With  the  entry  of  the  Jews  into  the  cultural 
life  of  their  environment,  chiefly  under  the  influence 
of  Moses  Mendelssohn,  the  same  condition  occurred 
as  when  the  meeting  of  Judaism  and  Hellenism 
created  Philo's  philosophy,  or  a  thousand  years 
later  when  the  Spanish- Arabic  school  again  brought 
Greek  thought  home  to  Israel  in  its  Arabic  garb. 
It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  the  publication 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  catechism  by  the  Jesuit 
Canisius,  1554,  suggested  to  the  Italian  Jew, 
Abraham  Jagel,  the  publication  of  a  similar  work 
in  Hebrew  in  1587.  Mendelssohn  was  again 
entirely  guided  by  the  then  popular  Leibnitz-WoK 
school  of  philosophy,  when  he  declared  in  his 
Jerusalem  oder  iiber  religiose  Macht  und  Judentum 
(1783),  that  Judaism  had  no  dogma  at  all,  for  it 
either  taught  belief  in  God  and  immortality  which 
are  self-evident  truths,  or  facts  like  revelation  which 
are  based  on  historic  evidence.  From  his  time  on 
numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  summarize 
the  teachings  of  Judaism  from  both  the  traditionalist 
and  the  Uberal  points  of  view.  The  former  usually 
Umit  themselves  to  occasional  remarks,  avoiding 
a  comprehensive  statement  of  their  views.  As 
such  an  expression  the  blunt  statement  of  Samson 
Raphael  Hirsch  (1808-1888)  may  be  quoted,  who 
said  that  science  can  never  disprove  a  doctrine  of 
the  Talmud.  A  similar  remark  is  foimd  in  the 
very  popular,  often  edited  and  translated,  hand- 
book of  reUgious  ethics,  compiled  by  the  oriental 


Judaizing,  Judaizers 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


240 


rabbi  Eliezer  Papo  who  defines  a  Jew  as  one  who 
never  rejects  any  statement  made  in  the  Taknud. 
The  same  view  is  expressed  by  Solomon  Ibn  Adret 
of  Barcelona  (13th.  cent.)  and  on  his  authority  on  a 
similar  occasion  is  repeated  by  David  Pardo  of 
Spalato  (18th.  cent.).  Both  express  this  view 
merely  in  an  occasional  remark  while  discussing  a 
question  of  dietary  law.  This  case  is  quoted  to 
show  the  difficulty  of  presenting  a  view  of  Judaism, 
when  the  material  is  scattered  in  such  a  widespread 
literature  of  many  ages  and  countries,  and  when  only 
subjective  historical  criticism  can  decide  which 
author  may  be  considered  authoritative,  since 
none  occupies  an  ecclesiastically  defined  position  in 
liis  own  age.  It  is  therefore  proper  to  add  that 
Solomon  Luria  of  Lubhn  (16th.  cent.)  boldly  rejects 
or  rather  qualifies  Ibn  Adret's  remark  on  Talmudic 
authority.  The  views  of  the  hberal  school  which 
restrict  the  authority  of  both  Bible  and  Talmud 
are  still  more  diversified.    See  Reform  Judaism. 

JUDAIZING,  JUDAIZERS.— Names  apphed 
to  those  members  of  the  early  Christian  church 
who  maintained  that  gentile  converts  must  accept 
circumcision  and  undertake  some  at  least  of  the 
observances  prescribed  by  the  Jewish  Law  in  order 
to  become  members  of  Christian  churches.  The 
letter  to  the  Galatians  is  directed  against  their  views. 

JUDAS. — The  name  of  two  disciples  of  Jesus, 
one  who  betrayed  him,  called  Iscariot. 

JUDAS  MACCABAEUS.— A  leader  m  the 
successful  revolt  of  the  Jewish  people  against 
Antiochus  IV.  (Epiphanes). 

Judas  the  Hammer  was  the  third  son  of  Matta- 
thias  who  precipitated  the  uprising  against  the 
Syrians  when  they  in  167  b.c.  attempted  to  destroy 
the  Jewish  religion.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
in  166  B.C.  Judas  aided  by  the  Hasidim  or  Pious 
(q.v.)  maintained  a  guerrilla  warfare  and  although 
greatly  outnumbered  defeated  the  Syrian  generals. 
In  165  B.C.  he  restored  the  Temple  worship,  an  act 
celebrated  by  the  Jews  in  the  Feast  of  the  Dedica- 
tion, or  Feast  of  Lights.  Thereafter  he  made 
military  expeditions  beyond  Jordan.  After  the 
Jews  had  been  granted  religious  liberty  by  the 
Syrians  he  was  deserted  by  the  Chasidim,  but  was 
rejoined  by  them  when  it  was  again  threatened. 
Judas  won  a  decisive  victory  but  as  he  continued  to 
fight  for  independence  he  was  again  abandoned  by 
the  religious  party  and  was  defeated  and  killed 
in  161  B.C.  The  struggle  was  continued  by  his 
brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon,  the  latter  of  whom 
won  independence  for  the  nation. 

Shailer  Mathews 

JUDGE,  ECCLESIASTICAL.— One  who 
according  to  canon  law  (q.v.)  has_  authority  to 
preside  over  an  ecclesiastical  coiurt  of  justice. 

JUDGMENT,  DAY  OF.— A  day  on  which 
God  is  represented  as  establishing  an  assize  for  the 
trial  of  aU  men  and  the  determination  of  their 
eternal  conditions. 

Almost  universally  the  gods  of  tribes  are  sup- 
posed to  have  given  certain  regulations  and  to 
watch  over  and  punish  or  forgive  any  violations 
thereof.  In  the  more  developed  religions  this  con- 
cept was  carried  on  to  elaborate  pictures  of  a  post 
mortem  trial.  The  most  elaborate  form  of  this 
behef  to  be  found  among  the  ancient  peoples  is  that 
of  Egypt.  According  to  the  Egyptian  view,  the 
dead  would  pass  before  judges  and  would  be 
acquitted  or  condemned  according  to  certain  well- 
regulated  standards.  Instructions  for  passing  this 
trial  successfully  constitute  the  Egyptian  Book  of 
the  Dead.    See  Egypt,  Religion  op. 


Among  the  Jews  ideas  of  judgment  grew  out 
of  the  conception  of  a  day  when  Yahweh  would 
punish  the  enemies  of  Israel  and  unrighteous 
Hebrews.  The  rehgious  leaders  of  Judaism  centered 
attention  upon  the  observance  of  law  for  the  purpose 
of  avoiding  punishment  which  would  result  from 
violating  its  provisions.  The  outcome  of  the  Day 
of  Judgment  took  more  specific  form  in  the  figures  of 
apocalyptic  Messianism  and  rabbinism.  The  entire 
world  was  to  be  judged  on  the  basis  of  its  observance 
of  the  law  of  Yahweh.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
some  Jewish  teachers  acquittal  was  assured  if  the 
majority  of  a  man's  deeds  had  been  in  accordance 
with  the  law.  From  Judaism  the  expectation  of  a 
Day  of  Judgment  passed  over  to  Christianity. 
Jesus  Christ  was  to  be  the  judge  and  behevers  alone 
were  to  be  acquitted. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  precise  Umits  with- 
in which  these  portrayals  of  the  Day  of  Judgment 
are  intended  to  be  hteral.  Figurative  elements 
entered  into  the  conception  as  refiected  in  the  htera- 
ture.  More  important,  however,  than  this  ques- 
tion is  that  of  the  grounds  upon  which  judgment 
was  to  be  passed.  These  vary  from  the  observance 
of  rites  to  the  meeting  of  social  obUgations,  as  e.g.,  in 
the  Christian  portrayal  of  the  Day  of  Judgment. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  church  appealed  con- 
stantly and  reahstically  to  the  Day  of  Judgment  as 
a  means  of  building  up  church  loyalty  and  indi- 
viduaUstic  moraUty.  Shailer  Mathews 

JUDITH,  BOOK  OF.— A  book  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha (q.v.)  narrating  the  exploits  of  Judith, 
a  Jewess  who  saved  her  countrymen  from  the 
Assyrians  by  assassinating  their  general  Holof ernes. 

JUDSON,  ADONIRAM  (1788-1850).— Pioneer 
American  missionary  to  Burma  1812,  sent  out  by 
the  American  board  (Congregational)  but  became 
converted  to  Baptist  views  on  the  voyage.  Suffered 
greatly  through  a  two  years'  imprisohment  in 
the  war  between  Burma  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany; translated  the  Bible  into  Burmese  and 
compiled  a  Burmese  grammar,  Burmese  dictionary 
and  PaU  dictionary.  He  was  married  three  times 
and  his  wives  successively  played  important  r61es 
in  advancing  missionary  work  in  Burma. 

JUGGERNAUT.— See  Jagannath. 

JULIAN  THE  APOSTATE  (331-363).— Roman 
emperor,  a  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great.  He 
was  reared  in  the  Christian  faith  but  was  early 
converted  to  Neo-Platonism.  He  ideahzed  and 
championed  a  moribund  paganism  and  used  his 
office  to  suppress  Christianity  within  the  empire, 
although  he  ordered  no  direct  persecution. 

JULIAN  OF  ECLANUM.— The  most  note- 
worthy leader  of  Pelagianism  (q.v.)  who  hved  for 
the  last  decade  or  two  of  the  4th.  century.  He 
contended  against  Augustine,  that  sin  is  a  matter 
of  the  will,  and  not  an  inherent  trait  of  human 
nature.  He  was  expelled  from  his  see  at  Eclanum 
for  his  views. 

JULIUS. — The  name  of  three  popes. 

Julius  /.—Pope,  337-352. 

Julius  II. — Pope,  1503-1513;  a  zealous  ecclesi- 
astic and  strong  administrator.  He  consohdated 
the  papal  states  in  Italy  putting  an  end  to  the 
dominion  of  Venice  and  expelhng  the  French  from 
Italy.  He  condemned  nepotism,  simony  in  papal 
elections,  and  duelhng ;  reformed  the  monastic  orders ; 
encouraged  missionary  efforts;  patronized  htera- 
ture  and  art;  convened  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council. 

Julius  III.— Fope,  1550-1555. 


241 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Justification 


JUMPERS. — An  appellation  of  contempt  for- 
merly applied  to  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists 
due  to  their  emotional  practises  of  leaping  for  joy, 
a  custom  which  later  ceased. 

JUNO. — The  principal  Roman  and  Latin  god- 
dess, the  wife  of  Jupiter,  regarded  as  the  especial 
protector  of  women  and  representative  of  the  female 
principle  of  life.  Hera  was  the  corresponding  god- 
dess in  Greek  mythology. 

JTJPITER.— The  chief  god  of  the  old  Roman 
religion.  He  was  undoubtedly,  in  origin,  the  sky 
god.  As  Jupiter,  "the  striker,"  he  was  represented 
at  Rome  by  the  lightning-riven  oak  or  a  meteoric 
stone.  Corresponding  to  the  changes  in  Roman 
social  life  he  appears  successively  as  Jupiter  Optimus 
Maximus,  head  of  the  Latin  League  with  a  temple 
on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  as  Jupiter,  Genius  of  the 
Roman  People,  and  as  a  Stoic  world-essence,  the 
Logos-Jupiter. 

JUSTICE.— What  is  right  or  due  or  fair.  The 
standard  for  this  is  found  either  in  those  formulated 
customs  and  statutes  of  a  people  which  are  enforced 
by  public  authority  as  in  legal  justice,  or  in  those 
mores  and  ideals  which  are  rather  a  matter  of  feeling, 
or  reason,  or  conscience  in  the  broad  use  of  the  term. 

In  the  actual  shaping  of  standards  of  justice, 
social,  economic,  political,  and  religious  conditions 
and  ideas  have  had  important  r61es.  Several  types 
may  be  distinguished.  (1)  Justice  in  the  early 
kinship  group.  Sharing  in  the  products  of  the 
hunt,  and  a  similar  solidarity  as  to  many  other 
goods,  is  typical.  "Kind"-ness,  or  the  treatment 
due  one's  kin,  is  not  distinguished  as  in  later 
society  from  justice.  Blood  revenge  toward  other 
groups  is  also  characteristic.  (2)  Emphasis  upon 
strict  equivalence  is  also  found  early — an  eye  for 
an  eye   in   both   legal   and   general   conceptions. 

(3)  With  aristocratic  society  came  the  conception 
that  each  has  his  proper  place  or  station,  and  must 
act  and  be  treated  accordingly;  thus  in  Ham- 
murabi's code  and  in  early  EngUsh  law  it  is  a  far 
less  serious  offense  for  a  master  to  kiU  a  slave,  or  for 
a  man  of  gentle  birth  to  kill  a  common  man,  than 
for  a  slave  or  common  man  to  kill  master  or  gentle. 

(4)  With  a  shift  from  differences  based  on  birth 
to  differences  based  on  capacity  and  function,  Plato 
projected  an  ideal  of  justice  as  performing  one's 
function  in  society.  Aristotle  pointed  out  that  two 
principles  of  justice — viz.,  equality  and  proportion- 
ality (distributing  honors  and  goods  in  'proportion 
to  abiUty  or  birth) — underHe  democratic  and  aris- 
tocratic society  respectively.  (5)  In  the  development 
of  Greek  philosophy  and  Roman  law,  and  similarly 
in  the  development  of  the  common  law  in  England, 
equality  before  the  Iaw_  increasingly  superseded 
inequality  of  status,  for  citizens  at  least.  Natural 
law,  jvs  aequum  et  honum,  was  the  Roman  concep- 
tion; "the  reasonable"  or  equitable  was  the  English 
conception  for  the  broader  justice.  (6)  In  connec- 
tion with  the  modern  struggles  for  civil  and  religious 
liberty,  the  conception  of  rights  came  to  be 
emphasized.  Rights  to  life,  liberty,  property 
were  regarded  as  natural  and  absolute.  "Thefirst  and 
primary  end  of  human  laws  is  to  naaintain  and  regu- 
late those  absolute  rights  of  individuals."  (Black- 
stone.)  Roman  law  had  included  "giving  to  each 
his  own"  as  one  of  its  maxims,  but  the  English, 
American,  and  French  revolutions  brought  to  a 
climax  the  shift  by  which  the  individual's  rights 
instead  of  the  social  order  were  taken  as  primary. 
(7)  Social  Justice  is  a  somewhat  loose  term  used  to 
cover  a  conception  that  since  an  individual's  oppor- 
tunities depend  so  greatly  upon  the  institutions  of 
society  into  which  he  is  born,  it  is  just  that  society 


should  take  into  account  the  inequalities  thus  caused 
and  endeavor  to  give  all  a  fair  chance.  In  particular 
it  is  conceived  that  society  owes  something  to  the 
less  fortunate  classes.  The  conceptions  of  (6)  were 
worked  out  largely  by  middle  class  society;  the 
industrial  revolution  has  made  the  conditions  of 
the  wage  worker  and  of  the  poor  a  more  conspicu- 
ous problem,  principally  because  of  the  great 
wealth  given  by  the  present  system  to  the  few. 
From  this  point  of  view,  the  justice  of  the  whole 
economic  system  under  which  business  and  industry 
are  carried  on  is  challenged.         James  H.  Tufts 

JUSTIFICATION.— A  forensic  word  indicating 
a  remission  of  penalty,  or  a  declaration  of  acquittal 
by  a  court  or  some  official.  In  religions  this 
acquittal  is  by  some  god  or  his  representative. 

Justification  is  one  of  a  large  group  of  words 
which  religion  has  appropriated  from  jurisprudence 
and  politics,  and  given  new  application  and  content. 
See  Judgment,  Day  of.  In  looking  forward  to 
the  Day  of  Judgment  there  was  a  natural  desire 
for  acquittal  or  justification.  In  some  religions  this 
justification  was  expected  on  the  basis  of  a  correct 
observance  of  ritual,  in  others  on  the  keeping  of  the 
law  which  had  been  given  by  the  god  by  whom 
men  were  to  be  judged,  and  in  still  others  by  virtue 
of  the  propitiation  of  the  god  through  some  form  of 
sacrifice.  In  the  extent  to  which  this  acquittal 
implied  actual  righteousness  on  the  part  of  its 
recipients  there  is  some  variation,  with  a  distinct 
tendency  in  the  Jewish  religion  to  rely  upon  the 
mercy  of  Yahweh,  who  had  graciously  given  his 
people  his  law.  In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said 
that  justification  was  not  so  much  the  acquiring  of 
a  moral  state  as  it  was  a  status  of  non-liability  to 
punishment. 

Paul's  position  emerges  from  that  of  his  con- 
temporaries among  whom  he  had  been  educated. 
He  too  thought  of  justification  as  a  state  of  acquittal 
or  of  non-liabiHty  to  punishment.  He  did  not, 
however,  undertake  to  estimate  a  man's  status 
in  the  courts  of  heaven  in  terms  of  good  or  evil  deeds. 
To  his  mind  the  law  was  violated  when  one  failed  to 
keep  any  of  its  precepts.  There  was,  therefore, 
no  hope  of  acquittal  through  the  keeping  of  the  law. 
AU  persons  were  under  condemnation.  An  assur- 
ance as  to  his  justification  in  the  coming  day  of 
judgment  was  reached  when  one  accepted  Jesus  as 
Christ.  That  is  to  say,  the  man  who  accepted 
Jesus  as  Christ  had  ah-eady  passed  potentially  into 
the  Messianic  kingdom,  and  from  death  to  life. 
While  he  might  fail  to  follow  the  moral  impulses 
born  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  question  of  his  justi- 
fication was  no  longer  raised.  Although  the 
Judgment  Day  had  not  come,  he  had,  so  to  speak, 
already  been  acquitted.  The  assurance  of  this 
blessing  Paul  argues  is  born  of  the  inner  experience 
of  sonship  when  the  believer  accepts  God  as  father. 
With  the  development  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
with  its  emphasis  on  forensic  practices,  the  idea  of 
justification  became  increasingly  prominent,  espe- 
cially in  the  western  part  of  Europe.  The  men  of 
the  Middle  Ages  lived  in  a  constant  sense  of  impend- 
ing doom.  Convinced  as  they  were  of  their  sinful- 
ness, the  medieval  churchmen  adopted  every  means 
possible  to  assure  themselves  of  forgiveness  in  the 
Day  of  Wrath.  To  this  end  they  looked  to  the 
atoning  work  of  Christ  (see  Atonement),  to  the  per- 
formance of  certain  acts  of  penance,  and  to  the 
power  of  the  Keys  possessed  by  the  successors  of 
St.  Peter.  In  fact  as  the  penitential  system  of  the 
church  developed,  justification  was  supplemented 
if  not  obscured  by  penance.  It  followed  that 
justification  was  not  accomplished  wholly  by  faith, 
but  by  faith  and  works  done  in  accordance  with 
the  directions  of  the  church. 


Justin  Martyr 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


242 


The  reformers  separated  sharply  between  sancti- 
fication  and  justification.  The  latter  was  God's 
sovereign  act  and  was  not  a  matter  of  experience  in 
the  present  age.  It  was  wi'ought  through  faith, 
but  faith  was  not  regarded  as  a  work.  As  justi- 
fication was  a  remission  of  punishment  at  the  Day 
of  Judgment,  the  basis  of  a  person's  assurance  that 
he  should  enjoy  this  blessing  was  of  vital  moment. 
Luther  insisted  that  one  was  justified  by  faith  alone, 
and  that  when  one  was  conscious  of  the  faith,  this  in 
itself  was  the  assurance  that  justification  was  to  be 
his.  The  Calvinists  based  assurance  of  justifica- 
tion upon  election  and  effective  calling  of  God. 
Wesley  based  assurance  of  salvation  (which  included 
justification)  upon  the  witness  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  behever.  The  Roman  Catholic  position  was 
that  assurance  does  not  rest  merely  upon  one's 
faith  that  he  had  been  justified,  for  this  might 
deceive  him.  The  term  justification  in  the  dis- 
cussions was  therefore  not  used  in  exactly  the  same 
sense,  as  the  Roman  Catholic  theologians  used  the 
term  to  cover  what  the  reformers  called  justification 
and  sanctification. 

A  somewhat  parallel  Une  of  thought  to  justifica- 
tion is  to  be  seen  in  the  more  personal  terms  of 
reconciKation  and  forgiveness. 

Shailer  Mathews 

JUSTIN  MARTYR.— Christian  apologetic  and 
polemic  writer  of  the  2nd.  century.  He  was 
born  at  Flavia  NeapoHs  (the  modern  Nablus),  in 
Samaria,  soon  after  a.d.  100  and  after  various 
philosophical  studies  became  a  Christian  about  a.d. 
133  at  Ephesus.  At  Rome  about  a.d.  150  he 
addressed  to  the  Emperor  Antoninus  an  Apology 
for  Christianity,  to  wMch  he  afterward  added  an 
Appendix  (the  so-called  (Second  .A  poiogry).  Toward 
A.D.  160  he  produced  his  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  the 
best  example  of  the  Christian  Anti-Jewish  apologetic 
of  the  2nd.  century.  Justin's  other  works  have  dis- 
appeared. He  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome, 
probably  about  a.d.  165. 

JUSTINIAN  I  (483-565).— Roman  emperor, 
who  took  great  interest  in  the  church,  striving  to 
win  the  monophysite  party  to  orthodoxy,  and 
persecuting  Montanists,  Arians  and  pagans.  He 
closed  the  schools  of  Greek  philosophy  at  Athens 
(529)  thus  eUminating  the  last  center  of  Pagan 
teaching.  Justinian  is  most  noted  for  his  codifica- 
tion of  Roman  law. 

JUVENILE  PROTECTION.— In  law  Juvenile 
Protection  represents  the  humane  interference  of  the 
state  with  the  traditional  rights  of  parents  as  being 
owners  of  their  children.  From  the  time  of  the 
Industrial  Revolution  it  became  painfully  evident 
that  under  the  pressure  of  economic  hardship,  with 
its  attendant  demoralization  in  many  cases,  it 
could  not  be  assumed  that  parents  would  always, 
by  virtue  of  natural  affection,  properly  protect  the 
health  and  morals  of  their  children.  Legal  enact- 
ment became  necessary  in  order  to  protect  the 
child's  inherent  right  as  a  human  being  and  the 
state's  interest  in  the  child  as  a  prospective  citizen. 

In  the  United  States  of  America  neglect  was 
made  more  Hkely  by  the  ignorance  and  strangeness 
of  great  numbers  of  immigrants  who  had  come 
from  rural  Europe  to  establish  themselves  and 
their  large  families  in  the  most  congested  and 
undesirable  sections  of  American  cities.  Agitation 
looking  to  the  protection  of  children  against  parental 
ignorance  and  vice  and  also  against  employers  of 
child  labor,  saloon  keepers  and  proprietors  of  com- 
mercialized amusements  produced  its  most  definite 
body  of  legislation  in  the  State  of  Illinois  in  1899. 

The  first  Juvenile  Court  Law  which  was  passed 
at  that  time,  and  rapidly  copied  by  the  other 


states,  defined  delinquency  and  dependency  and 
contributing  to  either;  forbade  the  detention  of 
children  (males  16  years  and  under,  females  18  year 
and  under)  in  jails  or  in  any  place  where  adult 
criminals  were  confined,  thus  making  necessary 
the  detention  of  youthful  misdemeanants  in 
properly  equipped  detention  homes  or  allowing 
them  to  remain  in  their  own  homes  imtil  the  time 
of  hearing.  Not  only  in  the  matter  of  detention 
but  in  the  conduct  of  the  hearing  decided  improve- 
ment was  ordered  by  removing  all  such  cases  from 
the  lower  courts  and  establishing  a  tribunal  for  them 
in  the  Circuit  Court  in  the  large  cities  and  in  the 
Coimty  Court  in  less  populous  areas.  Procedure 
was  made  more  simple  and  informal,  the  whole 
object  being  not  to  prove  the  child  "guilty"  or  "not 
guilty"  but  to  get  an  understanding  of  the  case 
and  of  the  conditions  surrounding  the  child's  life 
so  that  he  might  be  duly  protected  and  that  he 
might  under  "the  conditions  of  a  normal  family 
home"  attain  satisfactory  social  behavior. 

Juvenile  Probation  Officers  were  attached  to  the 
court  to  make  a  preUminary  investigation  of  cases 
for  the  enlightenment  of  the  court,  to  befriend  the 
endangered  or  offending  child,  to  assist  parents  in  the 
better  discharge  of  their  duties  and  if  possible, 
without  the  removal  of  the  child  from  his  home,  to 
carry  out  the  purpose  of  the  court  for  his  restoration 
to  good  conduct.  In  cases  where  the  child  could 
not  thus  be  properly  protected,  controlled  and 
reclaimed  he  might  be  placed  on  probation  in  some 
other  suitable  home  or  in  the  Industrial  School,  or, 
in  cases  of  truancy,  in  the  Parental  School. 

Study  of  the  home  conditions  of  Juvenile 
offenders  revealed  the  fact  that  the  loss  of  the 
bread  winner  of  the  family  resulted  in  throwing  such 
a  burden  upon  the  mother  that,  in  having  to  go 
out  to  work  or  filling  a  crowded  home  with  low 
class  roomers,  she  must  necessarily  neglect  the 
children,  thus  endangering  their  health,  education, 
and  morality.  Hence  the  numerous  Fund-to- 
Parent  Acts  were  passed  in  order  to  subsidize 
needy  mothers  and  in  every  worthy  instance  to 
retain  them  for  their  primary  work  in  the  care  and 
nurture  of  their  children.  Appropriations  of  this 
nature  have  rapidly  assumed  large  proprotions,  and, 
along  with  expert  supervision  of  families  so  aided, 
are  generally  regarded  as  a  worthwhile  use  of  county 
fimds  for  constructive  and  preventive  purposes. 

The  aim  of  protection  of  children  in  industry 
has  been  in  the  direction  of  eliminating  night  work 
and  street  trades,  raising  the  age  of  compulsory 
education  to  sixteen  years  and  providing  vocational 
education  and  guidance,  bringing  about  co-operation 
between  employer  and  educator  for  the  child's 
training,  shortening  hours  and  increasing  wages  and 
in  providing  social  faciUties  and  moral  supervision 
within  the  plants. 

In  the  field  of  recreation  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  restrain  proprietors  of  pubhc  dance 
halls  and  amusement  parks,  vendors  of  obscene 
pictures,  managers  of  cheap  theaters  and  cinemas, 
refreshment  parlors,  cafes,  hotels,  excursion  boats, 
pool  rooms,  penny  arcades,  gambling  machines 
and  what  not.  While  the  prosecution  of  offenders 
is  necessary  it  is  equally  clear  that,  with  countless 
homes  lacking  normal  social  facilities  and  parental 
efficiency,  the  community  itself  must  provide  and 
supervise  public  recreation  on  a  scale  capable  of 
exterminating  the  commercialized  forms  if  they 
violate  the  laws  enacted  to  protect  their  youthful 
patrons. 

One  of  the  most  scientific  and  productive  phases 
of  Juvenile  Protection  is  to  be  found  in  the  work 
of  the  psychopathic  clinics.  Making  all  due  allow- 
ance for  the  social  and  more  external  causes  of 
delinquency  these  clinics  took  up  the  search  for  pre- 


243 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Kant,  Immanuei 


disposing  causes  within  the  organism  of  the  child 
himself.  On  the  basis  of  family  history,  school 
records  and  especially  by  skilful  tests  to  determine 
any  impairment  of  the  nervous  system  the  physician- 
psychologist  was  able  to  make  a  diagnosis  on  the 
basis  of  which  the  child's  abihty  to  maintain 
normal  social  behavior  while  remaining  a  free 
agent  in  his  ordinary  environment  could  be  some- 
what accurately  discovered. 

The  outcome  of  this  work  was  the  patent  neces- 
sity of  giving  special  treatment  to  the  subnormals 
and  incompetents  who  formed  a  large  percentage 
of  juvenile  recidivists.    Segregation  and  coloniza- 


tion of  formerly  unrecognized  imbeciles  and  morons 
became  imperative  for  these  unfortunates  them- 
selves and  for  the  safety  of  the  society  in  which 
they  lived. 

Thus  the  trend  of  Juvenile  Protection  has  been 
away  from  the  old  legal  responsibility,  formerly 
imposed  upon  children  as  upon  adults,  and  in  the 
direction  of  fostering  and  subsidizing  normal  family 
hfe,  suppressing  vicious  social  agencies,  punishing 
contributors,  and  penetrating  to  the  individual 
physical  causes  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the 
same  or  artificially  controUing  the  constitutionally 
unfit.  Allan  Hobbn 


KA.. — An  Egyptian  term  of  disputed  meaning. 
It  has  been  defined  as  the  double  of  the  individual; 
a  totem;  the  life  principle  whence  the  individual 
draws  his  life  nourishment;  the  genius  of  the  race; 
and  a  pre-existing,  supernatural  being  guarding 
the  individual  during  life  and  joining  him  at  death, 
like  the  Persian  fravashi  (q.v.).  It  seems  not  to  be 
part  of  a  man's  personahty  but  a  supernatural 
being  intimately  related  to  the  individual,  interested 
in  his  destiny,  who  joins  him  at  death  and  exercises 
a  protecting  control  over  his  soul.  See  Egypt, 
Religion  of. 

KAABA. — An  ancient  Arab  structure  at  Mecca 
in  which  the  chief  reUgious  object  was  a  sacred  black 
stone,  probably  a  meteorite.  After  the  conquest  of 
Mecca  by  Mohammed  it  became  the  one  holy 
sanctuary  of  Islam  to  which  pilgrimages  were  made 
as  a  rehgious  duty. 

KABBALA. — (Neo-Hebraic  Kabbal,  to  receive.) 
Mysticism  or  theosophy  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  received  by  oral  teaching  through 
select  persons.  Its  origin  is  to  be  found  in  the 
neo-Platonic  school  of  Alexandria  with  which,  as 
the  case  of  Philo  shows,  the  Jews  were  in  close 
contact.  Talmudic  hterature  gives  no  system  of 
mysticism,  but  shows  traces  of  acquaintance  with 
its  doctrines.  It  speaks  of  the  chariot  in  Ezekiel's 
vision  as  a  mystic  doctrine.  It  gives  to  the  name 
of  God  a  mystic  power  by  the  pronunciation  of 
which,  e.g.,  Moses  killed  the  Egyptian  and  speaks 
of  rabbis  who  as  precursors  of  Faust  were  able  by 
their  knowledge  of  mysticism  to  create  animals 
and  men. 

The  first  systematic  attempt  to  present  the 
teachings  of  Jewish  mysticism  is  found  in  Sefer 
Yazirah  (the  Book  of  Creation)  which  gives  the 
neo-Platonic  doctrine  of  the  essential  nature  of 
numbers  and  letters.  The  date  of  its  origin  is  uncer- 
tain, but  the  hypothesis  of  Zunz  that  it  was  composed 
in  the  9th.  century  is  highly  probable  (cf.  Jewish 
Encyc.  XII,  606-608).  The  most  authoritative 
book  of  Jewish  theosophy  is  Zohar  which  may  be 
briefly  characterized  as  a  cabbalistic  Midrash  on  the 
Pentateuch.  It  claims  to  have  been  written  in 
the  2nd.  century  by  R.  Simeon  Ben  Yohay  under  the 
inspiration  of  the  prophet  Ehjah,  but  it  is  the  work 
of  the  Spaniard,  Moses  de  Leon,  an  impostor, 
written  about  1290. 

Mysticism,  combined  with  thaumaturgy  took 
a  strong  hold  on  the  Jewish  people  in  connection 
with  the  Messianic  movement  of  Shabbetai  Zebi 
in  1666,  and  spread  very  rapidly  over  Poland, 
especially  Yolhynia  and  PodoUa,  where  during  the 
first  part  of  the  18th.  century  Hasidism  originated 
which  added  to  the  mystic  theories  the  belief  in 
miraculous  powers  of  divinely  favored  individuals. 
The  founder  of  this  movement  was  Israel  Besht 
(ca.   1695-1760).    This  view  has  still  numerous 


representatives  in  these  regions.  Outside  of  Poland 
mysticism  found  in  Italy  many  followers.  In 
modern  times  Elijah  Benamozegh  of  Leghorn 
(1823-1900)  was  its  ardent  and  gifted  advocate. 

GOTTHARD  DeUTSCH 

KADDISH.— (Hebrew,  "holy.")  In  the  Jewish 
ritual,  a  praise  of  God,  recited  at  different  occasions, 
but  chiefly  by  mourners;  hence  the  term  usually 
refers  to  the  mourners'  kaddish. 

KAFIR. — The  Moslem  name  for  an  vmbeliever. 

KALAM. — The  scholastic  theology  of  Islam. 

KALEYALA. — -An  epic  poem  of  Finland  brought 
together  in  final  form  in  1849  by  Elias  Lonnrot  after 
years  of  laborious  collection  of  hero  stories,  legends, 
folk-songs  and  magic  spells  handed  down  for  cen- 
turies among  the  Finns.  The  present  arrangement 
of  materials  is  entirely  due  to  the  genius  of  the 
collector.  The  poem  contains  cosmological  mj'lhs, 
legends  of  culture  origins,  glimpses  of  rivalry 
between  the  Finns  and  Lapps  and  much  material 
for  the  student  of  magic.  Longfellow's  Hiawatha 
drew  largely  from  the  Kalevala  and  has  the  same 
metrical  form. 

KALI. — A  Hindu  goddess,  wife  of  Shiva.  She 
is  fierce,  malignant,  cruel  and  destructive  in  char- 
acter, perhaps  the  most  terrible  symbol  of  human 
dread  in  the  presence  of  ruthless  nature  to  be  found 
anywhere  in  the  world. 

KIALPA. — The  period  of  time  between  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  and  its  destruction.  The  length 
of  this  period  varies  in  the  different  Hindu  systems 
but  is  invariably  of  vast  extent,  reaching  to  thou- 
sands of  milhons  of  years. 

KAMA. — Desire,  one  of  the  ten  fetters  to  be 
broken  by  the  Buddhist  disciple:  in  Hinduism,  a 
god  of  love. 

KAMI. — A  Japanese  word  used  originally  for 
anything  supremely  beautiful,  lofty,  awe-inspiring 
or  powerful.  See  Mana.  It  is  now  the  general 
term  for  god. 

KANT,  IMMANUEL  (1724-1804).— German 
philosopher  whose  critical  analysis  of  the  character 
and  Umitations  of  knowledge  opened  a  new  era  in 
philosophical  thinking. 

Kant's  entire  hfe  was  spent  in  Konigsberg, 
Prussia,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  writing  and 
lecturing  in  the  university.  Beginning  as  an 
expounder  of  rationaUsm  (q.v.)  he  came  to  see 
the  necessity  for  a  critical  analysis  of  the  processes 
of  human  thinking.  The  results  of  his  inquiry  he 
set  forth  in  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  (1781). 


Karaites 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


244 


He  distinguished  sharply  between  the  form  of 
knowledge  and  the  empirical  content  of  knowledge. 
The  form  is  furnished  by  the  a  priori  structure  of 
the  mind,  and  gives  to  knowledge  its  universal 
character,  so  that  the  reUable  laws  of  science  are 
possible.  Space  and  time  are  the  a  priori  factors 
in  sensation.  Thus  all  particular  experiences  are 
systematized  in  space  of  three  dimensions,  and  in 
a  time  series.  The  percepts  thus  organized  are 
further  systematized  into  concepts  by  the  a  priori 
"categories  of  understanding,"  such  as  causation, 
dependence,  limitation,  etc. 

The  outcome  of  this  analysis  was  to  establish 
the  orderly  character  of  reality-as-we-know-it. 
But  since  our  knowledge  is  limited  to  experience, 
it  is  vain  to  seek  knowledge  of  things-in-themselves. 
Metaphysical  agnosticism,  so  far  as  transcendent 
reality  is  concerned,  is  inevitable.  Theologically 
this  meant  the  abandonment  of  the  traditional 
doctrine  that  God  is  knowable.  Faith  rather  than 
knowledge  must  satisfy  the  religious  man. 

In  a  second  study,  the  Critique  of  Practical 
Reason,  Kant  subjected  our  moral  consciousness  to 
a  similar  analysis.  The  form  of  moral  will  he 
declared  to  be  absolute  obedience  to  an  a  priori 
"categorical  imperative."  In  this  absolute  obedi- 
ence lies  the  essence  of  morality.  Human  acts 
must  be  fitted  into  universal  moral  laws,  of  which 
the  chief  are:  "Act  as  if  the  maxim  of  thy  action 
were  to  become  by  thy  will  the  universal  law  of 
action";  and  "So  act  as  to  treat  humanity,  whether 
in  thine  own  person  or  in  that  of  any  other,  in  every 
case  as  an  end,  and  never  as  a  means  only." 

Kant  further  argued  that  if  this  absolute 
morality  is  rational  (as  it  is  by  hypothesis)  we 
must  believe  in  real  human  freedom,  in  God  as  the 
cosmic  power  able  to  make  virtue  lead  ultimately 
to  happiness,  and  in  immortality  as  an  opportunity 
to  pass  beyond  the  moral  imperfections  of  this 
life.  In  his  treatise,  Religion  within  the  Ldmits 
of  Mere  Reason  he  set  forth  Christianity  as  a  rational 
devotion  to  the  moral  good. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

KARAITES. — (Hebrew  Karaim  or  Bene  Mikra 
"son  of  the  Bible".)  The  only  Jewish  sect  in 
existence,  founded  by  Anan  ben  David  in  Baby- 
lonia about  750  as  a  protest  against  rabbinism  on 
the  basis  of  the  principle  that  the  Bible  alone 
possesses  authority  for  the  Jews.  While  in 
many  respects  repeating  the  views  of  the  Sadducees, 
there  is  no  proof  for  the  assumption  that  this 
latter  sect  continued  as  a  distinct  element  within 
Judaism  after  the  2nd.  century.  The  movement 
of  Ajian  arose  in  opposition  to  the  legal  hair-splitting 
and  the  homiletic  eccentricities  found  in  the  Talmud 
and  bUndly  accepted  by  the  rabbinic  schools 
flourishing  in  Mesopotamia  from  the  3rd.  to  the 
11th.  centuries.  The  movement  spread  rapidly 
over  Babylonia,  Persia,  Palestine  and  Eg3T>t,  and 
even  gained  a  foothold  in  Spain.  Its  greatest 
development  was  attained  in  the  12th.  century. 
There  are  at  present  about  12,000  Karaites  in  the 
world,  most  of  whom  live  in  southern  Russia, 
especially  in  the  Crimea,  though  congregations  are 
found  in  Lithuania,  Galicia,  Egypt,  and  Constanti- 
nople. Their  literature  is  a  monotonous  catalog 
of  textbooks  of  law,  comnjentaries,  and  a  few 
apologetic  and  hturgical  works,  very  much  depend- 
ent on  the  rabbinic  literature.  Their  strict  inter- 
pretation of  the  Mosaic  law  which,  among  other 
regulations,  prohibits  the  keeping  of  light  and 
fire  in  their  houses  on  the  Sabbath,  their  increasing 
dispersion  into  very  small  communities,  their 
aloofness  from  the  rabbinitic  Jews  who  largely 
reciprocate  this  feeUng  by  the  prohibition  of  inter- 
marriage, seems  to  forbode  their  speedy  disappear- 
ance. GOTTHARD  DeUTSCH 


KARENS. — One  of  the  chief  races,  supposedly 
Chinese  in  origin,  composed  of  15  tribes,  which 
inhabit  the  Pegu  Yoma  hills  of  Burma.  About 
three-fourths  of  a  million  are  in  British  terri- 
tory while  others  inhabit  China.  Their  reUgion 
was  originally  animistic,  and  their  mythology 
contained  many  traditions  strikingly  parallel 
to  Biblical  stories,  as  a  result  of  which  the  white 
Karens  have  responded  heartily  to  missionary 
work.  About  100,000  or  two  thirds  of  the  Chris- 
tian population  of  Burma  are  Karens.     See  Burma. 

KARMA. — A  Sanskrit  word  meaning  act. 
Since  every  act  sets  in  motion  certain  forces, 
Karma  (as  a  rigorous  application  of  the  law  of 
cause  and  effect  to  the  moral  sphere)  came  to  mean 
the  result  of  these  forces,  the  sum  total  of  a  man's 
acts,  as  determining  his  future  life.  See  Trans- 
migration. This  does  not  necessarily  imply  an 
absolute  fatahsm.  "Fate  can  no  more  go  forward 
without  human  effort  than  a  chariot  can  move  on 
one  wheel."  As  the  past  has  determined  the 
present,  so  the  present  helps  determine  the  future. 
The  doctrine  miUtates  against  a  theory  of  the 
forgiveness  of  sins.  W.  E.  Clark 

KARMA-MARGA.— The  Hindu  way  of  salva- 
tion by  works  which  consisted  of  sacrifice,  study  of 
the  scriptures,  austerities,  pilgrimages,  and  faithful 
performance  of  duty.  It  is  the  way  of  the  common 
people  who  have  not  attained  to  the  higher  salva- 
tion hy  jndna-mdrga  or  bhakti-marga  (qq.v.). 

KARMATIANS.^ee  IsMA'iiJa. 

KEBLE,  JOHN  (1792-1866).— English  poet 
and  divine;  renowned  as  the  author  of  the  Chris- 
tian Year;  the  author  of  four  of  the  pamphlets 
connected  with  the  Oxford  Movement  (q.v.). 

KEMPIS,  THOMAS  A  (1380-1471).— Thomas 
Hemerken  born  in  Kempen,  educated  in  the 
Deventer  School,  entered  the  convent  of  Mount 
St.  Agnes  at  ZwoUe  (1399)  where  he  became  sub- 
prior  (1425).  He  wrote  chronicles  of  his  convent, 
lives  of'Groot  and  others  (English  by  J.  P.  Arthur, 
London,  1905)  but  has  permanent  fame  as  author  of 
The  Imitation  of  Christ,  a  work  in  almost  as  many 
editions  as  the  Bible.  F.  A.  Christie 

KENOSIS.— (Greek,  "emptying.")  The  re- 
nunciation by  Christ  of  the  divine  mode  of  being 
when  he  became  incarnate  in  Jesus;  an  expression 
used  by  Paul  in  Phil.  2 : 8,  and  employed  by  certain 
theologians  in  modem  Protestantism.    See  Chris- 

TOLOGY. 

KESHUB  CHUNDER  SEN  (1838-1884).— 
Indian  reUgious  reformer  and  leader  of  the  Brahma 
Samaj  (q.v.).  His  desire  for  reform  led  to  a  breach 
in  the  Brahma  Samaj,  he  becoming  the  leader  of  the 
"Brahma  Samaj  of  India,"  a  sect  holding  to  high 
ethical  and  mystical  principles  and  finding  much  in 
common  with  Unitarianism. 

KESWICK  CONFERENCE.— An  annual  sum- 
mer conference  held  in  Keswick,  England,  since  1875 
for  the  promotion  of  religious  devotion.  It  is  unde- 
nominational, though  the  evangelical  section  of  the 
Anglican  church  is  largely  represented.  It  has 
promoted  a  somewhat  intense  ideal  of  holiness,  and 
an  interest  in  missions. 

KETUBAH. — (Hebrew:  "Jewish  marriage  con- 
tract.") The  old  style  ketubah,  still  used  by  ortho- 
dox Jews,  states  the  amount  of  dowry  and  the 
amount  of  settlement  made  by  the  groom  upou  the 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Kingdom  of  God 


bride.  Reform  Jews  use  a  simple  marriage  certifi- 
cate in  place  of  the  ketubah. 

KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE.— The  authority 
claimed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  administer 
discipline,  and  especially  that  power  claimed  for 
the  popes,  regarded  as  tJhe  spiritual  successors  of  St. 
Peter,  to  grant  or  refuse  absolution  (q.v.)  from  sins, 
on  the  basis  of  the  words  of  Jesus  to  Peter.  Cf. 
Matt.  16:19. 

KHALIF  (or  CALIPH).— Arab.  KMlifa,  succes- 
sor or  representative;  the  successor  to  or  representa- 
tive of  Mohammed  as  the  pohtical  and  reUgious 
leader  of  Mohammedanism.  In  the  Koran  the  title 
is  ascribed  to  Adam  and  David  as  representatives 
of  God.  In  Islamic  history  it  is  the  title  of  (1)  Abu 
Bekr,  'Umar,  'Uthman  and  'Ali — called  the  four 
"perfect"  Khahfs;  (2)  Thirteen  Khahfs  of  the 
Umayyad  dynasty;  (3)  Thirty-seven  Khalifs  of  the 
'  Abbasid  dynasty,  whose  reign  ended  with  the  Turk- 
ish conquest  in  1258.  Titular  Khahfs  in  Egypt 
held  the  office  from  1258  till  1517  when  Sehm  I 
captured  the  last  one,  from  which  time  the  title  has 
been  claimed  by  the  sultans  of  Tiirkey. 

KHARIJITES.— An  Arabic  Muslim  sect,  which 
opposed  the  Shi'  ites  (q.v.)  especially  with  reference 
to  the  Khaliphate,  claiming  it  to  be  an  office  filled 
by  election  from  any  Arabic  Mushm  family.  See 
Mohammedanism, 

KHNUM. — An  Egyptian  creator  god  who 
shaped  the  cosmic  egg  and,  like  a  potter,  moulded 
man  from  clay.     He  wears  a  ram's  head. 

KIBLA. — ^The  Moslem  term  for  the  place  toward 
which  a  worshiper  turns  his  face  in  prayer.  In 
the  case  of  Islam  it  is  Mecca. 

KIDDUSH.— (Hebrew,  "sanctification.")  Jew- 
ish ceremony  proclaiming  the  sanctity  of  a  Sabbath 
or  holy  day  consisting  of  a  blessing  over  a  cup  of 
wine  (or  other  food)  and  the  blessing  of  the  day  itself. 

KIDDUSH  HASHEM  and  HILLUL  HASHEM. 

— (Hebrew:  "sanctification  of  God's  name"  and 
"desecration  of  God's  name.")  Terms  used  by  the 
Jews  to  indicate  their  virtuous  and  wicked  acts 
respectively,  in  that  Jewish  conduct  is  thought  of  as 
reflecting  glory  to  God  in  proportion  to  its  virtue 

KINDNESS.— The  quality  of  goodwill  or 
tenderness  expressed  in  behavior  of  a  thoughtful, 
merciful,  generous  or  friendly  type.  Many  psy- 
chologists believe  the  tender  emotion  to  be  instinc- 
tive as,  e.g.,  the  kindness  of  a  savage  to  his  child. 
The  higher  rehgions,  especially  Christianity,  stress 
kindness  as  necessary  to  ethical  Uving  as  a  member 
of  the  social  group,  and  in  harmony  with  the 
character  and  will  of  God. 

KINGDOM  OF  GOD.— The  reign  of  God  over 
an  ideal  social  order  conceived  of  both  temporally 
and  transcendentally. 

The  term  is  characteristic  of  New  Testament 
Christianity  but  its  content  was  in  large  measure 
furnished  by  the  Hebrew  state  and  the  messianic 
expectations  of  the  Jews.  Jesus  gave  the  term  new 
moral  elements  but  did  not  altogether  abandon 
contemporary  concepts.  Its  synonym,  the  King- 
dom of  Heaven  (or  of  the  Heavens),  found  only  in 
Matthew  does  not  differ  from  it  radically,  but  by 
the  use  of  a  cosmological  conception  emphasizes  its 
super-earthly  character. 

Certain  exegetical  questions  present  themselves: 
(1)  Does  the  term  indicate  God's  authority  or  domain: 


i.e.,  the  total  pohtical  (king,  subjects,  territory,  laws, 
etc.)  elements  of  kingship?  (2)  Does  it  mean 
heaven  ?  (3)  Is  it  eschatological  or  social  ?  (4)  Does 
it  conae  completely  by  gift  of  God  or  by  social 
evo.lution?  The  answers  to  these  questions  can 
best  be  reached  by  a  study  of  the  group  of  ideas 
centering  about  the  conception  as  held  by  the 
Jews  rather  than  by  philology  or  lexicography. 

1.  The  divine  Kingdom  in  Hebrew  thought  is 
obviously  the  nation  of  Israel.  Yahweh  was  com- 
monly presented  by  the  prophets  in  monarchical 
analogies.  Thus,  as  a  king  he  directed  the  affairs 
of  his  chosen  people,  prescribing  national  policies  and 
determining  the  national  fate.  The  Hebrew  king 
was  His  appointee  and  servant.  Disloyalty  on  the 
part  of  nation  or  monarch  brought  divine  punish- 
ment. _  The  ultimate  purpose  of  His  rule  was  the 
establishment  of  a  righteous  nation  and  the  defeat 
of  its  enemies.  In  course  of  time  the  kingship  of 
Yahweh  was  regarded  as  extended  over  all  the 
nations,  but  his  relation  to  Israel  alone  was  that  of 
a  Father.  Involved  in  this  sovereignty  there  was 
the  power  to  act  as  supreme  judge.  At  the  awful 
Day  of  Yahweh  all  sinners,  national  as  well  as 
individual,  would  be  condemned  to  punishment. 

2.  In  Jewish  literalure  this  idea  of  a  divine 
King  and  Kingdom  (although  the  term  Kingdom  of 
God  is  never  used  except  in  a  few  instances)  expanded 
into  a  messianic  program.  A  universal  divine 
rule  was  expected  but  the  domain  of  Yahweh  was  to 
be  the  Jewish  people.  There  was  also  among  the 
apocalyptists  a  belief  in  a  transcendental  state 
already  existing  in  the  heavens  which  was  to  be 
some  day  revealed  to  men.  The  two  concepts 
were  often  joined  in  the  belief  either  that  the  heav- 
enly kingdom  would  be  set  up  in  the  earth  with 
Jerusalem  as  its  capital  or  that  the  Jewish  people 
would  be  established  by  divine  power  and  angehc 
assistance  as  supreme  over  all  other  kingdoms. 
Probably  the  apocalyptic  writers  never  sharply 
distinguished  between  the  two  shades  of  meaning. 
However  portrayed  the  Kingdom  was  to  be  estab- 
lished by  God  through  his  Messiah  (q.v.)  and  to 
it  all  peoples  would  be  subject.  The  law  of  the 
new  kingdom  would  be  that  of  Yahweh,  its  sub- 
jects would  be  Jews  and  proselytes,  including  the 
righteous  dead  who  would  be  raised  from  Sheol 
(and  in  some  cases  angels  as  well),  and  its  King 
would  be  the  Messiah.  To  these  conceptions  were 
added  the  expectation  of  the  passage  from  "this 
age"  to  the  "coming  age."  See  Eschatolggy. 
At  that  time  the  judgment  would  be  estabhshed 
(an  expansion  of  the  expectation  of  the  Day  of 
Yahweh)  by  the  Mes.siah,  when  its  members  would 
be  given  full  entrance  into  the  Kingdom  of  God 
and  its  enemies,  both  human  and  super-human, 
would  be  thrown  into  the  abyss  of  fire.  The  diffi- 
culties involved  in  a  consistent  unification  of  these, 
pohtical  and  transcendental  elements  seems  not  to 
have  been  felt.  And  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  apocalyptists  were  never  keenly  sensitive  to 
the  passing  of  their  imagination  from  earth  to 
heaven,  and  from  historical  personages  to  heavenly 
portents  and  figures.  In  the  more  revolutionary 
groups  like  the  Zealots  the  divine  kingdom  was  not 
eschatological  but  the  Jewish  nation  made  supreme 
by  God's  assistance  in  war. 

From  this  point  of  view  it  is  easy  to  appreciate 
the  current  Jewish  behef  that  the  Kingdom  of 
Satan  stood  over  against  the  Kingdom  of  God  as 
the  source  of  the  suffering  and  disaster  which  had 
come  upon  the  Jewish  nation.  Only  with  its 
complete  destruction  would  the  heavenly  kingdom 
and  the  new  Age  be  estabhshed. 

3.  The  Kingdom  of  God  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
is  obviously"  not  political  and  accords  with  the 
Pharisaic  behef  in  being  eschatological  rather  than 


Kingdom  of  God 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


246 


present  (although  some  scholars  find  a  present 
kingdom  in  Luke  17:20-22  and  a  few  other  pas- 
sages). But  it  is  easy  to  overestimate  the  impor- 
tance of  eschatological  elements  in  his  teaching 
unless  due  allowance  is  made  for  the  results  of 
criticism.  When  the  earliest  forms  of  his  teaching 
are  found  by  the  simple  process  of  comparing  the 
parallels  in  the  synoptic  gospels,  it  will  appear  that 
Jesus  (a)  presents  God  as  a  Father  rather  than  as  a 
King;  (6)  uses  the  term  Kingdom  of  God  as  a  con- 
ventional symbol  of  the  supreme  good  to  be  enjoyed 
by  humanity;  (c)  lays  the  chief  emphasis  upon  the 
moral  conditions  of  sharing  in  the  joys  of  a  society 
in  which  God  is  supreme  and  love  is  the  dominating 
characteristic;  and  (d)  represents  it  as  opposed  to 
and  by  the  Kingdom  of  Satan,  the  source  of  evil. 
In  such  a  comparison  most  of  the  details  of  the 
current  eschatology  disappear  from  Jesus'  sayings 
and  those  that  remain  are  secondary  to  his  moral 
and  religious  teachings.  Paradoxical  as  it  may 
seem,  not  the  Kingdom  of  God  is  central  in  his 
thought,  but  the  God-like  character  demanded  of 
those  who  seek  it  as  the  supreme  good.  The  term 
may  thus  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  elements  of 
current  belief  which,  after  reconceiving,  Jesus 
utilized  as  his  pedagogical  apparatus. 

The  really  controlling  analogy  in  the  thought  of 
Jesus  is  that  of  a  family  composed  of  those  who  pos- 
sess moral  likeness  to  the  Father  in  heaven.  The 
Kingdom  of  God  in  his  teaching  may  be  defined  as 
that  social  order  already  existing  in  heaven  (but  to 
come  to  men)  in  which  the  relation  of  God  to  its 
subjects  is  that  of  Father  and  the  relation  of  its 
subjects  to  each  other  is  consequently  that  of 
brothers.  Love  or  brotherliness  is  an  indispensable 
condition  of  membership  in  it,  and  is  to  characterize 
all  those  who  seek  to  join  it  and  share  in  its  joys. 

How  far  Jesus  taught  that  its  coming  would 
be  catastrophic  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  he  regarded  its  appearance  as 
dependent  upon  God's  action.  That  is  to  say, 
it  was  an  element  of  Jesus'  religious  world  view 
rather  than  a  strictly  sociological  ideal. 

As  an  element  in  modern  hopes  his  use  of  the 
term  is  subject  to  the  influence  of  modern  views  of 
God  and  His  relations  to  human  history,  and  should 
not  be  so  used  as  to  obscure  the  central  religious 
and  moral  teachings  which  it  connoted. 

4.  The  apostolic  thought  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God,  though  not  often  expressed  explicitly,  was 
closely  akin  to  the  views  of  contemporary  Judaism. 
It  was  the  coming  reign  of  Christ  over  his  people  and 
was  to  be  estabUshed  in  accord  with  the  Jewish 
eschatological  hope.  Its  members,  however,  were 
to  be  all  believers  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles.  It 
was  something  to  be  hoped  for  but  not  to  be  de- 
scribed. It  existed  already  in  heaven,  would 
descend  to  earth  (or  at  least  to  the  air)  where  those 
who  had  already  accepted  Jesus  as  the  Messiah 
would  join  it  after  having  been  given  bodies  of  the 
resurrection.  Paul  always  refers  to  it  as  a  con- 
crete reality  though  not  yet  apparent  to  the  physical 
senses,  but  his  chief  interest  is  in  the  conditions 
governing  membership  in  it  (e.g.,  faith,  gift  of  the 
Spirit,  etc.). 

5.  In  the  early  church,  the  Kingdom  of  God 
gradually  loses  its  earlier  prominence  and  becomes 
heaven  conceived  of  more  after  the  Greek  fashion. 
Augustine,  however,  as  he  contemplates  the 
miseries  oi  a  decadent  empire,  makes  it  the  key  to  a 
philosophy  of  history.  In  his  City  of  God  he  sets 
forth  the  two  rival  kingdoms  of  God  and  Satan,  and 
sees  in  history  the  record  of  their  struggle.  The 
Kingdom  of  God  is  more  or  less  closely  identified 
with  the  church  whose  development  is  traced  from 
the  earUest  stages  of  bibhcal  history  to  its  triumph 
in  heaven. 


6.  In  modem  thought  the  Kingdom  of  God  has 
been  variously  identified  with  the  church,  a 
redeemed  society,  and  a  heavenly  social  order 
similar  to  that  of  the  N.T.  Christians.  It  has 
served  of  late  years  as  the  incentive  to  the  social 
apphcation  of  the  Gospel  (see  Social  Gospel)  on 
the  part  both  of  those  who  regard  it  from  the  ex- 
clusively social  point  of  view  and  of  many  of  those  who 
find  in  its  usage  in  the  N.T.  wholly  eschatological 
hope.  In  both  cases  it  represents  the  religious 
view  of  history  as  the  sphere  of  divine  influence. 
For  whether  God  be  viewed  as  strictly  transcendent 
or  as  immanent  the  goal  of  social  evolution  is  seen 
to  be  the  fulfillment  of  His  will  in  the  estabhshment, 
with  His  aid,  of  an  ideal  social  order  on  earth  in 
which  justice  and  fraternity  shall  reign,  and  of  a 
perfect  social  order  in  the  spiritual  world  in  which 
those  who  have  the  mind  of  Christ  shall  reahze  the 
ideals  for  which  they  have  striven  in  their  earthly 
Ufe.  Shailer  Mathews 

KINGDOM  OF  HEAVEN  (or  OF  THE  HEAV- 
ENS).— See  Kingdom  of  God. 

KINGS,  DIVINE  RIGHT  OF.— The  doctrine 
that  a  king  holds  his  office  by  divine  appointment 
and  is  therefore  not  responsible  to  his  subjects. 
Constitutional  government  is  therefore  regarded 
as  dangerous  to  king  and  religion  in  so  far  as  it  is 
not  a  concession  on  the  part  of  the  king.  Such  a 
view  maintains  much  the  same  estimate  of  royal 
powers  as  belonged  to  ancient  states  where  the 
king  was  regarded  as  established  by  some  god  if 
indeed  not  a  god  himself.  See  Emperor  Worship. 
The  history  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy  contained  in 
the  Bible  laid  a  theological  basis  for  divine  rights 
of  a  royal  house,  but  the  Stuarts  in  England  based 
their  claims  to  such  rights  largely  upon  the  argu- 
ments of  Sir  Robert  Filmer  who  made  government 
a  patriarchal  despotism  established  by  God. 
Coronation  rituals  doubtless  served  to  preserve  the 
beUef  in  the  divine  origin  of  royal  power.  Absolut- 
ism whether  theoretically  justified  or  practically 
exercised  has  generally  grounded  itself  in  divine 
sanctions.    See  Divine  Right. 

Shailer  Mathews 

KINGSLEY,  CHARLES  (1819-1875).— EngUsh 
divine,  poet,  novehst  and  teacher;  a  man  of  broad 
liberal  tendencies,  sympathetic  with  Christian 
socialism,  and  opposed  to  Oxford  Tractarianism; 
a  novelist  whose  Hypatia  and  Westward  Ho  are 
among  the  best  of  English  prose  writings;  a  poet 
whose  Saint's  Tragedy  is  his  best  known  contri- 
bution to  English  verse. 

KINSHIP.— See  Family. 

KISMET. — A  word  usually  associated  in  the 
western  mind  with  the  fatalism  of  Islam.  It  means 
fate  or  what  is  decreed  by  fate. 

KNEELING. — Kneeling  is  a  normal  reaction 
stimulated  by  feehngs  of  dependence  and  supplica- 
tion. Along  with  bowing  and  prostration  it  is 
observable  among  primitive  peoples  as  a  mark  of 
deference  to  higher  rank,  or  before  the  deity  in  the 
ceremonial.  It  is  a  ceremonial  posture  among  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  Chinese,  Hindus,  Moslems,  and 
Jews.  Early  in  Christian  history  kneehng  became 
the  customary  posture  in  private  prayer,  especially 
when  expressing  penitence.  In  the  Roman,  Greek, 
AngUcan  and  Lutheran  churches  kneehng  is  pre- 
scribed in  certain  parts  of  the  hturgy  and  in  cele- 
brating the  Eucharist. 

KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS.— An  Order  of 
Roman  Cathohc  Men,  organized  in  1882  for  fraternal 


247 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Korea,  Religions  of 


and  beneficiary  purposes.  The  membership  of 
about  400,000  is  mainly  confined  to  the  North 
American  Continent.  The  order  is  a  zealous  pro- 
moter of  the  interests  of  Catholicism. 

KNOTS,  RELIGIOUS  USE  OF— The  custom 
of  attaching  magical  and  religious  significance  to 
the  knot  and  the  ceremonies  of  tying  and  untying 
is  widespread.  The  usual  significance  of  the  knot 
is  a  symbol  for  binding  or  inhibiting.  It  is  used  in 
the  initiation  ceremonies  of  certain  religions,  and  as 
a  source  of  consolation,  as  in  binding  sacred  texts, 
charms  or  amulets  to  the  body.  Its  use  as  a 
symbol  of  conjugal  union  is  especially  ancient  and 
far-reaching.  It  is  also  connected  with  various  rites 
and  ceremonies,  as  those  of  childbirth,  spells  to  over- 
come sickness,  and  counter-magic  to  remove  a  tabu. 
Illustrations  are  obtainable  from  every  continent. 

KNOW  NOTHINGISM,  KNOW  NOTHING 
PARTY. — The  name  given  to  the  pohcy  of  a  political 
party  existent  in  the  U.S.A.,  _  1850-1860,  which 
tried  to  promote  pure  Americanism  by  using  secret 
methods  to  proscribe  naturahzed  citizens  and  to 
check  the  poUtical  moves  of  the  Roman  church; 
so-called  from  the  agreement  of  members  to  profess 
ignorance  when  questioned.  The  opposition  was 
especially  against  state  aid  to  CathoUc  Schools  and 
papal  interference  in  American  pohtics. 

KNOX,  JOHN  (ca.  1514-1572).— Scottish  Re- 
former. He  entered  the  priesthood  before  1540; 
but  until  1545  he  was  not  a  pubhc  supporter  of  the 
Reformation.  In  1546  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  Reform  ministry  at  St.  Andrew's,  but  when  the 
French  fleet  captured  the  Castle,  he  was  made  to 
work  on  the  galleys  for  18  months.  In  1549  he 
returned  to  the  ministry  in  England  where  (1549- 
1554)  he  did  much  to  lay  the  foundations  of  English 
Puritanism.  From  1554-1559  he  was  an  exile  on 
the  continent,  ministering  to  fellow-exiles.  He 
visited  Scotland,  1555-1556,  and  finally  returned  in 
1559  when  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  became  an 
accomplished  fact.  His  stimulating  preaching 
and  personal  zeal  made  him  an  indomitable  leader. 
He  with  five  others  composed  the  Scotch  Confession, 
the  Calvinistic  creed  of  the  Scottish  church  before 
the  Westminster  confession. 

KOBOLD. — In  Teutonic  folk-lore,  a  sprite  of 
the  earth,  dwelling  in  caves,  mines,  etc.,  in  contrast 
with  water-sprites  (undine),  air-sprites  (sylph)  and 
fire-sprites  (salamander). 

KOJIKI.— The  "Record  of  Ancient  Events,"  a 
native  Japanese  collection  of  the  earliest  source 
material  of  the  original  religion,  Shinto,  made  in 

712  A.D. 

KOL  NID RE.— (Hebrew,  "all  vows.")  In 
Jewish  liturgy,  a  selection  from  the  service  of  the 
eve  of  Atonement  Day,  declaring  that  all  oaths, 
which  may  be  made  during  the  year  (and  in  which 
no  other  person  is  concerned)  shall  be  null,  if  not 
performed.  The  kol  nidre  is  most  famous  because 
of  the  soulful  melodies  that  have  adorned  it. 

KORAN. — See  Sacred  Literatures. 

KOREA,  RELIGIONS  OF,  AND  MISSIONS 

TO. — The  name  means  Morning  Splendor.  Chosen. 
The  land  is  a  peninsula  in  eastern  Asia,  and  is  now 
the  continental  portion  of  the  Japanese  Empire. 
Until  1912  it  had  a  poUtical  existence  and  a  civiliza- 
tion distinctly  its  own.  Historically  it  is  the  Unk 
between  the  mainland  and  Japan  in  culture  and  in 
mamfold  relations.    In  structure  and  vocabulary 


Korean  and  Japanese  are  more  closely  alhed  than 
any  other  two  tongues  of  the  Far  East.  Ethno- 
logically  the  two  peoples  are  also  more  like  each 
other  than  either  is  like  the  Chinese. 

I.  History.— -The  earliest  annals  show  that  there 
were  in  the  peninsula  among  the  many  tribes  of 
Aryan  and  Tartar  origin  three  groups  which  formed 
states  in  the  era  of  the  Three  Han,  or  Kingdoms. 
In  time,  after  much  local  war  and  economic  struggle, 
these  became  united  under  one;  a  favorite  native 
name  of  Korea  (dominion  of  Ko,  the  legendary 
founder)  even  yet  being  Dai  Han,  or  the  great 
state.  The  historic  eras  are:  (1)  Old  Chosen,  1122 
B.C.  to  9  A.D.;  (2)  The  Three  Kingdoms,  9  to 
960  A.D.;  (3)  Korai  (Korea)  960-1392  a.d.: 
(4)  Cho-sen,  1392-1912. 

Under  the  system  of  centralized  monarchy 
based  on  the  Chinese  model,  the  Idngdom's  area 
was  divided  into  eight  provinces,  which  remained 
in  force  until  in  1912,  under  Japanese  administration, 
the  country  was  divided  into  thirteen  provinces. 
In  1917,  in  round  numbers  the  area  includes  82,000 
square  miles,  with  4,336  villages  and  a  native 
population  of  15,000,000  souls,  besides  250,000 
Japanese  and  17,000  foreigners.  By  the  year  1392, 
Buddhism,  introduced  in  the  4th.  century,  after  a 
thousand  years  of  brilUant  success,  through  its 
general  prevalence,  great  wealth  and  priestly 
influence  at  Court,  had  become  a  pohtical  power,  and 
was  too  often  associated  not  only  with  luxury  but 
with  immortahty  and  corruption.  On  the  fall 
of  the  Mongols  and  the  rise  of  the  Ming,  or  native 
Chinese  dynasty,  which  meant — as  so  many  revolu- 
tions or  dynastic  changes  in  China  have  meant — 
a  re-instatement  of  Confucianism,  a  revolution  took 
place  in  Korea.  The  Buddhist  party  was  over- 
come, and  Confucianism  became  the  cult  of  the 
scholars,  educated  men  and  gentlemen  generally. 
The  people  were  left  as  sheep  without  a  shepherd. 
Buddhism  sank  into  degraded  forms  under  the 
recrudescence  of  the  old  animistic  notions  and 
beast  worship  increased. 

II.  Religion.— The  mental  and  spiritual  history 
of  the  Koreans  is  marked  by  the  animism  and 
shamanism  of  most  early  forms  of  religion.  It  is 
probable  that  the  rudiments  of  Confucian  culture 
came  in  some  time  before  Buddhism.  Granite 
being  plentiful  and  the  people  expert  in  chisel-craft, 
there  still  exist  scores  of  stone  colossi,  usually  in 
pairs,  representing  the  heavenly  and  earthly,  or 
male  and  female,  principles  of  nature,  on  which  all 
Chinese  philosophy  is  founded.  Not  a  few  of  these 
monuments  of  early  culture  are  found  to-day  in  the 
midst  of  forests,  the  surviving  monuments  left 
after  Buddhist  monasteries  and  nunneries  have 
passed  away.  Chinese  philosophy  in  Korea  had 
its  evolution,  not  supremely  in  filial  piety  as  in 
China  nor  in  loyalty  as  in  Japan,  but  mainly  along 
the  line  of  sociology.  The  thinking  of  the  Korean 
is  largely  influenced  and  conditioned  by  this  fact. 
Korean  Buddhism  seems  not  to  have  passed  through 
those  doctrinal  evolutions  which  so  distinguish  the 
Japanese  from  other  varieties. 

III.  Missions. — No  seeds  of  Christianity  are 
known  to  have  been  planted  by  any  of  those  Chris- 
tian soldiers  in  Hideyoshi's  invasion  in  1492-97, 
who  are  pupils  of  the  Iberian  Jesuits,  and  yet  the 
first  propagating  agents  of  Christianity  were  Roman 
Catholics.  Confucianism  had  reached  the  point 
of  bigotry  and  oppression,  when,  in  1777,  a  number 
of  students  received  from  Peking  a  collection  of 
books  on  the  Christian  religion  given  by  the  Jesuit 
missionaries.  By  the  study  of  these  they  were 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  had  Chinese  priests 
among  them  until  1836,  when  the  first  French 
missionarjr  entered  Korea  in  disguise.  From 
Mukden   in   China,   Rev.   Joha   Ross,   a  Scotch 


Korean  Buddhism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


248 


missionary  translated  the  New  Testament,  wrote 
tracts  in  Korean,  and  baptized  the  first  Protestant 
beUevers.  After  the  American  treaty,  made  by 
Commodore  Shufeldt  in  1883,  came  into  force, 
there  broke  out  in  the  capital  warfare  between  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  legation  guards.  The 
appearance  of  Dr.  H.  N.  Allen,  medical  missionary 
of  the  American  Methodist  Church  gave  opportunity 
to  show  the  value  of  modern  surgery  and  the  healing 
art,  which  paved  the  way  for  the  work  of  the  mis- 
sionaries who  now  came  into  the  country  in  large 
numbers,  in  1917  about  300.  A  survey  of  the  country 
for  its  strategic  points,  the  mastery  of  the  language, 
evangelistic  work,  and  the  propagation  of  Christian- 
ity, according  to  its  modern  forms,  were  quickly  begun 
and  vigorously  carried  on,  and  soon  schools,  churches, 
hospitals,  improved  homes  and  hygiene  began  to 
re-create  Korean  hfe.  Happily  the  missionaries 
found  on  their  arrival,  in  the  people's  writing,  a 
means  of  reaching  the  masses.  With  this  facile 
instrument  at  hand,  the  study  of  the  Bible  has 
become  almost  a  national  habit.  The  en-mun 
or  native  script  is  based  on  a  purely  phonetic 
alphabet,  invented  in  the  14th.  century  by  the 
Korean  statesman  and  formed  according  to  the 
organs  of  speech.  Almost  perfect  in  theory,  it  is 
very  easily  learned.  Self-support  and  a  strong 
spirit  of  brotherhood  unite  the  native  Christians 
and  the  feehng  between  the  Christian  Japanese 
and  Korean  is  strong  and  fruitful  of  good  results. 
Korea  coming  late  under  modern  Christian 
influences  now  enjoys  them  in  manifold  forms, 
educational,  evangelical,  theological,  industrial, 
eleemosenary,  medical,  etc.,  within  and  without  the 
churches,  while  the  civilizing  forces  and  influences 
introduced  by  the  Japanese,  such  as  banks,  good 
roads,  public  hygiene,  industries,  education,  develop- 
rnent  of  resources,  facility  of  post  and  communica- 
tion, tend,  despite  some  uncongenial  regulative 
ideas  and  measures  in  public  instruction,  to  the 
uplift  of  the  people  and  faciUtation  of  missionary 
labors.  Probably,  besides  one  hundred  thousand 
church  members,  a  half  milhon  Koreans  are  imder 
the  influence  of  Christian  ideals.  The  principal 
societies  at  work,  besides  the  Roman  Catholic 
are  the  American  Presb3^erians  (North  and  South), 
Methodist  Episcopal  (North  and  South),  and 
Canadian  and  AustraHan,  who  in  comity  district 
the  country  without  inter  lapping,  the  great  denomi- 
nations uniting  in  theological  instruction  and  all  in 
a  Christian  university. 

William  Elliot  Griffis 

KOREAN  BUDDHISM.— The  course  of  Bud- 
dhism in  Korea  may  be  represented  by  a  line  steadily 
rising  from  372  to  935  a.d.,  through  the  "Three 
Kingdom"  Age,  a  plateau  during  the  Golden  Age 
of  the  Koryu  Dynasty  935-1392,  and  a  steady  fall 
throughout  the  Yi  Dynasty,  1392  to  today. 

Buddhism  first  came  to  Kogoryu,  the  northern- 
most of  the  "Three  Kingdoms,"  through  Soonto,  a 
Chinese  priest,  in  372  a.d.;  to  Paikohei,  the  S.  W. 
Kingdom,  through  Marananda,  an  Indian,  in  384; 
and  to  Silla,  the  S.  E.  Kingdom  through  Meukhoja, 
a  black  man,  in  424.  From  the  beginning,  it  was 
under  royal  patronage  in  all  three  kingdoms.  Its 
only  real  opponent  was  Confucianism.  In  545, 
Paikchei  sent  the  first  missionaries  to  take  the 
Law  to  Japan,  and  Silla  joined  in  that  propaganda 
later. 

Through  the  "Three  Kingdom"  Period,  hundreds 
of  pagodas  and  monasteries  were  built  with  public 
funds;  during  the  Koryir  time,  this  number  was 
changed  to  thousands,  and  all  of  the  temples  were 
largely  maintained  from  the  King's  treasury. 
Kings  and  queens  took  semirpriestly  vows  and 
received  the  arm-burning  seal.  At  one  time  during 
the  Koryu  Age,  every  family  having  four  sons  was 


compelled  to  devote  one  to  the  priesthood  and 
later  this  was  made  one  in  three.  Many  royal 
princes  became  monks  and  several  kings  and 
queens  abdicated  and  entered  the  monasteries. 

When  the  Yi  Dynasty  was  founded  in  1392,  the 
capital  was  purposely  moved  from  priest-ridden 
Songdo,  and  all  priests  and  nuns  were  forbidden 
on  pain  of  death  from  entering  the  new  capital. 
In  1392,  there  were  thirteen  Buddhist  sects.  In 
1405,  the  King  commanded  that  they  combine 
to  make  but  seven,  and,  in  1422,  again  ordered  that 
these  seven  combine  into  but  two,  which  are  the 
two  nominally  existing  today — the  "Sun"  or  Con- 
templative Sect  and  the  "Kyo"  or  Practical. 

There  were  a  few  times  of  relative  prosperity  for 
the  doctrine  even  under  the  Yi  Dynasty,  but,  in 
general,  their  sun  has  been  in  a  steady  decline.  Re- 
peatedly monastery  lands  and  property  have  been 
confiscated  by  the  King  and  restrictions  put  upon 
the  priests.  Today  there  are  nominally  1417  but 
actually  only  917  monasteries  in  operation,  with 
nominally  6692  priests  and  1274  nuns  and  131,887 
"adherents,"  but  large  numbers  of  the  priests 
pursue  ordinary  avocations  and  retain  only  a 
nominal  connection  with  the  temples  and,  as  there 
are  no  stated  services,  the  131,887  "adherents" 
are  reckoned  only  by  guess-work. 

Although  most  of  the  multitudinous  temples, 
pagodas  and  "universities"  of  former  days  are 
largely  in  ruins,  there  are  many  beautiful  idols  and 
relics  in  the  temples  still  standing,  notably  the 
wonderful  Cave  of  Sukkoolam  near  Kyungju;  and 
the  Koreans  possess  the  wooden  blocks  for  print- 
ing the  finest  copy  of  the  Mahayana  Canon  now 
in  existence  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  one 
in  Kyoto  which  was  perhaps  secured  from  them  in 
1421. 

Korean  Buddhism  is  of  the  "Amita"  type, 
though  in  their  temples  there  are  many  trinities 
such  as  that  of  Vairochana,  Sakamuni,  and  others. 
Yaksa  Yerai,  the  Heahng  Buddha  (Bhaishajyaraja) 
is  widely  worshiped,  as  is  Miryuck,  the  Messiah 
Buddha  yet  to  come,  and  Kwanseieum,  the  goddess 
of  mercy.  Among  the  books  most  used  are  the 
Lotus  Gospel  {Saddharma  Pundarika) ,  the  Kishilon 
{Awakening  of  Faith),  the  Diamond  Sutra,  the 
Amita  Book,  and  the  Chijang  Book  (Chijang 
being  the  Jizo  of  Japan). 

Since  1902,  great  efforts  have  been  made  to 
revivify  the  organization  either  by  internal  changes 
or  amalgamation  with  Japanese  sects,  but  little 
success  has  been  attained.  Primary  schools  have 
been  established  and  a  few  middle  schools  and  a 
"College"  in  Seoul;  some  literature  has  been  pre- 
pared and  effort  made  to  conduct  a  monthly  maga- 
zine; preaching  chapels  have  been  opened  in  many 
towns.  Everything  starts  nicely  but  the  move- 
ments have  little  inner  vitality  and  soon  run  out. 
Unless  a  union  with  the  Japanese  sects  is  effected, 
it  looks  as  though  the  organization  was  doomed  to 
extinction.  It  has  no  adequate  message  for  this 
modern  world,  and  there  is  nothing  for  it  but  to  die. 

Charles  A.  Clark 

KOREAN  CHUNTOKYO.— A  curious  religion 
founded  in  1860  and  claiming  for  itself  as  many  as 
three  milhons  of  followers.  Possibly  it  has  actually 
a  nominal  enrolment  of  towards  a  milUon  members 
and  an  active  membership  of  100,000,  largely  men. 
It  was  f oimded  by  Choi  Chei  Oo,  who  after  a  wonder- 
ful vision  received  a  sacred  formula  of  twenty-two 
characters  and  a  magic  talisman  for  curing  disease. 
In  the  movement  to  exterminate  CathoHcism,  in 
1866  Choi  was  arrested  as  a  suspect  and  beheaded. 

His  nephew  Choi  Si  Hyung,  better  known  as 
Choi  Hai  Wul,  secretly  gathered  the  Master's 
writings  and  bound  them  into  a  "Bible"  called 
the  Tong  Kyung  Tai  Chun.     Under  him  the  organi- 


249 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Labor  Movement 


zation  grew  for  many  years  secretly  but  in  a  health- 
ful manner  as  a  really  religious  organization. 
Political  complications  led  to  his  execution.  In  the 
90's  the  "Tonghak"  organization,  as  it  was  then 
called,  was  used  as  a  nucleus  of  a  popular  revolt 
against  official  oppression  and  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  the  government  troops. 

The  third  leader  of  the  Movement,  Son  Pyung 
Heui,  is  still  living.  There  are  now  hundreds  of 
churches.  Two  denominations  have  already  arisen. 
There  is  a  large  and  rapidly  growing  literature. 

As  to  formal  doctrines,  it  is  held  that  God  is 
truth,  some  vague,  non-personal  Essence  to  which 
we  owe  allegiance.  There  is  no  sin.  Men  are 
holy.  There  is  an  eternal  life  but  no  hell  or  eternal 
death.  Religion  consists  in  repeating  over  ad 
infinitum  the  twenty-two  word  formula  revealed  to 
the  Founder.  Charles  A.  Clark 

KORESHAN  ECCLESIA  (or  CHURCH  ARCH- 
TRIUMPHANT).— A  small  communistic  society 
founded  in  1839  by  Cyrus  R.  Teed,  whom  his  fol- 
lowers held  to  be  a  New  Messiah. 

KOSHER.— (Hebrew,  "fit.")  Pood  permitted 
according  to  the  Jewish  ritual  law. 

KRISHNA.— One  of  the  leading  objects  of 
worship  in  Hinduism,  being  that  incarnation  of 
Vishnu  most  popular  throughout  northern  India, 
possibly  originally  a  royal  chieftain  who  gradually 
became  the  object  of  a  cult.  Krishna  occupies  a 
prominent  position  in  the  MahabhArata  particularly 
in  the  Bhagavad  Gita.    See  India,  Religions  of. 

KSHATRIYA. — The  warrior  or  ruling  class  of 
the  early  Indo-Aryans.  They,  with  the  Brahmans 
and  Vaisyas  (q.v.),  constituted  the  original  castes  of 
the  twice-born.  The  king  was  always  selected  from 
the  warrior  caste. 


KUENEN,  ABRAHAM  (1828-1891).— Dutch 
Protestant  theologian;  a  supporter  of  the  hberal 
movement  as  opposed  to  the  Calvinism  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  church;  best  known  as  one  of 
the  leading  exponents  of  critical  historical  scholar- 
ship in  the  O.T.  field. 

KULTURKAMPF.— A  German  word  used  to 
denote  the  fifteen  year  struggle  which  took  place 
between  the  Roman  Church  and  the  German 
government  after  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
in  1870,  in  which  the  Catholic  party  maintained  a 
stout  resistance  to  all  policies  which  seemed  to 
weaken  the  power  of  the  Vatican.  Bismarck  at 
first  suspected  that  Catholics  might  stand  in  way 
of  the  unification  of  German  sentiment,  but  even- 
tually sanctioned  their  participation  in  parUament. 
See  Ultramontanism. 

KWANNON,  KWANYIN.— A  Buddhist  goddess 
of  mercy  of  Japan  and  China.  Originally  this  deity 
was  the  Buddhist  Avalokilesvara  (q.v.),  a  male 
Bodhisattva,  kindly  and  beneficent  toward  men. 
In  the  process  of  migration  through  China  to 
Japan  he  was  transformed,  though,  as  a  goddess, 
she  is  closely  associated,  as  originally,  with  the 
Buddha  of  boundless  grace,  Amita  (Amitabha  in 
India). 

KWEI. — The  word  is  used  in  China  to  mean 
souls  of  the  dead  ("alive  a  man,  dead  a  kwei")  or, 
more  commonly,  demon.  They  haunt  the  night 
and  are  the  source  of  all  kinds  of  dangers  and  mis- 
fortunes. The  uneducated  populace  live  in  constant 
dread  of  these  omnipresent  malignant  spirits. 

KYRIE  ELEISON.— An  Anglicized  form  of 
the  Greek  words  meaning  "Lord,  have  mercy," 
used  in  the  Uturgies  (q.v.)  of  the  Roman,  Greek, 
Anglican  and  Lutheran  churches. 


LABADISTS.^A  sect  of  the  followers  of  Jean  de 
la  Badie  (1610-1674),  a  Jesuit  who  joined  the 
French  Reformed  church.  He  developed  extreme 
views,  insisting  on  rigorous  discipUne,  communism 
and  separation  from  worldly  connections.  As  a 
pastor  he  labored  in  France,  Switzerland,  England, 
and  Holland  encountering  much  opposition.  The 
little  group  after  several  migrations  broke  up  soon 
after  the  death  of  La  Badie. 

LABARUM. — In  Christian  usage  the  standard 
adopted  by  Constantine  after  his  conversion.  It 
was  an  adaption  of  a  Roman  military  standard  and 
consisted  of  a  spear  bearing  a  purple  cloth.  On  the 
spear  or  the  cloth  was  the  monogram  XP  (the  first 
two  letters  of  the  word  Christ  in  Greek)  surrovmded 
by  a  gold  wreath. 

LABOR  CHURCH. — An  organization  founded 
in  Manchester,  England,  in  1891  on  socialistic  lines, 
as  an  expression  of  the  religious  element  of  the 
labor  movement.  In  1909  the  name  was  changed 
to  the  "Socialist  Church." 

LABOR  MOVEMENT,  ETHICS  OF.— The 

labor  movement  as  a  consciously  organized  move- 
ment is  comparatively  recent  and  has  paralleled  in 
general  the  development  of  industry  since  the 
Industrial  Revolution  (for  certain  distinctive 
aspects  of  this  movement,  see  Capitalism,  Ethics 
of),  a  labor  class  has,  of  course,  existed  from 
remote  times,  but  the  Industrial  Revolution,  on 
the  one  hand,  sharpened  the  class  division  between 
owners  of  factories  and  those  who  worked  in  them 


for  wages,  and  on  the  other,  by  gathering  workmen 
together  into  large  factory  groups,  made  it  easier 
for  them  to  unite  and  strengthen  their  class  con- 
sciousness. 

The  chief  end  of  the  labor  movement  is  the 
improvement  of  the  condition  of  laborers.  Al- 
though capital  and  labor  have  an  ultimate  common 
interest  in  the  prosperity  of  the  industry,  _  their 
interests  are  sharply  opposed  as  to  the  division  of 
the  total  income  of  industry.  The  labor  group 
wishes  to  obtain  as  large  a  share  as  possible  in  the 
form  of  wages;  the  capitalist  wishesto  obtain  as 
much  as  possible  for  profits.  In  addition  to  these 
obvious  differences  of  interests,  there  are  many 
points  of  difference  not  so  generally  recognized 
by  the  outsider.  Improvement  in  production  by 
the  increased  use  of  machinery  or  by  subdivision 
of  processes  is  distinctly  to  the  advantage  of  the 
employer  and  should  be  to  that  of  the  public  unless 
the  employer  is  able  to  appropriate  all  the  resulting 
gain.  But  the  immediate  effect  upon  the  workman 
of  introducing  machinery  is  to  displace  men,  and  the 
effect  ot  feubdividing  processes  is  to  reduce  the 
craftsmanship  and  wages  of  those  who  do  the  less 
skilled  parts  of  the  process.  In  meeting  these  and 
similar  questions  as  to  wages,  hours,  working  condi- 
tions, the  individual  laborer  now  has  to  deal,  not 
as  formerly  with  an  individual  employer,  but  with 
an  impersonal  corporation,  frequently  of  vast 
size  and  corresponding  power.  Orgamzation  has 
appeared  to  be  the  natural  and  only  method  of 
placing  the  workman  upon  an  approximate  equality 
with  employers  in  bargaining.  On  the  continent 
of  Europe  the  labor  movement  has  more  commonly 


Labor  Movement 


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250 


taken  a  political  form  in  the  endeavor  to  secure 
certain  kinds  of  production  by  law.  In  England 
and  in  the  United  States  unions  have  depended 
more  upon  economic  means  and  have  preferred 
to  secure  their  ends  by  agreements,  with  the  strike 
as  a  reserved  alternative. 

The  ethics  of  the  labor  movement  has,  therefore, 
been  largely  the  ethics  of  group  morality  and  in 
particular  of  a  group  of  the  under-dog  sort  engaged 
m  a  serious  struggle.  In  Europe  where  classes 
are  more  fixed  than  in  America,  class  consciousness 
has  usually  been  more  intense,  but  the  labor  move- 
ment in  America  has  had  large  recruits  from  immi- 
grants who  frequently  speak  a  different  language 
from  that  of  the  employer,  have  Uttle  education, 
live  in  sharply  defined  congested  areas  far  removed 
from  the  beautiful  and  healthful  homes  of  employers. 
Any  group  sharply  separated,  not  only  economically 
but  linguistically,  racially,  and  socially,  is  likely  to 
be  suspicious  of  groups  with  which  it  is  in  competi- 
tive relation. 

The  militant  character  of  the  labor  movement 
may  at  times  have  been  kept  active  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  union,  just  as  poUtical  leaders 
have  always  reckoned  more  or  less  upon  the  unify- 
ing effect  of  a  certain  amount  of  nationalism  as  over 
against  other  states.  The  mihtant  attitude  has 
shown  itself  particularly  against  "scabs"  or  "black- 
legs" who  are  regarded  as  the  worst  enemies  of 
organized  labor.  The  psychology  here  is  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  the  national  group  in  war  time. 
The  obverse  aspect  of  group  moraHty  is  the  strong 
feeling  of  obligation  to  aU  within  the  group,  and 
the  adoption  of  various  means  _  to  encourage 
brotherly  feehng  rather  than  individual  rivalry. 
Thus  the  "common  rule"  which  tends  to  equalize 
output  and  wages,  although  it  may  not  go  farther 
in  practice  than  to  set  a  maximum  for  the  one  and 
a  minimum  for  the  other,  is  an  illustration.  "Thou 
shalt  not  take  thy  brother's  job"  is  to  the  imionist 
based  on  a  deeper  morality  than  "Thou  shalt 
bargain  for  thine  own  interest  solely,"  as  the 
ethics  of  the  so-called  "open  shop"  would  suggest. 
In  the  case  of  seasonal  employment,  limitation  of 
production  has  had  an  additional  incentive:  the 
workman  has  often  believed  it  legitimate  to  "stretch' ' 
a  job  to  some  extent,  since  the  only  way  to  provide  for 
for  a  job  tomorrow  has  seemed  to  be  to  make  today's 
job  last  over  until  tomorrow.  _ 

The  socialist  movement  is  one  aspect  of  the 
labor  movement.  It  has  laid  great  stress  upon  the 
exploitation  of  labor.  Assuming  from  the  older 
economists  that  the  wage  of  the  laborer  remains  at 
the  minimum  necessary  to  recruit  the  supply  of 
labor,  it  appeared  to  be  the  logical  inference  that 
all  the  economic  advantage  due  to  the  increased 
methods  of  production  goes  to  the  capitalist. 
Hence  the  socialist  has  not  considered  the  present 
ownership  of  property  as  having  a  sound  ethical 
basis.  The  current  conception  of  honesty  has 
seemed  to  the  socialist  a  capitalist^  conception. 
The  socialist  also  emphasizes  class  conflict.  For  the 
national  grouping  and  conflicts  he  would  substitute 
an  international  alliance  of  workingmen  as  over 
against  capitalists.  He  justifies  class  conflict  as 
being  the  necessary  means  to  the  ultimate  abolition 
of  class. 

The  more  positive  and  constructive  ideals  of  the 
labor  movement  are  stated  by  John  P.  Frey  in  the 
International  Journal  of  Ethics,  Vol.  XXVIII, 
pp.  485-98,  as:  Brotherhood,  Education,  Standard 
of  Living,  and  Industrial  Democracy.  Brother- 
hood is  international  in  its  scope.  In  the  field  of 
Education,  the  trade  unionists  maintain  that  theirs 
has  been  a  highly  important  part  in  preventing 
child  labor  and  securing  free  public  schools  and 
free  text  books,    A  Standard  of  Living  included 


not  merely  wages,  but  possibilities  of  health  compa- 
rable to  the  health  of  well-to-do  classes,  housing 
conditions  in  which  decency  can  be  maintained,  a 
shorter  day  that  there  may  be  opportunity  for 
leisure,  recreation  and  education.  Industrial 
Democracy  is,  in  the  view  of  the  labor  movement, 
as  important  as  political  democracy.  Quite  apart 
from  the  question  whether  the  employer  might  not 
of  his  own  free  will  establish  as  good  working 
conditions  as  any  organization  of  laborers  might  be 
able  to  conceive^  the  labor  movement  insists 
increasingly  that  it  shall  have  an  equal  share  in 
determining  all  the  conditions  under  which  industry 
is  to  be  carried  on.  It  claims  this  as  a  matter  of 
principle  on  the  ground  that  freedom  and  equality 
cannot  be  otherwise  secured.       Jambs  H.  Tufts 

LABYRINTH. — In  mediaeval  churches  intri- 
cate passages,  arranged  on  the  tiled  floor  j  of  the 
nave,  symbolizing  the  progress  of  Jesus  from 
Jerusalem  to  the  cross.  The  devout  traversed 
these  in  prayer  on  their  knees. 

LACORDAIRE,     JEAN    BAPTISTE    HENRI 

(1802-1861).— French  R.C.  ecclesiastic  and  pulpit 
orator;  associated  with  Lamennais  (q.v.)  in  the 
attempt  to  interpret  Catholicism  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  Uberty  and  democracy  in  opposi- 
tion to  Ultramontanism  (q.v.),  while  also  opposing 
anti-religious  free  thinking.  As  preacher  of  rare 
power  in  Notre  Dame  he  exerted  great  influence 
over  French  hfe  and  thought. 

LACTANTIUS  (ca.  260-ca.  330).— Latin  Father; 
teacher  of  rhetoric  in  Nicomedia,  converted  to 
Christianity  late  in  hfe.  His  writings,  while  not 
theologically  profound,  are  valuable  from  the 
hterary  and  historical  viewpoints.  His  principal 
work.  The  Divine  Institutes,  attempts  a  complete 
apologetic  presentation  of  Christianity. 

LADY  CHAPEL.— A  chapel  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  in  or  connected  with  many  larger 
churches  and  cathedrals. 

LADY-DAY.— The  feast  of  the  Annunciation 
(q.v.)  celebrated  on  Mar.  25th.;  but  formerly  the 
designation  of  all  days  in  the  calendar  of  the  church 
connected  with  events  in  the  hfe  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin. 

LAITY. — ^The  non-clerical  members  of  the 
church.  At  the  close  of  the  1st.  century  the  term 
was  applied  to  the  congregation.  The  Roman 
Ca,thohc  church  is  composed  of  the  hierarchy 
— in  whom  rests  exclusive  authority — and  the 
laity.  In  Protestant  bodies  the  laity  share  with 
the  clergy  in  church  administration. 

LAKSHMI. — A  Hindu  goddess  of  kindly  char- 
acter, wife  of  Vishnu.    She  is  also  called  S'ri. 

LAMAISM.  —  The  politico-religious  system 
prevalent  in  Tibet  and  MongoUa,  being  a  phase 
of  Mahayana  Buddhism  which  found  its  way 
into  Tibet  in  the  7th.  century  and  in  which 
there  is  an  admixture  of  Shivaism  and  Shaman- 
ism. It  is  so  designated  from  the  dalai-lama  and 
tesho-lama,  the  hierarchical  head,  and  his  deputy. 
Tibet,  Religions  op;  Buddhism. 

LAMB. — In  early  Christian  symbohsm  as  pre- 
served in  the  catacombs  and  on  sarcophagi,  the 
lamb  was  used  sometimes  in  depictions  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  bearing  the  lamb,  and  again  as 
representing  Jesus,  the  Lamb  of  God,  slain  for  men. 


251 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Lapsed 


LAMBETH  ARTICLES.— Nine  articles  of  faith, 
embodying  high  Calvinistic  principles,  drawn  up 
at  Lambeth,  England,  in  1595  but  never  officially 
adopted  because  of  the  opposition  of  Queen 
Elizabeth. 

LAMBETH  CONFERENCES.— Assemblies  of 
Anghcan  bishops  or  Pan-AngUcan  synods,  which 
have  met  since  1867  once  each  decade  at  Lambeth 
Palace,  London,  England  to  discuss  matters  of 
practical  interest  to  the  Anglican  communion. 

LAMBETH  QUADRILATERAL.— Four  articles 
of  faith,  proposed  as  a  basis  for  the  reunion  of 
Christendom,  adopted  by  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Convention  of  the  U.S.A.  in  Chicago  in  1886  and 
by  the  Lambeth  Conference  (q.v.)  in  1888.  The 
articles  affirmed  (1)  the  sufficiency  of  the  Scriptures 
as  the  standard  of  faith;  (2)  adherence  to  the 
Apostles'  and  Nicene  creeds;  (3)  the  two  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper;  (4)  the 
historic  episcopate  "locally  adapted  in  the  methods 
of  the  administration." 

LAMENNAIS,  HUGUES  FELICITE  ROBERT 

DE  (1782-1854).— A  briUiant  French  priest  and 
political  philosopher.  At  first  he  was  a  defender 
of  ecclesiastical  authority  and  ultramontanism, 
but  later  he  adopted  hberal  ideas  including  freedom 
of  conscience,  of  assembly,  and  of  the  press.  His 
ardent  advocacy  of  democratic  notions  brought  him 
into  collision  with  the  church  resulting  in  his 
severance  from  it. 

LAMMAS  DAY. — (A.S.  L^ommaesse,  loaf-mass.) 
Originally  an  old  English  festival  observed  on 
August  1,  as  thanksgiving  for  the  wheat  harvest. 
Subsequently  it  became  the  church  festival  in  honor 
of  the  release  of  Peter  from  prison. 

LAMPS. — The  use  of  lamps  for  liturgical 
purposes  is  a  characteristic  of  several  reUgions. 
The  Greeks  had  a  "festival  of  lamps."  The  Indian 
people  have  a  feast  of  lamps.  So  also  among 
vanous  peoples  the  custom  of  burning  lamps  in 
temples  at  shrines  and  holy  places  is  common. 
There  is  no  evidence  of  their  use  for  other  than 
utihtarian  purposes  among  Christians  till  the  12th. 
century.  At  present  they  are  burnt  in  many 
churches. 

LANDMARK. — See  Boundaries. 

LANFRANC  (d.  1089).— Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury; a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Hildebrand. 
He  became  a  noted  educator  in  the  monastery  at 
Bee,  where  he  was  asked  to  defend  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  against  Berengar.  In  1070 
he  assumed  the  EngHsh  primacy,  in  which  position 
he  aided  William  the  Conqueror  in  strengthening  his 
rule,  unifying  the  English  people  and  maintaining 
the  unity  of  the  English  church  over  against  the 
divisive  claims  of  York. 

LANGTON,  STEPHEN  (d.  1228).— Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  cardinal,  whose  primacy 
fell  in  the  reign  of  King  John.  In  the  quarrel 
between  John  and  Innocent  III.,  in  which  John 
capitulated  when  the  pope  placed  England  under  an 
interdict,  the  point  at  issue  was  the  recognition 
of  Langton  as  primate.  He  encouraged  the 
barons  in  their  demands  which  ultimately  led  to  the 
Magna  Carta. 

LAODICEA,  SYNOD  OF.— A  synod  held  in 
Laodicea  in  Phrygia  in  the  4th.  century,  adopting 
eixty  canons  relating  to  matters  of  church  govern- 


ment   and    discipline.    The    canons    were    given 
ecumenical  status  at  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  451. 

LAO-TSE  (ca.  604-524  B.C.).— A  Chinese  mys- 
tical philosopher,  founder  of  the  higher  Taoism 
and  the  supposed  author  of  the  Tao  Teh  King. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Confucius  and,  like 
him,  sought  a  solution  for  the  disorders  of  the 
age.  Feudal  strife,  neglect  of  agriculture,  warring 
ambitions  had  destroyed  the  ancient  Chinese 
peace  and  reduced  the  people  to  a  condition  of 
wretchedness  and  poverty.  Confucius  preached 
practical  reform,  a  return  to  the  good  old  ways. 
Lao-tse  opposed  to  him  the  gospel  of  quietism, 
abhorring  the  work  of  fussy  reformers  like  Con- 
fucius. 

He  had  no  theology.  As  a  mystic,  he  sought 
to  find  relationship  with  the  ultimate  spiritual 
reality  which  is  impersonal  and  all-pervasive,  the 
controlling  principle  of  all  existence  which  orders 
all  things  by  being  itself  and  in  quiet  surrender  to 
which  man  may  find  peace.  He  called  this  Tao. 
In  the  formation  of  our  world  the  Tao,  or  Ultimate 
Reality,  gave  rise  to  the  Great  Monad  or  the 
Material  Principle  which  differentiated  into  Yang 
and  Yin  which  further  differentiated  into  heaven 
and  earth  and  all  phenomenal  things.  The  true 
life  of  man  is  found  by  self-abnegation,  by  refusal 
of  ideals  created  by  human  intellect,  by  inaction, 
by  the  normal  development  of  his  inner  nature 
which  is  one  with  Tao.  This  is  the  way  of  illumina- 
tion, of  power,  of  peace.  It  is  also  the  way  to 
happy  social  relationships  and  the  true  security  for 
the  state. 

LAPPS,  RELIGION  OF.— The  Lapps  com- 
prise a  group  of  Arctic  tribes,  coastal  and  forest, 
in  Scandinavia  and  Russia,  kindred  in  speech  and 
probably  in  blood  to  the  Finns.  They  are  pro- 
fessed Christians  of  the  Protestant  and  Greek 
Churches,  but  as  among  other  peoples  of  low 
civilization  vestiges  of  their  original  paganism 
survive  among  them.  Their  pagan  religion,  like 
that  of  the  Finns,  comprised  two  strata,  the  older 
native  beliefs  and  the  later  influence  of  Scandi- 
navian paganism.  To  the  older  stratum  is  to  be 
ascribed  the  very  tenacious  cult  of  the  dead  and  the 
animism,  or  worship  of  nature  spirits,  of  which  an 
important  feature  was  the  worship  of  the  bear,  the 
strongest  animal  known  to  the  Lapp.  To  Scandi- 
navian influence  is  to  be  ascribed  the  importance 
attached  to  the  sun-god,  thunder-god  and  wind- 
god.  From  early  times  the  Lapps  have  had  among 
their  Scandinavian  and  Russian  neighbors  a  great 
reputation  as  sorcerers,  and  this  is  doubtless  in 
part  due  to  their  belief  in  the  religious  significance 
of  trance  and  ecstasy  and  the  reputation  of  their 
shamans  as  intermediaries  with  the  spirit-world. 
In  this,  as  in  the  importance  of  the  drum  employed 
to  induce  trance  or  ecstasy,  the  Lapps  show  strilang 
affinity  to  the  Arctic  tribes  of  Siberia  and  to  the 
Eskimo.  H.  B.  Alexander 

LAPSED. — ^A  term  applied  in  the  early  church 
to  those  Christians  who  abjured  _  Christianity 
under  the  stress  of  persecution.  During  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  3rd.  century  these  became  so  numer- 
ous that  the  question  as  to  the  treatment  of  them 
occasioned  disputes  within  the  church.  Many  of 
the  lapsed,  after  having  been  relieved  from  fear  of 
legal  prosecution  wished  to  attend  church  services 
but  sought  relief  from  current  penitential  require- 
ments. A  considerable  number  of  the  clergy 
led  by  Novatian  (q.v.),  anti-Pope,  opposed  all 
leniency  and  a  schism  resulted.  The  policy  of 
Rome  favored  the  readmission  of  the  lapsed  to  the 
church  after  public  confession  and  penance.    After 


LaSalle,  St.  Jean 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


252 


many  disturbances  this  position  was  finally  estab- 
lished by  a  number  of  synods,  but  the  Novation 
position  became  a  chief  element  of  Donatism  (q.v.). 
The  issue  finally  disappeared  with  the  passing  of 
persecution. 

LA  SALLE,  ST.  JEAN  BAPTISTE  DE  (1651- 
1719). — Educational  reformer  and  fovmder  of  the 
order  of  Christian  Brothers  (q.v.);  canonized 
in  1900.  The  order  was  recognized  by  the  pope  in 
1725,  as  the  "Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools." 

LATERAN  COUNCILS.— Councils  of  the  R.C. 
church  held  in  the  palace  of  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran,  the  cathedral  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Of  these,  five  are  coimted  as  ecumenical  by  the 
R.C.  church.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  they 
have  dealt  with  matters  immediately  connected  with 
the  R.C.  church  exclusively,  e.g.,  investitures,  1123; 
schisms,  1139,  1179;  Crusade  and  heresies,  1215; 
Galilean  church,  1512-17.  The  so-called  12th. 
ecumenical  or  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215) 
authorized  the  use  of  the  term  transubstantiation 
and  required  an  annual  confession  of  all  church 
members.  Other  councils  or  synods  have  been 
held  in  the  Lateran,  which  dealt  chiefly  with  schisms 
and  matters  of  church  administration. 

LATIMER,  HUGH  (ca.  1490-1555).— English 
bishop  who  collaborated  with  Cranmer  and  Crom- 
well in  defense  of  Henry  VIII.  in  his  breach  with 
Rome.  He  was  a  great  preacher  with  tremendous 
influence  over  the  people.^  His  denunciation  of 
ecclesiasticism  and  dogmatism,  and  _  his  zeal  for 
righteousness  incurred  official  opposition,  and  with 
Ridley  he  was  burnt  at  the  stake. 

LATIN  AMERICA,  MISSIONS  TO.— The 
line  which  divides  the  Anglo-Saxon  civihzation  of 
the  North  from  the  Latin  culture  of  the  South  must 
be  drawn  not  at  Panama  but  at  the  Rio  Grande 
which  serves  as  the  northern  boimdary  of  Mexico. 
To  the  south  lives  a  composite  population  of  some 
80,000,000  people— 18,000,000  Whites,  17,000,000 
Indians,  6,000,000  Negroes,  30,000,000  mixed 
White  and  Indian,  and  8,000,000  White  and 
Negro.  Accordingly  for  the  last  four  centuries 
Latin  America  has  been  engaged  in  the  difficult 
experiment  of  trying  to  fuse  the  social  and  rehgious 
heritages  of  three  distinct  continents — Southern 
Europe,  Africa,  and  primitive  South  America — 
into  some  kind  of  a  homogeneous  whole.  The  dis- 
tinctive religious  conditions  of  the  continent  spring 
from  this  triple  heritage. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  conquerors  of  the 
16th.  century  forced  the  Catholic  faith  on  the 
aborigines  with  the  same  relentless  energy  as  char- 
acterized their  political  autocracy.  As  a  result  of 
this  pohcy  what  is  found  in  Latin  America  today  is 
the  super-imposition  of  the  authority,  the  organi- 
zation, the  rites  and  the  creed  of  Mediaeval 
Christianity  upon  a  vast  and  but  slightly  plastic 
substratum  of  native  reUgious  tradition  and  custom 
further  complicated  in  Brazil  by  fetishism  and 
animism  imported  from  Africa  with  the  thousands 
of  negro  slaves  who  were  required  to  work  the 
plantations  and  mines.  Because  of  the  remoteness 
of  the  continent  itself  and  in  conformity  with  the 
settled  pohcy  both  of  the  court  at  Madrid  and  of 
the  authorities  at  Rome,  until  recent  years  this 
complex  reUgious  life  has  been  kept  scrupulously 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world  and  has  produced 
its  own  natural  and  legitimate  results  imcon- 
taminated  by  outside  influences. 

The  early  years  of  conquest  and  settlement  were 
marked  by  commendable  apostoUc  zeal,  although 


the  forceful  methods  of  propaganda  then  in  vogue 
would  not  meet  with  approval  today.  One  of  the 
first  acts  in  founding  any  new  town  was  the  reserva- 
tion of  one  side  of  the  central  square  or  plaza  for 
the  government  buildings  and  another  for  the 
church  or  cathedral;  and  this  was  typical  of  the 
place  which  reUgion  held  in  the  lives  of  the  people; 
their  business  and  their  homes  were  built  about 
the  church,  their  afternoon  promenades  in  the 
plaza  were  under  her  constant  and  immediate 
scrutiny.  The  Jesuits,  Franciscans  and  other 
orders  meanwhile  penetrated  into  the  mountain 
valleys  and  the  tropical  jungles  founding  missions 
among  the  native  Indians  of  the  country.  But  the 
missionary  zeal  of  the  16th.  and  17th.  centuries 
gradually  gave  way  to  the  monotonous  routine  of  a 
colonial  life  which  had  been  denied  freedom  of  self- 
expression,  while  the  church  herself  began  to 
suffer  from  the  many  perils  and  marks  of  internal 
disintegration  which  attend  a  religious  monopoly. 

The  pohtical  revolution  which  took  place  in  the 
opening  years  of  the  19th.  century,  although  gaining 
its  inspiration  from  the  encyclopaedists  of  France, 
did  not  bring  any,  corresponding  transformation  in 
the  rehgious  life  of  the  people.  This  political 
upheaval  along  with  the  liberties  which  it  brought 
soon  prepared  the  way  however  for  other  movements 
which  could  not  but  affect  the  religion  of  the  country 
sooner  or  later.  New  tides  of  immigration,  widen- 
ing business  relationships,  the  clashing  of  interests 
between  local  governments  and  the  court  at  Rome, 
and  the  inevitable  infiltration  of  modern  ideas  and 
methods  along  with  a  new  passion  for  scientific  learn- 
ing and  popular  education  ere  long  began  to  under- 
mine the  belated  mediaeval  faith  of  colonial  days, 
and  as  a  result  the  opening  years  of  the  20th.  century 
find  the  educated  classes  swinging  away  from  the 
mother  church  towards  skepticism  and  agnosticism 
and  the  church  herself  so  robbed  of  vitahty  that 
she  is  no  longer  able  to  replenish  the  ranks  of  her 
own  clergy  and  is  being  compelled  to  abandon  the 
more  remote  parishes  allowing  these  isolated  dis- 
tricts to  lapse  into  paganism. 

As  a  part  of  this  general  emancipation  the 
Catholic  Church  has  been  deprived  or  much  of  her 
authority  and  prestige  by  the  persistent  policy 
of  the  various  governments  to  take  unto  themselves 
the  special  prerogatives  which  the  church  gained 
for  herself  during  the  ages  of  excessive  credulity. 
During  the  last  75  years  much  church  property 
has  been  confiscated,  the  cemeteries  have  been 
thrown  open  to  the  non-Catholic  pubMc,  the  clergy 
have  been  made  amenable  to  the  civil  courts,  educa- 
tion has  ceased  to  be  the  monopoly  of  the  church 
and  has  become  a  function  of  the  statej  religious 
hberty  or  toleration  has  been  granted  m  all  the 
countries,  civil  marriage  has  been  sanctioned,  and 
in  several  of  the  more  progressive  republics  divorce 
laws  are  contemplated — ^all  of  which  indicates 
conclusively  the  determination  of  the  people  in  an 
ever  increasing  degree  to  take  full  charge  and  control 
of  their  own  hves.  Religiously  as  otherwise 
Latin  America  is  a  land  of  striking  contrasts. 
The  great  masses  of  uneducated  population  stiU 
plod  along  in  the  furrow  broken  for  them  by  their 
fathers,  untouched  and  uninfluenced  imtil  quite 
recently  by  the  movements  of  modern  days.  The 
intellectuals  on  the  other  hand  rejoicing  in  a  new- 
found freedom  are  wandering  far  and  near  in  search 
of  the  satisfactions  of  fife. 

Beginning  with  the  year  1558  French  Hugue- 
nots, the  Dutch,  and  the  Moravians  sought  to 
plant  the  Protestant  religion  on  the  east  coast  in 
connection  with  ill-advised  colonization  schemes, 
and  each  attempt,  except  that  of  the  Moravians, 
was  smothered  out  after  twenty  or  thirty  years 
under  the  cruel  hand  of  misfortune  or  persecution. 


253 


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Law,  Canon 


Coming  to  the  days  and  methods  of  modem 
missions  as  we  know  them,  work  was  undertaken 
first  of  all  among  the  English  speaking  residents 
of  the  larger  coast  cities  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  America 
and  the  Church  of  England.  As  early  as  1820 
James  Thomson  visited  the  various  emerging 
republics  as  an  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  establishing  schools  and  Bible  depots, 
but  a  decided  reaction  soon  set  in  following  the 
revolutionary  wars  and  this  work  came  to  naught. 
Several  other  preliminary  attempts  ended  hkewise. 

The  first  permanent  missions  among  the  Spanish 
speaking  people  were  begun  in  1856  by  the  Presby- 
terians in  Bogota  and  by^  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  Buenos  Aires  in  the  year  1867.  About 
the  same  time  American  missionaries  entered 
Mexico  encouraged  by  the  liberal  poUcy  of  President 
Benito  Juarez.  From  such  small  beginnings  the 
work  has  grown  to  the  following  proportions  for  all 
of  Latin  America  including  the  West  Indies,  as 
reported  to  the  Panama  Conference  in  1916  which 
are  the  latest  complete  statistics  available.  There 
are  101  societies  supporting  work  in  Latin  America, 
distributed  as  follows:  Canadian  societies  6, 
United  States  71,  Great  Britain  22,  New  Zealand  1, 
The  Netherlands  1.  The  total  annual  expenditure 
of  the  societies  is  $2,300,000,  supplemented  by 
$1,136,000  raised  on  the  local  fields.  Foreign 
missionaries  number  2,172;  native  staff,  3,859; 
church  organizations,  2,654;  full  communicants, 
285,700;  Sunday  Schools,  3,097;  Sunday  School 
membership,  219,000.  The  American  Societies 
most  active  in  the  field  are  the  American  Bible 
Society,  the  Baptist  Conventions,  North  and  South, 
the  Methodist  Episcopal,  North  and  South,  the 
Presbyterians,  North  and  South,  and  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church.  More  recently  the  Y.M.C.A. 
and  the  Y.W.C.A.  have  entered  the  larger  cities 
directing  their  operations  esjjecially  to  meet  the 
needs  of  students  and  the  industrial  classes.  The 
countries  which  have  given  the  most  hearty 
response  to  the  missionary  approach  are  Brazil, 
the  Argentine,  Uruguay,  Southern  Chile,  Mexico, 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

As  is  always  the  case  missionary  methods  have 
responded  more  or  less  promptly  to  the  demands  of 
the  situation.  The  traveUng  colporteur  of  the 
Bible  Societies  has  been  the  pioneer  in  many  cases. 
Where  an  opening  was  found  a  missionary  and  his 
wife  took  up  their  residence,  and  as  a  first  step 
generally  established  a  school  in  response  to  the 
widespread  demand  for  a  modem  education.  Some 
of  these  schools  of  humble  beginnings  have  since 
become  institutions  of  nation-wide  influence,  as 
for  example,  the  American  Institutes  of  Bolivia 
and  Peru,  El  Institute  Ingles  of  Chile,  MacKenzie 
College  in  Brazil,  Los  Colegios  Internacionales  of 
Cuba  and  half  a  dozen  high  grade  schools  in  Mexico, 
where  the  children  of  presidents,  senators  and  men 
of  large  means  have  been  sent  for  training  under 
Christian  ideals.  In  so  far  as  pubUc  opinion  would 
permit,  gospel  services  were  held  and  little  churches 
of  converts  won,  until  today  these  churches  dot  the 
whole  continent  and  are  fast  becoming  a  force  for 
national  righteousness.  In  some  cities  where  the 
door  of  approach  long  remained  closed,  trained 
nurses  moved  about  from  house  to  house  with  their 
quiet  ministrations  and  soon  opened  a  way  of  access 
where  other  means  had  failed.  A  Hmited  amount 
of  hospital  and  medical  work  has  been  undertaken. 

The  emancipation  of  the  Indian  races — the 
most  neglected  of  all — is  being  sought  by  means 
of  schools,  agricultural  trainmg,  medical  attention 
and  reUgious  propaganda.  This  undertaking  is 
made  especially  difficult  by  the  complicated  inter- 
twining  of   the   distinctive   religious,   social   and 


economic  conditions  of  the  Indian.  For  him  a 
full  salvation  must  include,  among  other  things, 
freedom  from  the  mediaeval  feudausm  of  present 
day  land  tenure  and  from  the  equally  oppressive 
enslavenaent  of  20th.  century  industrial  methods. 

A  distinct  stage  in  the  missionary  development 
of  Latin  America  was  marked  by  the  Panama 
Conference  held  in  the  city  of  Panama  in  February, 
1916.  Growing  out  of  the  deliberations  of  this 
body  of  500  delegates  the  extensive  field  has  been 
organized  into  eight  regional  conferences  working 
in  consultation  with  a  central  "Committee  on 
Co-operation"  in  New  York  with  Robert  E.  Speer 
as  chairman  and  Samuel  G.  Inman  as  secretary, 
all  of  which  agencies  have  been  devoting  themselves 
to  the  co-ordination  of  the  forces  on  the  field  through 
a  common  literature,  division  of  territory,  advanced 
educational  programs,  detailed  surveys  of  local 
conditions,  and  to  the  awakening  of  a  heartier 
support  at  home.  The  last  five  years  have  wit- 
nessed some  distinctive  contributions  to  missionary 
pohcies  and  achievements  along  the  lines  indicated 
above  and  give  grounds  for  hope  that  a  new  era 
of  combined  eflfort  has  already  begun. 

Archibald  G.  Bakeb 

LATIN  CHRISTIANITY.— Those  beUefs  and 
practises  characteristic  of  the  Latin  church  and 
the  Latin  nations,  in  contradistinction  from  Greek, 
Teutonic,  Anghcan,  or  American  Christianity. 

LATIN  CHURCH.— The  Roman  Cathohc 
Church  (q.v.). 

LATITUDINARIANS.— A  group  of  English 
churchmen  of  the  17th.  century  who  advocated  the 
union  of  the  non-conformists  with  the  estabhshed 
church  on  the  basis  of  the  doctrines  common  to 
both  parties,  thus  abandoning  high  church  con- 
tentions.  Cf.  England,  Church  of;  Low  Church. 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS.— The  Mormon  Church 
the  full  title  of  which  is  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ 
of  Latter-Day  Saints.    See  Mormonism. 

LAUD,  WILLIAM  (1573-1645).— Archbishop 
of  Canterbury;  an  aggressive  supporter  of  High 
church  doctrines,  and  a  rigorous  opponent  of 
Puritanism  and  non-conformity.  He  upheld  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  supported 
Charles  I.,  and  urged  that  the  church  should  be 
active  in  the  affairs  of  state.  While  he  advocated 
the  independence  of  the  English  from  the  Roman 
church,  his  extreme  high  church  views  led  to  the 
suspicion  that  he  was  inclined  to  favor  CathoUcism. 
This  led  to  his  impeachment  on  the  false  charge  of 
popery  and  to  his  death  by  beheading. 

LAUDS. — ^The  second  of  the  offices  of  the 
first  of  the  canonical  hours  (q.v.)  in  the  Roman 
breviary,  so  designated  from  the  three  lavxies 
or  hymns  of  praise,  viz.,  Ps.  148-150,  which  consti- 
tute part  of  the  service. 

LAVABO.— The  first  word  of  the  Psalm  (25) 
recited  by  the  priest  when  washing  his  hands  at 
Mass — hence  the  name  of  the  ceremony.  It  occurs 
in  all  the  older  liturgies,  and  had  acquired  a  mystic 
significance  in  the  middle  of  the  4th.  century. 

LAW,  CANON. — ^In  its  widest  sense  the  word 
canon  (Greek,  kanon,  rule)  pertains  to  every  law  or 
constitution  of  the  church,  including  the  Scriptures. 
The  first  eight  councils,  however,  appUed  the  word 
dogma  (q.v.)  to  decisions  governing  faith,  and  the 
word  canon  to  decisions  touching  discipline  (q.v.). 
In  the  16th  century  the  Council  of  Trent  (q.v.)  used 


Law,  Canon 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


254 


the  word  canon  for  regulations  of  the  church 
in  matters  of  faith,  and  the  word  decretum  (see 
Decretals)  for  statutes  of  the  church  referring  to 
discipline  and  administration.  Present  usage 
reserves  the  word  canon  for  apostolic  constitutions 
and  the  regulations  of  the  church  embodied  in  one 
or  another  codification  of  ecclesiastical  law,  and 
employs  the  terminology  of  the  Roman  chancellery, 
hull,  brief,  motus,  proprii,  etc.,  to  the  rest  of  the 
church's  law.  The  term  jus  canonicum,  while 
used  in  the  6th.  century,  did  not  obtain  general 
currency  until  the  12th. 

I.  Sources. — The  sources  of  canon  law  are  the 
Bible,  tradition,  the  opinions  of  the  early  church 
fathers,  concihar  legislation  and  the  decisions 
and  decrees  of  the  popes.  A  large  amount  of  canon 
law  is  also  embodied  in  secular  legislation,  especially 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  as  the  capitularies  of  the  Frank 
kings.  But  modem  legislation,  e.g.,  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  1439,  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  and  the  Concordat  of  1801  (q.v.),  is  some- 
times an  important  source  of  canon  law. 

II.  Codifications. — There  are  traces  of  com- 
pilations of  the  church's  canons  as  far  back  as  the 
5th.  century.  The  earliest  collection  was  made  by, 
or  attributed  to,  Isidor  of  Seville  (599-636)  (q.v.). 
At  about  the  same  time,  in  Rome  a  "Scythian" 
monk  named  Dionysius  Exiguus  (the  "Little")  who 
knew  both  Greek  and  Latin,  made  another  compila- 
tion, the  distinguishing  feature  of  which  was  the 
number  of  papal  decretals  incorporated  in  it,  a 
fact  which  makes  this  codification  a  landmark  in  the 
development  of  the  papacy.  Still  another  compila- 
tion was  current  in  Frankish  Gaul  at  about  the  same 
time  known  as  the  Collectio  Quesnelliana.  In  the 
middle  of  the  9th.  century  an  enormous  extension 
was  given  to  the  papal  prerogative  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  so-called  False  Decretals  (q.v.).  With 
the  elevation  of  the  papacy  after  its  dechne  in  the 
10th.  century,  owing  to  the  restoration  of  the 
mediaeval  empire  by  Otto  I.  in  962  and  the  progress 
of  the  Cluny  Reform  new  and  more  scientific  codi- 
fications of  the  canon  law  began  to  be  made.  Notable 
among  these  are  the  Decretum  of  Bishop  Burchard 
of  Worms  (1012-23),  the  Decretum  of  Bishop  Ivo 
of  Chartres  (d.  1116)  and,  most  important  of  all, 
the  Decretum  of  Gratian,  compiled  between  1139 
and  1148.  The  volumes  of  church  legislation 
enormously  increased  as  the  papacy  reached  its 
zenith  in  the  13th.  century,  a  stream  of  compilations 
and  abridgments  flowed  forth  and  the  names  of  the 
greatest  canonists  appeared,  Uke  Raymond  of  Pena- 
forte.  The  interpretation  of  the  canon  law  at  this 
time  was  powerfully  influenced  by  the  revived  study 
of  the  Roman  law,  the  philosophy  of  the  schoolmen, 
particularly  that  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (see 
Scholasticism),  the  rise  of  the  universities,  espe- 
cially that  of  Paris,  and  the  Dominican  Order  (q.v.) 
whose  members  soon  became  dominant  in  the 
universities  and  control  of  the  Inquisition  (q.v.). 
Since  the  fall  of  Boniface  VIII.  in  1303,  apart  from 
papal  decreta,  the  most  important  accretions  of 
canon  law  have  been  added  by  the  reforming  coun- 
cils of  the  15th.  century  (councils  of  Constance, 
Basel,  Ferrara,  Florence),  the  council  of  Trent  and 
the  Vatican  Council  of  1870.  A  complete  codifica- 
tion of  canon  law  now  in  force  was  begun  by  Pius  X. 
m  1904  and  pubhshed  by  Benedict  XV.  in  1917. 

In  the  seventeenth  century,  as  a  part  of  the 
Counter-Reformation  (q.v.),  the  canon  law  began 
to  be  attentively  studied,  particularly  by  the 
Benedictines  of  St.  Maur,  and  the  presses  of  the 
church  put  forth  enormously  large  series  of  works 
pertaining  to  the  history  of  the  church,  as  the 
Annates  Ecclesiastid,  edited  by  Cardinal  Baronius 
and  the  Concilia,  edited  by  Mansi  and  Labb4. 

James  Westfall  Thompson 


LAW,  HEBREW.— The  body  of  enactments 
found  in  the  books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
and  Deuteronomy.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  Pentateuch  as  a  whole.     See  Hexateuch. 

The  Hebrew  law  is  organized  in  four  main 
codes,  viz.:  (1)  the  Decalogue  (in  two  recensions, 
viz.,  Exod.  20:2-17  and  Deut.  5:6-21);  (2)  the 
Covenant  Code  (likewise  in  two  recensions,  viz., 
Exod.  34 :  17-26  and  Exod.  20 :  23—23 :  33) ;  (3)  the 
Deuteronomic  Code  (Deut.  12-26);  (4)  the  Priestly, 
or  Levitical,  Code  (the  laws  in  Leviticus  and 
Numbers,  and  the  remaining  legal  material  in 
Exodus). 

These  four  Codes  are  accounted  for  by  traditional 
scholarship  as  having  arisen  at  different  times  in 
the  career  of  Moses,  to  wit:  the  Decalogue  on 
Mt.  Sinai,  at  the  beginning  of  the  desert  march  as 
a  concise  statement  of  fundamental  principles; 
the  Covenant  Code,  at  Mt.  Sinai,  as  a  body  of 
precepts  for  the  people  as  a  whole;  the  Priestly 
Code,  at  various  places  on  the  march,  as  a  technical 
law  for  the  priests;  and  the  Deuteronomic  Code, 
just  before  the  entry  into  Canaan,  as  a  revision  of 
the  Covenant  Code,  made  in  the  hght  of  the  experi- 
ence of  the  preceding  40  years  and  with  a  view  to 
the  needs  of  the  people  in  Canaan. 

Modern  scholarship  thinks  of  the  Law  as 
gradually  developing  in  response  to  the  growing 
needs  of  the  people.  Some  of  the  laws  of  the 
Decalogue  and  of  the  Covenant  Code  may  go 
back  to  the  days  of  Moses,  The  main  body  of  the 
Covenant  Code  arose,  however,  in  Canaan  where 
the  Hebrews  learned  the  ways  of  agriculture  and 
came  into  contact  with  the  Code  of  Hammurabi 
(q.v.)  from  which  they  borrowed  much.  The 
Deuteronomic  Code  was  a  revision  of  the  Covenant 
Code  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teachings  of  the 
prophets  of  the  8th.  and  7th.  centuries  B.C.  and 
was  officially  adopted  by  the  Jewish  nation  in 
621  B.C.  The  Priestly  Code  was  not  completed 
until  the  time  of  Ezra  or  later  and  was  a  revision 
and  expansion  of  all  the  ritual  law  which  had  been 
practiced  in  the  preceding  centuries.  The  purpose 
of  this  elaborate  law  was  to  guard  Jewry  from  all 
sin  and  so  to  make  possible  the  bestowal  of  the 
favor  of  God  in  full  measure. 

J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

LAW  OF  NATURE,  NATURAL  LAW.— A 
law  states  a  uniformity  of  succession  of  events. 
If  this  succession  of  events  is  conceived  of  as  deter- 
mined by  prescription,  such  as  the  will  of  God,  of 
earthly  rulers,  or  of  the  community  through  its  con- 
stituted authorities,  the  uniformity  of  the  succession 
of  events  is  a  law  in  a  legal  sense.  If  the  succession 
follows  from  aesthetic  or  ethical  standards  enter- 
tained by  individuals  or  communities  the  succession 
or  order  is  aesthetic  or  moral.  If  the  uniform 
succession  is  one  of  natural  events  not  under  the 
control  of  an  ordering  will  nor  subject  to  social 
standards,  it  is  called  a  natural  law.  The  extent 
to  which  these  different  conceptions  of  law  can  be 
kept  distinct  from  each  other  depends  evidently 
upon  one's  view  or  philosophy  of  the  world.  A 
pietist  may  see  in  every  succession  of  physical 
events  the  direct  will  of  God.  The  Aristotelian 
will  see  in  such  successions  the  logical  steps  in  the 
expression  of  the  natures  of  things.  The  Stoic  saw 
in  the  world  a  nature  which  was  rational  though 
impersonal,  and  of  which  our  minds  were  but  parts. 
For  the  Stoic,  being  rational  was  hving  according 
to  the  laws  of  nature.  In  the  medieval  period  such 
a  nature,  which  was  responsible  for  the  events  that 
succeed  each  other,  was  widely  recognized  as  a 
force  or  organized  group  of  forces  working  out  the 
will  of  God.  This  conception  is  still  widely  held, 
often  unconsciously.  We  still  tend  to  speak  of  a 
nature  that  works  in  accordance  with  law,  whether 


255 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Laymen's  Movement 


we  imply  that  this  nature  is  an  essence  of  things, 
or  the  expression  of  an  ordering  mind.  Natural 
law  in  the  sense  of  exact  science,  is  a  mere  registra- 
tion of  a  imiformity  of  a  succession  of  events  that 
has  existed  in  the  past  and  for  the  continuance  of 
which  uniformity  there  is  a  high  degree  of  proba- 
bility. The  justification  for  the  assertion  of  such  a 
probability  is  variously  supported  and  is  widely 
questioned,  but  that  the  probability  exists  for  all 
men  there  is  no  doubt.  Such  a  probability  does 
not  carry  with  it  any  implication  of  a  force  or  of  a 
nature  of  things,  or  of  a  mind  or  reason  or  will 
bringing  about  the  ordered  succession.  The  law 
merely  states  the  order  that  has  been  and  probably 
will  recur.  George  H.  Mead 

LAW,  POLITICAL.— The  commonest  and  sim- 
plest definition  is,  a  rule  of  action  prescribed  by  the 
authority  of  the  state,  or,  we  might  add,  by  the 
law-giving  authority  of  the  state  as  organized. 
While  this  definition  may  possibly  be  so  expanded 
and  explained  as  to  be  comprehensive,  it  is  too 
meager  to  be  altogether  satisfying.  It  suggests 
rather  criminal  or  penal  laws  than  the  system  of 
regulations,  orders,  and  authoritatively  recognized 
customs  which  constitute  the  basis  of  modern 
political  society.  (  Law  is  fundamentally  a  body  of 
relationships:  the  law  of  a  political  society  at  a 
given  moment  is  the  whole  set  of  authoritatively 
recognized  obUgations,  rights,  duties  and  privileges 
of  men  and  associations  of  men  in  the  statej  To  a 
large  degree,  modern  systems  of  law  grew  out  of 
primitive  customs;  and  established  principles  and 
practices  antedated  positive  enactment. 

Again,  there  are  so  many  different  divisions 
and  classifications  of  the  law  that  accuracy  of 
statement  appears  to  require  extensive  treatment. 
England  and  the  United  States  have  the  common 
law,  that  great  body  of  principles  which  had  their 
beginning  in  early  EngUsh  history  and  have  gradu- 
ally developed  and  shaped  themselves  to  the 
needs  of  society.  The  common  law  is  called  the 
unwritten  law,  the  lex  non  scripta,  as  distinguished 
from  statute  law,  the  enactment  of  legislative 
bodies.  The  common  law  is  also  distinguished  from 
the  civil  law,  the  latter  an  inheritance  from  Rome, 
and  now  existing  in  considerable  portions  of  western 
Europe  as  well  as  Spanish  America.  Civil  law 
is  the  prevailing  system  in  the  United  States  in  those 
parts,  like  Louisiana,  where  French  and  Spanish 
legal  methods  were  planted  in  early  days. 

The  term  public  law  is  also  often  used,  including 
administrative  law,  constitutional  law,  and  inter- 
national law.  The  first  is  the  body  of  principles  as 
well  as  fixed  formulae,  in  addition  to  the  mandates 
of  constitutional  law,  guiding  the  administrative 
officials  in  the  performance  of  their  duties.  Con- 
stitutional law  embodies  the  forms  and  modes  of 
procedure  of  the  state  and  the  relationship  between 
the  government  and  citizens  or  subjects.  In 
England  an  unconstitutional  law  would  be  one 
passed  by  Parliament,  and  hence  real  law,  but 
contradicting  in  some  particular  the  fundamental 
principles  or  procedure  or  forms  of  the  constitutional 
structure  as  it  had  hitherto  existed.  In  America, 
the  written  constitution  is  itself  the  supreme  law, 
issuing  from  the  supreme  authority,  the  people; 
anything  contrary  to  the  written  document  is  not 
law  and  will  not  be  so  regarded  by  the  courts. 

If  law  must  have  a  sanction,  that  is  to  say,  must 
be  supported  by  compulsive  authority,  international 
law,  as  far  as  it  is  directed  to  the  conduct  of  sover- 
eign states,  cannot  be  called  law;  the  sanction,  if  it 
exists  at  all,  is  moral,  not  legal;  for  sovereignties 
acknowledge  no  external  source  of  control  over 
them.  But  large  portions  of  international  law 
directly  affect  individuals  and  are  a  part  of  the  legal 


system  recognized  and  enforced  by  courts  of 
national  states.  A.  C.  McLaughlin 

LAY  ABBOT. — A  layman  who  in  recognition 
of  services  has  been  granted  the  oversight  of  an 
abbey  by  a  king  or  one  in  authority.  Charles 
Martel  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  custom. 

LAY  BAPTISM.— Baptism  administered  by  a 
layman,  in  the  R.C.  church  permissible  in  an  emer- 
gency in  the  absence  of  a  priest. 

LAY    BROTHER,    LAY    SISTER.— One    who 

resides  in  a  monastery  or  nunnery,  observing  monas- 
tic vows  and  assisting  in  manual  labor  or  other 
secular  affairs,  but  does  not  take  holy  orders, 

LAY  CLERK. — A  layman  who  leads  the  ser- 
vices of  the  church. 

LAY  CONFESSION.— Confession  of  sins  to  a 
layman.  In  case  of  dire  necessity,  when  a  priest 
was  not  available,  the  R.C.  church  in  the  Middle 
Ages  permitted  confession  to  be  made  to  a  layman. 
At  present  confession  is  limited  to  priests  with  proper 
jurisdiction  and  faculties.    See  Confessional. 

LAY,  LAYMAN. — Terms  denoting  members  of 
the  Christian  Church  who  are  not  ordained  as  are 
the  clergy. 

LAY  READER.— A  layman  officially  granted 
the  right  in  the  U.S.  for  one  year  to  read  the  prayers 
in  the  Episcopal  church. 

-LAY  REPRESENTATION.— Participation  of 
the  laity  in  the  government  of  the  church,  a  principle 
of  Protestant  denominations  in  contrast  with  the 
CathoUc  practise  of  complete  clerical  control. 

LAY  TITHES. — Ecclesiastical  tithes  which  were 
sometimes  paid  by  bishops  and  abbots  to  laymen, 
in  return  for  servants  and  vassals  to  uphold  the 
church  in  the  defence  of  its  civil  rights. 

LAYING  ON  OF  HANDS.— See  Hands,  Lay- 
ing ON  OF. 

LAYMEN'S  MISSIONARY  MOVEMENT.— A 

movement  organized  in  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presby- 
terian Church,  New  York  City,  November  15th, 
1906,  marking  the  centennial  celebration  of  the 
beginning  of  foreign  missionary  work  in  America. 
Eighty  laymen  representing  all  Protestant  Com- 
munions were  in  attendance.  It  was  inspired  by 
the  Student  Volunteer  Movement. 

John  B.  Sleman,  an  insurance  agent,  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  who  attended  the  Student  Volunteer 
Movement's  quadrennial  convention  at  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  during  the  Christmas  holidays  of  1905, 
observed  that  the  devotion  of  the  students  of  the 
American  colleges  and  universities  to  the  world's 
evangelization  was  not  matched  by  the  church  as  a 
whole  or  by  the  men  and  women  comprising  its  mem- 
bership. The  Laymen's  Missionary  Movement  is 
therefore  complementary  to  the  Student  Volunteer 
Movement  (q.v.).  Conferences  and  conventions 
of  ministers  and  laymen  have  been  organized  for 
the  promotion  of  an  interest  in  the  missionary  cause. 
These  are  held  in  various  states,  districts,  counties, 
and  cities.  The  programs  are  educational  and 
inspirational.  Missionaries  and  those  who  have 
seen  missionary  work  at  first  hand  give  the  addresses, 
which  are  calculated  to  impart  vision  to  the  dele- 
gates, while  laymen,  pastors  and  mission-board 
secretaries   discuss   various   methods   which   have 


Lazarists 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


256 


been  known  to  increase  the  missionary  eflficiency 
of  the  church. 

The  most  notable  contribution  of  the  Laymen's 
Missionary  Movement  towards  the  adoption  of  more 
efficient  methods  has  been  its  success  in  securing 
the  official  introduction  of  the  Every  Member 
Canvass  in  practically  all  of  the  Protestant  Com- 
munions. Within  ten  years  the  contributions  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  to  foreign  missions 
more  than  doubled  and  it  is  generally  recognized 
that  the  work  of  the  Laymen's  Missionary  Move- 
ment was  very  largely,  though  not  wholly,  respon- 
sible for  this  remarkable  increase  in  so  short  a 
time.  The  contributions  to  home  missions  and 
the  local  church  support  have,  as  a  result,  increased 
even  more  largely. 

At  first  the  Movement  concerned  itself  primarily 
about  the  promotion  of  the  Foreign  Missionary 
Cause;  later  on  it  devoted  itself  to  the  promotion 
of  interest  in  the  entire  missionary  program  of  the 
Christian  Church  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

J.  Campbell  White  was  the  first  general  secre- 
tary. The  First  National  Missionary  Congress  of 
the  Movement  was  held  in  the  Auditorium  Theater, 
Chicago,  May  3-6,  1910.  The  officers  of  that 
Congress  were,  Henry  P.  Crowell  Chairman,  F.  J. 
Michel,  Executive  Secretary,  David  R.  Forgan, 
Treasurer  and  Alfred  E.  MarUng,  Moderator.  The 
Second  Congress  was  held  in  Washington,  D.C., 
April  26-30,  1916.  The  principal  offices  of  the 
Laymen's  Missionary  Movement  are  located  at 
1  Madison  Ave.,  New  York,  and  19  S.  La  Salle 
St.,  Chicago.  F.  J.  Michel 

LAZARISTS. — See  Vincent  de  Paul,  Saint. 

LEAGUE  AND  COVENANT,  THE  SOLEMN. 

— An  agreement  into  which  both  Scotland  arid 
England  entered  in  1643  with  the  intent  of  establish- 
ing Presbyterianism  in  both  countries,  a  reaction 
against  the  extreme  measures  of  Archbishop  Land 
(q.v.).    See  Covenanters. 

LEAGUE,  GERMAN  CATHOLIC— A  con- 
federacy of  the  Catholic  princes  of  the  German 
empire,  entered  into  in  1609,  for  the  defence  of  the 
Cathohc  religion  in  opposition  to  the  Protestant 
Union,  founded  in  1608.  The  League  was  a  power- 
ful factor  on  the  Cathohc  side  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War. 

LEAVEN. — A  substance  which  induces  fer- 
mentation, specifically  such  a  substance  used  in 
the  making  of  bread.  The  Hebrews  associated 
defilement  with  fermentation,  hence  forbade  the 
use  of  leavened  bread  for  hturgical  purposes. 

LECTERN. — A  reading  desk  of  wood  or 
metal  used  in  various  churches  to  hold  the  Bible 
from  which  the  Scripture  lessons  are  read. 

LECTIO  NARY. — A  liturgical  volume  containing 
tables  of  lessons  to  be  read  in  church  services. 

LECTOR. — One  appointed  to  read  the  lessons 
in  churches.  The  office  dates  back  to  the  2nd. 
century  and  grew  out  of  the  need  of  persons  suffi- 
ciently hterate  to  read  the  lesson  at  the  public 
worship.  In  the  R.C.  church  the  lector  belongs  to 
a  minor  order  and  the  office  is  a  preliminary  to  the 
priesthood. 

LECTURES  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  RELI- 
GIONS.— Most  of  the  early  and  some  recent 
lectureships  on  religion  were  founded  with  a  distinct 
apologetic  interest  and  were  devoted  to  the  defense 
and  demonstration  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Among  such  foundations  are  the  Croall,  Bampton, 
Baird,    Cuimingham,    and   Congregational   Union 


lectures  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  Ely,  Earl  and 
Bross  lectures  in  America.  It  may  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  such  lectureships  in  the  hands  of  modern 
scholars  tend  to  interpret  rather  than  to  defend  the 
Christian  religion  as  a  valuable  product  of  the 
human  spirit.  The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to 
list  only  those  lectureships  devoted  to  research 
study  of  religions  without  apologetic  conditions. 

1.  The  Gifford  Lectures  founded  by  Lord  GiGFord 
in  1888  to  be  delivered  at  brief  intervals  at  the 
Scottish  Universities.  The  lecturers  "may  be  of 
any  religion  or  way  of  thinking  or  they  may  be  of  no 
religion  or  they  may  be  so-called  sceptics  or  agnostics 
or  free-thinkers"  but  must  be  "specialists  in  natural 
theology  and  able  to  deal  with  it  as  a  strictly 
natural  science."  These  lectures  have  been  useful 
for  giving  a  philosophic  background  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  reUgion. 

2.  The  Hibbert  Lectures  founded  in  1878  by 
the  Trustees  of  the  Hibbert  fund  have  dealt  with 
the  origin  and  development  of  religion  as  illus- 
trated by  the  various  religions  of  mankind.  This 
valuable  series  has  concentrated  the  best  of  the 
world's  scholarship  on  the  interpretation  of  the 
reUgious  history  of  mankind. 

3.  The  American  Lectures  on  the  History  of 
Religions  founded  in  1892  by  a  group  of  American 
scholars  "to  encourage  the  intelligent  study  of 
reUgions"  are  delivered  from  time  to  time  at 
various  centers  in  the  United  States  by  scholars 
of  international  reputation.  They  are  non- 
polemical  and  attempt  to  do  for  America  what  the 
Hibbert  Lectures  do  for  Great  Britain. 

4.  The  Haskell  Lectures  founded  in  1894  by 
Mrs.  Carohne  E.  Haskell  as  a  lectureship  on 
Comparative  Religion  providing  for  a  course  of 
six  lectures  to  be  dehvered  annually  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

5.  The  Barrows  Lectures  founded  in  1894  by 
Mrs.  Caroline  E.  Haskell  and  named  in  honor  of 
Dr.  John  Henry  Barrows  to  be  dehvered  in  India 
by  Christian  scholars  in  interpretation  of  Chris- 
tianity or  by  non-Christian  scholars  in  interpreta- 
tion of  their  own  faiths.         A.  Eustace  Haydon 

LEE,  ANN  (1736-1784).— She  joined  the 
"Shaking  Quakers"  in  England  in  1758  and  in  1774 
with  her  followers  migrated  to  America,  where 
she  became  the  founder  of  the  Shakers  (q.v.).  She 
was  highly  emotional,  considered  herself  a  second 
incarnation  of  Christ;  taught  radical  views  against 
marriage,  and  urged  perfect  sanctification. 

LEGALISM. — The  conception  that  rehgion  or 
morahty  consists  in  exact  obedience  to  a  definite 
code  of  laws. 

The  most  famihar  example  of  legahsm  is  insist- 
ence on  hteral  obedience  to  the  commands  of 
Scripture.  The  scribes  represented  this  ideal  in 
Judaism.  Mohammedanism  is  fundamentally  legal- 
istic. Christianity  has  always  had  legalistic  sects. 
The  conception  is  found  in  nearly  all  rehgions, 
whenever  particular  acts  are  required,  regardless 
of  their  social  utiUty. 

The  fundamental  defect  of  legahsm  is  that  it 
substitutes  a  minute  study  of  technical  command- 
ments for  the  broader,  sympathetic  understanding 
of  fife  itself.  The  legahst  can  conscientiously 
"tithe  mint,  anice,  and  cummin"  while  faihng  to 
be  sensitive  to  real  human  needs.  Moreover,  this 
idolizing  of  a  fixed  code  prevents  the  legahst  from 
seeing  that  "new  occasions  teach  new  duties." 
Legahsm  thus  creates  a  type  of  conscientiousness 
which  tends  to  become  severe  and  reactionary. 
Jesus  mercilessly  criticized  legahsm,  and  the 
apostle  Paul  made  legahsm  and  Christian  faith 
mutually  exclusive.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 


257 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Liber  Pontificalis 


LEGATES     AND      NUNCIOS,     PAPAL.— A 

Legate  was  an  ambassador  representing  the  pope 
at  synods  or  in  case  of  disputes  between  bishops  or 
at  the  consecration  of  metropoHtans.  The  title 
belongs  as  a  purely  honorary  distinction  to  a  few 
European  archbishops.  The  sending  of  cardinals 
as  legates  made  conflicts  with  episcopal  rights,  and 
in  the  16th.  century  diplomatic  functions  passed  to 
the  permanent  resident  nuncios  who  had  been  only 
fiscal  agents.  Nuncios  are  papal  inspectors  report- 
ing to  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State.  The 
Apostolic  Delegate  sent  to  the  United  States  is  not 
a  member  of  the  diplomatic  corps. 

F.  A.  Christie 

LEIBNIZ,  GOTTFRIED  WILHELM  (1646- 
1716). — German  philosopher  and  jurist,  whose 
philosophy  represents  a  reaction  against  a  mechani- 
cal view  of  nature  (represented  by  Descartes, 
Hobbes,  and  Spinoza),  and  the  effort  to  reconcile 
mechanism  with  teleology.  His  Monadology  makes 
substance  consist  of  a  multitude  of  elements,  as  did 
atomism.  But  nomads  are  centers  of  force,  not  of 
matter.  This  force  is  to  be  interpreted  after  the 
analogy  of  the  self.  Leibniz's  system  thus  becomes 
idealistic.  The  lower  forms  in  nature  represent 
lower  stages  of  consciousness.  Monads  exist  in 
all  degrees  of  clearness  and  darkness;  some  only 
slumber  or  dream.  There  is,  however,  an  unbroken 
series  from  lowest  to  highest;  nature  makes  no 
leaps.  Leibniz  regarded  the  discovery  of  micro- 
organisms by  means  of  the  microscope  as  empirical 
confirmation  of  his  theory.  The  theological  devel- 
opments of  his  system  are  the  least  satisfactory 
part.  When  he  makes  God,  the  supreme  monad, 
the  creator  or  source  of  the  other  monads,  he 
contradicts  his  assertion  that  the  monads  are 
ultimate.  And  when  he  unifies  the  world  through 
the  activity  of  God,  he  falls  back  into  the  monism 
of  Spinoza,  from  which  he  imagined  himself  free. 
His  Theodicee  treats  the  problem  of  evil  in  answer  to 
Bayle,  who  had  asserted  a  contradiction  between 
reason  and  reb'gion.  The  modern  reader  will 
hardly  find  it  edifying.  More  significant  are  his 
discussions  of  ethics  and  jurisprudence,  where  his 
guiding  principle  is  that  of  harmony  between 
individuals  in  society,  an  extension  of  the  principle 
governing  all  the  monads  that  constitute  the  world. 

W.  G.  Everett 

LEIPZIG  INTERIM.— A  document  drafted 
by  Melancthon  embodying  a  compromise  between 
the  Protestants  of  North  Germany  and  the  papacy. 
Unpopular  with  both  Protestants  and  the  Pope, 
only  a  pretense  was  made  of  conforming  to  its 
regulations,  which  called  for  certain  modifications 
in  respect  to  Friday  fasting  and  the  celebration  of 
the  mass.  After  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  Elector 
John  Frederick  of  Saxony  by  the  imperial  army, 
it  was  entirely  ignored. 

LENT. — The  forty  days'  fast,  observed  annually 
by  the  Anglican,  Roman  Catholic  and  other  churches 
antecedent  to  Easter.  The  fast  begins  Ash  Wednes- 
day and  is  a  season  of  penitence  and  self-denial. 
Also  called  by  the  Latin  name,  Quadragesima. 

LEO. — The  name  of  thirteen  popes. 

Leo  I. — Called  the  Great;  pope,  440-461; 
accomplished  much  in  establishing  the  primacy 
of  the  successors  of  Peter  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
Although  not  present  at  the  council  of  Chalcedon 
in  451,  his  definition  of  the  person  of  Christ  was 
adopted  and  has  since  been  the  received  orthodoxy. 
During  his  pontificate  (455)  occurred  the  Vandal 
invasion  of  Italy. 

Leo  //.—Pope,  682-683. 

Leo  ///.—Pope,  795-816.  He  crowned  Charle- 
magne   emperor    in    800.     Leo    approved    of    the 


filioque  as  orthodox  but  objected  to  its  insertion 
in  the  creed. 

Leo  /F.— Pope,  847-855. 

Leo   V. — Pope  for  two  months  in  903. 

Leo  VI. — Pope  for  seven  months  in  928. 

Leo  F//.— Pope,  936-939. 

Leo  VIII.— Pope,  963-965. 

Leo  IX.— Pope,  1049-1054. 

Leo  Z.— Pope,  1513-1521.  Son  of  Lorenzo 
deMedici  and  a  contemporary  of  Savonarola;  was 
elected  a  cardinal  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  During 
his  pontificate  Europe  was  in  a  turmoil,  but  he  made 
the  papacy  supreme  in  Italy  and  restored  its 
authority  in  France,  while  he  gained  the  support 
of  England,  granting  Henry  VIII.  the  title 
"Defender  of  the  Faith"  and  making  Wolsey 
a  cardinal.  He  was  an  ardent  humanist  attempt- 
ing to  make  the  papal  court  a  center  of  culture  and 
magnificence.  His  need  of  funds  for  his  ambitious 
undertakings  led  to  the  sale  of  indulgences  which 
provoked  Luther's  theses  and  occasioned  the 
Protestant  revolt. 

Leo  XL— Pope  for  27  days  in  1605. 

Leo  XII.— Pope,  1823-1829. 

Leo  XIII.— Pope,  1878-1903.  Although  68 
when  elected  pope,  he  ruled  25  years.  His  poUcy 
was  one  of  conciliation  and  moderation,  and  of 
support  of  governments  which  maintained  social 
order.  He  was  especially  zealous  to  promote  sound 
scholarship  in  theological  learning,  and  to  relate 
the  church  to  the  vital  questions  of  the  day.  His 
encycUcals  furnished  important  expositions  of  the 
Catholic  theory  of  state,  church,  industry,  liberty, 
marriage,  and  other  important  subjects. 

LESSING,  GOTTHOLD  EPHRAIM  (1729- 
1781). — A  poet,  dramatist,  critic,  who  emancipated 
German  literature  from  imitative  dependence  on 
the  French,  also  a  leader  in  the  religious  thought  of 
his  age.  As  librarian  in  Wolfenbiittel  he  published 
from  a  manuscript  found  there  the  rationalist 
criticism  of  the  gospels  by  Reimarus,  and  in  self- 
defense  was  involved  in  the  debate  of  his  time 
over  reason  and  revelation.  His  Education  of  the 
Human  Race  (1777)  initiated  a  new  view  of  revela- 
tion as  an  historical  education  under  divine  Provi- 
dence, and  his  Proof  of  the  Spirit  and  of  Power  (1777) 
pleads  that  religion  should  be  based  on  the  soul's 
experience  rather  than  on  arguments  from  prophecy 
and  miracle.  F.  A.  Christie 

LEVELLERS. — The  name  given  to  a  group  of 
political  radicals  of  the  Cromwellian  era.  Deriving 
their  doctrines  from  the  ancient  theory  of  the 
EngUsh  Constitution  as  fundamental  law,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  polity  of  the  Independents,  in  common 
with  other  groups  of  the  period,  the  Levellers 
favored  a  republican  form  of  government,  religious 
toleration,  the  fundamental  judicial  principles  of 
trial  by  jury,  the  right  of  a  prisoner  to  counsel, 
a  copy  of  indictment,  and  refusal  to  incriminate 
himself.  More  distinctive  was  their  insistence 
that  the  laws  of  the  land  were  vaUd  only  in  so 
far  as  they  were  a  restatement  of  the  laws  of  nature 
and  reason,  that  the  powers  of  government  should 
be  limited  by  a  written  constitution  of  fundamental 
law,  and  that  the  constitution  like  other  laws  should 
be  subject  to  enforcement  by  the  courts.  For  the 
propagating  of  their  principles  they  evolved  a 
political  party  organization.  Their  influence  sur- 
vives in  the  main  principles  of  American  constitu- 
tional law.  Peter  G.  Mode 

LEX  TALIONIS.— See  BLOOD-RBVBNaE. 

LIBER  PONTIFICALIS.— A  book  of  the  popes, 
containing  biographies  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  from 


Liberal  Theology 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


258 


Peter  to  Nicholas  I.  (d.  867).     It  is  of  composite 
authorship,  the  earhest  part  dating  from  ca.  530. 

LIBERAL  THEOLOGY.— A  term  designating 
a  type  of  rehgious  thinking  in  which  freedom  of 
discussion  and  the  right  of  dissent  from  traditional 
doctrines  is  encouraged  for  the  sake  of  a  closer 
relation  between  reUgion  and  culture. 

The  primary  aim  of  liberal  theology  is  to  make 
a  place  for  the  best  thinking  of  the  day  in  the 
realm  of  theology.  It  is  opposed  to  any  authority 
of  the  "dead  hand"  over  the  thinking  of  living 
men.  Emphasizing,  as  it  does,  the  intellectual 
aspects  of  religion,  it  is  a  valuable  force  in  counter- 
acting obscurantism;  but  this  very  intellectual 
interest  almost  inevitably  leads  to  a  more  or  less 
complete  rationahzing  of  reUgion,  and  a  neglect 
of  ritualistic  and  ecclesiastically  sociahzed  means  of 
rehgious  expression.  Liberalism  therefore  thrives 
best  when  it  plays  the  role  of  critic,  and  generally 
proves  defective  as  a  force  of  social  organization. 
Unitarianism  and  UniversaUsm  are  currently 
regarded  as  the  liberal  churches;  but  all  Protestant 
denominations  have  liberal  persons  and  churches. 
In  Catholicism,  Modernism  (q.v.)  was  a  hberal 
movement.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

LIBERIUS.— Pope,  352-366,  favored  Atha- 
nasius,  and  helped  secure  the  triumph  of  his  party 
in  361. 

LIBERTARIANISM  AND  NECESSITARIAN- 
ISM.— Theories  of  human  will,  the  latter  asserting 
that  the  will  is  brought  to  action  by  definitely 
determining  conditions;  the  former  either  rejecting 
such  determination  as  a  fact,  or  denying  that  it 
conflicts  with  essential  human  freedom.  No 
definitions  have  been  framed  acceptable  equally 
to  disputants  on  both  sides.  The  controversy  has 
assumed  three  main  forms:  (a)  Theological:  Does 
the  will  of  God  leave  room  for  the  will  of  man? 
See  Predestination;  Calvinism,  (b)  Psycho- 
logical: Is  the  will  directed  entirely  by  motives? 
If  so,  do  motives  operate  by  a  method  analogous 
to  natural  causation?  See  Motive,  (c)  Natural- 
istic: Are  the  forces  of  human  action  identical 
with  or  directly  dependent  on  the  physical  and 
chemical  forces  of  the  material  world,  and  subject 
to  the  same  "reign  of  law"?  This  form  of  the 
problem  has  become  the  most  acute  today,  due  to 
the  prevailing  "scientific  point  of  view."  It  is  met 
by  such  distinctions  as  that  between  realms  of 
appearance  and  reality,  or  that  between  the  retro- 
spective and  prospective  view  of  events.  Kant, 
and  recently  Bergson,  are  outstanding  thinkers 
here.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  more  fully  the 
conception  of  natural  law  in  events  is  actually 
carried  through,  the  more  completely  can  events  be 
controlled  by  human  will.  J.  F.  Crawford 

LIBERTINES.— (1)  Members  of  the  Jewish 
synagogue  at  Jerusalem,  the  name  probably 
signifying  men  liberated  by  the  Romans.  Cf. 
Acts  6 : 9.  (2)  A  poUtical  party  which  opposed  the 
attempts  of  Calvin  to  reform  the  morals  of  Geneva. 
Also  called  Perrinists  from  Ami  Perrin,  the  leader. 
(3)  An  antinomian  party  of  pantheistic  tendencies 
of  the  Reformation  period,  appearing  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  France,  who  argued  against  any  dis- 
tinction between  good  and  evil.  (4)  In  ethics 
generally  appUed  to  those  who  indulge  their  appe- 
tites without  restraint  or  who  are  irresponsible 
free-thinkers. 

LIBERTY. — ^The  right  to  exercise  one's  powers 
without  external  restraint. 

Whenever  personahty  is  valued,  the  free  exercise 
of  human  powers  is  essential;   for  restraint  means 


the  abridgment  of  life.  Many  of  the  noblest 
moral  and  spiritual  movements  in  history  have 
been  struggles  for  liberty.  A  few  typical  con- 
ceptions of  liberty  may  be  mentioned. 

1.  Personal  liberty. — Every  person  should  have 
the  right  to  choose  his  own  manner  of  life  in  so  far 
as  his  choice  does  not  wrong  others.  Slavery 
prevented  this,  and  emancipation  was  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  inherent  right  of  personal  hberty.  The 
enforcement  of  majority  decisions  is  often  resisted 
under  the  plea  of  personal  liberty,  even  when,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  anti-temperance  movement,  the 
conception  of  liberty  may  be  lacking  in  large 
vision  of  social  welfare.  Anarchy,  as  an  extreme 
form  of  personal  liberty,  would  do  away  with  all 
restraint.  It  is  obvious  that  the  freedom  of  any 
individual  must  be  morally  hmited  by  considerations 
of  social  good. 

2.  Political  liberty  means  the  release  of  a 
state  or  poHtical  group  from  aUen  control.  The 
right  of  such  groups  to  self-government  is  increas- 
ingly recognized  in  modern  politics.  Another 
aspect  of  political  liberty  is  the  full  right  of  residents 
of  a  state  to  participate  in  the  government.  The 
removal  of  pohtical  disabilities  on  grounds  of 
rehgious  behef,  occupation,  wealth,  sex,  or  race  is  a 
mark  of  enhghtened  governments  today. 

3.  Freedom  of  speech  or  of  teaching  is  the  essential 
condition  of  wholesome  criticism  of  social  ideals  and 
practices.  It  is  only  as  a  person  may  freely  attempt 
to  persuade  others  that  it  is  possible  to  exercise 
real  poUtical  freedom.  This  right  is  guaranteed  in 
modern  enlightened  nations;  but  certain  restrictions 
are  often  necessary  for  the  public  good,  as  in  time 
of  war,  when  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemy  might 
be  given  by  unrestricted  freedom  of  speech.  To 
draw  the  fine  between  the  interests  of  personal 
freedom  and  the  pubhc  welfare  is  not  an  easy 
task.  As  in  all  cases  of  personal  freedom,  the 
individual  must  not  be  permitted  to  injure  society 
simply  to  satisfy  an  unsocial  ambition. 

4.  Religious  liberty. — "Liberty  of  prophesying" 
is  the  assertion  that  a  man's  duty  to  God  is 
higher  than  his  obUgations  to  religious  custom  or 
law.  While  such  Hberty  may  take  extravagant 
forms  so  as  to  bring  rehgion  into  disrepute,  the 
right  of  personal  dissent  in  matters  of  faith  and 
practice  has  been  increasingly  recognized.  In 
most  lands  today  a  person  may  freely  choose  his 
form  of  faith  or  may  decline  to  profess  any  religious 
faith  without  incurring  penalties.  The  struggle 
for  religious  hberty  furnishes  many  of  the  noblest 
chapters  in  church  history.  Involved  in  this  liberty 
is  the  principle  of  the  equal  legal  rights  of  differ- 
ent rehgious  bodies.  Thanks  to  the  efforts  of  non- 
conformists and  the  influence  of  democracy,  the 
day  of  especially  privileged  churches  is  fast  passing. 
See  ToIjEEAtion;  Dissent;  Non-Conformity. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

LICENTIATE. — In  Protestant  churches,  one 
Ucensed  to  preach,  though  not  ordained.  In  the 
R.C.  church,  a  friar  authorized  by  the  Holy  See 
to  perform  certain  offices  independent  of  local  priests. 

LIE. — A  statement  misrepresenting  the  facts  so 
as  to  benefit  the  deceiver. 

The  moral  wrong  involved  in  lying  springs 
from  the  injury  which  may  result  from  deception. 
(1)  Everj^  person  has  a  right  to  a  correct  knowledge 
of  facts  in  order  to  promote  his  welfare.  Lying 
withholds  from  him  essential  information,  as,  e.g., 
when  a  buyer  is  misinformed  concerning  the  quality 
of  his  purchase.  (2)  Since  mutual  confidence  is 
indispensable  to  social  co-operation,  lying,  which 
creates  distrust  and  selfish  shrewdness,  prevents 
social  virtues. 


259 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Life,  Religious 


But  there  are  cases  in  which  deception  is 
generally  regarded  as  morally  defensible.  If  good 
can  undoubtedly  be  promoted  through  ignorance 
of  certain  facts,  as,  e.g.,  when  depressing  news 
would  endanger  the  Ufe  of  a  critically  ill  person, 
the  withholding  of  information  may  be  ethically 
required.  Again,  if  a  person  or  a  group  seeks  to 
injure  others  or  to  disrupt  society,  such  deception 
as  will  prevent  the  injury  is  usually  considered 
justifiable,  as,  e.g.,  to  misdirect  a  would-be  murderer 
in  quest  of  his  victim,  or  to  misinform  an  enemy 
in  warfare. 

Truth-telling,  like  every  other  virtue,  gains  its 
value  from  its  power  to  promote  human  welfare. 
If  this  were  remembered,  much  morbid  concern 
would  be  avoided,  and  such  absurdities  as  denoun- 
cing fiction  because  it  consists  of  "lies"  would 
cease.  At  the  same  time  the  rights  of  mature  per- 
sons to  self-direction  and  the  importance  of  mutual 
trust  in  social  organization  are  so  weighty  that 
deception  in  any  given  instance  should  be  approved 
only  after  careful  and  searching  criticism.  The 
conventional  stigma  attached  to  the  word  "liar" 
is  a  wholesome  recognition  of  the  moral  peril 
involved  in  lying.  Gerald  Birnet  Smith 

LIFE. — ^The  phenomenon  of  life,  from  the 
biological  point  of  view,  is  a  very  obscure  problem. 
The  earliest  theoretical  explanation  was  that  hfe  is  a 
mysterious  force,  entirely  distinct  from  other  forms 
of  energy  observed  in  nature.  This  "vital  force" 
was  called  upon  to  explain  things  which  the  so- 
called  physical  forces  could  not.  With  the  advance 
in  scientific  knowledge,  esp>ecially  in  physiologv 
and  its  alUed  subjects,  certain  "hfe  processes ' 
that  had  been  referred  to  vital  force  were  found  to 
be  physiological  processes  which  conformed  to 
known  laws  of  chemistry  and  physics.  This 
suggested  the  possibility  that  all  Ufe  phenomena 
are  expressions  of  the  laws  of  chemistry  and  physics. 
In  consequence,  two  theories  of  hfe  are  held:  that 
which  assumes  a  vital  force  distinct  from  anything 

Ehysical  is  called  "vitahsm";  while  that  which 
olds  that  all  Ufe  phenomena  can  be  explained  bv 
physical  laws  is  spoken  of  as  the  "physico-chemical ' 
theory.  Certain  biologists  still  believe  in  vitaUsm, 
but  there  is  a  growing  belief  that  vitaUsm  is  siniply 
another  name  for  the  undiscovered.  It  is  certainly 
true  that  the  territory  of  vitaUsm  has  been  steadily 
diminishing  in  extent  by  the  encroachment  of 
physical  laws,  but  it  is  still  a  matter  of  opinion 
whether  it  will  fimally  disappear  entirely. 

The  Uving  substance  is  protoplasm,  and  it  is 
only  through  this  substance  that  Ufe  manifests 
itself.  For  this  reason,-  Huxley  called  it  the 
"physical  basis  of  Ufe."  The  constitution  of  proto- 
plasm is  extremely  complex,  but  it  is  known  to 
be  made  up  of  numerous  complex  compounds 
whose  constitution  is  known,  but  whose  association 
in  protoplasm  is  only  vaguely  surmised.  Proto- 
plasm is  very  unstable,  and  its  constant  changes 
are  associated  with  what  have  been  called  "vital 
processes."  Experiments  have  shown  that  proto- 
plasm is  exceedingly  sensitive,  responding  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways  to  conditions  imposed  upon 
it.  In  consequence  of  these  responses,  character- 
istic structures  are  often  formed,  whose  appearance 
had  been  attributed  to  the  mysterious  vital  force. 
For  example,  in  the  Ufe  history  of  most  plants  there 
are  three  conspicuous  phases:  vegetative  vigor, 
spore-formation,  and  sex  organ-formation.  Experi- 
ment has  shown  that  these  phases  are  not  periods  in 
the  Ufe  of  the  plant,  determined  by  an  unknown  force, 
but  they  can  be  induced  at  any  time  by  imposing 
certain  definite  conditions.  If  such  fundamental 
things  as  vegetative  activity,  spores,  and  sex 
organs  are  under  the  control  of  physical  laws,  not 


only  in  reference  to  function,  but  also  in  reference 
to  origin,  it  is  natural  to  raise  the  question  whether 
aU  Ufe  phenomena  cannot  be  referred  to  the  same 
category. 

The  present  status  of  the  subject  is  that  many 
of  the  most  important  Ufe  phenomena  formerly 
referred  to  vital  force  have  been  demonstrated  as 
coming  under  the  laws  of  physics  and  chemistry; 
that  many  Ufe  phenomena  remain  to  be  explained; 
and  that  in  reference  to  these  latter  there  are  two 
views,  one  holding  that  they  will  be  explained  by 
physical  laws,  and  the  other  holding  that  there 
will  always  be  some  unexplorable  territory  belonging 
to  vitalism.  John  M.  Coulter 

LIFE,    RELIGIOUS    SIGNIFICANCE    OF.— 

The  conception  of  Ufe,  as  it  appears  in  religious 
and  ethical^  thinking,  involves  three  meanings, 
often-times  interrelated:  (1)  animating  principle, 
or  source  of  activity;  (2)  lifetime,  or  life  history; 
(3)  manner  or  condition  of  being  alive.  Each 
of  these  meanings  has  numerous  ramifications  of 
sense  and  application. 

1.  Ldfe  principle. — The  distinction  between  the 
body  and  its  life  is  one  made  by  all  races  of  men, 
probably  as  the  inevitable  consequence  of  the  harsh 
contrast  between  the  living  body  and  the  corpse. 
The  distinction  is  so  prominent  even  in  the  minds  of 
savages  and  primitives  that  with  virtual  universaUty 
they  personify  the  life  as  a  special  form  or  being, 
sometimes  conceived  as  a  ghostly  image  of  a  man, 
sometimes  as  a  tiny  simulacrum,  or  again  in  other 
than  human  shape;  but  in  every  case  as  that  which 
gives  and  maintains  bodily  activity.  This  ani- 
mating life  is  usually  distinguished  from  the  soul; 
the  soul  is  thought  of  as  freed  from  the  body  at 
death,  while  the  life  either  disappears  or  slowly 
dissolves  with  the  body's  decay.  The  notion  of  a 
"vital  flame"  or  "vital  spark,"  in  which  the  Ufe 
is  Ukened  to  the  most  active  of  the  elements,  is  but 
one  reflection  of  this  effort  to  envisage  it;  while  a 
multitude  of  other  tropes  carry  the  same  thought — • 
as  the  "breath  of  Ufe,"  the  "Ufe-blood."  Such 
phrases  as  the  "water  of  life,"  the  "bread  of  lifcj" 
the  "tree  of  Ufe,"  hark  back  to  the  feeUng  that  in 
food  and  drink  themselves  is  found,  not  only  bodily, 
but  vital  sustenance.  _  In  more  philosophical 
ranges  of  thought,  distinction  is  made  between 
bodily,  conscious,  and  spiritual  life,  each  of  which 
is  regarded  as  having  its  own  principle:  the  bodily 
Ufe  is  regarded  as  maintained  by  a  nutritive,  or 
growth,  principle;  the  conscious  life  as  due  to  a 
special  energjr  or  faculty  superadded  to  the  nutri- 
tive; the  spiritual  Ufe  is  the  life  of  the  soul,  separ- 
able from  ^  bodily  conditions.  In  the  broadest 
ranges  of  thinking,  the  propriety  of  these  conceptions 
is  still  discussed,  gjving  rise  to  three  groups  of 
problems:  (1)  What  is  animate  reahty?  Is  there  a 
vital  principle  in  nature,  giving  rise  to  the  distinct- 
ive phenomena  of  organic  creation?  (2)  What  is 
consciousness?  How  is  conscious  Uving  related  to 
mere  bodily  existence :  is  it  dependent  or  independ- 
ent? is  it  cause  or  effect?  (3)  Is  there  spiritual 
being?  In  what  sense  is  it  related  to  physical 
and  conscious  embodiments? 

2.  Life  history. — A  second  important  concep- 
tion is  that  of  the  Ufe  of  a  man  as  the  number  of  his 
days,  as  a  lifetime.  Since  a  normal  life  involves 
a  regular  series  of  changes,  or  life-estates,  the 
notion  resolves  into  that  of  a  history,  or  biographic 
form.  The  "seven  ages"  of  man  is  a  traditional 
representation  of  this  idea,  which  is  reflected  in 
mythology,  Uterature,  and  speculation  in  a  multi- 
tude of  ways.  The  cycle  from  birth  to  maturity, 
from  maturity  to  decay,  is  made  the  image  within 
which  nearly  the  whole  of  nature  is  conceived. 
The  daily  course  of  the  sun,  the  four  seasons  of  the 


Life,  Religious 


A  DICTIONABY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


260 


year,  the  rise  and  fall  of  a  nation  of  men,  the  evolu- 
tion of  an  animal  or  plant  species,  the  development 
and  dissolution  of  a  solar  system,  each  and  all  are 
hkened  to  the  cycle  of  a  man's  days,  and  are  given 
intelligibility  through  this  likeness.  In  fact  the 
whole  philosophy  of  beginnings  and  ends — genesis 
and  eschatology — is  made  persuasive  because  of 
this  fundamental  form  of  human  experience.  From 
such  a  conception  of  a  lifetime  as  a  unit  comes  natu- 
rally the  notion  of  repeated  or  successive  lives.  The 
primitive  form  of  this  is  the  conception  of  the  suc- 
cessive lives  of  transmigrating  or  reincarnating 
souls — ^today  common  throughout  the  Buddhist 
world.  In  more  refined  religious  thinking  it  takes 
the  form  of  an  idealized  "life  to  come,"  in  a  world 
after  death.  Doubtless,  however,  it  is  represented 
in  part  by  the  conception  of  a  regeneration,  or 
spiritual  re-birth,  even  in  the  days  of  the  flesh, 
which  gives  rise  to  a  second  life-cycle,  begun  ere 
the  life  of  the  body  has  run  its  course.  But  this 
notion  involves  also  the  third  meaning. 

3.  Life  condition. — The  conception  of  a  quality, 
plane,  or  character  of  life  is  most  sharply  indicated 
by  the  Christian  contrast  between  the  "life  of  the 
world"  and  the  "life  of  the  spirit."  It  is  a  recog- 
nition not  merely  of  different  environment  and 
interests,  but  of  a  different  center,  or  motive,  in 
the  type  of  character.  Spirituality  and  worldliness 
are  alike  qualities  of  being,  difficult  to  define  save 
by  portraiture,  but  easily  recognizable  when  truly 
drawn.  Even  the  lowest  savages  recognize  a  sharp 
difference  between  the  vital  estate  of  the  inspired 
and  the  uninspired;  the  shaman  or  prophet  is  con- 
ceived not  only  as  a  person  of  unusual  powers, 
but  as  a  different  kind  of  man.  In  organized 
religions  many  grades  of  life-condition  are  recog- 
nized: innocence,  sin,  sanctification,  corruption, 
beatitude,  damnation,  all  represent  such;  and 
Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism  are  like  Chris- 
tianity in  recognizing  such  states.  Frequently 
in  the  New  Testament  the  term  "life"  or  "the  life" 
designates  directly  the  spiritual  life  of  the  redeemed, 
the  idea  of  redemption  itself  being  that  of  a  lifting 
out  of  one  state  of  life  in  order  to  enter  into  another. 
Similarly,  in  Greek  ethics,  the  conception  of  "the 
good  life"  is  distinct  from  the  notion  of  a  mere  natural 
living:  the  good  life  has  a  quality  of  its  own  lifting 
it  above  the  plane  of  unethical  existence.  In  modern 
thinking  the  conception  of  a  "life  of  nature"  as  con- 
trasted with  a  "moral"  or  "enlightened  life" 
is  based  upon  a  similar  distinction,  and  has  had  no 
small  influence  upon  religious  as  upon  ethical 
ideas. 

4.  Eternal  life. — A  special  conception,  related  to 
the  second  and  third  above,  is  that  of  the  "eternal 
life."  The  phrase,  which'  occurs  some  forty  times 
in  the  New  Testament,  reflects  the  influence  of 
Greek  thinking  through  Plato  and  the  Gnostics. 
In  the  Authorized  Version  it  is  translated  by 
"everlasting"  and  "eternal  life."  But  that  the 
idea  conveyed  by  the  Greek  phrase  is  not  merely 
that  of  immortality  is  not  only  indicated  by  Romans 
2:7,  but  is  made  certain  by  the  general  uses  of 
the  words  aeon  and  aeonian  in  the  literature  of  the 
time,  where,  along  with  the  temporal  conception, 
appears  that  of  the  aeon  as  a  being  or  an  estate.  In 
Gnostic  thought  the  rulers  of  different  parts  of  the 
universe  are  described  as  aeons,  and  with  the  term 
are  associated  the  conceptions  of  kingship  and 
glory  and  indeed  of  an  essential  being  different  in 
character  from  the  physical.  Doubtless  this,  as 
well  as  Hebrew  ideas,  is  reflected  in  the  New 
Testament,  which  means  by  the  "aeonian"  or 
"eternal"  life  a  state  of  existence  transcending 
human  days  not  only  in  time,  but  also  in  the 
more  spiritual  quality  of  its  being. 

H.  B.  Alexander 


LIGHT  AND  DARKNESS.— Natural  phe- 
nomena employed  as  basis  for  myths  and  to  symbol- 
ize the  opposing  principles  of  good  and  evil. 

Speculation  on  this  subject  is  usuaUy  connected 
with  cosmology.  As  to  precedence,  the  more  usual 
statement  is  that  darkness  existed  before  light 
(Babylonia,  Palestine,  Australia,  Oceanica,  Africa, 
Arctic  regions).  But  many  scattered  tribes  hold 
the  contrary.  The  introduction  of  the  second  ele- 
ment (whichever  it  be)  is  accounted  for  among  more 
primitive  peoples  by  animistic  or  fantastic  theories* 
some  even  regard  darkness  and  light  as  material 
substances.  The  more  developed  cosmogonies 
regard  darkness  as  the  prior  condition,  and  assume  or 
affirm  a  creator  who  brings  light  into  being.  By  a 
natural  process,  light  is  identified  or  connected  with 
sun  and  celestial  duties,  and  darkness  with  the 
moon  and  subterranean  powers,  and  both  pairs 
(light,  sun — see  Sun,  Sun- Worship;  darkness, 
moon)  may  be  regarded  as  persons,  about  whom 
new  cycles  of  myths  arise. 

In  rehgious  symbolism  the  inherent  dualism 
powerfuUy  affects  lesults  in  the  realm  of  ethics. 
Light  is  usually  connected  with  deity  (sun-gods), 
beneficent  powers,  life,  abode  of  the  blessed, 
warmth,  comfort,  truth,  knowledge,  order,  courage, 
purity,  health,  growth,  vigor.  Hence  important 
public  and  religious  functions  are  often  permissible 
only  during  hght  (Rome).  Darkness  symbolizes 
evil  and  maleficent  powers,  death,  cold  (or  Mghtless, 
punitive  heat — hell),  discomfort,  fear,  error,  igno- 
rance, chaos,  sin,  weakness,  destructiveness.  So 
in  fetishism  and  witchcraft  the  more  horrible 
rights  and  orgies  take  place  at  night.  Thus  light 
and  darkness  are  antagonistic  and  mutually  hostile, 
waging  an  age-long  war. 

On  this  ground  speculation  passes  from  ethics  to 
eschatology.  Hebrews,  Zoroastrians,  Christians, 
Manicheans,  and  Mandaeans  posit  this  world  and 
age  as  the  place  and  time  of  conflict  between 
darkness  and  light  or  the  two  powers  they  repre- 
sent. Yet  in  some  of  these  systems  a  bold  mono- 
theism represents  the  same  agency  (deity)  as 
creating  both  light  and  darkness  or  good  and  evil 
(Isa.  45:7;  Yasna  xUv.  5).  The  outlook  in  all 
these  systems  is  optimistic — ^the  abolishment  of 
darkness  (and  evil)  by  the  eternal  (in  futurum) 
conquest  and  endurance  of  light  and  good  (cf. 
"No  night  there,"  Rev.  21:23,  25,  27). 

George  W.  Gilmore 

LIGHTFOOT,  JOSEPH  BARBER  (1828-1889). 
— EngUsh  divine  and  theologian;  best  known  for 
his  commentaries  on  certain  Pauline  epistles  and 
his  translations  of  Clement  of  Rome  and  the 
ApostoUc  Fathers.  In  these  works  he  displayed 
great  learning  and  religious  insight.  He  was  Hul- 
sean  Professor  (1861),  Lady  Margaret  Professor 
(1875)  and  Bishop  of  Durham  (1879). 

LIGUORI,  ALFONSO  MARIA  DI  (1696-1787). 
— An  able  R.C.  priest,  missionary,  and  theologian, 
whose  life  was  devoted  to  ministry  to  the  unfortu- 
nate and  needy.  He  organized  in  1732  the  so-called 
Redemptorists,  an  order  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  sincere  and  intense  piety,  expressing  itself  in 
ministry  espeeiaUy  to  the  unfortunate.  He  is 
perhaps  best  known  as  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
morals  which  aroused  considerable  criticism  on 
account  of  the  frank  treatment  of  questions  of 
casuistry,  by  which  freedom  of  adjustment  to 
special  circumstances  was  so  emphasized  as  to  seem 
to  encourage  laxity. 

LIMBUS,  or  LIMBO.— In  R.C.  theology  a 
neutral  place  where  those  excluded  from  heaven 
by  no  fault  of  their  own  go  after  death.  Such 
souls  while  deprived  of  the  joy  of  salvation  are 


261 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Liturgy 


not  subject  to  the  pains  of  hell.  The  limbus  of 
the  fathers  was  the  place  of  detention  for  the  saints 
who  died  before  Christ's  atonement  and  was  said 
to  have  ceased  to  exist  with  Christ's  descent  to 
hell.  The  limbus  of  infants  is  the  detention  place 
for  the  spirits  of  unbaptized  infants. 

LINGA. — The  phallic  emblem,  symbol  of  the 
god,  Shiva,  and  the  special  mark  of  the  Saivaite 
sects  of  India.  It  is  always  present  in  their  temples. 
The  Lingayats,  numbering  about  three  million  peo- 
ple, wear  the  emblem  always  on  their  person.  As  in 
all  other  religions  where  the  symbol  appears,  it 
represents  life-power,  reproduction,  and  fertility 
and  so  symbolizes  one  phase  of  the  character  of 
Shiva. 

LING  CHOS.— The  mythology  of  the  ancient 
animistic  rehgion  of  Tibet.  See  Tibet,  Reli- 
gions OP. 

LINUS. — Bishop  of  Rome  whose  name  appears 
at  the  head  of  all  the  Usts,  identified  by  Irenaeus 
with  the  Linus  of  II  Tim.  4:21;  said  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom;  a  saint  of  the  Gregorian 
calendar  venerated  on  Sept.  23. 

LITANY. — A  form  of  devotion  of  a  penitential 
and  intercessory  character,  consisting  essentially 
in  a  series  of  brief  directive  suppUcations  by  the 
minister,  each  followed  by  appropriate  ejaculatory 
responses  by  choir  or  congregation,  the  whole  supple- 
mented by  longer  collects. 

Traces  of  Utany-forms  exist  from  the  earUest 
centuries  of  the  Church,  and  the  singing  of  hymns 
in  procession  soon  came  to  be  an  estabhshed  and 
important  element  in  the  service.  Mamertus,  bishop 
of  Vienne  (about  460  a.d.),  is  reputed  to  have  been 
the  first  to  make  processional  htanies,  earUer  used 
in  times  of  especial  distress,  a  form  of  devotion 
for  fixed  days  in  the  year;  and  htanies  are  still  in 
some  parts  of  the  Church  sung  in  procession.  The 
Latin  Church  officially  recognizes  two  htanies 
{litaniae  maiores  and  minores),  the  Anghcan  but 
one;  yet  other  popular  forms  are  in  use.  The 
litany  was  first  issued  in  EngUsh  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
1544,  and  with  minor  changes  still  holds  its  place. 
Lutheran  Churches  also  retain  htanies.  The  early 
close  connection  of  htany  with  eucharistic  service 
is  noteworthy.  E.  T.  Merrill 

LITHUANIANS,  RELIGION  OF.— The  Lithu- 
anians, and  their  kindred,  the  Letts,  form  a  distinct 
branch  of  the  Indo-European  family  occupying 
territories  between  those  of  the  Slavs,  to  whom  they 
are  linguistically  nearer,  and  those  of  the  Teutons, 
whom  they  resemble  physically.  They  were  first 
Christianized  in  the  13th.  century  by  German 
Crusaders  and  missionaries,  and  are  now  mainly 
Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran,  with  some  adherents 
of  the  Greek  Church,  the  form  of  Christianity 
reflecting  political  influences.  The  pre-Christian 
religion  of  the  Letts  and  Lithuanians  was  a  nature- 
worship  reflected  in  the  folklore  still  living  among 
the  peasants.  Their  chief  deity  was  the  thunder- 
god  Perkunas,  akin  to  the  Scandinavian  Thor 
and  like  Thor  armed  with  a  hammer  or  ball.  The 
Sun,  regarded  as  feminine,  was  the  foremost  of  the 
goddesses,  and  with  her  are  associated  in  legend 
the  Moon  and  the  Morning-Star,  the  Moon  being 
consort  to  the  Sun,  while  the  Morning-Star  was 
paramour  of  the  Moon.  The  worship  of  trees, 
waters,  fire,  sacred  places,  etc.,  is  also  reflected  in 
folklore,  and  the  ancient  religion  was  no  doubt 
an  elaborate  nature- worship,  although  compara- 
tively little  of  it  has  been  preserved. 

H.  B.  Alexander 


LITURGY.— The  rite  followed  in  the  Celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist  (Mass,  Holy  Communion, 
Lord's  Supper).  In  less  exact  usage  the  term  is 
also  apphed  to  the  entire  body  of  rites  used  in  the 
Church, 

Traces  of  hturgical  forms  occur  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  from  the  writings  of  the  early 
Church  Fathers  statements  of  a  developing  use 
can  be  gleaned,  though  no  fuU  account  is  anywhere 
given,  doubtless  in  part,  at  least,  because  of  the 
disciplina  arcani.  The  earUest  extant  complete 
hturgical  form  is  contained  in  the  ApostoUc  Consti- 
tutions of  the  4th.  century,  the  so-called  "Clemen- 
tine Liturgy."  The  somewhat  fluid  hturgic  material 
sohdified  thereafter  into  local  types,  of  which 
four  sources  or  classes  may  be  recognized,  those 
of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Rome,  and  Gaul.  Of 
Antiochian  (Syrian)  source  are  the  form  in  the  Apos- 
tohc  Constitutions,  the  Jerusalem  form  ("Liturgy 
of  St.  James"),  now  httle  used,  the  Byzantine, 
with  its  many  varieties  as  used  in  the  Orthodox 
Churches  of  the  East,  and  the  Armenian.  Of 
Alexandrian  origin  ("Liturgy  of  St.  Mark")  are  a 
now  extinct  Greek  hturgy,  and  the  present  rites  of 
Coptic  and  Ethiopia  (Abyssinian)  Churches.  The 
ancient  Roman  rite  ("Liturgy  of  St.  Peter")  is  no 
longer  used,  the  present  (Latin)  liturgy  being  a 
modification  of  this  with  GaUican  additions.  Some 
variations  of  mediaeval  origin  in  the  uses  of  certain 
dioceses  and  religious  orders  are  vanishing,  or  have 
vanished,  under  the  pressure  toward  uniformity. 
Of  the  GaUican  family  were  a  number  of  Latin 
liturgies  used  in  Gaul,  northern  Italy,  Spain, 
Britain,  and  apparently  in  Africa.  Their  origin 
is  much  discussed  and  disputed,  but  Eastern  pecuh- 
arities  are  seen  in  them,  whence  the  source  is  some- 
times called  Ephesine,  or  the  "Liturgy  of  St. 
John."  The  family  is  still  represented  by  the 
Ambrosian  rite,  used  at  Milan,  and  the  Mozarabic, 
of  Toledo.  The  hturgy  of  the  early  Celtic  Chris- 
tians in  Britain  appears  to  have  been  of  GaUican 
type;  as  equally  might  have  been  expected,  that  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  period  is  prevailingly  Roman,  with 
a  few  Galhcan  (or  Celtic?)  peculiarities,  which 
were  increased  in  number  through  GaUican  influ- 
ences following  upon  the  Norman  conquest.  The 
Sarum  (Salisbury)  use  became  the  dominant  one  in 
Britain,  and  remained  so  till  the  Reformation, 
though  other  dioceses  and  churches  retained  or 
developed  their  own  forms.  The  most  prominent 
of  these  were  York  and  Hereford.  Uniformity 
came  in  by  legal  enactment  at  the  Reformation, 
along  with  the  revision  of  the  service-books,  and  the 
change  in  them  from  Latin  to  the  vernacular.  In 
the  East  from  early  times  there  have  been  regarded 
as  essential  to  the  proper,  if  not  to  the  valid, 
performance  of  the  Liturgy  three  distinct  but 
associated  prayers;  of  Consecration  (embodying 
the  words  of  Institution — strictly  of  Administra- 
tion— used  by  Christ,  and  accompanied  by  his 
manual  acts),  of  Oblation  (or  Anamnesis,  the 
offering  to  God  of  the  elements  in  the  memorial 
sacrifice),  and  of  Invocation  (or  Epiklesis,  the 
prayer  that  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  the 
elements  may  become,  or  convey  to  the  faithful 
recipient,  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ).  This 
triune  form  was  restored  in  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church  in  1636,  and  was  adopted 
from  that  use  by  the  American  Episcopal  Church 
in  1789.  In  the  Church  of  England,  although  in  the 
first  prayerbook  of  King  Edward  V.  (1549)  there  was 
in  the  Liturgy  a  proper  Oblation  and  an  Invocation, 
both  were  excluded  in  the  Puritan  revision  of  1552, 
and  have  not  been  restored.  The  Roman  Liturgy 
retains  after  the  Consecration  a  proper  Oblation 
(the  prayer  Unde  et  memores),  but  dropped  or  dis- 
guised (probably  in  the  5th.  or  6th.  century)  the 


Liver 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


262 


primitive  Invocation,  of  which  learned  liturgists 
have  tried  in  recent  days  to  discover  sufficient  traces 
in  the  present  rite.  Of  the  numerous  other  ele- 
ments that  accompany  these  three,  some  are  com- 
mon to  many,  if  not  to  all,  of  the  ancient  rites, 
whether  Eastern  or  Western.  Such  are  an  intro- 
duction, or  introit;  ahtanyform;  anthems,  hymns, 
or  psalms;  collect  for  the  day;  solemn  reading  of 
passages  from  Epistles  and  Gospels,  variously 
prefaced  and  concluded;  creed;  Sursum  Corda 
with  following  versicles;  proper  preface  with 
Trisagion  (Tersanctus) ;  commemorations  and 
intercessions  for  hving  and  dead;  the  Lord's  Prayer; 
thanksgivings;  benediction.  The  AngUcan  liturgy 
inserts  after  an  introductory  collect  for  purity  the 
recitation  of  the  Ten  Commandments  with  ejacula- 
tory  responses,  and  before  Sursum  Corda  an 
exhortation,  confession,  and  absolution,  which  in 
less  solemn  form  is  in  the  Roman  rite  a  part  of  the 
prefatory  matter. 

The  Episcopal  Churches  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland  have  recently  revised  their  service-books, 
and  revision  is  now  (1917)  in  progress  in  the  Church 
of  England  (the  last  was  in  1662),  and  in  the 
American  Episcopal  Church  (the  last  was  in  1892). 

Churches  of  Calvinistic  and  Lutheran  origin 
vary  much  in  their  Mturgical  forms.  The  Presby- 
terians of  Scotland  adopted  in  1560  an  order  drawn 
up  by  John  Knox,  but  substituted  for  this  in  1645 
the  Westminster  "Directory  for  the  Public  Worship 
of  God,"  which  lays  down  principles  and  rules 
rather  than  complete  forms.  In  the  United  States 
of  America  Presbyterians  have  adopted  a  book  of 
forms,  which,  however,  is  not  of  obligation.  Similar 
action  has  been  taken  by  some  conventions  of 
Churches  of  the  congregational  order.  Wesleyans 
in  Great  Britain  have  not  abandoned  the  Church 
of  England  liturgy,  and  Methodists  in  the  United 
States  of  America  follow  a  revision  originating  with 
John  Wesley.  E.  T.  Merrill 

LIVER. — See  Divination;  Hepatoscopy. 

LIVINGSTONE,  DAVID  (1813-1873).— Medi- 
cal missionary  and  explorer.  By  birth  and  educa- 
tion Scottish,  he  went  in  1840  to  Africa  under  the 
London  Missionary  Society  under  whom  he  served 
until  1858.  He  was  constantly  wanting  to  push 
into  the  interior  and  do  pioneer  work,  and  every- 
where he  bore  with  him  the  Gospel,  and  a  measure 
of  Christian  civiUzation.  From  1858  he  gave  himself 
to  the  work  of  geographical  exploration  as  a  servant 
of  the  British  government,  doing  much  to  open  cen- 
tral Africa  to  European  civilization  and  Christian 
missions.  He  died  in  Africa,  and  was  interred  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

LOCI  COMMIT  I^ES.— A  compendium  of 
Lutheran  theology  written  by  Melanchthon. 

LOCI  THEOLOGICL— A  term  used  by  Me- 
lanchthon to  indicate  basal  concepts  of  theology, 
corresponding  to  the  loci  communes  or  basal  concepts 
of  the  classic  rhetoricians. 

LOCKE,  JOHN  (,1632-1704).— EngUsh  phi- 
losopher noted  as  the  initiator  of  empiricism  in 
psychology  and  philosophy. 

Locke  was  led  by  his  observation  of  the  con- 
fused ways  in  which  men  used  general  concepts  to 
undertake  an  exact  inquiry  as  to  the  origin  and 
meaning  of  our  ideas.  Assuming  that  every 
human  being  starts  with  no  experience  whatever, 
he  traced  all  our  knowledge  ultimately  to  the 
"impressions"  made  upon  our  senses,  and  proxi- 
mately to  our  reflection  on  these  impressions. 
He  thus  rejected  the  doctrine  of  innate  ideas  and 


the  accompanying  a  priori  rationalism  of  the 
philosophy  of  his  day. 

Religiously,  Locke  urged  a  rational  interpre- 
tation of  Christianity,  in  which  the  mysteries  of 
the  incarnation  and  atonement  should  be  considered 
incidental,  essential  Christianity  being  the  belief 
in  Jesus  as  Messiah.  Locke  has  often  been  classed 
with  the  Deists;  but  his  rationaUsm  was  more 
conservative,  defending  the  supernatural  in  Chris- 
tianity. 

In  the  realm  of  p>olitical  theory,  Locke  was  an 
influential  exponent  of  popular  government  based  on 
a  doctrine  of  natural  rights  (q.v.).  See  Rational- 
ism; Empiricism.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

L  O  G I  A. — (Greek : '  'Sayings.")  A  name  applied 
by  Papias  of  Hierapolis  (ca.  a.d.  140)  to  a  col- 
lection of  Jesus'  sayings  composed  by  Matthew: 
"Matthew  composed  the  Logia  in  the  Aramaic 
language"  (Eusebius,  Church  History,  III,  39:16). 
Some  scholars  would  identify  this  work  with  a 
common  source  used  by  the  authors  of  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Luke,  and  explain  the  common 
material  of  those  gospels  not  found  in  Mark  as 
drawn  from  the  Logia.  Others  with  more  proba- 
biUty  ascribe  to  the  Logia  only  those  sayings  of 
Jesus  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
and  in  this  way  explain  the  connection  of  the  name 
of  Matthew  with  this  gospel,  which  might  very 
naturally  come  to  be  known  as  the  Gospel  accord- 
ing to  Matthew  if  it  owed  its  peculiar  element  to  a 
document  written  by  him.  Later  Christian  writers, 
however,  too  easily  identified  the  Logia  with  the 
Gospel  according  to  Matthew,  although  Papias' 
statement  that  it  was  composed  in  Aramaic  and 
"each  one  translated  (or  interpreted)  it  as  best  he 
could"  shows  that  it  cannot  have  been  our  Gospel 
of  Matthew.  The  collections  of  Jesus'  sayings 
found  in  1897  and  1903  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt  on 
papyrus  fragments  of  the  3rd.  century  and  pub- 
hshed  as  Oxyrhynchus  Papyri  no.  1,654,  are  some- 
times called  the  Logia.  They  illustrate  the  ancient 
disposition  to  make  collections  of  Jesus'  sayings  and 
include  some  not  found  in  the  canonical  gospels. 
Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

LOGOS. — ^A  Greek  term,  meaning  the  divine 
word  or  reason,  immanent  and  dynamic  in  the 
cosmic  process.  The  term  was  appropriated  by 
early  Christian  thinkers  to  express  for  the  Greek 
world  their  conception  of  Jesus  as  pre-existent 
creator  and  incarnate  Redeemer. 

In  Greek  thought,  Heraclitus  (540-475  B.C.) 
identified  the  Logos  with  cosmic  process,  law,  or 
God — that  which  gives  order  and  rationality  to 
the  universe.  Anaxagoras,  Plato  and  Aristotle 
recognized  this  element  of  rationaUty,  caUing  it 
nous.  The  Stoics  regarded  the  Logos  as  the 
actively  operating,  determinative,  pervading  prin- 
ciple of  the  world.  It  is  identified  on  the  one  hand 
with  fire,  the  primordial  element,  and  on  the  other 
hand  with  the  immanent  God. 

The  Hebrew  memra,  which  was  used  in  the 
sense  of  the  creative  and  directive  word  of  Yahweh 
manifest  in  the  world,  was  translated  in  the  Septua- 
gint  by  "Logos."  So  the  Logos  in  Alexandria 
came  to  mean  the  "word  of  Yahweh"  which  Philo 
fused  with  Plato's  architectonic  Grood  and  the 
Stoic  Reason. 

The  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  writing  in  an 
environment  of  Alexandrian  thought,  seized  upon 
the  concept  and  declared  the  Logos  to  have  become 
flesh  in  the  historic  Jesus.  Thus  the  Greek  Reason 
and  the  Hebrew  Messianic  Redeemer  came  together 
in  the  Logos-Christ  who  is  portrayed  as  eternally 
pre-existent,  the  divine  creator  who  became  incar- 
nate to  save  men. 


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Lord's  Supper,  The 


Justin  Martyr  showed  that  the  Logos,  which 
was  incarnate  in  Jesus,  had  been  operative  in 
Moses,  Socrates,  and  other  great  men  of  the  past. 
Irenaeus  defined  God  as  "all  Mind  and  all  Logos," 
and  regarded  the  Logos  as  the  agent  of  God  both 
in  creation  and  in  salvation.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
made  the  Logos  central  in  cosmology,  Christology, 
and  soteriology.  The  real  Christian  is  the  true 
gnostic  who  apprehends  God  through  the  gnosis 
imparted  by  the  Logos.  Origen  made  the  Logos 
the  hypostatic  expression  of  the  divine  wisdom 
operative  in  law,  philosophy,  promise,  nature,  and 
Christ,  a  distinct  personahty,  "eternally  begotten," 
"a  second  God." 

At  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  325,  Eusebius  of 
Caesarea  proposed  a  creed  using  the  word  Logos 
as  the  appellation  of  Jesus,  but  the  councU  substi- 
tuted "Son,"  and  the  concept  of  generation  becapae 
the  determinant  in  the  formulation  of  the  doctrine 
concerning  the  second  person  in  the  Trinity.  From 
that  time  the  Logos  terminology  was  gradually 
discarded. 

The  following  movements  of  thought  in  other 
religions  are,  in  some  respects,  parallel  to  the  Logos 
development  in  Greek  and  Christian  thought: 

1.  The  Hebrew  memra  of  which  mention  was 
made  above. 

2.  In  Indian  thought  the  nearest  parallel  is  the 
Brahman  which  in  its  development  approximates 
to  the  Logos  in  Stoicism.  The  original  meaning 
of  Brahman  was  the  spoken  prayer^  or  hymn,  or 
sacred  text,  considered  as  objective.  Then  it 
developed  a  subjective  sense  as  the  inner  content 
of  the  objective  word.  And  finally  it  was  the 
monistic  world-principle,  "the  immanent  word," 
the  power  of  which  is  resident  in  the  sacred  hymn, 
in  the  ceremonial,  and  in  all  things.  It  is  not 
unhke  the  Stoic  analysis  of  objective  word,  sub- 
jective word,  and  seminal  word  which  is  the  genera- 
tive power  immanent  in  all  things. 

3.  The  Chinese  Tao:  Taoism  on  its  philo- 
sophical side  is  essentially  a  Logos  philosophy. 
Tao  is  the  ultimate  and  "the  way"  of  nature — a 
rational  principle  pervading  the  universe.  Men 
should  let  the  Tao  within  them  have  supreme 
sway.  The  conception  is  an  impersonal  one, 
like  the  Stoic  Logos. 

4.  The  Buddhistic  Doctrine  of  the  Three 
Bodies:  In  Mahayana  Buddhism  there  has  been 
developed  a  doctrine  of  the  three  bodies  of  Buddha, 
somewhat  analogous  to  the  Logos  thought  of 
Stoicism.  Buddha  has  three  bodies:  (a)  Dharma- 
kaya,  that  part  of  the  body  which  is  essence,  the 
ultimate,  universal  or  cosmic  element,  or  Budda- 
hood;  (6)  Nirmanakaya — that  which  is  come  into 
the  world,  as  Gautama  and  the  other  Buddhas,  a 
conception  Uke  the  seminal  logoi;  (c)  Sambhoga- 
kaya — ^the  form  of  the  Buddha  seen  by  the  saints  in 
their  ecstasies,  as  Arjuna's  vision  of  Krishna  in 
the  Bhagavat  Gita.  A.  S.  Woodburne 

LOKAYATA. — A  Hindu  system  of  hedonistic 
materialism.  Its  adherents  are  also  called  Charva- 
kas.  Beginning  with  the  dogma  that  true  knowl- 
edge can  be  given  only  in  perception  by  the  senses 
they  refused  belief  in  gods,  the  soul.  Karma, 
Moksha  (salvation),  heaven,  hell,  and  the  future 
life,  since  none  of  these  things  can  be  established  on 
the  basis  of  sense-perception.  They  scorned  the 
Vedas,  the  priests,  the  system  of  sacrifices  and 
the  rules  of  caste.  They  taught  that  the  whole 
complex  world  results  from  the  combinations  of  the 
four  eternal  elements,  earth,  air,  fire  and  water, 
working  according  to  their  own  natural  law.  Man's 
psychic  life  is  part  of  that  combination  of  matter 
which  takes  the  human  form  and  dissolves  with  the 


body.     Man's  duty  is  to  secure  the  happiest  possible 
life. 

There  are  no  representatives  in  modern  India, 
but  the  system  is  very  old  and  seems  to  have  had  a 
large  following  for  many  centuries. 

LOKI.— A  very  puzzling  god  of  the  Scandi- 
navian mythology.  He  is  one  of  the  Aesir  (q.v.) 
gods  yet  both  their  friend  and  enemy.  He  will 
guide  the  ship  which  carries  the  enemies  of  the  gods 
from  the  realm  of  Hel  at  the  day  of  Ragnarok,  the 
doom  of  the  gods.  He  may  be  fire,  now  beneficent, 
now  destructive.  His  constant  changes  of  shape 
have  suggested  that  he  is  an  air  or  wind  god.  He 
has  been  identified  with  the  subterranean  fire. 
Under  the  influence  of  Christianity  he  takes  on 
the  character  of  Satan.  In  myth  he  often  appears 
as  one  of  the  giants  or  of  the  elves.  He  is  always 
tricky,  dangerous  and  the  embodiment  of  motherwit. 

LOLLARDS. — ^The  name  (probably  an  epithet 
of  scorn,  meaning  a  "babbler")  given  to  the  followers 
of  WycUf.  They  stood  for  simple  and  genuine 
piety,  protested  against  ecclesiastical  corruption 
and  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  insisted 
upon  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  in  the  dis- 
semination of  which  they  were  notably  zealous. 
Around  London,  Oxford,  and  Leicestershire  where 
Wychf  spent  many  years,  they  were  particularly 
aggressive,  until  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the 
"Statute  of  Heretics"  sent  several  of  them  to  the 
stake,  Sir  John  Oldcastle  being  among  the  number. 
After  his  death  their  following  was  drawn  largely 
from  the  common  folk.  Persisting  through  the 
troublous  times  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  LoUardy 
revived  with  the  opening  of  the  Tudor  regime  and 
was  much  in  evidence  in  the  earlier  days  of  Henry 
VIII.,  when  Lutheran  currents  of  thought  began  to 
enter  England.  It  seems,  however,  to  have  left  its 
impress  in  several  features  distinctive  of  the  EngUsh 
Reformation.  Peter  G.  Mode 

LONGSUFFERING.— The  disposition  to  endure 
injuries  or  offence  with  patience  for  a  long  time; 
emphasized  in  Christian  ethics  both  as  characteristic 
of  God  and  an  evidence  of  Christian  character. 
Some  of  the  Church  Fathers  identified  it  with 
Aristotle's  magnanimity. 

LORD'S  DAY.— A  designation  of  Sunday 
(q.v.)  as  the  Christian  day  of  rest  and  worship. 

LORD'S  PRAYER.— The  prayer  which  Jesus 
taught  his  disciples  as  recorded  in  Matt.  6:9-13  and 
Luke  11:2-4;  used  extensively  in  all  Christian 
liturgies. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  THE.— The  sacrament  of 
bread  and  wine  observed  in  the  Christian  church. 

1.  Origin. — 'The  last  meal  which  Jesus  ate  with 
his  disciples  became  for  them  soon  after  his  death  the 
type  of  a  memorial  feast  which  they  began  to 
celebrate  and  which  prefigured  the  banquet  to  be 
renewed  with  him  in  the  coming  Messianic  kingdom. 
At  the  outset,  a  simple  commemorative  and  antici- 
patory rite,  it  gradually  assumed  a  mysterious, 
even  magical  character — the  bread  and  wine  being 
charged  with  sacramental  efficacy.  The  language 
of  John  (chap.  6 :  53-55)  suggests  an  affinity  with  an 
ancient  Semitic  and  widely  observed  primitive 
sacrificial  meal  in  which  by  eating  the  flesh  and 
drinking  the  blood  the  worshiper  identifies  himself 
with  his  god. 

2.  The  Early  Church. — In  the  Didache  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  still  in  connection  with  the  Agape, 
but  already  the  notion  of  sacrifice  is  associated  with 
it.     Ignatius  regards  it  both  as  a  tangible  symbol 


Lord's  Supper,  The 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


264 


and  as  a  means  of  mysterious  union  with  God  con- 
ferring eternal  life.  Justin  Martyr  taught  that 
through  the  Lord's  Supper  our  bodies  become 
incorruptible,  to  which  Irenaeus  added  that  this 
was  due  to  the  union  of  a  heavenly  reaUty  with  the 
elements  by  reason  of  which  they  become  food 
unto  eternal  Ufe.  According  to  prevaiUng  "mys- 
tery" ideas,  which  may  be  traced  back  to  New 
Testament  times,  a  substance  could  be  divinized 
without  changing  its  appearance.  Cyprian  gave 
to  the  Eucharist  a  sacrificial  interpretation,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  priest  offers  a  true  sacrifice  to  God. 
Origen  saw  in  the  elements  a  symbol  of  the  Logos  as 
the  heavenly  Lord.  Theodore  of  Mopuestia  held 
that  while  the  elements  were  symbols,  they  yet 
communicate  forgiveness  and  eternal  Ufe.  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  approached  the  idea  of  transubstantiation 
in  his  teaching,  that  through  hypostatic  union  the 
bread  and  wine  become  the  visible  body  and  blood 
of  Christ.  This  transformation,  according  to 
Ambrose,  takes  place  through  the  efficacy  of  prayer. 

3.  The  Western  Church. — In  the  9th.  century 
the  development  of  the  discussion  of  the  "real 
presence"  was  renewed  under  Paschasius  Radbertus, 
Ratramnus,  Berengar,  and  others,  which  resulted  in 
a  completed  definition  of  transubstantiation.  This 
became  a  dogma  of  the  Roman  Church  at  the  fourth 
Lateran  Council  (1215).  By  force  of  the  words  of 
institution  the  true  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
together  with  his  divinity,  exist  under  the  species 
of  bread  and  wine;  also  by  reason  of  the  "co&- 
comitance"  by  which  the  parts  of  the  Lord  are 
linked  together  the  body  exists  under  the  species 
of  wine  and  the  blood  under  the  species  of  bread. 
Christ  exists,  therefore,  whole  and  entire  under 
both  species  of  bread  and  wine  and  under  every 
part  of  both  species.  For  the  service  a  wafer  is 
employed,  and  a  Uttle  water  is  mixed  with  the 
wine  symbolizing  the  union  of  divinity  and  human- 
ity, the  wine  being  reserved  for  the  priests. 
Through  this  sacrament  grace  is  infused,  temporal 
punishment  remitted,  concupiscence  checked,  and 
charity  strengthened. 

4.  The  Greek  Church. — In  the  15th.  century  the 
Greek  Church  defined  the  real  presence  as  proposed 
by  John  of  Damascus  by  the  term  "transubstantia- 
tion," and  in  the  17th.  century  the  doctrine  received 
final  statement  in  correspondence  with  the  Roman 
church. 

5.  Lutheran  view. — Through  the  words  of 
institution  the  bread  and  wine  become  the  means 
by  which  the  real  and  substantial,  although  spiritual 
and  glorified,  body  of  Christ  is  sacramentally 
united  with  the  elements — the  bread  and  wine 
remaining  vmchanged;  whoever,  therefore,  par- 
takes of  the  elements  receives  also  the  real  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,  yet  if  one  partakes  imworthily, 
it  is  to  his  condemnation.  The  doctrine  rests  upon 
a  pecuUar  theory  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  human 
nature.     See  Communicatio  Idiomatum. 

6.  Reformed  doctrine. — Calvin  modified  the  doc- 
trine of  the  "real  presence";  the  humanity  of 
Christ  is  indeed  in  heaven,  yet  in  the  sacrament  his 
flesh  and  blood  are  communicated  to  the  beUever 
by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Zwingli  con- 
ceived of  the  supper  as  a  memorial,  quickening 
faith,  gratitude,  and  communion  with  Christ. 
According  to  the  common  view  in  the  Lord's  Supper 
the  bread  and  wine  symbohze  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  given  in  behalf  of  men,  a  sign  and  seal 
of  forgiveness  of  sins  and  of  the  communion  of 
believers  with  Christ  and  with  one  another  through 
faith. 

7.  Anglican  view. — ^Article  XXXVIII.  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  is  interpreted  as  meaning  the 
"real  presence."  At  the  same  time  no  attempt  is 
made  to  explain  the  mystery. 


8.  Society  of  Friends. — -In  accord  with  their 
general  view  of  the  inwardness  of  rehgion  they 
hold  that  the  breaking  of  bread  instituted  by 
Christ  and  practised  by  the  early  church  was  only 
a  temporary  figure  for  the  sake  of  the  weak,  not, 
however,  binding  on  those  who  have  the  true 
spiritual  life. 

9.  In  general. — Personal  preparation  for  the 
communion,  frequency  and  hours  of  celebrating  it, 
use  of  leavened  or  unleavened  bread,  of  common  or 
individual  cups,  postures  of  the  body,  and  etiquette 
of  the  ceremony  differ  in  different  church  bodies. 

C.  A.  Beckwith 
LORD'S    TABLE,    THE.— The    ordinance    of 
the  Lord's  Supper   (q.v.),   or  the  table  or  altar 
on  which  the  elements  are  placed  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

LORETO. — A  town  neau'  Ancona,  Italy,  re- 
nowned from  the  15th.  century  as  a  place  of  pil- 
grimage. The  "Holy  House"  there  was  reported 
to  be  the  house  where  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  born, 
to  have  been  transported  to  Loreto  by  angels, 
and  to  have  been  sanctified  by  numbers  of  miracles 
wrought  there. 

LOT. — A  means  of  deciding  possession  or 
duty  or  fate  by  the  chance  outcome  of  the  manipu- 
lation of  objects,  like  casting  dice,  drawing  marked 
or  colored  objects  from  an  invisible  collection,  etc. 
The  lot  has  often  been  considered  a  means  of 
divination. 


LOTUS    OF    THE    TRUE 
Saddharma-PundarIka. 


LAW.— See 


LOTZE,  RUDOLF  HERMANN  (1817-1881).— 
An  influential  German  philosopher  whose  life- 
work  was  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.  He 
expounded  an  ideaUstic  system  of  philosophy,  in 
which  he  attempted  to  do  full  justice  to  the  facts 
of  physical  science  by  interpreting  the  mechanical 
order  of  nature  as  the  means  through  which  self- 
conscious  Mind  realizes  its  purposes.  Mechan- 
ism is  thus  preserved,  but  it  is  subordinated  to 
teleology.     His  chief  work  is  his  Mikrokosmos. 

LOURDES. — A  small  town  in  southern  France 
famous  since  1858  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  growing 
out  of  alleged  apparitions  of  the  Virgin  Mary  to  a 
young  girl,  Marie  Bernadette  Soubirous.  The 
presence  of  a  spring  of  therapeutic  qualities  has 
aided  in  making  it  a  place  where  many  miraculous 
cures  are  reported  to  have  been  accomplished. 

LOVE. — Primarily  an  emotional  experience  in 
which  one  is  conscious  of  the  value  of  a  person, 
an  institution,  or  a  cause  to  such  a  degree  that 
one  seeks  the  closest  possible  identification  of  life 
with  the  beloved  object. 

This  desire  for  identification  has  two  aspects. 
On  the  one  hand,  one  desires  to  possess  the  beloved 
object  so  as  to  have  unhindered  access  to  it  at  any 
time.  On  the  other  hand,  one  desires  to  find  in 
the  beloved  object  the  greatest  possible  perfection. 
Love  may  lead  therefore  to  a  jealously  2xclusive 
attitude;  or  it  may  take  the  form  of  altruistic 
effort  for  the  betterment  of  the  beloved  object. 
The  former  aspect  is  natural  and  instinctive. 
The  latter  attitude  grows  into  the  finest  kind  of 
moral  service. 

Romantic  or  sexual  love  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  emotions  in  human  experience.  It  is  the 
theme  of  poets  and  dramatists  in  every  age,  and  is 
a  never-failing  human  interest.  The  desire  for 
exclusive  possession  of  the  loved  one  is  the  natural 
foundation  for  monogamy  and  is  the  basis  of  that 


265 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


LuUists 


peculiarly  intimate  social  relationship  found  in  the 
family.  The  strength  of  the  sexual  instinct  has  led 
to  various  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  centering 
around  it.  See  Phalli  cism.  The  moral  control  of 
this  impulse  is  one  of  the  most  serious  ethical  prob- 
lems in  human  society. 

Parental  love  is  a  generous  solicitude  for  the 
welfare  of  children.  The  length  of  time  during 
which  children  are  dependent  on  the  loving  care 
of  parents  is  one  of  the  striking  differences  between 
human  development  and  development  of  the  animal 
species.  The  training  in  altruistic^  service  which 
comes  in  this  way  is  of  immense  importance  for 
social  ethics.  No  higher  symbol  for  the  attitude  of 
God  towards  men  can  be  found  than  the  concep- 
tion of  fatherliness.  Love  of  children  for  parents  is 
more  selfish;  but  with  proper  training  it  is  the 
most  important  means  of  enlisting  social  co- 
operation and  loyalty  to  group  interests. 

Love  for  institutions  is  represented  by  patriot- 
ism, loyalty  to  poUtical  party,  or  to  church,  or  to 
any  well-established  organization  of  men  for  the 
promotion  of  mutual  ends.  _  Such  love  is  expressed 
m  devotion  to  the  institution,  and  in  the  case  of 
love  for  country  it  may  express  itself  in  supreme 
dedication  of  life  itself.  Love  for  a  cause  is  a  similar 
sentiment,  but  exists  in  _  relation  to  relatively 
unorganized  movements  which  demand  the  devotion 
and  the  labors  of  men  in  order  to  succeed. 

While  love  is  a  natural  sentiment,  it  is  capable 
of  being  educated.  One  may  come  to  love  good 
Uterature  rather  than  poor,  or  to  prefer  a  high- 
minded  life  even  with  material  privations  to  a  life 
of  comparative  ease  in  which  culture  is  wanting. 
In  Christianity,  men  are  bidden  to  love  their 
fellows,  regardless  of  considerations  of  natural 
attractiveness.  Such  love  evidently  must  rest  on 
foundations  other  than  mere  natural  impulse.  To 
seek  to  benefit  one's  neighbor  is  a  certain  means  of 
arousing  a  warm  interest  in  his  welfare.  Such 
ethical  love — often  called  by  the  philosophical 
term,  benevolence — is  inculcated  as  the  fundamental 
attitude  of  Christian  ethics.  It  is  interpreted  as 
a  reflection  of  the  attitude  of  God  toward  men. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

LOVE-FEAST.— The  Agape  (q.v.)  or  social 
meal  in  which  early  Christians  joined  for  brotherly 
love  and  commemoration  of  Christ's  parting 
supper.  Paul  (I  Cor.  11:17-34)  describes  such  a 
meal  as  a  special  act  in  which  was  the  taking  of 
bread  and  wine  in  solemn  communion.  When  this 
act  became  the  liturgical  eucharist,  the  supper 
continued  for  a  while  as  a  non-sacramental  expres- 
sion of  brotherhood.  Moravian  Brethren  restored 
the  love-feast,  a  simple  meal  with  hymns,  and  on  this 
model  Methodists  held  meetings  for  hymns  and 
confessions  of  experience  accompanied  by  the  sem- 
blance of  a  meal.  F.  A.  Christie 

LOW  CHURCH.— A  section  of  the  Church  of 
England  disposed  to  simple  ritual  and  an  evangeUcal 
presentation  of  doctrine.  Although  discernible  in 
the  Church  of  England  since  its  inception,  the 
Low  Church  had  scarcely  a  group  consciousness 
earlier  than  the  Wesleyan  revival,  when  considerable 
numbers  of  churchmen,  unwilling  to  sever  con- 
nection with  the  Established  Church,  nevertheless 
found  Wesley's  evangehcal  fervor  and  presentation 
of  truth  to  their  liking.  The  highly  ritualistic 
emphasis  and  Rome-ward  tendencies  of  the  Oxford 
Movement  (q.v.)  strengthened  the  following  of  this 
group.  With  the  attraction  into  the  Broad  Church 
of  those  sympathetic  toward  modern  scientific 
theological  views,  the  Low  Church  has  been  finding 
its  following  among  those  conservatively  incUned. 
Toward  non-conformists  it  has  been  fraternal.  In 
missionary  enterprise  it  has  been  aggressive.     Hav- 


ing no  organized  status  within  the  Established 
Church,  and  representative  of  a  temperament,  its 
numerical  strength  is  impossible  to  estimate. 

Peter  G.  Mode 
LOW  SUNDAY.— The  first  Sunday  after  Easter, 
probably  so-called  in  contrast  to  the  high  festival 
of  Easter. 

LOYALTY. — ^Willing  allegiance  in  action  and 
sentiment  to  an  institution,  a  person,  or  an  obliga- 
tion. The  ideal  of  loyalty  was  most  fully  embodied 
in  the  institutions  of  feudaUsm  and  chivalry. 
In  modern  life  the  objects  and  grades  of  loyalty 
are  greatly  diversified.  Loyalty  is  required  in  the 
ethical  ideal  as  a  corrective  of  legaUsm,  to  which 
formal  moraUty  is  Uable,  and  as  a  bond  between 
morality  and  religion;  the  religious  attitude  being 
sometimes  identified  with  loyalty  to  any  object 
above  the  individual.  Royce  makes  loyalty  the 
essence  of  the  moral  ideal,  determining  its  own 
object:  "loyalty  to  loyalty."  Under  national 
danger  loyalty  to  the  nation  tends  to  become  a 
dominating  ideal.  J.  F.  Crawford 

LOYOLA,  IGNATIUS,  SAINT  (1491-1556).— 
Spanish  R.C.  priest;  as  an  officer  of  the  Spanish 
army,  he  became  converted  through  reading  devo- 
tional books  during  a  long  convalescence.  He 
transferred  his  military  ardor  to  the  realm  of  religion 
and  became  the  founder  and  first  general  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  He  was  beatified  in  1609,  and  in 
1622  canonized.  His  Book  of  Spiritual  Exercises 
set  forth  his  conception  of  discipUne  of  the  soul. 
See  Jesuits. 

LUCIAN  THE  MARTYR  (ca.  250-312).— 
Presbyter  of  Antioch,  and  so-called  foimder  of  the 
Antiochian  school  (q.v.).  He  was  excluded  from 
ecclesiastical  fellowship  for  sympathy  with  Paul 
of  Samosata  (q.v.),  though  his  position  was  rather 
that  "there  is  one  God,  revealed  to  us  through 
Christ  and  inspired  in  our  hearts  by  the  Holy 
Spirit"  (Lucian  s  Apology).  He  was  the  teacher 
of  Arius  and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  is  some- 
times regarded  as  the  real  founder  of  Arianism 
(q.v.).  His  critical  scholarship  is  evidenced  in  his 
famous  recension  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Lucian  suffered  martyrdom  by 
hunger,  refusing  to  eat  food  sacrificed  to  idols. 

LUCIUS. — The  name  of  three  popes. 
Lucius  I. — Pope,  for  8  months,  253-254. 
Lucius  IL — Pope,  1144-1145. 
Lucius  7/7.— Pope,  1181-1185. 

LUCRETIUS  (ca.  98-55  b.c.).— Titus  Lucretius 
Cams  was  a  Roman  poet  who  expounded  the 
doctrines  of  Epicureanism  (q.v.)  in  a  poem  On  the 
Nature  of  Things.  The  poem  contrasts  the  truths 
of  nature  with  the  old  superstitions,  aiming 
to  emancipate  from  the  fear  of  the  gods  and  of 
death.  The  gods  exist  in  the  interstices  between 
the  worlds,  but  have  nothing  to  do  with  men. 

LULAB.— (Hebrew:  "Pahn.")  A  term  used 
specifically  for  the  bouquet  carried  in  the  Synagog 
on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  consisting  of  a  palm- 
branch  with  myrtle  twigs  and  willow  branches  tied 
to  the  lower  end  of  it.     (See  Lev.  23 :  40.) 

LULL,  RAYMOND.— See  Lumjsts. 

LULLISTS. — The  disciples  of  Raymond  Lull 
(1236-1315),  "The  Illunainated  Doctor,"  a  phi- 
losopher, scientist,  missionary,  and  martyr  of 
Majorca.  Lull's  ambitions  were  to  preach  to  the 
Saracens  and  obtain  martyrdom,  both  of  which 


Lupercalia 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


266 


were  realized.  He  strenuously  opposed  the  Aver- 
roistic  doctrine  that  what  might  be  true  for  faith 
might  be  false  for  philosophy.  The  Lullists  of 
today  in  Majorca  still  follow  Lull's,  method  in 
philosophy. 

LUPERCALIA.— A  Roman  festival  of  February 
in  which  selected  individuals,  the  "wolf-warders," 
purified  with  blood  and  milk  and  clad  in  the  skins  of 
sacrificed  goats  ran  laughing  around  the  city 
enclosure.  It  was  a  rite  dedicated  to  Faunus  or 
Pan,  and  intended  to  protect  the  herds  from  wolves. 
The  striking  of  women  with  strips  of  goat  skins  to 
stimulate  fertility  was  perhaps  a  later  addition  to 
the  original  ritual. 

LUST — Inordinate  craving  or  desire  or  indul- 
gence of  such  desire,  especially  when  attached  to 
carnal  pleasure;  specifically  condemned  in  N.T. 
ethics  as  Matt.  5 :  28;  considered  by  the  R.C.  church 
to  be  a  mortal  sin. 

LUTHER,  MARTIN  (1483-1546).— German 
religious  reformer,  who  initiated  the  Protestant 
movement. 

The  son  of  ambitious  peasants,  Martin  matricu- 
lated at  the  university  of  Erfurt  in  1501,  took  his 
baccalaureate  degree  in  1502  and  master's  in  1505. 
His  father  designed  him  for  the  profession  of  law, 
and  he  began  his  legal  studies,  but  suddenly  entered 
the  Augustinian  monastery,  in  July,  1505.  He 
passed  through  a  severe  spiritual  struggle,  from 
which  he  emerged  with  a  clear  idea  of  salvation  by 
grace  through  faith.  He  was  chiefly  influenced  by 
the  fourth  gospel,  the  epistles  of  Paul,  and  the 
writings  of  Augustine.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  the  new  university  of  Witten- 
berg in  1508,  and  in  1510  or  the  year  following  made 
a  memorable  journey  to  Rome,  on  business  of  his 
order,  where  he  saw  at  first  hand  the  corruptions  of 
the  papacy.  After  his  return  he  received  his 
doctor's  degree  in  theology,  and  lectured  on  the 
Scriptures,  especially  on  the  Psalms  and  Galatians. 
He  was  already  out  of  sympathy  with  the  current 
Catholic  theology,  but  did  not  suspect  his  heresy. 

The  preaching  of  indulgences  (q.v.)  and  their 
scandalous  sale  near  Wittenberg,  by  a  Dominican 
friar  named  Tetzel,  led  Luther  to  protest  to  his 
superiors  in  the  Church  against  the  abuse;  and, 
this  proving  ineffective,  to  prepare  95  theses 
against  indulgences,  which  he  nailed  to  the  church 
door  Oct.  31,  1517.  The  theses  were  printed 
and  widely  circulated  and  provoked  wide  discussion. 
Luther  was  accused  of  heresy  and  summoned  by 
the  pope  to  Rome  to  answer;  but  by  intervention 
of  Elector  Frederick,  he  was  given  a  hearing  before 
Cardinal  Cajetan  in  Augsburg  (October,  1518),  as  a 
result  of  which  he  appealed  to  a  general  council. 
Six  months  later,  in  a  disputation  with  John  Eck 
(q.v.)  at  Leipzig,  Luther  denied  the  divine  right 
of  the  papacy,  maintained  that  councils  were 
faUible  and  that  the  Greek  church  was  not  heretical. 
In  the  following  year  he  published  three  of  his 
most  important  writings:  an  Appeal  to  the  Chris- 
tian Nobility  of  the  German  Nation,  in  which  he 
urged  princes  to  undertake  the  work  of  reforma- 
tion; the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church,  in 
which  he  denied  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the  sacra- 
ments; and  the  Liberty  of  a  Christian  Man.  It 
was  now  so  evident  that  he  had  entirely  broken 
with  papal  authority  and  Catholic  doctrine  that 
his  excommunication  became  inevitable.  The 
BuU  was  published  in  Germany  Sept.  21, 1520,  and 
Luther  retorted  by  burning  the  Bull  publicly, 
Dec.  12.  His  summons  to  the  Diet  of  Worms  for 
formal  trial  followed.  On  his  return  home  he  was 
"captured"    by    servants    of    Elector    Frederick, 


disguised  as  bandits  and  taken  to  the  electoral 
castle  of  Wartburg,  near  Eisenach,  where  he  remained 
in  seclusion  for  ten  months.  He  occupied  himself 
with  studies  and  writing,  and  especially  with  making 
a  version  of  the  N.T.  in  vernacular  German.  This 
was  published  in  September,  1522,  followed  by  the 
whole  Bible  in  1534,  and  became  one  of  the  chief 
agencies  in  promoting  the  German  Reformation. 

Returning  to  Wittenberg  in  March,  1523,  Luther 
took  the  lead  of  the  reformation  and  retained  it  to 
his  death.  He  persuaded  the  princes  to  set  the 
churches  in  order  through  commissions  and  finally 
consistories.  He  prepared  Uturgies  and  catechisms 
and  confessions;  he  wrote  books  and  pamphlets 
innumerable.  The  principle  of  the  German  reform, 
as  he  stated  it,  was,  "Whatever  is  not  against 
Scripture  is  for  Scripture,  and  Scripture  for  it." 
His  last  years  were  embittered  with  controversies 
with  Zwinglians  and  others.  In  spite  of  patent 
faiUngs,  Luther's  greatness  of  character  and 
achievement  have  won  recognition  from  the  whole 
world,  and  he  is  generally  recognized  as  the  great 
man  of  the  Reformation  period. 

Henry  C.  Vedder 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH.— That  branch  of 
Protestantism  which  has  accepted  the  principles 
expressed  by  Martin  Luther  in  contradistmction  to 
the  Reformed  Church  in  its  various  ramifications 
(Swiss,  AngUcan,  Presbyterian,  etc.). 

I.  History. — The  Lutheran  Church  while  it 
may  properly  be  said  to  begin  with  Luther's  protest 
against  the  mdulgence  traffic  in  1517,  yet  dates  as 
a  separate  and  distinct  organization  from  the  year 
1526,  when  the  recess  (decree)  of  the  first  Diet  of 
Speyer,  pending  the  action  of  a  general  council, 
granted  the  various  states  of  Germany  sovereign 
rights  in  matters  of  religion.  After  some  futile 
attempts  to  heal  the  rupture  with  the  Reformed 
Church  and  much  bitter  doctrinal  controversy  in 
its  own  midst  (original  sin,  synergism,  justification, 
good  works,  crypto-Calvinism,  etc.),  the  Lutheran 
Church  finally  and  definitely  fixed  its  confessional 
standards  by  the  adoption  of  the  Form  of  Concord 
in  the  year  1580.  Lutheranism  of  the  following 
century  is  characterized  by  what  has  been  called 
dead  orthodoxy,  from  which,  however,  it  was 
awakened  by  the  Pietistic  movement  of  the  18th. 
century.  Then  followed  a  period  of  RationaUsm, 
but  the  tercentenary  of  the  Reformation  in  1817 
showed  an  awakening  of  Lutheran  theology.  In 
the  same  year  Kng  Frederick  William  HI.  of 
Prussia  carried  out  a  plan  of  union  between  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  which  provoked 
vigorous  opposition  in  some  quarters  and  resulted 
finally  in  the  formation  of  several  Lutheran  Free 
Churches.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  dominant  in 
Scandinavia  and  Denmark.  It  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  by  Dutch,  Swedish  and 
German  colonists  early  in  the  17th.  century,  the 
first  synodical  organization  being  effected  by 
Muehlenberg  in  1748.  A  constant  stream  of 
immigration  has  contributed  to  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America. 

At  present  the  four  main  bodies  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  America  are:  The  General  Synod,  organ- 
ized in  1820  by  representatives  from  the  synods  in 
Pennsylvania,  North  Carohna,  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia: the  United  Synod  of  the  South,  organized  in 
1865  by  five  southern  synods  which  separated  from 
the  General  Synod;  the  General  Council  which 
withdrew  from  the  General  Synod  in  1864  on 
doctrinal  grounds;  the  Synodical  Conference,  the 
largest  body  of  Lutherans  which,  originating  from 
the  settlement  in  Missouri  in  1837  of  several 
colonies  of  Saxons,  was  organized  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Walther  in  1872  by  representatives  of  6 
synods,  which  insisted  on  strictly  doctrinal  and 


267 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


MacLeod,  Norman 


confessional  standards.  The  first  three  became 
united  (1918)  in  the  United  Lutheran  Church  in 
America. 

II.  Doctrine. — The  Lutheran  Church  accepts 
the  Holy  Scripture  as  the  inspired  and  infaUible 
authority  in  all  matters  of  faith  and  life.  The 
official  theological  standards  are  Luther's  two 
catechisms,  the  Schmalkald  Articles;  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  and  the  Apology  for  the  same. 
Justification,  i.e.,  the  imputation  by  God  of  the 
merits  of  Christ  to  the  sinner,  the  latter  appropriat- 
ing them  by  the  medium  of  faith,  is  the  keystone  of 
Christianity.  Good  works  do  not  enter  into  this 
transaction,  but  are  necessary  as  the  fruits  and 
evidences  of  faith.  Thus  the  Lutheran  Church  is 
opposed  to  Roman  Catholicism  which  accepts  besides 
the  Scriptures  the  authority  of  a  large  body  of 
churchly  tradition  and  dogma  and  has  expressly  and 
repeatedly  anathematized  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of 
Bolifidianism.  As  compared  with  the  Reformed 
Church  in  its  various  branches,  it  differs  mainly  in 
the  following  points: 

(1)  It  holds  that  the  sacraments,  the  eucharist 
and  baptism,  are  real  channels  of  grace,  not  mere 
symbols  and  signs.  (2)  It  believes  in  the  real 
presence,  though  rejecting  transubstantiation,  the 
nature  of  the  union  between  the  visible  elements  and 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  being  regarded  as  an 
inscrutable  mystery.  (3)  It  teaches  the  indis- 
soluble union  of  the  divine  and  human  nature  in 
the  person  of  Christ.  (4)  It  accepts  the  doctrine 
of  predestination  to  eternal  life,  but  rejects  the 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  eternal  reprobation. 

III.  Worship. — ^According  to  the  Lutheran 
view  worship  consists  in  the  acceptance  of  God's 
gift  to  men.  This  is  directly  opposed  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  position  which  makes  all  worship  a 
service  rendered  to  God.  Accordingly,  the  doc- 
trinal sermon  setting  forth  the  riches  of  God's 
grace,  occupies  the  foremost  place  in  the  Lutheran 
service.  The  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  preceded  by  a  preparatory  confessional  service  and 
absolution. 

In  the  matter  of  forms  the  Lutheran  Church 
accepts  the  results  of  history,  so  far  as  these  do  not 
conflict  with  fundamental  principles.  Thus  the 
Church  Year  with  its  appointed  Scripture  lessons 
for  the  various  Sundays  and  festivals  is,  as  a  rule. 


retained,  no  attempt  being  made,  however,  to  make 
such  things  obligatory. 

IV.  Organization. — In  European  countries  the 
organization  of  the  Lutheran  church  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  secular  government  with  which  it  is 
connected,  such  connection  resulting  in  all  cases  in  a 
certain  restriction  of  congregational  hberties.  In 
America  with  its  separation  of  church  and  state,  the 
principles  of  liberty,  enunciated  by  the  Reforma- 
tion, have  naturally  resulted  in  what  is  called  the 
synodical  organization,  in  which  the  congregation 
is  supreme,  the  synod  itself  being  only  an  advisory 
body. 

In  the  world  there  are  approximately  70,000,000 
Lutherans.  The  Lutheran  Church  bodies  in  the 
United  States  are: 


Ministers 

Communicants 

General  Synod 

1,425 
261 

1,664 

3,268 
650 

2,579 

360,749 

United  Synod,  South 

General  Council 

54,662 
494,989 

Synodical  Conference 

United  Norwegian 

Independent  Synods 

827,056 
173,534 
543,344 

Total  Lutherans 

9,847 

2,454,334 

A.  KuRINQ 

LYONS,  COUNCILS  OF.— As  the  chief  city 
of  Gaul  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
Lyons  was  naturally  chosen  for  many  synods  and 
councils.  The  most  important  were  the  General 
Councils  of  1245  and  1274.  The  former  is  noted 
for  its  deposition  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
because  of  charges  brought  by  Pope  Innocent  IV. 
The  latter  Council  was  convened  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory X.  It  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  provide  for  a 
Crusade,  but  reached  a  certain  degree  of  comity 
with  the  Eastern  Emperor,  Michael  Palaelogus, 
although  no  important  changes  in  the  relations  of 
the  Eastern  and  Latin  churches  actually  followed. 
It  also  attempted  certain  reforms  within  the  church, 
chief  of  which  was  the  provision  that  cardinals 
should  not  leave  the  conclave  until  they  had  elected 
a  pope.  Although  this  action  was  soon  revoked 
by  John  XXI.  it  subsequently  became  permanent. 


M 


MA-ARIB. — (Hebrew:  "make  evening.")  A 
term  used  by  the  Jews  for  the  evening  prayer,  in 
contradistinction  to  shaharit  (morning  prayer)  and 
minha  (afternoon  prayer). 

MAAT. — The  goddess  of  justice  and  truth, 
daughter  of  the  sun  god.  Re,  in  Egyptian  religion. 

MACCABEES.— The  name  of  a  family  promi- 
nent in  Jewish  patriotic  history  in  the  2nd.  century, 
the  preferable  designation  of  which  is  Hasmoneans 
(q.v.). 

MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF.— 7  Maccabees  is  a 
trustworthy  account  of  Palestinian  Jews,  175- 
135  B.C.,  when  they  forced  Syrian-Greek  rulers 
to  grant  them  political  and  religious  autonomy. 
Written  in  Palestine  in  Hebrew  by  a  Pharisee 
ca.  100  B.C.,  to  maintain  national  and  devout 
Judaism.  //  Maccabees,  written  in  EgjT^t  ca. 
100-50  B.C.,  gives  an  inferior  account  of  Palestinian 
Jews,  175-161  B.C.;  magnifies  the  Jewish  feasts 
of  Dedication  and  Nicanor's  Day.  ///  Maccabees, 
written  in  Egypt  ca.  100  B.C.  (or  38  a.d.),  is  Jewish 
didactic  fiction,  to  promote  devout  Judaism  and  to 


gain  the  goodwill  of  gentiles.  IV  Maccabees, 
written  in  Egypt  ca.  38  a.d.,  is  Jewish  wisdom, 
influenced  by  Greek  ethics  and  rhetoric;  recites 
stories  of  martyrs  (from  II  Maccabees)  to  inculcate 
faithful  adherence  to  Judaism.        C.  W.  Votaw 

MACEDONIANISM.— A  heretical  movement 
so  called  from  the  leader  of  the  party,  Macedonius, 
bishop  of  Constantinople  in  the  4th.  century.  Its 
distinctive  tenet  was  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  a 
being  similar  to  the  angels,  subordinate  to  and 
subservient  to  the  Father  and  the  Son.  Hence  the 
sect  was  also  designated  Pneumatomachi. 

MACKAY,  ALEXANDER  MURDOCH  (1849- 
1890). — Scottish  Episcopal  Missionary  to  Africa; 
through  whose  tireless  efforts  Christianity  took 
strong  foothold  among  the  Uganda  people. 

MACLEOD,  NORMAN  (1812-1872)  .--Scot- 
tish church  leader,  an  advocate  of  the  liberal 
theology  and  of  social  reconstruction,  who  became 
famous  for  his  broad  sympathy,  his  journalistic 
ability,  and  his  social  and  educational  accompUsh- 
ments. 


Madagascar,  ReUgions  of    A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


268 


MADAGASCAR,  RELIGIONS  OF.— The  lar- 
gest island  in  the  world,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  off 
the  S.E.  coast  of  Africa;  a  French  colony  since 
1896.  The  religious  customs  include  a  primitive 
fetishism,  idolatry,  witchcraft,  sorcery,  divination, 
ancestor-worship,  sacrifice,  propiatory  offerings, 
and  the  use  of  charms  and  amulets.  There  is, 
howevCT,  neither  an  organized  reUgious  system, 
temples  nor  a  priesthood.  There  is  a  belief  in  a 
supreme  being  called  Andriamanitra  (the  Fragrant 
One)  and  Ldnahary  (the  Creator),  Christianity 
was  introduced  in  1820  by  the  London  missionary 
Society,  but  1835-1861  was  a  reign  of  terror  and 
persecution  for  Christians.  Since  then  missionary 
work  along  educational  and  evangelistic  lines  has 
been  very  successful,  and  today  one-third  of  the 
population  is  Christian.  The  chief  missions  are 
British,  Norwegian  and  French. 

MADONNA. — An  ItaUan  word,  meaning  "My 
Lady,"  currently  applied  to  representations  in  art 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  usually  with  the  child  Jesus. 
The  Sistine  Madonna,  by  Raphael,  is  the  most 
famous  of  these. 

MAFTIR.— (Hebrew.)  The  reader  of  the  haf- 
tarah  (q.v.)  in  the  Synagog. 

MAGDALENE,  ORDERS  OF  ST.  MARY.— 

Designation  of  several  R.C.  female  orders  estab- 
lished at  various  times  and  places  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  fallen  women. 

MAGI. — The  priestly  class  of  the  ancient 
Medes  and  Persians  and  of  the  Zoroastrians. 
Originally  guardians  of  sacred  utensils,  but  later, 
because  of  claims  to  secret  learning,  magicians 
and  jugglers.  Used  specifically  to  denote  the 
oriental  wise  men  who  came  to  Bethlehem  in 
adoration  of  the  babe  Jesus. 

MAGIC. — A  term  applied  to  a  wide  range  and 
complex  variety  of  beliefs  and  practices  found 
among  all  primitive  peoples,  the  object  of  which  is 
the  accomplishment  of  certain  ends  either  by  the 
use  of  mysterious  powers  or  by  the  coercion  of 
spirits.  Magic  is  co-extensive  with,  but  more  or 
less  independent  of,  religion. 

1.  Magic  in  antiquity. — Magic  is  commonly 
practiced  not  only  by  the  natural  races  of  today 
but  it  reached  a  high  state  of  development  among 
all  ancient  peoples,  characteristically  among  the 
Chaldeans.  The  classic  hterature  of  Greece  and 
Rome  as  well  as  the  Old  Testament  contain  many 
references  to  practices  of  an  essentially  magical 
order.  It  is  regarded  by  Frazer  as  prior  to  rehgion 
and  as  gradually  given  up  in  favor  of  the  more 
effective  method  of  satisfying  desires  by  means  of 

f)rayers  and  sacrifices  to  spirits  or  gods.  But  the 
apse  of  magic  has  not  occurred  through  any  dis- 
covery of  its  futility  per  se;  it  has  tended  to 
disappear  merely  as  an  incident  of  the  general 
development  of  culture  in  which  attention  has  been 
turned  to  other  things  and  to  other  methods  of 
action.  Magic  and  rehgion  represent  two  diverse 
attitudes,  the  former  mainly  though  crudely  prac- 
tical, the  latter  expressing  man's  appreciation  of  the 
social  values  of  life.  Magic  tends  more  often 
than  rehgion  to  be  the  instrument  of  a  private  and 
malevolent  purpose. 

2.  Survivals  of  magic. — ^While  the  modem  man 
does  not  have  the  interest  in  magic  that  the  primi- 
tive man  does,  it  must  be  confessed  that  he  has 
by  no  means  gotten  rid  of  the  behef  in  magic.  In 
fact  the  non-scientific  mind's  faith  in  magic  is 
never  disturbed  by  its  failure  to  "work."  Con- 
fronted with  a  hundred  instances  disproving  some 


pet  superstition,  he  ignores  them  as  irrelevant  or 
inconclusive.  Hundreds  of  current  superstitions 
might  be  mentioned  which  are  without  doubt  sur- 
vivals of  primitive  magic,  for  instance  "knocking 
wood"  to  avert  the  consequences  of  excessive 
optimism,  the  belief  in  the  good  luck  of  horseshoes 
and  in  the  bad  luck  of  the  number  thirteen,  and 
all  sorts  of  superstitions  regarding  charms,  amulets, 
signs,  and  the  relation  of  the  moon  to  crops.  The 
most  wide  spread  modern  superstition  alhed  to  magic 
is  the  belief,  held  certainly  by  every  other  woman, 
that  maternal  impressions  influence  the  unborn 
child  in  profound  ways,  even  to  the  extent  of 
producing  fundamental  changes  in  the  physical 
structure.  The  relation  of  this  superstition  to 
sympathetic  and  mimetic  magic  may  be  readily 
demonstrated. 

3.  The  practice  of  magic. — Among  some  peoples, 
all  persons  may  use  magic,  among  others  the  rites 
are  so  complex  that  they  have  become  the  exclusive 
property  of  a  special  class,  the  magicians  or 
medicine-men.  Such  persons,  while  sometimes 
tribal  functionaries  with  benevolent  intent,  are 
more  often  individualistic  and  malevolent  in  their 
workings.  Among  some  peoples,  the  dread  of 
evil  magic  seems  to  be  the  most  potent  factor  in 
their  fives,  as  among  the  natives  of  the  Niger  valley 
and  other  West  African  tribes.  The  primitive 
man  ever3rwhere  believes  that  all  deaths,  other  than 
those  caused  obviously  by  violence,  are  the  result  of 
evil  magic  practiced  by  an  enemy. 

Frazer  classes  magical  practices  under  two 
heads,  sympathetic  and  mimetic.  The  forrner 
refers  to  that  type  which  works  on  the  assumption 
that  what  is  once  in  contact  with  another  thing 
remains  in  some  sort  of  mystic  relation  to  it  so 
that  action  of  the  former  affects  the  latter.  Mimetic 
magic  refers  to  those  practices  which  seek  effects 
by  imitating  them  as  in  the  case  of  the  barren 
woman's  fondUng  the  image  of  a  child.  Leuba's 
classification  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  of 
any  suggested.  He  distinguishes  three  principles, 
first  that  of  repetition.  "Something  which  has 
happened  once  is  hkely  to  happen  again.  A  suc- 
cessful arrow  will  meet  with  further  success,  and 
one  which  has  failed  with  further  failure."  Second, 
the  principle  of  the  transmission  of  an  effect  from 
one  object  to  another,  or  sympathetic  magic. 
"An  action  takmg  place  upon  an  object  wiU  take 
place  on  another  object  when  the  two  objects  are 
connected  with  each  other  in  the  mind  of  the 
magician."  This  is  illustrated  by  the  roasting  of 
an  image  of  an  enemy  to  kill  him.  Third,  the 
principle  of  will-effort,  including  cases  in  which  the 
magician  beheves  his  will  is  effective  through  spells, 
incantations  and  curses  to  bring  various  results  to 
pass.  Irving  King 

MAGIC  CIRCLE. — From  primitive  tinaes  a 
circle  drawn  about  a  person  has  been  considered 
a  means  of  supernatural  defense.  Circles  of 
fire  may  have  been  a  real  defense  in  early  times 
against  the  prowling  dangers  of  the  dark.  By 
convergence  of  ideas,  rings,  girdles,  head-bands 
and  bracelets  acquired  a  magical  power  to  keep  in 
or  to  keep  out  spirit  influences.  In  medieval 
Europe  the  magic  circle  was  brought  into  relation 
with  the  pseudo-science  of  astrology,  inscribed 
with  a  great  variety  of  mysterious  signs  and  used 
as  a  talisman  or,  drawn  on  the  ground,  as  a  vantage 
point  from  which  safely  to  call  up  and  wrest  knowl- 
edge from  spirits. 

MAGISTER  SACRI  PAL  AXIL— Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace;  an  officer  of  the  Roman  curia 
whose  duties  are  head  chaplain  and  theological 
adviser  to  the  pope.    The  office  dates  from  the 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Mandeans 


13th.  century  and  is  usually  occupied  by  a  Domini- 
can, St.  Dominic  himself  being  the  first  incumbent 
according  to  tradition. 

MAGNA  MATER.— See  Cybblb;   Motheb- 

GODDESSES. 

MAGNIFICAT.— The  hymn  of  praise  ascribed 
to  Mary  in  Luke  1:46-55,  so-called  from  the  first 
word  in  the  Latin.  Also  known  as  the  Canticle 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

MAHABHARATA.— One  of  the  great  Epics 
of  Indian  Uterature  of  18  books  containing  100,000 
verses.  The  main  theme  is  the  struggles  between 
the  descendants  of  Bharata  for  the  rule  of  the 
coimtry  about  Delhi.  It  affords  a  basis  for  much 
philosophical  speculation  as  well  as  for  reUgious 
cults,  both  Krishna-Vai^navism  and  Saivism  finding 
their  roots  here.  The  Bhagavad  Gita  (q.v.)  is 
inserted  in  the  sixth  book. 

MAHADEVA.— "The  Great  God,"  a  name 
of  Shiva  (q.v.). 

MAHATMA.— (Sanskrit:  "Great-souled  one.']) 
In  theosophy  and  esoteric  Buddhism  one  /who  is 
an  expert  of  the  first  rank  in  the  realm  of  reUgion. 

MAHAVASTU. — One  of  the  most  important 
pieces  of  Buddhistic  hterature,  forming  the  con- 
necting Unk  between  the  Hlnaydna  and  Mahdydna. 

MAHAVIRA. — The  last  great  leader  of  the 
Jains.  He  belonged  to  a  Jain  family,  contemporary 
with  Gautama;  Uved  the  householder  life  till  his 
30th  year,  then  undertook  the  austerities  of  Jain 
asceticism;  attained  enlightenment  after  the 
requisite  twelve  years,  preached  as  a  wandering 
monk  for  thirty  years,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-two. 

MAHAYANA.— (PaU:  "The  Great  Vehicle.") 
The  designation  of  Northern  Buddhism  or  the 
second  stage  in  the  history  of  Buddhism.  This 
represents  the  popular  religion  with  the  worship  of 
Buddhas,  Bodhisattvas  and  deities,  the  use  of 
images  and  a  ceremonial  cult.  See  HInayana; 
Buddhism, 

MAHDI. — The  one  who,  according  to  Islamic 
tradition,  will  be  the  last  Imam,  will  convert  the 
world  to  Islam  and  be  its  temporal  and  spiritual 
ruler.  The  figure  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Jewish 
Messiah.  The  title  has  been  claimed  by  several 
figures  in  the  history  of  Islam.    See  Imam. 

MAHZOR. — Hebrew  term  for  the  Jewish 
hoUday  prayer-book. 

MAIMONIDES,  or  MOSES  BEN  MAIMON 

(1135-1204). — Generally  regarded  as  the  greatest 
Jewish  philosopher  of  all  times.  He  was  born 
in  Cordova,  Spain,  exiled  along  with  the  other 
Jews  of  Cordova  in  1160,  spent  some  years  in 
Fez  and  other  places,  and  finally  settled  in  Cairo, 
Egypt,  where  he  acquired  great  fame  as  a  physician 
and  philosopher.  He  left  many  works,  chief 
among  which  are  the  Mishna  Torah,  being  a  com- 
prehensive code  of  Jewish  law,  written  in  Hebrew; 
and  the  More  Nehuchim,  written  in  Arabic  (and  since 
translated  into  Hebrew,  Latin,  and  the  modern 
languages).  The  latter  work  is  in  the  form  of  a 
criticism  of  Aristotehan  philosophy,  by  means  of 
which  the  author  formulates  an  idealistic  system 
from  a  strictly  monotheistic  view-point.  The 
More   NebuckiTn  ha^  beeft  a  potent  stimulus  to 


Jewish  thought;  and  its  study  in  wider  circles 
exerted  no  small  influence  on  Christian  scholasticism, 
and  general  philosophic  speculation. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 
MAJORISTIC  CONTROVERSY.— A  contro- 
versy originating  among  the  German  Lutherans  of 
the  16th.  century,  because  Greorg  Major  (1502- 
1574)  interpreted  the  6th.  article  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  that  good  works  are  the  necessary 
result  of  faith  in  such  a  way  that  opponents  accused 
him  of  the  R.C.  doctrine  of  merit  making  good 
works  necessary  to  salvation.  His  thesis  was 
rejected  by  the  4th  article  of  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord. 

MALAY,  RELIGIONS  OF.— An  archipelago  in 
the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans,  the  largest  in  the 
world;  also  a  peninsula  in  S.  Asia,  stretching  from 
Burma  to  Singapore.  Migrations  account  for  three 
periods  of  religious  history.  The  original  Malays 
were  animists,  practising  Shamanism,  fetishism, 
nature-worship,  magic,  divination,  besides  a  multi- 
tude of  ceremonials  for  various  occasions.  About 
1000  years  ago  Hindus  emigrated  to  Malay  and 
superimposed  their  religion,  so  that  in  parts  of 
Malay,  Hinduism  is  the  predominant  reUgion.  The 
third  period  is  characterized  by  the  dominance 
of  Islam,  Moslem  missions  beginning  in  the  12th. 
century,  becoming  powerful  in  Java  and  Sumatra 
in  the  15th.  century,  and  being  also  influential  in 
Borneo  and  Celebes  and  on  the  peninsula.  _  Chris- 
tian missions  have  been  more  successful  in  some 
islands  than  elsewhere;  in  Java,  e.g.,  the  Dutch 
missions  have  400,000  converts. 

MALIKITES.— One  of  the  four  orthodox 
schools  of  Moslem  law. 

MAMERTINE  PRISON.— An  ancient  prison 
still  preserved  beneath  the  church  of  St.  Giuseppe 
dei  Falegnami  in  Rome,  which  tradition  has  identi- 
fied with  the  imprisonment  of  Peter  and  Paul. 

MAMMON. — An  Aramaic  term,  the  etymology 
of  which  is  in  doubt,  signifying  riches.  It  occurs 
in  Matt.  6:24,  and  Luke  16:9-13.  Its  popular 
identification  with  a  fallen  angel  is  ascribable  to 
Milton  {Paradise  Lost,  I,  678). 

MAN. — See  Anthropology;  Sociology. 

MANA. — A  word,  possibly  of  Polynesian  origin, 
used  throughout  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  denoting 
an  immaterial  power  or  influence,  in  a  sense  supra- 
mundane,  ascribed  to  persons  and  to  objects  behav- 
ing in  a  striking  fashion.  Other  peoples  use 
various  words  to  express  a  similar  idea,  as  the 
Iroquoian  Orenda,  the  Algonquin  Manitu,  the  Siouan 
Wakan,  the  Madagascar  Hasina,  the  Moroccan 
Baraka,  and  the  Kabi  (Queensland)  Manngur. 

MANASSES,  PRAYER  OF.— An  Old  Testament 
apocryphal  book  which  the  R.C.  church  has  placed 
as  an  appendix  to  the  Vulgate  and  does  not  regard 
as  canonical.    See  Canon. 

MANDEANS. — An  Oriental  sect  of  Babylonian 
origin,  Semitic  in  race,  dating  from  an  ancient, 
but  unknown  time.  "The  Great  Book,"  their 
most  ancient  extant  treatise,  comes  from  the  8th. 
century  in  a  Syrian  dialect.  Their  beUefs  are  a 
syncretism  of  Christian,  Jewish,  Parsi,  Babylonian 
and  pagan  elements.  Their  cosmological  specula- 
tions, including  ideas  of  an  original  abyss,  primal 
aeons,  a  demiurge,  and  an  underworld  with  several 
vestibules  and  hells,  resemble  Gnostic  cosmological 
speculations.    The  Old  Testament  saints,  Jesus, 


Manes 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


270 


and  Mohammed  are  portrayed  as  false  prophets 
and  John  the  Baptist  as  the  true  prophet.  The 
cult  includes  baptism,  a  eucharistic  meal  and 
several  feasts.  They  are  also  known  as  Sabians, 
Nasoraeans  and  St.  John's  Christian.  The  sect 
today  numbers  about  2000  Arabic  speaking  ad- 
herents. 

MANES. — Ancestral  ghosts  or  souls  of  the  dead. 
See  Shamanism;  Pitbis;  FRAVAsms. 

MANX. — The  founder  of  the  religious  movement 
known  as  Manichaeism  (q.v.)  He  is  said  to  have 
been  born  in  Mardinu  215  and  to  have  been  crucified 
276.  At  twelve  years  of  age^  he  is  said  to  have 
received  a  revelation  which  he  in  the  course  of  time 
elaborated  into  a  religion. 

MANICHAEISM.— A  synthetic  religion,  based 
on  Persian  dualism  combined  with  Christian, 
Buddhistic,  and  other  elements,  founded  in  the 
3rd.  century  of  our  era  by  ManI,  and  called  after 
his  name  though  it  ceased  to  exist  a  number  of 
centuries  ago. 

Man!  (b.  ca.  216  a.d.)  was  a  Persian  by  blood. 
His  father's  liberal  tendencies  in  religion  appear  to 
have  influenced  the  youth  in  his  zealous  purpose  of 
estabUshing  an  eclectic  faith  which  aimed  at 
becoming  a  world  religion.  Soon  after  he  became 
of  age  Mani  gave  himself  out  as  the  promised 
Paraclete  and  appeared  as  a  new  prophet  on  the 
coronation  day  of  the  Sasanian  King,  Shahpur  I., 
March  20,  242.  Meeting  apparently  with  favor 
at  first,  he  was  afterwards  banished  from  the  country 
by  Shahpur,  doubtless  owing  to  the  intrigues  of  the 
Magian  priesthood.  While  in  exile  he  travelled 
extensively  in  India,  China,  Tibet,  and  elsewhere, 
preaching  his  doctrines  and  absorbing  ideas  acquired 
during  his  wanderings  for  thirty  years.  When 
nearly  sixty,  he  returned  to  Persia  but  was  soon  put 
to  death  by  Shahpur' s  grandson,  Bahram  I.,  who 
ruled  273-276.  In  his  prophetic  claims  Man! 
allowed  that  Zoroaster,  Buddha,  and  Jesus  (from 
all  three  of  whom  he  borrowed  ideas)  were  in  part 
messengers  of  truth,  but  he  declared  that  he 
himself  was  the  last  of  the  prophets  and  had  brought 
into  the  world  the  final  fulfillment  of  light. 

The  philosophic  basis  of  Manichaeism  was 
Persian  dualism  in  a  pronounced  form.  This 
doctrine  of  the  struggle  between  the  Kingdom  of 
Light  and  the  Kingdom  of  Darkness,  or  the  primeval 
principles  of  good  and  evil,  was  derived  ultimately 
from  ancient  Zoroastrianism,  but  with  a  number 
of  marked  amplifications,  modifications,  and 
differences,  in  which  mythology  and  fancy  played 
a  striking  part.  An  elaborate  cosmogony  describes 
how,  before  the  physical  universe  came  into  being, 
the  powers  of  darkness  invaded  the  realm  of  light, 
In  the  conflict,  which  was  waged  in  a  spiritual  form, 
the  demoniacal  forces  succeeded  in  winning  portions 
of  the  hght.  Thus  good  and  evil  became  inextri- 
cably mixed  together  by  the  time  that  the  material 
world  was  brought  into  existence.  Man's  destiny 
is  to  be  worked  out  through  a  compUcated  scheme 
for  recovering  the  lost  light  particles  and  restoring 
them  to  their  original  abode.  A  final  conflagration, 
lasting  1468  years,  will  destroy  the  earth  and 
annihilate  the  powers  of  darkness,  which  will  be 
relegated  forever  to  its  primordial  realm. 

Mani  adopted  into  his  eclectic  system  elements 
also  from  Christianity  of  a  Gnostic  type,  certain 
features  borrowed  from  Buddhism  (distinguishable 
especially  in  Eastern  Manichaeism),  as  well  as  some 
old  Babylonian  beliefs,  which  would  be  natural 
from  its  early  home  in  Babylonia,  and  possible 
other  traits  likewise  from  outside, 


Owing  to  its  essentially  comprehensive  char- 
acter and  generally  adaptable  nature,  Manichaeism 
spread  rapidly  in  the  West  as  well  as  in  the  East. 
Persecuted  under  the  Roman  Emperors  and  anathe- 
matized by  the-  Church  Fathers  (especially  St. 
Augustine,  who  was  for  nine  years  a  Manichaean) 
it  yielded  ultimately  to  Christianity  in  Europe, 
while  in  the  East,  outside  of  Persia  proper,  where 
it  never  took  root,  it  lasted,  particularly  in  Chinese 
Turkistan  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  giving 
place  finally  to  Mohammedanism.  Manichaeism 
may  be  counted  as  one  of  the  world's  lost  reUgions. 

In  his  ecclesiastical  organization  Mani  dis- 
tinguished two  orders  of  the  initiated:  first,  the 
"Perfect,"  or  "Elect,"  who  followed  the  strict 
ordinances  of  the  faith  with  rigid  austerity  of  life 
and  were  held  in  the  highest  sanctity;  second, 
the  "Hearers,"or  novitiates,  for  whom  the  rules  were 
less  exacting.  The  ascetic  element  in  Manichaeism 
was  marked;  marriage  and  all  sensual  indulgence 
were  forbidden,  certainly  to  the  initiated,  the 
partaking  of  animal  food  was  prohibited,  and 
there  were  other  rigorous  injunctions  besides. 
Probably  the  ordinary  uninitiated  person  lived 
much  as  other  people  do.  The  Manichaean  worship 
consisted  chiefly  in  prayers,  thanksgivings  and 
chants,  confessions  of  sins,  frequent  fasts,  alms- 
giving, especially  to  the  Perfect,  and  devotional 
gatherings,  particularly  at  the  annual  festival  of 
the  Bema,  "Throne,''  when  Mani's  death  was 
commemorated. 

The  recent  remarkable  finds,  made  in  1903  and 
the  years  following,  of  a  mass  of  Manichaean 
fragments  in  Turfan  in  Chinese  Turkistan  have 
contributed  very  important  material  for  our 
knowledge  of  Manichaeism  which  was  previously 
derived  m  most  part  from  Christian  and  Moham- 
medan writers.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson 

MANIPLE. — A  liturgical  vestment,  being  a 
silken  band  ornamented  with  three  crosses  in  the 
center  and  one  at  either  end  and  worn  over  the 
left  forearm  by  all  who  have  taken  orders  from 
the  subdeacon  upwards.  It  is  commonly  used  in  the 
Roman,  Greek  and  Armenian  churches,  and  often 
in  the  AngUcan. 

MANISM. — ^The  belief  that  a  p>erson's  spirit 
inhabits  the  body  in  such  independence  that  it  can 
exist  apart  from  the  body  as  a  "shade"  or  "ghost." 
This  belief  is  common  in  primitive  religions  and 
characterizes  much  popular  reUgious  thinking  in 
our  own  day. 

MANITU. — An  Algonquin  word  used  to  indi- 
cate the  possession  of  a  superior  or  magical  power. 
See  Mana;  Wakonda.  It  is  then  applied  to 
spirits  and  to  any  superhuman  beings  such  as 
totems  or  cosmic  powers. 

MANJUSRI. — A  bodhisattva  associated  with 
the  Buddha  Vairochana,  of  resplendent  hght;  he 
was  the  revealer  and  so  became  the  divine  embodi- 
ment of  wisdom.  From  this  it  was  only  a  step  to 
identify  him  with  the  ultimate  Reality,  in  Bud- 
dhism with  the  Adibuddha  (q.v.),  in  Hinduism  with 
Brahman.  He  is  better  known  in  China  and  Tibet 
than  in  India. 

MANNGUR.— See  Mana. 

MANNING,  HENRY  EDWARD  (1807-1892). 
— ^English  cardinal;  was  educated  at  Oxford  and 
served  some  years  as  an  Anghcan  clergyman. 
Through  various  influences,  including  the  Oxford 
Movement,  he  was  converted  to  Roman  CathoUcism 
and  was  active  in  supporting  the  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility.    He  was  noted  for  his  interest  in  social 


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Marcellinus 


and  economic  reform,  his  diplomacy,  and  his 
proUfic  writings. 

MANTIC. — Magical  practises  through  the  med- 
ium of  an  alien  power,  such  as  in  divination  (q.v.) ; 
hence  intermediate  between  magic  andreUgion. 

MANTRAS. — (1)  Hindu  and  Buddhist  spoken 
charms  or  spells  addressed  to  a  superhmnan  power 
in  order,  magically,  to  acquire  benefits,  to  escape 
dangers  or  disease,  or  to  gain  security  from  spirits 
and  demons;  (2)  the  name  of  the  original  text  of  the 
Vedas. 

MANU. — ^The  Hindu  Noah  who  escaped  the 
deluge  and  became  the  founder  of  the  new  race  of 
men.  The  law  book  of  the  priestly  family  of 
Manavas  is  fabled  to  have  come  from  him  as  the 
law-giver  and  is  called  the  Code  of  Manu. 

MANUSCRIPTS     OF    THE    BffiLE,— Those 

written  copies  of  ancient  books  which  preserved 
them  until  the  invention  of  printing,  and  to  the 
earhest  of  which  that  have  come  down  to  us  critical 
scholars  still  turn  for  light  on  the  original  text. 

I.  Manuscripts  of  the  O.T. — A  scientific 
examination  and  collation  of  all  known  ancient  and 
important  manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament  has 
not  yet  been  accomplished.  There  is  no  uniformly 
accepted  set  of  symbols  to  designate  these  docu- 
ments. The  more  important  Old  Testament 
manuscripts  with  their  usual  designations  and 
symbols  are  the  following: 

Hebrew. — Bab.-Cod.  =  Prophetanim  posteriorum 
codex  Babylonicus  Pelropolitanus,  916  a.d.;  Or.  4445 
=  Codex  of  Pentateuch  undated  (Ginsburg  locates 
it  820-850  A.D.);  St.  Petersburg  Codex  of  entire 
Old  Test.,  1008-1010  a.d.;  Codex  Reuchlinianus, 
■prophetae  priores  et  posteriores. 

G  =  Greek: — GS=  Codex  Sinaiticus — St.  Peters- 
burg (Petrograd);  G'*-  =  Codex  Alexandrinus — 
British  Museum;  Gb  =  Codex  Vaticanus — Rome; 
Gc  =  Codex  Ephraemi — Cambridge ;  G*'  =  Codex 
Ambrosianus — Florence;  Ga  =  Codex  Sarravianus; 
GHeid  =  Codex  of  Papyrus— Heidelberg;  Gq  = 
Codex  Marchalianus;  Gv  =  Codex  Taurmensis; 
Washington  or  Freer  MS  of  the  Psalms. 

L  =  Old  Latin: — Weingarten  Codex  of  Prophets, 
5th.  cent.;  Codex  Monacensis,  Munich,  5th.  and 
6th.  cent.;  PaUmpsest  of  Genesis  and  hist,  books, 
Vienna;  PaUmpsests  of  Pentateuch  and  Prophets, 
Wurzburg;  Oesterley,  Codex  of  Minor  Prophets. 

S=Syriac: — Palimpsest  of  part  of  Isaiah — 
oldest  known  dated  (459-460)  bibUcal  MS— British 
Museum.  Sh  =  Syro-Hexaplar  text: — Codex  Am- 
brosianus— Milan;  Codex  Rich — British  Museum. 
V  =  Vulgate: — Ashburnham  Pentateuch;  Codex  Ami- 
atmus — Florence;  Codex  Complutensis — Madrid. 

To  these  should  be  added  the  several  Greek 
translations  as  preserved  in  Field's  Hexapla  — 
Aq  =  Aquila ;    S  =  Symmachus ;    9  =  Theodotion. 

Kennicott,  an  Englishman,  collected  the  read- 
ings of  694  Hebrew  MSS  and  almost  numberless 
editions,  and  pubUshed  the  results  in  Oxford  in 
1776-1780  in  two  foUo  volumes. 

De  Rossi,  an  Italian,  collected  the  variant 
readings  of  732  Hebrew  MSS  and  310  editions,  and 
issued  his  results  in  four  quarto  volumes  in  1784-88, 
followed  by  a  supplementary  volume  in  1798. 

The  oldest  known  Biblical  manuscript  is  a 
papyrus  at  Leiden  containing  a  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Decalogue  from  the  2nd.  or  3rd.  century  a.d. 

Ira  M.  Price 

11.  Manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  or 
its  several  parts  are  usually  cited  by  letters  for  the 
uncial  or  large-letter  manuscripts,  and  by  numbers 
fgr  the  cursive  or  small-letter  manuscripts.     The 


number  of  uncials  has  proved  to  be  so  great  however 
that  only  the  more  distinguished  of  them  are  now 
cited  by  letters  (Latin,  Greek  and  one  Hebrew 
letter)  while  by  a  system  recently  put  forth  by 
C.  R.  Gregory  in  consultation  with  other  scholars, 
all  the  uncials  are  designated  by  numbers  preceded 
by  0  (01,  02,  etc.).  The  leading  uncials  may 
therefore  be  cited  either  by  number  (01,  02,  etc.) 
or  by  letter  (N,  A,  etc.);  the  less  important  ones 
jjy  number  only  (047,  048,  etc.).  The  most 
important  New  Testament  manuscripts  with  their 
symbols  in  Gregory's  system  are  the  following:  the 
first  three  containing  also  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  Septuagint  Greek  version:  i5  (01)=  Codex 
Sinaiticus;  A  (02)  =  Codex  Alexandrinus;  B  (03)  = 
Codex  Vaticanus;  C  (04)=  Codex  Ephraemi  Re- 
scriptus;  D  (05)=  Codex  Bezae  (Gospels- Acts) ; 
Codex  Claromontanus  (Paul);  E  (07)=  Codex 
Laudianus;  F  (09)=  Codex  Augiensis;  G(011)  = 
Codex  Wolfii  A  (gospels);  Codex  Boernerianus 
(Paul);  I  (016)=  the  Washington  or  Freer  manu- 
script of  Paul;  L  (019)  =  Codex  Regius;  R  (027)  = 
Codex  Nitriensis;  W  (032)  =  Washington  or  Freer 
Gospels;  A  (037)=  Codex  Sangallensis;  e  (038)  = 
Koridethi  Gospels;  S  (042)  =  Codex  Rossanensis. 

Of  the  cursive  manuscripts  the  most  important 
are:  l=a  Basle  manuscript  of  the  Gospels,  Acts, 
and  Paul,  closely  related  to  118,  131,  and  209; 
13  =  a  Paris  manuscript  of  the  Gospels,  which  has 
been  shown  by  the  studies  of  Ferrar  and  others  to 
be  closely  related  in  text  to  69,  124,  230,  346,  543, 
788,  826,  983,  1689,  1709,  which  are  known  as  the 
Ferrar  Group;  33  =  a  Paris  manuscript  of  the 
Gospels,  Acts,  and  Paul,  of  great  textual  excellence; 
called  by  Eichhorn  the  Queen  of  the  Cursives. 

There  are  about  twenty-seven  papyrus  frag- 
ments of  the  Greek  New  Testament  (designated 
pi  p2  etc.)  and  the  other  uncials  number  171. 
The  cursive  manuscripts  of  the  whole  or  parts  of 
the  Greek  New  Testament  number  2326,  besides 
1565  Greek  lesson-books  containing  the  church  read- 
ings from  the  New  Testament.  These  numbers  are 
increased  each  year  by  new  discoveries.  To  these 
should  be  added  the  manuscripts  of  the  versions, 
often  as  in  the  case  of  the  Vulgate  Syriac,  of  great 
antiquity,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Vulgate  Latin  much 
more  numerous  than  are  the  Greek  manuscripts. 
Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

MARA. — The  personal  embodiment  of  the 
powers  of  evil  in  later  Hindu  and  Buddhist  specula- 
tion. He  is  hostile  to  men,  tempting,  deceiving, 
and  terrifying  them  that  he  may  lead  deluded 
mortals  to  death  and  keep  them  in  the  toils  of 
ignorance  and  desire.  He  is  the  great  demon  of 
earthly  desire  and  death. 

MARANO.— (Spanish:  "banned.")  The  term 
appUed  to  the  Spanish  Jews  who  became  formally 
converted  to  Christianity  in  consequence  of  the 
persecutions  of  the  14th.  century,  but  most  of  whom 
remained  secretly  Jews. 

MARBURG,  COLLOQUY  OF.— A  conference 
of  German  Protestant  theologians  called  in  1529 
at  Marburg  in  the  interests  of  unanimity  between 
the  Lutheran  and  ZwingUan  movement.  Eventu- 
ally the  Articles  of  Marburg  were  drawn  up  which 
stated  the  doctrines  on  which  there  was  unanimity, 
and  while  acknowledging  disagreement  concerning 
the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence  included  what  con- 
sensus was  possible  regarding  the  Lord's  Supper. 
They  were  signed  by  ten  representatives,  including 
Luther,  ZwingU  and  Melanchthon. 

MARCELLINUS.— Bishop  of  Rome,  29&-304. 
Tradition  declares  that  he  lapsed  in  the  Diocletian 
persecution  but  repented  and  suffered  martyrdom 


Marcellus 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


272 


MARCELLUS.— The  name  of  two  popes. 
Marcellus  /.—Pope,  308-309. 
Marcellus  II. — Pope,  April  9-30,  1555. 

MARCELLUS  OF  ANCYRA  (d.  ca.  374).— 
Bishop  of  Ancyra  in  Asia  Minor,  His  insistence 
on  monotheism  resulted  in  a  Christology  resembUng 
Sabellianism  (q.v.).  His  view  was  condemned  as 
heretical  by  the  Pope  in  380  and  the  council  of 
Constantinople!  381. 

MARCION,  MARCIONISM.— The  founder  of  a 
reform  movement  within  Christianity  in  the  2nd. 
century,  and  the  name  by  which  the  movement  is 
known  and  condemned  as  heresy. 

Marcion  is  thought  to  have  been  a  wealthy 
shipowner  from  Sinope  in  Pontus  who  came  to 
Rome  about  the  year  140  a.d.  At  that  time  he  was 
already  a  Christian  but  he  entertained  some  dis- 
tinctive ideas  which  proved  unpopular  with  the 
majority  in  the  Roman  church.  As  a  result  of 
opposition  he  established  a  separatist  movement 
which  grew  in  popularity  until  Marcionite  churches 
were  to  be  foimd  at  various  places  in  both  the  West 
and  the  East.  By  the  middle  of  the  3rd.  century 
Marcionism  had  begun  to  decline  and  by  the 
7th.  century  had  completely  disappeared. 

The  outstanding  peculiarity  of  Marcion  was  his 
objection  to  the  Old  Testament  within  Christianity. 
This  Uterature  seemed  to  him  to  reveal  only  a  god 
of  anger,  jealovisy  and  war,  while  the  god  of  Chris- 
tianity was  forgiving,  generous  and  kind.  Therefore 
Marcion  taught  that  the  god  of  the  Jews  was  an 
inferior  being  whom  he  called  the  Demiurge.  This 
world  was  the  creation  of  the  Demiurge,  who  had 
himself  been  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  the  supreme 
deity.  The  supreme  good  god  revealed  himself 
by  sending  his  son  Jesus  to  earth  to  redeem  men. 
In  his  attempt  to  establish  Christianity's  inde- 
pendence of  Judaism,  Marcion  assembled  a  group  of 
Christian  writings  to  be  used  in  place  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  Christian  services.  This  new 
Scripture  consisted  of  a  revised  form  of  the  Gospel 
of  Luke  and  ten  of  Paul's  letters  (omitting  the 
Pastorals).  On  the  strength  of  his  conflict  with 
the  Judaizers,  Paul  was  regarded  as  the  true  apostle 
of  Christ  and  the  vahd  interpreter  of  the  new 
religion. 

As  a  movement  Marcionism  is  distinct  from 
Gnosticism  (q.v.),  yet  Marcion  himself  came  in 
contact  with  Gnostic  teaching  in  Rome,  and  the 
notion  of  a  dualism  in  the  godhead,  a  conception 
fundamental  to  Marcionism,  is  essentially  a  Gnostic 
idea.  S.  J.  Case 

MARCUS.— Pope,  Jan.  18-Oct.  7,  336. 

MARCUS  AURELIUS  ANTONINUS  (121-180). 
— Roman  emperor  and  Stoic  philosopher,  whose 
poUcy  was  one  of  enUghtened  government  and  social 
reform.  His  knowledge  of  Christianity  was  meager, 
but  he  persecuted  it  because  it  opposed  the  imperial 
religion  and  Greek  philosophy.  His  meditations 
are  a  classic  expression  of  Stoicism. 

MARDUK,— One  of  the  chief  deities  of  the 
ancient  Babylonian  reUgion  (q.v.).  As  patron 
deity  of  the  city  of  Babylon,  he  came  to  be  first  in 
the  pantheon.  Probably  a  sun  god,  he  became  a 
god  of  fertiUty,  creator  and  arbiter  of  all  destinies. 

MARGARET  OF  NAVARRE  (1492-1549).— 
Queen  of  Navarre  and  patroness  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  France;  studied  philosophy  and  theology  and 
held  advanced  views  regarding  doctrine.  She 
rejected  indulgences,  confession  and  prayers  to 
the  saints,  and  held  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  regard- 


ing the  sacraments  and  salvation.    Her  Kingdom 
was  an  asylum  for  persecuted  Protastants 

MARINUS. — The  name  of  two  popes. 

Marinus  I. — Pope,  882-884;  also  called  Martin 
II;   a  friend  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

Marinus  II. — Pope,  942-946;  also  called 
Martin  III. 

MARNIX,  PHILIP  VAN  (1538-1598).— Dutch 
Protestant  theologian  and  statesman;  noted  for 
his  Calvinistic  polemics  written  against  the  Roman 
CathoUc  church,  the  Anabaptists,  and  fanatics,  and 
for  his  scholarly  work  in  translations  from  the 
Bible  into  Dutch.  He  was  a  vigorous  opponent 
of  Spanish  dominion  in  the  Netherlands. 

MARONITES.— A  Syrian  group  located  origi- 
nally and  still  largely  in  the  Lebanon  region,  forming 
a  semi-independent  sect  within  the  Roman  Church. 
Its  adherents  are  widely  scattered  through  Syria  and 
beyond.  Its  origin  and  even  its  name,  first  used 
by  John  of  Damascus  (q.v.),  are  quite  uncertain. 
For  centuries  the  Maronites  professed  Mono- 
thelitism  (q.v.).  They  retain  certain  characteristic 
features  (Syriac  hturgy;  non-cehbate  lower  clergy) 
in  spite  of  the  drift  toward  Rome,  begun  1182, 
consummated  1445.     They  number  about  500,000. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

MARQUETTE,  JACQUES  (1637-1675).— 
French  Jesuit  Missionary  to  America;  well  known 
as  a  missionary  to  the  Indians,  and  as  one  of  the 
explorers,  with  Joliet.  of  the  Mississippi. 

MARRIAGE. — In  the  natural  history  sense,  a' 
more  or  less  durable  union  between  male  and 
female  lasting  till  after  the  birth  and  rearing  of 
offspring.  In  the  ethical  sense,  a  physical,  legal, 
and  moral  union  between  man  and  woman,  Uving 
in  complete  community  of  life  for  the  establishment 
of  the  family. 

In  the  natural  history  sense  of  the  word,  marriage 
may  be  said  to  exist  among  many  of  the  animals 
below  man.     See  Family. 

The  function  of  marriage  in  human  society  is 
twofold:  (1)  to  regulate  the  relations  between  the 
sexes,  and  (2)  to  determine  the  relation  of  the 
child  to  the  community.  This  latter  function  is 
often  overlooked,  but  is  quite  as  important  in  any 
scientific  consideration  of  marriage  as  the  former. 

Practically  all  forms  of  marriage  are  to  be  found 
among  human  beings  if  we  consider  the  whole 
species,  although  the  primitive  form  of  marriage 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  a  simple,  pairing  monog- 
amy. See  Family.  Whether  such  a  form  as 
"commimal"  or  "group"  marriage  has  ever  existed 
among  any  people  has  been  much  debated  by 
anthropologists  and  sociologists.  The  nearest 
approach  to  this  form  of  marriage  is  found  in 
certain  aboriginal  AustraUan  tribes  where  a  man 
who  takes  a  wife  from  a  certain  group  has  sexual 
access  to  all  of  the  other  women  of  that  group, 
although  he  lives  only  with  one  of  them.  A 
similar  form  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Punaluan  family 
of  the  Polynesians,  the  marriage  of  a  group  of 
brothers  with  a  group  of  sisters,  though  this  form 
is  rare  even  among  the  Polynesians.  Setting 
aside  these  exceptional  forms  of  marriage,  the  main 
types  of  human  marriage  may  be  grouped  under  the 
heads  of  polygyny,  polyandry,  monogamy. 

Polygyny. — ^A  common  form  of  marriage  in 
barbarism  and  lower  civilization  is  the  union  of 
one  man  with  several  women,  scientifically  known 
as  polygyny,  but  popularly  called  polygamy.  It 
is  possible  that  this  form  of  marriage  existed  to  some 
extent  in  primitive  times,  as  the  gorilla  among 
the    anthropoid    apes    practices    it.    In    general. 


273 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Martyr 


however,  it  presupposes  a  considerable  accumula- 
tion of  wealth,  and  is,  therefore,  relatively  rare 
among  strictly  savage  peoples.  It  is  never  generally 
practiced  by  the  whole,  population,  but  is  largely 
confined  to  the  wealthy  and  ruUng  classes,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  number  of  males  and  females 
in  any  given  population  under  natural  conditions 
is  approximately  equal.  In  polygynous  countries 
rarely  over  5  per  cent  of  the  famiUes  are  of  this 
type.  The  causes  of  polygyny  are  complex.  Beside 
the  animal  instincts  of  the  male,  we  must  place  the 
economic  value  of  women  (or  wives)  as  laborers,  the 
military  honor  of  wife  capture,  and  the  high  valua- 
tion in  patriarchal  times  of  children.  Polygyny 
has  been  wide-spread  among  practically  all  peoples 
from  the  stage  of  barbarism  up,  and  several  religions, 
such  as  Mohammedanism  and  Mormonism,  have 
given  it  exphcit  sanction;  but  among  all  peoples  it 
tends  to  die  out  with  the  coming  of  the  higher 
phases  of  civilization. 

Polyandry. — The  imion  of  one  woman  with 
several  men  is  a  rare  form  of  marriage  found  at 
present  practically  only  in  Tibet  and  in  some  of  the 
mountainous  regions  of  India.  The  ordinary  form 
is  where  the  older  brother  takes  a  wife  and  then 
admits  his  younger  brothers  into  partnership  with 
him,  though  among  the  Nairs  of  India  a  non- 
fraternal  form  exists.  The  causes  of  polyandry 
seem  to  be  mainly  economic,  namely,  the  difficulty 
of  one  man  supporting  a  family,  though  scarcity  of 
women  in  some  regions  is  apparently  also  a  cause. 
Polyandry  has  never  been  a  wide-spread  form  of 
marriage  in  the  human  species,  as  the  instinctive 
jealousy  of  the  male  works  against  it. 

Monogamy. — The  union  of  one  man  and  one 
woman  has  been  the  prevalent  form  of  rnarriage 
among  all  peoples  in  all  ages.  It  is  so  by  a  biological 
necessity  of  nature,  which  results  m  an  equal 
number  of  the  sexes  under  normal  social  conditions 
in  every  human  society.  Besides  this  biological 
reason  there  are  other  manifest  social  superiorities 
of  the  monogamic  form  of  marriage,  such  as  that 
it  is  more  favorable  to  the  superior  care  and  up- 
bringing of  children,  that  it  produces  affections  and 
emotions  of  a  more  altruistic  type;  and  that  it 
makes  the  bonds  of  the  family  life  stronger.  We  may 
add  that  the  monogamic  family  at  its  best  pre- 
sents such  superior  unity  and  harmony  that  it  is 
alone  fitted  of  all  the  forms  of  marriage  to  work  in 
harmony  with  the  higher  types  of  human  cultures. 
See  Family. 

The  Marriage  ceremony. — Among  all  peoples, 
savage  as  well  as  civihzed,  legal  marriage  is  usually 
accompanied  by  some  form  of  ceremony,  which 
expresses  the  sanction  of  the  group  upon  the  union. 
This  ceremony  is  usually  of  a  magical  or  religious 
character,  though  in  a  few  peoples  it  is  apparently 
merely  social. 

Marriage  hy  capture  and  by  purchase. — Among 
predatory  and  warhke  tribes  marriage  by  capture 
is  often  common.  Indeed,  on  account  of  the  social 
and  military  honor  attached  to  wife  capture  it 
sometimes  comes  to  be  the  favorite  form  of  marriage. 
We  know  of  no  people,  however,  among  whom 
wives  are  regularly  captured  outside  of  the  tribe. 
Manifestly  such  a  social  state  would  be  practically 
impossible,  even  though  wife  capture  was  the 
socially  favored  form  of  marriage.  Much  more 
common  at  a  later  stage  of  cultural  development 
was  wife  purchase.  When  the  idea  of  property  in 
persons  was  at  its  height,  wife  purchase  became  the 
usual  and  customary  form  of  marriage. 

Exogamy  and  endogamy. — Among  many  peoples 
we  find  rules  which  prevent  a  man  from  marrying 
within  a  certain  group  and  from  marrying  outside 
of  another  group.  These  are  the  so-called  rules  of 
exogamy  and  endogamy.    They  are  almost  always 


correlatives.  Thus,  in  the  clan  or  totemic  stage 
of  social  organization,  a  man  must  take  a  wife  out- 
side of  his  clan  or  totem-km  group,  but  usually  must 
marry  within  his  tribe  or  in  related  tribes.  Similar 
rules  are  found  regarding  forbidden  degrees  of 
relationship  among  civiUeed  peoples.  The  main 
difference  is  that  in  the  clan  stage  of  social  organiza- 
tion it  is  not  blood  relationship  in  our  sense  which 
counts,  but  the  form  of  social  organization  itself. 
See  Family;  Divorce;  Child-Marriage. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 
MARS. — A  deity  in  the  ancient  Roman  rehgion 
(q.v.)    second    in    importance    to    Jupiter    only. 
He  was  the  patron  of  agriculture  and  of  war. 

MARSHMAN,  JOSHUA  (1768-1837).— EngUsh 
Baptist  missionary  to  India;  also  an  Oriental 
scholar  who  did  important  service  in  Biblical 
translation  and  journahsm. 

MARTENSEN,  HANS  LASSEN  (1808-1884).— 
Danish  theologian,  influenced  by  Hegel  and  Schleier- 
macher.  His  theological  writings  were  persuasive 
expositions  of  a  philosophy  of  divine  immanence  set 
forth  as  a  more  profound  interpretation  of  Luther- 


MARTIN. — The  name  given  to  five  pop>es. 

Martin  I. — Pope,  649-655;  convened  the 
first  Lateran  council  which  condemned  Monotheht- 
ism  (q.v.),  thus  incurring  the  enmity  of  Constans, 
resulting  in  Martin's  banishment. 

Martin  II. — Erroneous  designation  of  Marinus 
I  (q.v.). 

Martin  III. — Erroneous  designation  of  Mari- 
nus II  (q.  v.). 

Martin  /F.— Pope,  1281-1285. 

Martin  V. — Pope,  1417-1431;  published  a 
decree  on  the  finality  of  the  pope  in  matters  of 
religion ;  arranged  concordats  with  France,  England, 
Italy,  Spain  and  Germany;  endeavored  to  end  the 
papal  schism,  and  to  reunite  the  eastern  and 
western  churches. 

MARTIN  OF  TOURS,  SAINT  (ca.  316-400).— 
Bishop  of  Tours,  France;  noted  for  his  zeal  in 
uprooting  idolatry,  extending  monasticism  and 
opposing  Arianism.  The  feast  in  his  honor,  con- 
tinuing an  old  pagan  festival,  is  celebrated  by  the 
R.C.  church  on  Nov.  11.  He  is  patron  saint  of 
France. 

MARTINEAU,  JAMES  (ISOS-IOOO).— EngUsh 
philosopher  and  theologian;  renowned  as  a  preacher 
and  religious  philosopher.  Reared  a  Unitarian,  he 
was  an  apologist  for  a  liberal  interpretation  of 
Christianity.  Philosophically  he  was  an  idealist, 
and  his  writings  gave  eloquent  interpretation  to  a 
type  of  intuitive  but  rational  mysticism  which 
exercised  considerable  influence. 

MARTYN,  HENRY  (1781-1812).— Enghsh  mis- 
sionary to  India  and  Orientahst,  who  during  his 
short  life  translated  the  N.T.  into  Hindustani,  Hindi, 
and  Persian,  besides  undertaking  other  works  of 
translation. 

MARTYR.— Strictly  used  for  the  Christian 
who  suffered  death  for  his  faith,  the  term  (like 
confessor)  designated  also  those  who  having  suffered 
imprisonment  were  honored  in  the  church  as  brave 
soldiers  are  honored  in  the  world.  As  martyrdom 
was  valued  as  a  second  baptism  (Tertullian,  On 
Baptism,  16)  renewing  hoUness,  martyrs  had  the 
saint's  privilege  to  intercede  for  penitent  apostates, 
often  in  conflict  with  the  bishop's  disciplinary 
power    (Cyprian    Ep.    16).    On    the   anniversary 


Martyrology 


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274 


(Natalis)  of  the  martyr's  death,  worship  was  held 
at  the  grave  and  his  relics  were  venerated  as  con- 
taining supernatural  power.  Menaorial  accounts 
abound,  based  on  reports  of  magistrates  or  eye 
witnesses,  but  usually  enriched  by  legend. 

MARTYROLOGY.— In  the  R.C.*  Church  a 
list  of  martyrs  or  saints  in  the  sequence  of  their 
anniversaries,  some  of  which  contain  also  bio- 
graphical material.  The  Roman  martyrology  was 
first  pubUshed  in  1583,  though  local  martyrologies 
date  back  as  early  as  the  4th.  century. 

MARUTS. — ^The  lesser  storm  gods  in  Vedic 
religion.  They  are  always  subordinate  to  Indra 
(q.v.).  Though  often  destructive,  their  nature  is 
that  of  kindly,  helpful  and  health-giving  powers. 

MARY,  THE  VIRGIN.— See  Virgin  Mart. 

MASORAH. — A  Hebrew  word  meaning  "tra- 
dition," used  to  designate  the  principles  laid  down 
by  the  Masorites  regarding  the  form  and  meaning 
of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament.  This  tradition 
arose  in  the  Palestinian  Schools  in  the  2nd.  century 
B.C.  and  grew  in  volume  till  the  15th.  century  a.d. 
It  deals  chiefly  with  external  matters,  such  as  the 
grouping  of  the  continuously  written  letters  into 
words,  the  vocalization  of  the  originally  unvocal- 
ized  text,  the  division  into  verses,  chapters,  and 
books,  and  the  spelUng  of  words.  The  primary 
purpose  of  the  Masorites  was  the  fixation  of  a 
standard  text.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

MASS. — (Late  Latin,  missa.)  Denotes  pri- 
marily the  Latin  eucharistic  hturgy.  The  entire 
service  is  named  from  two  episodes,  the  dismissal 
{missa)  of  the  catechumens  (q.v.),  who  were  not 
allowed  to  be  present  at  the  consecration  of  the 
eucharist,  and  the  dismissal  of  the  faithful  by  the 
formula  Ite,  missa  est  (Go,  it  is  the  dismissal). 

1.  Varieties. — To  comprehend  the  structure  of 
the  mass  one  must  study  the  unabridged  form  called 
high  mass  (missa  solemnis),  which  requires  the  co- 
operation of  at  least  three  clergy,  who  function  as 
priestj  deacon,  and  subdeacon  respectively.  When 
there  is  only  one  clergyman  it  is  possible  to  celebrate 
merely  the  shorter  and  simpler  form  called  low  mass. 
Masses  are  classified  also  by  their  intention  as 
nuptial  masses,  requiem  masses,  etc. 

2.  Divisions. — The  mass  may  be  divided  into 
forty-one  rubrics,  of  which  the  first  eighteen  form 
the  Order  of  the  Mass,  and  the  rest  the  Canon  of  the 
Mass.  Bells  mark  high  points  of  devotion:  the 
Sanctus  (at  the  close  of  the  Preface),  the  elevation 
of  the  Host,  the  elevation  of  the  chahce,  the  com- 
munion. 

3.  Effects. — The  Roman  church  teaches  that  the 
mass  is  the  sacrifice  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ,  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  cross, 
and  a  representation  or  renewal  of  that  sacrifice 
yet  bloodless.  It  is  offered  to  God  in  order  to 
honor,  to  thank,  to  propitiate  him,  and  to  obtain 
graces.  It  benefits  the  entire  church,  but  more 
particularly  the  celebrant  and  the  faithful  who 
"assist"  (stand  by  devoutly),  also  those  for  whom 
the  mass  is  intended,  be  they  living  or  dead. 

4.  Compulsory  attendance. — The  first  precept 
of  the  Roman  church  requires  the  hearing  of  mass 
on  Sundays  and  other  holy  days  of  obhgation. 

5.  Protestant  attitvde. — The  Reformers  altered 
the  liturgy,  abolished  private  masses,  and  attacked 
the  doctrine  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  as  containing 
"blasphemous  fables  and  dangerous  deceits" 
(Thirty-nine  Articles,  art,  31).  In  assailing  the 
validity  of  Anglican  ordination,  Roman  contro- 
versialists have  pointed  to  the  omission  in  the 


Ordinal  of  phrases  granting  authority  to  offer  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass.  The  Royal  Commission  on 
Ecclesiastical  DiscipUne  (1906)  recommended  that 
there  be  no  toleration  for  the  interpolation  of  the 
Communion  Office  with  "the  prayers  and  ceremonies 
belonging  to  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,"  and  for  the 
"celebration  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  with  the  intent 
that  there  shall  be  no  conamunicant  except  the 
celebrant."  W.  W.  Rockwell 

MATERIALISM.— A  form  of  philosophy  which 
explains  all  existence  in  terms  of  physical  processes. 

Materiahsm  pictures  the  entire  realm  of  exist- 
ence, both  psychic  and  physical,  as  a  complex  of 
forces  such  as  natural  science  deals  with.  The 
best  known  materialists  are  the  so-called  Greek 
Atomists,  the  Roman  Lucretius,  certain  French 
Encyclopedists  in  the  18th.  century,  and  some 
scientists  in  modern  times,  among  whom  Biichner 
was  perhaps  the  most  influential.  Materiahsm 
rests  on  the  assumption  that  mental  phenomena 
can  be  reduced  to  physical  processes.  The  retort 
is  easy;  for  these  very  physical  processes  are 
known  to  us  only  in  the  form  of  ideas.  Thus  ideas 
are  primary  facts  of  experience.  See  Idealism. 
Since  materiahsm  must  deny  the  reaUty  of  spirits, 
reUgious  faith  necessarily  opposes  it. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MATHER,  COTTON  (1663-1728.)— American 
CongregationaUst ;  a  great  preacher,  writer,  and  citi- 
zen, minister  of  North  Church,  Boston.  Disapprov- 
ing of  the  hberal  views  which  had  become  current  at 
Harvard  College,  he  was  instrumental  in  securing 
from  Elihu  Yale  a  gift  to  the  college  in  Connecticut 
afterwards  named  Yale.  His  belief  in  witchcraft 
led  him  to  take  an  active  part  in  prosecuting  the 
alleged  Salem  witches. 

MATHER,  INCREASE  (1639-1723).— Ameri- 
can congregational  preacher  and  scholar,  father 
of  Cotton  Mather  (q.v.),  a  splendid  preacher 
and  an  ardent  student.  He  vigorously  opposed 
the  attempted  restrictions  on  colonial  freedom 
attempted  by  James  II.  of  England.  He  was  also 
a  leader  in  political  and  educational  affairs,  being 
for  a  short  time  president  of  Harvard. 

MATHESON,  GEORGE  (1842-1906).— Scot- 
tish theologian  and  hymn  writer;  blind  from  his 
20th.  year,  a  hberal  and  spiritually  minded  theo- 
logian. His  best  known  hymn  is  "O  love  that 
wilt  not  let  me  go." 

MATIN.— In  the  R.C.  liturgy,  one  of  the 
canonical  hours  of  the  breviary,  originally  said  at 
midnight,  but  sometimes  at  dawn.  Also  used  to 
denote  morning  prayers  in  the  AngUcan  church. 
In  the  plural  the  word  denotes  the  musical  arrange- 
ment of  the  service  or  morning  songs. 

MATTER. — In  the  Aristotelian  sense  matter  is 
indeterminate  stuff  that  develops  into  the  indi- 
vidual thing  and  thus  attains  form.  It  is  the 
underlying  or  substratum,  which  in  its  pure  condi- 
tion is  without  reality  and  so  not  knowable.  It  is 
the  possibihty  of  the  object.  Aristotle's  controUing 
conception  was  that  of  biological  development.  The 
seed  was  the  matter  which  developed  into  the 
plant.  The  wood  or  the  marble  was  matter  which 
took  on  the  form  which  the  artist  gave  it.  Thus 
what  was  a  developed  thing,  reaUzed  matter, 
could  be  regarded  as  itself  matter  to  be  developed 
into  another  object,  the  form  was  the  essence  of 
the  thing,  the  matter  its  possibility.  The  dis- 
tinction of  the  spiritual  soul  which  was  a  separable 
substance  from  the  body  and  thus  different  from 
its  form  introduced  a  serious  complication  into  the 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Medicine  Men 


Scholastic  Aristotelianism.  Out  of  this  complica- 
tion and  the  growth  of  the  new  science  of  dynamics 
in  the  formulation  of  Gahleo  and  his  followers  arose 
the  conception  of  an  indifferent  matterthat  was 
regarded  simply  from  the  standpoints  of  its  motion 
and  its  mass.  What  had  constituted  the  nature  of 
the  Aristotelian  matter  and  form  passed  largely 
into  the  object  of  sensation  and  thought,  that  was 
conceived  of  as  existing  in  consciousness,  while 
without  lay  a  matter  occupying  space  and  moving 
in  space  and  time,  that  was  responsible  for  the 
sensuous  experiences.  The  philosophic  develop- 
ment of  this  appeared  in  Cartesianism  and  the 
systems  which  succeeded  that  of  DesCartes.  The 
relation  of  such  a  matter  to  experience  and  spe- 
cially to  man's  knowledge  has  afforded  a  central 
problem  of  later  philosophy.  As  independent  of 
experience  Kant  called  it  a  "thing-in-itself"  and 
unknowable  though  a  postulate  of  experience. 
In  so  far  as  it  was  spatial  and  temporal  he  called  it  a 
synthesis  of  certain  sensuous  experiences  under  the 
forms  of  the  sensibihty  and  the  understanding. 
Mill  making  much  the  same  distinction  called 
matter  the  permanent  possibiUty  of  sensation. 
Post-Kantian  ideaUsm  considered  matter  an  early 
stage  in  the  development  of  the  idea.  The  modern 
physical  sciences  uninterested  in  the  philosophical 
problems  they  had  aroused  have  continued  to  regard 
matter  as  mass  in  motion,  and  have  sought  to 
explain  all  material  phenomena  in  terms  of  these 
two  conceptions.  George  H.  Mead 

MATTHEW.— One  of  Jesus'  twelve  apostles, 
also  called  Levi,  described  as  a  tax  collector. 
His  name  is  traditionally  associated  with  the 
authorship  of  the  first  Gosf>el. 

MAUNDY  THURSDAY.— The  Thursday  pre- 
ceding Good  Friday.     Also  called  Holy  Thursday. 

MAURICE,   JOHN  FREDERICK    DENISON 

(1805-1872). — ^Enghsh  theologian  and  writer,  a 
man  of  strong  character  and  independent  theological 
thinking,  which  led  to  many  controversies.  He 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  Christian  Sociahsm,  an 
attempt  to  make  a  practical  appUcation  of  Chris- 
tianity to  social  needs. 

MAURISTS.— A  congregation  of  French  Bene- 
dictines, famed  for  their  critical  editions  of  the 
writings  of  church  fathers,  their  contributions  to 
ecclesiastical  history  and  other  hterature;  so 
designated  from  Maurus,  a  disciple  of  Benedict 
whom  tradition  credits  with  the  introduction  of 
the  Benedictine  rule  into  France. 

MAYA. — In  early  Vedic  literature  the  word 
means  magical  power.  It  later  takes  on  the 
meaning  of  illusion  produced  by  such  power.  In 
the  Upanishads  it  is  used  to  des6ribe  the  unreality  of 
the  phenomenal  world.  Its  meaning  was  fixed 
for  India  by  the  Veddnta  as  the  illusion  of  the 
reality  of  the  multiform  external  world  caused  by 
a  failure  to  reahze  that  the  only  real  is  the  One, 
Brahman,  with  which  the  self  is  identical. 

MAZDAISM. — See  Pbbsia,  Religions  qv, 

MAZDAK  (d.  528  or  529  a.d.).— A  Persian 
heretical  leader  who  founded,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  6th.  century  a.d.,  a  socialistic  and  communistic 
sect,  somewhat  resembhng  the  modern  movement 
of  Bolshevism,  but  differing  because  marked  by  a 
strongly  religious  character.  The  heresy  is  known 
as  Mazdakism,  and  its  followers  were  called 
Mazdakites.  Royal  favor  gave  the  movement  con- 
siderable impetus  for  a  while,  as  can  ^  be  traced 
historically  in  the  reign  of  the  Sasanian  king  Kobad, 


but  the  leader  eventually  encountered  suspicion  and 
was  put  to  death.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson 

MAZ^AH  (plural:  mazzot). — Hebrew  term  for 
unleavened  bread,  used  especially  by  the  Jews  on 
Passover. 

McALL  MISSION  .—An  undenominational 
evangelical  mission  estabUshed  among  French 
free-thinkers  by  Robert  Whitaker  McAll  in  Paris  in 
1872,  and  supported  by  Protestants  in  Great 
Britain,  America,  Europe  and  South  Africa. 

McLAREN,  ALEXANDER  (1826-1910).— Eng- 
lish Baptist  pulpit  orator  and  exegete,  whose 
writings  are  voluminous. 

MEAN. — An  intermediate  between  two 
extremes.  Aristotle  applied  the  conception  to 
ethics,  defining  virtue  as  moderation  avoiding  both 
excesses  and  defects.  In  Chinese  thought  a  similat 
appMcation  was  made  by  Tzu  Ssu  (5th.  centuiy 
B.C.)  in  his  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  virtue  con- 
sisting in  equiUbrium  and  harmony.  In  Bud- 
dhistic hterature  the  same  emphasis  appears  in  the 
noble  eightfold  middle  path. 

MECCA. — A  city  of  Arabia,  the  reUgious  capital 
of  Islam.  All  moslems  turn  toward  it  in  their 
daily  prayers  and  at  least  once  in  their  life  are 
expected  to  make  the  pilgrimage  to  its  holy  shrine, 
the  Kaaba  (q.v.). 

MECHANISM.^A  philosophical  interpreta- 
tion of  all  reality  in  terms  of  a  system  of  physically 
determined  sequences,  thus  excluding  any  real 
place  for  either  human  freedom  or  divine  activity. 

Mechanism  employs  the  categories  of  physical 
science  as  all-sufficient,  and  attempts  to  bring  the 
movements  of  life  and  of  consciousness  within 
the  scope  of  exact  causation.  Objection  to  this 
philosophy  arises  on  scientific  grounds  because  its 
primary  assumption  tends  to  substitute  reasoning 
from  analogy  on  the  basis  of  physical  formulas 
for  an  impartial  observation  of  facts;  and  on 
religious  and  moral  grounds  because  of  its  virtual 
ehmination  of  spiritual  activities.  See  Naturalism  ; 
Materialism;  Natural  Law. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MECHITARISTS.— A  R.C.  religious  order  of 
Armenians,  founded  in  1712  by  Mechitar  for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  the  Armenian  and  Roman 
Churches.  They  adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict 
(q.v.).  Their  abbeys  at  Venice  and  Vienna  have 
made  some  very  scholarly  contributions  to  Chris- 
tian hterature. 

MEDALS,  DEVOTIONAL.— Medals  used  in  the 
R.C.  church  to  commemorate  persons  (e.g.,  the 
Virgin  Mary,  Christ,  or  the  Saints),  places  (e.g., 
shrines,  or  places  of  pilgrimage),  historical  events 
(e.g.,  dedications,  miracles,  etc.),  personal  achieve- 
ments (e.g.,  ordination).  Christian  behefs  and 
practises  (e.g.,  the  Lord's  Supper),  or  as  symbols  of 
rehgious  associations. 

MEDICINE  MEN.— The  term  "Medicine  Man" 
is  applied  most  frequently  to  the  shamans  and 
priests  of  the  American  Indian  tribes,  especially  to 
those  of  North  America.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
character  and  status  of  the  Medicine  Man  varies 
greatly  with  the  tribe  and  the  cultural  level  of  its 
people.  In  the  ruder  tribes,  he  is  a  true  shaman,  a 
conjurer,  exerciser,  and  magician,  with  no  other 
status  than  his  powers  to  impress  give  him.  Among 
the  more  advanced  Indians,  he  is  commonly  either 

(1)  a  doctor,  having  knowledge  of  herbs  and  other 
natural  remedies  as  well  as  supernatural  aids,  or 

(2)  a  member  of  a  Medicine  Society,  having  both 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


276 


spiritual  and  physical  gifts  to  offer  its  members, 
within  which  he  has  attained  the  rank  of  a  leader, 
or  (3)  a  priest,  charged  with  the  hereditary  rites-and 
ceremonies  of  the  tribe.  In  certain  cases,  the 
leaders  known  as  Medicine  Men  by  the  whites  have 
been  from  the  Indian  point  of  view  religious 
prophets,  and  not  infrequently  they  have  done 
much  for  the  improvement  of  their  fellow  tribesmen, 
giving  a  loftier  conception  of  Ufe  and  its  duties. 
What  is  commonly  called  the  "medicine"  of  the 
Indian  is  rather  in  the  nature  of  a  fetish  or  tahsman, 
represented  by  the  group  of  objects  carried  in  the 
"medicine  bag"  of  the  individual,  or  the  "medicine 
bundle"  of  the  tribe  or  society.  Such  "medicine" 
is  personal  property,  acquired  by  fasting,  vision, 
or  adventure,  or  social  property,  handed  down  from 
one  generation  to  another.  It  has  no  direct  relation 
to  the  "Medicine  Man,"  except  as  he  may  JDe  its 
keeper  or  have  (as  he  usually  does)  a  "medicine" 
of  his  own.  "Medicine  songs"  are  in  the  nature  of 
spells  or  songs  ceremonially  used.  As  in  very  many 
Indian  rituafa  the  curative  and  spiritually  strength- 
ening influences  are  important  ends  of  the  ceremony 
the  term  "medicine"  has  come  to  be  associated  with 
them  in  a  multitude  of  ways — "medicine"  dance, 
"medicine"  lodge,  etc.  H.  B.  Alexajider 

MEDINA. — A  town  in  Central  Arabia  which 
came  into  prominence  when  Mohammed  fled 
there  from  the  persecution  at  Mecca.  Here  he 
established  his  political  capital  and  even  after 
Islam  had  become  a  world  power  under  his  immedi- 
ate successors  it  was  still  the  center  of  authority. 
With  the  rise  of  the  Umayyads  it  lost  importance 
and  is  now  chiefly  reverenced  by  Moslems  as  the 
location  of  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet. 

MEDITATION. — In  a  rehgious  sense,  con- 
templation having  for  its  aim  the  strengthening  of 
one's  life  by  moral  correction  or  by  an  experience  of 
closer  communion  with  God.  For  the  Christian 
emphasis,  see  Devotion.  It  occupies  a  large 
place  in  the  Hindu  way  of  happiness  as  dhyana, 
and  in  the  Buddhist  right  path  of  hfe  as  jhana. 

MEEKNESS. — The  quahty  of  enduring  suffer- 
ing in  preference  to  wrong  doing,  sometimes  involv- 
ing non-resistance  in  preference  to  opposing  one's 
own  interests  to  those  of  others.  It  has  been 
exalted  as  a  Christian  virtue. 

MEGELLOT.— (Hebrew:  "scrolls.")  A  term 
used  by  the  Jews  for  the  five  scrolls:  Song  of  Songs, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Esther, 
which  are  read  in  the  Synagog  on  Passover,  Penta- 
cost.  Ninth  of  Ab,  Tabernacles,  and  Purim  respect- 
ively. 

ME*iR. — Influential  Jewish  rabbi,  in  the  2nd. 
century  a.d.  whose  wise  sayings  and  proverbs 
gained  wide  currency. 

MEKELTA. — ^A  Hebrew  commentary  on  the 
book  of  Exodus,  dating  from  the  3rd.  century  a.d. 

MELANCHTHON,  PHILIP  (1497-1560)  .— 
(True  name,  Schwarzerd.)  Educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  where  he  was  refused  the 
Master's  degree  in  15-12,  on  account  of  his  youth, 
he  went  to  Tiibtngen,  where  his  edition  of  Terence 
(1516)  and  Greek  grammar  (1518)  won  him  a  call 
to  the  University  of  Wittenberg  as  Professor  of 
Greek.  He  soon  gained  European  fame  as  a 
Greek  scholar  and  Humanist,  became  the  friend  of 
Luther  and  married  Katherine  Krupp,  daughter  of 
the  burgomaster.  By  his  writings  he  did  much  to 
promote    the    Reformation,    especially    his    Lod. 


Communes,  a  compendium  of  Lutheran  theology. 
He  drew  up  the  Augsburg  Confession  (1530),  but 
his  later  changes  in  its  text  disrupted  the  Lutherans. 
See  Crypto-Calvinism;  Synergism.  At  Augs- 
burg and  later  at  Regensburg  (1541),  he  made 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  bring  about  union  of 
Lutherans  and  the  Romanists.  Melanchthon  was 
a  great  scholar  and  a  man  of  many  amiable  traits, 
of  more  cathohc  spirit  and  milder  temper  than 
Luther's,  but  with  less  gifts  for  leadership  and 
an  inveterate  tendency  to  compromise  that  more 
than  once  nearly  wrecked  the  Lutheran  party, 

Henry  C.  Vedder 
MELCHIADES.— Pope,  310-314. 

MELCHITES.— The  name  appUed  in  the  5th. 
century  to  supporters  of  the  creeds  adopted  at 
Ephesus  and  Chalcedon,  condemning  Nestorianism. 
These  creeds  were  sanctioned  by  the  Byzantine 
emperor,  whence  the  name  Melchites,  which  mean 
royahsts. 

MELIORISM.— The  beUef  that  the  world  is 
improvable  or  is  actually  growing  better.  This 
view,  as  mpre  tenable  than  either  optimism  or 
pessimism,  was  advocated  by  WilUam  James.  It 
is  a  common  ethical  interpretation  of  the  concep- 
tion of  evolution. 

MELITO.— Bishop  of  Sardis  and  Christian 
author  in  the  2nd.  century,  who  defended  orthodoxy 
and  apostohc  tradition.  Only  a  few  fragments  of 
his  works  remain,  one  of  which  contains  the  first 
Christian  Ust  of  the  O.T,  books. 

MELVILLE,  ANDREW  (1545-1622).— Scottish 
Presbyterian  divine  and  organizer  of  higher  educa- 
tion in  Scotland;  struggled  in  behalf  of  Presbyteri- 
anism  in  Scotland  and  secured  the  settlement  of 
1592  which  is  still  the  charter  of  hberty  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  He  endured  persecution, 
incarceration,  and  banishment  by  King  James 
because  of  his  uncompromising  attitude. 

MEMENTO. — The  name  of  two  prayers  in  the 
canon  of  the  mass  in  which  mention  is  made  of  the 
living  and  the  dead. 

MEMRA. — ^A  Hebrew  term  signifying  the 
creative  and  ordering  "word"  of  Yahweh;  trans- 
lated in  the  Septuagint  by  the  word  Logos  (q.v.). 

MEN,  THE.— The  religious  leaders  of  the 
Gaehc-speaking  Scottish  people  during  the  17th.  and 
18th.  centuries,  so  called  because  they  were  laymen 
and  not  ordained  ministers. 

MEN  OF  GOD.— The  self-designation  of  a  sect 
of  Russians  who  beUeve  they  alone  worship  God 
aright,  and  who  practise  a  rehgious  dance  in  which 
flagellation  is  an  incident.  Hence  others  call  them 
"Flagellants"  or  "Khlysti."  They  also  practise 
rigorous  asceticism  and  secrecy,  and  have  many 
"Christs."    See  Russian  Sects. 

MENAION.— The  breviary  of  the  later  Greek 
church  which  contains  the  hymns  and  prayers  for 
all  church  festivals  and  short  biographies  of  the 
martyrs  and  saints. 

MENCIUS  or  MANG-TSZE  (d.  289  b.c.).— 
Chinese  ethical  teacher  second  in  importance  only 
to  Confucius;  known  as  "the  philosopher  Mang, 
sage  of  the  second  degree."  He  insisted  that  the 
right  to  rule  is  conditioned  on  a  benevolent  and 
righteous  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  ruler,  and 
laid  down  the  essentials  of  a  rightly  governed 
society.    See  China,  Religions  of. 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Mercy 


MENDELSSOHN,  MOSES  (1729-1786).— 
Jewish  philosopher,  a  collaborator  with  Lessing, 
a  man  of  broad  sympathy  and  toleration  who 
worked  ardently  for  Jewish  emancipation.  He 
like  Lessing  attempted  a  positive  appreciation  of 
different  religions,  and  thus  promoted  the  concep- 
tion of  tolerance. 

MENDICANT  MONKS,  MENDICANT 
ORDERS. — In  the  12th.  century  a  passionate 
reaction  against  the  wealth  and  worldliness  of  the 
Church  was  roused  by  Arnold  of  Brescia  who 
preached  reform  by  return  to  the  poverty  of  Apos- 
toUc  days.  EvangeUcal  Poverty,  Apostolic  Life 
as  a  new  gospel  generated  movements  more  or  less 
alien  to  the  sacerdotal  church  (Waldensians, 
HumlUates)  and  through  St.  Dominic  and  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  became  the  inspiration  of  new 
orders  controlled  by  the  church.  These  were  to 
make  earnest  with  the  blessing  of  poverty,  having 
no  possessions  as  individuals  or  as  an  order,  Uving 
by  incidental  labor  or  by  alms.  Hence  the  Mendi- 
cant Orders  of  the  Dominicans  (1216),  Franciscans 
(1223),  CarmeUtes  (1245),  Augustinian  Hermits 
(1256).  The  history  of  these  orders  shows  the 
impossibility  of  perpetuating  the  first  ideal  of 
spiritual  freedom  and  disinterestedness  through 
dependence  on  alms.  The  rule  has  been  relaxed 
or  (Dominicans  1475)  aboUshed.  Mendicancy 
found  entrance  into  orders  not  originally  pledged 
to  it  (Trinitarians,  Mercedarians,  Servites)  and 
was  a  feature  of  groups  which  under  other  names 
used  the  rule  of  the  Augustinian  Hermits.  Such 
were  the  Order  of  St.  Jerome  (1374),  the  Ordo  Mini- 
morum  (Minims)  founded  by  Francis  of  Paola  (1460), 
and  the  Fratres    Apostolorum,  Brothers  of  Mercy. 

F.  A.  Christie 

MENNO  SIMONS.— See  Mennonites. 

MENNONITES.— A  small  body  of  evangelical 
Christians  numbering  some  250,000  souls  found  in 
Russia,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Holland,  and 
America,  taking  their  name  from  Menno  Simons. 

Menno  (1492-1559)  was  born  at  Witmarsum, 
Friesland,  and  received  a  fairly  good  education. 
He  became  a  priest  in  1516  and  from  1531  to  1536 
officiated  in  his  own  town.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  converted  to  evangefical  views  by  a  prolonged 
study  of  the  Bible,  and  almost  immediately  em- 
braced the  Anabaptist  position  (q.v.).  The  catas- 
trophe of  the  Miinster  Kingdom  had  left  that  body 
in  ruins,  and  Menno  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  rehabilitating  and  spreading  that  cause. 
Repudiating  the  Anabaptist  name  and  all  connection 
with  the  Miinsterites,  his  followers  gradually  came 
to  be  known  as  Mennonites  from  the  name  of  their 
most  notable  leader. 

Their  peculiar  doctrines  were  those  of  their 
Anabaptist  predecessors — a  regenerate  church, 
faith-baptism  by  pouring  water  on  the  head, 
religious  freedom  and  separation  between  church 
and  state,  rigid  church  disciphne,  refusal  to  take 
the  oath,  bear  arms  or  hold  civil  office.  Church 
disciphne  was  carried  to  absurd  extremes,  causing 
much  strife  and  division.  Their  pohty  was  congre- 
gational, and  their  Christology  was  pecuhar  in 
that  it  held  the  body  of  Christ  to  be  from  heaven. 
Menno  wrote  numerous  tracts  in  which  the  dis- 
tinguishing tenets  of  the  party  were  set  forth 
with  fulness  and  wearisome  reiteration.  Several 
confessions  of  faith  were  drawn  up  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th.  and  the  early  part  of  the  17th. 
centuries  in  the  Dutch,  one  of  which,  composed  in 
1632,  is  still  circulated  in  EngHsh. 

Owing  to  their  radical  religious  and  social 
views  they  were  bitterly  assailed  and  sometimes 
severely  persecuted,  but  managed  to  maintain  their 


existence.  They  have,  however,  been  confined 
almost  wholly  to  Dutch  and  German  nationaUties. 
In  1683,  at  the  invitation  of  WilUam  Penn,  some 
German  Mennonites  settled  at  Germantown, 
Pennsylvania.  Others,  both  Dutch  and  German, 
followed,  and  since  1871  many  German-speaking 
Mennonites  have  come  from  Russia  and  settled 
in  the  Northwest.  But  from  whatever  source  they 
come  they  have  remained  essentially  German.  In 
the  U.S.  there  are  16  different  Mennonite  bodies, 
numbering  (1919)  82,722.  The  largest  bodies 
are  the  Old  Mennonite  Church  (34,965),  and  the 
General  Conference  of  Mennonites  (15,407).  Im- 
portant centers  of  denominational  interest  are 
Scottdale,  Pa.,  and  Elkhart,  Ind.  They  are 
still  numerous  in  Holland  where  they  have  been 
most  influential  and  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
Germany  and  Switzerland.  Through  the  centuries 
they  have  been  quietistic  and  non-resisting;  more- 
over, since  the  early  years  of  their  history  they 
have  shown  Uttle  aggressiveness  until  recently, 
when  there  has  been  decidedly  more  missionary 
and  evangelistic  activity.        W.  J.  McGlothlin 

MENOLOGION.— In  the  Greek  church  a  book 
giving  the  festivals  in  honor  of  martyrs  and  saints 
together  with  brief  information  regarding  the 
one  honored;  the  equivalent  of  the  Roman  Calen- 
darium  and  Martyrologium. 

MENORAH.— ("Candlestick.")  Hebrew  term 
used  by  the  Jews  to  designate  the  holy  candelabra 
used  in  the  Synagog  and  in  the  home  ritual. 

MENTAL  HEALING.— See  Psychotherapt. 

MENTAL  RESERVATION.— In  casuistry,  an 
unspoken  qualification  of  a  statepaent,  which 
alters,  partially  or  completely,  the'  meaning  as 
grasped  by  the  hearer,  the  intention  being  to 
deceive.  Ethically,  such  deception  may  occasion- 
ally be  defensible  (as  when  complete  frankness 
might  endanger  the  life  of  a  person);  but  the 
moral  danger  of  the  practise  is  evident.  Pascal 
vigorously  exposed  the  excesses  of  such  casuistry. 

MERCERSBURG  THEOLOGY.— A  school  of 
theology  centering  about  the  theological  seminary 
of  the  German  Reformed  church  at  Mercersburg, 
Pa.,  Philip  Schaff  (q.v.)  being  one  of  the  leaders. 
The  school  attempted  to  vitalize  the  somewhat 
formal  and  rigid  Calvinism  then  current  by  an 
evangelical  use  of  a  Christocentric  ideal  in  theology, 
thus  introducing  a  more  mystical  interpretation  of 
certain  important  doctrines. 

MERCURY. — A  Roman  god  of  roads,  market- 
places and  wealth.  When  the  secluded  city  of 
Rome  was  opened  to  the  outer  world  of  trade  this 
god,  really  the  Greek  Hermes,  came  in  with  the 
new  life  interests. 

MERCY. — An  attitude  of  forgiving  helpfulness 
towards  one  who  because  of  wrong-doing  deserves 
rebuke  and  punishment. 

Mercy  can  be  exercised  only  by  one  who  has 
power  to  condemn  to  punishment.  It  thus  differs 
from  pity  or  sympathy,  which  may  be  felt  by  every 
one.  Mercy  consists  in  substituting  for  the  punish- 
ment demanded  by  strict  justice  an  opportunity 
for  the  offender  to  resume  cordial  social  relations. 
It  involves  forgiveness  (q.v.)  and  either  mitigation 
or  aboHtion  of  punishment. 

In  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan  the- 
ology, the  mercy  of  God  is  fundanaental.  It 
makes  divine  provision  for  restoring  a  sinner  to  a 
religious  life.  In  Christianity,  the  divine  mercy 
is  declared   to  be   revealed    and    made    effective 


Mercy,  Sisters  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


278 


through  the  atoning  death  of  Christ,  which  recon- 
ciles the  demands  of  justice  with  the  purpose  of 
mercy.  Jesus  insisted  on  mercifulness  in  men 
as  a  mark  of  their  appreciation  of  God's  mercy. 

Since  mercy  presupposes  the  ethical  superiority 
of  the  one  who  exercises  it,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  permit  it  to  excuse  a  pharisaic  retention  of 
aristocratic  privilege.  If  mercy  is  not  considered 
ethically  obhgatory,  if  it  is  a  purely  optional  act  of 
grace,  the  moral  character  of  the  superior  is  de- 
humanized, and  mercy  is  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  favoritism.  Extreme  Calvinistic  interpre- 
tations are  open  to  this  criticism.  See  Forgive- 
ness: Atonement.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MERCY,  SISTERS  O*".— The  designation  of 
various  R.C.  female  congregations,  organized  for  the 
care  and  protection  of  destitute  and  unfortunate 
women,  orphans,  the  sick,  the  poor,  and  those  in 
distress.  They  also  maintain  schools.  _  They  are 
active  in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  the  United  States, 
AustraUa  and  France. 

MERIT. — ^A  character  or  achievement  deserv- 
ing praise  or  reward.  In  religion,  good  works  which 
secure  the  divine  approval,  and  entitle  one  to  the 
blessings  of  salvation. 

The  conception  of  merit  is  an  emphasis  on  the 
moral  quality  of  salvation,  in  contrast  to  magical 
or  sacramental  ideas.  It  receives  especial  promi- 
nence when  rehgion  is  conceived  as  a  probation  on 
earth  with  a  final  judgment  to  determine  one's 
destiny  in  after  Ufe.  Zoroastrianism,  Judaism, 
Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism  have  well 
developed  doctrines  of  merit  and  reward.  It  is 
easy  to  interpret  the  idea  of  merit  superficially, 
so  that  rehgion  appears  as  a  conventional  system  of 
duties  which  secure  divine  approval.  Against 
such  interpretations  Paul,  Augustine,  and  Luther 
protested. 

In  Roman  Cathohcism  salvation  is  clearly 
defined  as  a  moral  reward  for  merit.  Two  kinds  of 
merit  are  recognized,  merit  de  condigno,  where  the 
reward  is  exactly  proportioned  to  the  achievement; 
and  merit  de  congruo,  where  the  benevolence  of  the 
judge  grants  a  larger  reward  than  is  strictly  obhga- 
tory. No  man  in  a  state  of  nature  can  so  live  as  to 
merit  salvation.  Grace  (q.v.)  must  be  given  by 
God  to  enable  man  to  five  meritoriously.  By 
extraordinary  consecration,  a  few  saints  have  been 
able  to  do  more  than  was  strictly  required,  and  their 
surplus  virtue  is  conserved  in  a  "treasury  of  merits," 
to  be  dispensed  under  the  direction  of  the  church. 
Christ's  passion  and  death  are  viewed  as  a  divinely 
efficacious  work  of  supererogation.  Christians  are 
saved  by  the  "merits  of  Christ."  Martin  Luther 
protested  against  the  conception  of  earning  salvation 
by  merit,  and  Protestant  theology,  while  retaining 
the  phrase  "merits  of  Christ,"  refuses  to  ascribe 
any  saving  value  to  human  efforts. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MERU. — A  mythical  mountain  mentioned  in 
the  Hindu  epics  as  the  residence  of  the  gods  and  the 
central  pillar  of  the  earth. 

MESSALIANS.^ee  Euchites;   New  Mani- 

CHAEANS. 

MESSIAH  (Greek  CHRISTOS).— In  Jewish 
and  Christian  belief,  the  one  anointed,  i.e.,  em- 
powered by  God's  resident  spirit  to  deliver  his 
people  and  to  establish  his  kingdom. 

While  other  religions  have  or  foretell  saviors 
(q.v.),  Messiah  is  a  term  properly  used  only  in  a 
Jewish  and  Christian  sense. 

I.  The  Messiah  of  the  Old  Testament. — The 
history  of  the  Hebrew  people  to  no  small  degree 


accounts  for  their  ideals.  Forced  by  political 
misfortune  to  depend  upon  the  aid  of  Yahweh, 
they  increasingly' awaited  the  person  who  should  be 
the  representative  and  agent  of  the  divine  deliver- 
ance. Yet,  strictly  speaking,  the  hope  for  a  Messiah 
is  not  to  be  identified  with  the  general  hope  of  a 
divine  deUverance  which  is  frequently  called 
Messianic.  It  is  only  in  the  later  prophets  that 
the  individual  savior  becomes  apparent.  Further- 
more, one  must  distinguish  between  the  hope  held 
in  certain  periods  of  Hebrew  history  and  the  inter- 
pretation given  thereto  by  later  biblical  writers.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  our  critical  knowledge  will  ever 
permit  us  to  trace  with  strict  historical  accuracy 
the  hope  of  the  Messiah. 

1.  In  general,  however,  it  is  possible  to  see  in 
Hebrew  history  a  development  of  the  thotight  of 
divine  intervention.  Thus  there  seems  to  be  no 
expectation  of  a  deliverer  in  the  period  of  Elijah 
and  Elisha  but  rather  a  belief  that  Yahweh  would 
care  for  the  nation  through  ordinary  historical 
processes.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  later 
prophets  although  national  hopes  are  sometimes 
translated  into  personal  analogies  or  even  personal 
experiences.  In  these  later  prophecies  reference 
is  occasionally  made  to  some  personality. 

Isaiah  (7 :  10-17)  speaks  of  national  punishment 
as  being  so  imminent  that  it  would  come  before  a 
child  about  to  be  conceived  should  be  able  to  choose 
between  good  and  evil.  But  this  child  was  to  be 
named  Immanuel  ("God  with  us")  as  evidence  that 
Yahweh  would  be  present  as  a  national  savior. 
In  other  prophecies  the  dehverer  was  to  be  a 
descendant  of  David  who  should  establish  Yahweh's 
people  as  his  kingdom.  Micah  4:1-3  even  more 
explicitly  locates  the  seat  of  the  new  kingdom  in 
Zion. 

2.  Other  elements  of  the  later  messianic  hope 
seem  to  be  lacking  in  the  Old  Testament,  except  as 
they  are  discovered  by  reading  back  into  certain 
Old  Testament  expressions,  ideas  derived  from  the 
experience  of  Jesus.  "Servant  of  Yahweh"  may 
possibly  be  interpreted  as  an  individual  but  the 
Jewish  writers  seem  not  to  have  so  held.  According 
to  the  ordinary  rabbinical  interpretation  of  Isa., 
chap.  53,  the  Servant  represents  a  nation  suffering  in 
behalf  of  itself  and  the  world  at  large. 

The  expectation  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Davidic  house  and  the  Davidic  kingdom  appears 
vividly  in  later  Psalms  but  the  expectation  is  that  of 
a  righteous  king  rather  than  of  a  religious  leader. 
Almost  without  exception,  references  to  a  resurrec- 
tion in  the  O.T.  refer  to  the  national  restoration 
rather  than  to  the  dehverance  of  the  individuals 
from  death. 

It  should  be  added  that  Christian  teachers  have 
found  prophecies  of  Jesus  Christ  running  with 
increasing  clearness  throughout  the  O.T.  Such 
interpretations,  however,  are  largely  the  outcome 
of  the  Christian  religion  and  in  many  cases  are 
fanciful.  In  a  true  sense,  however,  Jesus  fulfilled 
the  noblest  aspirations  of  the  prophets,  although 
not  in  any  nationalist  sense. 

II.  The  Messiah  op  Judaism. — ^The  hope  of 
a  coming  divine  deUverer  became  particularly 
strong  in  the  Jewish  nation  after  its  complete 
subjection  by  the  Syrian  rulers.  The  persecution 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  disclosed  the  intimate 
relationship  between  political  independence  and 
the  worship  of  Yahweh.  Especially  from  175  B.C. 
did  such  a  hope  become  active.  Speaking  generally, 
it  found  two  forms  of  expression: 

1.  Revolutionary  messianists  believed  that  the 
kingdom  could  be  established  by  the  direct  action 
of  revolt  and  war.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  had 
in  mind  any  specific  individual  as  a  leader  but 
doubtless  hoped  that  Yahweh  would  disclose  such 


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Metamorphosis 


a  one.  The  influence  of  these  social  and  political 
radicals  can  be  seen  in  the  revolt  of  66-70  as  well 
as  in  that  under  Hadrian. 

2.  The  apocalyptic  messianic  hope  was  no  less 
national  than  that  already  described,  but  expressed 
itself  in  the  occult  terms  of  the  apocalypses.  See 
Apocalyptic  Literature.  As  a  result  it  magni- 
fied supernatural  elements  although  a  fair  inter- 
pretation would  undoubtedly  show  that  such 
supernaturalism  by  no  means  argues  the  absence  of 
military  struggle.  At  all  events,  the  apocalyptists 
expected  the  appearance  of  a  definite  kingdom  and 
in  most  cases  (cf .  Enoch  and  the  Psalms  of  Solomon) 
a  king  (Messiah) . 

Were  it  not  for  the  importance  made  of  these 
analogies  and  symbols  by  the  early  church,  it  would 
be  imnecessary  to  discuss  this  matter  further  for 
the  messianic  hope  of  the  apocalypse  might  be 
described  as  a  symbolical  exposition  of  a  coming 
national  kingdom  to  be  established  by  a  Divine 
Deliverer  in  which  all  Jews,  even  those  which  were 
in  Sheol,  should  dwell.  These  elements,  however, 
were  capable  of  other  than  nationalistic  interpre- 
tation and  subsequently  became  a  part  of  the 
Christian  eschatology.  See  Eschatology.  The 
part  the  Messiah  was  to  play  became  increasingly 
regarded  as  supernatural.  He  was  to  come  in  the 
clouds,  raise  the  dead  from  Sheol,  establish  a 
judgment  day  for  the  entire  world,  mete  out  punish- 
ment for  the  sinners  (practically  all  of  whom  would 
be  non-Jews)  and  establish  an  eternal  kingdom  of 
glory,  apparently  with  a  capital  at  Jerusalem.  _  In 
the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  impossible  to  say  just 
where  these  expressions  become  literal  rather  than 
figurative  and  it  is  equally  impossible  to  say  that 
there  was  an  orthodox  messianic  hope  among  the 
Jews  of  N.T.  times.  Yet  although  details  vary, 
the  hope  was  constant  that  God  would  send  his 
divinely  empowered  representative  to  establish 
the  Jews  in  triumphant  possession  of  the  entire 
world  and  of  all  heavenly  blessings.  Thus  a 
definition  of  Messiah,  though  never  formally 
given,  was  in  reality  reached:  One  whom  God 
empowered  by  his  resident  spirit  to  be  the  Savior 
of  his  people  and  the  founder  of  his  Kingdom. 
See  Kingdom  of  God. 

During  the  rabbinical  period  of  Judaism  this 
hope  remained  nationalistic  as  well  as  religious. 
In  some  cases  messianic  movements  recognized  a 
leader  as  a  Messiah  (see  Bar-Cochba)  but  rabbinical 
teaching  in  general  emphasized  supernatural 
appearance  and  character.  Modern  Judaism  is 
roughly  divided  in  its  messianic  interest  between 
orthodox  expectations  and  agnosticism  as  to,  or 
denial  of,  the  coming  of  a  Messiah  on  the  part  of 
Reform  Judaism  (q.v.). 

III.  The  Christian  Conception  of  the 
Messiah. — The  messianic  was  the  highest  con- 
ception of  divine  interposition  and  salvation  which 
the  contemporaries  of  Jesus  possessed.  As  com- 
pared with  the  Christ,  prophet,  king,  and  priest 
were  secondary.  So  thoroughly  socialized  had  the 
conception  become  that  it  was  easily  attached 
tentatively  to  any  person  who  seemed  capable  of 
becoming  a  successful  popular  leader.  Thus  there 
were  a  number  of  pseudo-Messiahs  during  the 
first  two  centuries  of  our  era.    See  Pseudo-Messiah. 

1 .  Jesus  himself  seems  to  have  used  the  messianic 
hope  as  including  the  highest  possible  idealism  in 
the  possession  of  his  people.  He  made  the  King- 
dom of  God  (q.v.),  that  is,  the  messianic  kingdom, 
the  symbol  of  the  highest  good  and  preparation 
therefor  the  great  obUgation  of  men.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  how  far  he  himself  interpreted  his 
mission  as  strictly  messianic  but  all  are  agreed  that 
he  repudiated  the  nationalistic  idea  of  the  Kingdom 
of  God  and  the  Davidic  monarchy  as  the  chief 


dignity  of  the  Messiah.  That  is  to  say,  in  so 
far  as  we  can  recover  his  actual  conceptions,  his 
approach  was  from  the  apocalyptic  rather  than  the 
revolutionary  messianic  hope.  But  the  deliver- 
ance he  wrought  is  a  deliverance  from  fear,  doubt, 
ill-wiU  and  immorality.  The  kingdom  which  he 
urged  men  to  join  as  that  to  be  established  by  the 
Christ  was  a  kingdom  of  sons  of  God  possessed  of 
moral  likeness  to  God — that  is  of  fraternity  and 
justice.  He  himself  was  its  epitome  and  symbol. 
See  Son  of  Man.  To  induce  men  to  prepare  for 
this  kingdom  by  repentance  and  faith  and  the 
practice  of  love  might  be  said  to  be  his  own  concep- 
tion of  his  messianic  mission  during  his  period  of 
teaching.  The  community  of  those  possessed  of 
such  qualities  would  be  the  Kingdom  of  God  which 
he  would  found  upon  earth.  Later  he  set  himself 
forth  more  explicitly  as  its  Founder  who  died  in 
behalf  of  its  members. 

2.  His  disciples  and  the  early  church  did  not 
adopt  this  spiritualized  messianism  but  saw  in 
Jesus  the  messiah  of  Jewish  hopes._  As  such  he 
fulfilled  prophecies  newly  recognized  in  the  light  of 
his  life,  death,  and  resurrection.  It  was  of  course 
obvious  that  he  had  not  established  the  kingdom 
they  had  expected,  for  he  had  jaeen  crucified. 
But  even  this  most  difficult  contradiction  of  defini- 
tion and  expectation  was  given  messianic  meaning 
by  the  early  church.  It  was  regarded  by  them  as 
one  of  the  means  by  which  the  true  deliverance 
was  to  be  accomplished  by  God.  The  Messiah 
had  temporarily  returned  to  heaven,  whence  he 
exercised  authority  through  his  Spirit,  and  whence 
he  would  speedily  come  for  the  purpose  of  establish- 
ing a  messianic  judgment  and  performing  the  other 
functions  which  the  current  messianic  faith  included. 
His  resurrection  was  held  to  be  his  passage  into 
the  heavenly  world  where  he  already  held  authority. 

This  messianic  interpretation  of  the  historic 
Jesus  was  still  further  systematized  by  Paul  who 
seems  to  have  regarded  the  Messiah  as  pre-existent 
as  an  individual  and  to  have  appeared  in  the  man 
Jesus.  At  this  distance  it  is  difficult  to  state 
precisely  what  Paul's  position  was  but  it  is  clear 
that  so  far  from  centering  about  the  teaching  of 
Jesus  himself,  the  apostle  gave  the  messianic  defini- 
tion cosmic  significance  by  the  inclusion  of  ideas 
drawn  from  contemporary  Hellenistic  thought. 
Thus  the  transition  was  easy  to  the  Johannine 
conception  of  the  Logos  as  a  Hellenistic  equivalent 
of  the  Messiah.  This  identification  resulted  in 
the  conception  of  a  deliverer  and  judge  who  was 
also  a  pre-existent  metaphysical  divine  being  who 
became  incarnate  in  a  given  historical  character. 
Thus  the  messianic  thought  strictly  viewed  passes 
into  the  christological  conceptions  later  expressed 
in  the  Nicene  and  Chalcedonian  creeds. 

With  the  exception  of  certain  sporadic  groups 
the  church  universally  regarded  the  work  of  the 
Messiah  as  the  salvation  of  men  and  women  from 
sin  and  death.  The  chief  elements  in  this  behef 
have  been  his  incarnation,  death,  and  resurrec- 
tion, the  nationalistic  elements  having  been  com- 
pletely abandoned.  Within  recent  years  the  social 
aspects  of  messianic  hope  contained  in  the  teaching 
and  exemplified  in  the  life  of  Jesus  have  been 
re-emphasized  in  the  interests  of  the  social  morality 
and  the  social  gospel  (q.v.).      Shailer  Mathews 

METAMORPHOSIS.— A  change  of  form. 
Among  early  peoples  in  all  lands  the  belief  pre- 
vailed that  gods,  demons,  some  men  and  animals 
had  the  power  to  change  themselves  or  others  at 
will  into  another  shape.  The  wer-wolf  and  berseker 
are  European  examples.  Shape-shifting  is  very 
common  in  the  folklore  of  the  Celts  and  of  India. 
It   is    accomplished   by   some   magical   means— j 


Metaphysics 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


280 


charm,  magic  wand,  spell  or  potion — and,  with 
growing  culture,  passes  into  the  shadow-realm  of 
the  shaman,  sorcerer  and  witch. 

METAPHYSICS.— The  philosophical  interpre- 
tation of  ultimate  reality. 

The  early  Greek  thinkers,  driven  by  various 
motives  and  circumstances  to  inquire  what  is  the 
one  world-stuff  that  takes  on  the  various  forms  of 
matter  which  appear  to  the  senses  and  what  is  the 
one  world-process  which  includes  aU  the  changes 
that  men  experience,  made  certain  shrewd  guesses 
and  worked  out  generalizations.  The  motives 
underlying  these  inquiries  were  in  the  period  of 
Athenian  decline  sharpened  into  a  somewhat 
tragic  eagerness  by  reason  of  the  swiftly  changing 
social  order.  The  leader  in  this  more  serious 
quest  was  Socrates,  who  asked  such  questions 
as:  What  is  the  good  that  men  are  really  seeking 
when  they  seek  this,  that,  and  the  other  satisfaction? 
What  is  the  substratum,  so  to  speak,  of  wisdom  and 
justice?  What  is  the  beauty  that  is  found  in 
beautiful  things,  without  which  they  would  not  be 
beautiful?  Or,  more  generally,  Socrates  put  into 
the  foreground  of  men's  thinking  the  questions  of 
the  relationship  between  the  particular  and  the 
universal.  Plato  and  Aristotle  carried  on  this 
task,  and  so  the  search  for  that  which  is  abidingly 
real  underneath  the  multiform  and  evanescent 
experiences  of  the  passing  hours,  passed  from 
Cosmology  to  Metaphysics.  This  name  has  a 
sort  of  accidental  fitness  for  the  subject  it  stands  for, 
for  as  used  by  Aristotle  it  referred  only  to  the 
fact  that  that  part  of  his  writing  followed  his 
treatise  on  physics.  He  also  called  this  subject 
Ontology,  First  Philosophy  or  Theology.  But  the 
Neo-Platonic  mystics  in  all  seriousness  and  the 
later  Skeptics,  in  derision,  referred  to  such  inquiries 
as  being  truly  meta-physical,  dealing  with  that 
which  is  beyond  all  tangible  and  concrete  reality. 

Metaphysics  in  modern  times  has  also  dealt  with 
the  problem  of  ReaUty,  but  has  been  largely  occupied 
with  what  has  seemed  to  be  the  prior  question  of 
the  scope  and  powers  of  knowledge.  Kant  gave 
the  discussion  an  entirely  new  angle — he  himself 
called  it  "a  Corpernican  revolution."  The  gist  of 
his  conclusion  is  that  in  sense  experience,  physics 
and  mathematics,  we  have  true  knowledge  of 
Reality,  but  this  Reality  is  phenomenal  in  the 
sense  that  it  is  in  its  very  nature  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  cognizing  mind.  For  instance  we 
know  a  space  world,  and  it  is  a  real  world;  but 
we  do  not  know  space,  rather  space  is  one  of  the 
Forms  of  our  apprehension,  without  which  we 
could  apprehend  nothing.  Ultimate  reality,  the 
"thing-in-itself,"  said  Kant,  lies  beyond  the  scope 
of  human  knowledge.  Hence  metaphysics,  in  the 
traditional  sense  is  impossible.  But,  said  Kant, 
"I  have  destroyed  knowledge  to  make  room  for 
faith."  And  in  this  he  pointed  to  the  pecuhar 
power  of  man's  moral  nature,  which  makes  it 
imperative  to  act  as  if  God,  freedom,  the  Soul, 
immortahty  (which  we  cannot  know  as  reaUty), 
actually  are  reahty. 

Kant,  however,  created  more  problems  than  he 
solved.  Foremost  was  the  problem  of  the  "thing- 
in-itself."  In  Kant's  treatment  it  seemed  both  to 
be  and  not  to  be.  Since  Kant  there  have  been 
three  chief  lines  of  discussion.  The  IdeaUsts  have 
made  a  clean  sweep,  holding  that  the  objective- 
seeming  world  is  but  the  creation,  continuously 
renewed,  of  the  Absolute  Mind,  and  that  our  human 
knowing  is  but  a  phase  of  this  creative  self-expression 
of  the  absolute.  There  is  therefore,  no  thing-in- 
itself.  "To  be  is  to  be  perceived."  The  Reahsts 
have  reacted  strongly  against  this  position,  and 
have  renewed  the  old  attempt  to  solve  the  unsolvable 


problem  of  how  the  mind  knows  the  independent 
reality.  Others,  especially  men  of  science,  have 
taken  the  Kantian  attitude,  believing  that  the 
thing-in-itself  is  unknowable,  but  beUeving  also 
that  it  is  sufficient  and  necessary  for  us  to  act  as  if 
we  could  and  do  know  it. 

In  recent  years  there  has  developed  what  seems 
like  a  genuinely  new  attitude  in  this  whole  discus- 
sion, the  movement  generally  called  Pragmatism. 
This  philosophy  claims  that  the  Ideahst-Realist 
debate  is  endless,  so  long  as  both  sides  make  the 
common  assumption,  namely,  that  there  is  some 
sort  of  cleft  between  the  knowing  mind  and  the 
object  known.  The  trouble  with  both,  says  the 
Pragmatist,  is  that  the  very  useful  everyday 
distinction  of  mind  vs.  object  is  taken  to  be  a  sort 
of  fixed  and  final  distinction.  When  emphasized 
and  discussed  it  inevitably  becomes  a  metaphysical 
chasm,  which  the  Realist  seeks  in  vain  to  bridge 
and  the  Ideahst  seeks  in  vain  to  explain  away. 
But  for  Pragmatism,  this  mind-and-object  dis- 
tinction is  only  a  practically  useful,  everyday 
distinction,  with  nothing  more  ultimate  about  it 
than  there  is  about  the  equally  useful,  everyday 
conception  that  the  sun  rises  and  sets.  Psychology 
is  beginning  to  show  us,  in  the  one  case,  as 
astronomy  long  ago  showed  us  in  the  other,  that 
the  real  relationship  is  very  different  from  what 
common  sense  accepts.  Minds  and  things  are  in 
dynamic  interaction,  each  inevitably  modifying 
the  other,  each  being  in  a  real  sense  a  part  of  the 
other.  They  can  no  more  be  independent  of 
each  other  and  still  exist  than  heart  and  lungs  can 
be  independent  of  each  other  and  still  exist.  Hence 
it  is  that  to  the  Pragmatist  the  old  debate  is  now  a 
meaningless  one.  The  question  of  truth  is  not  a 
question  of  the  similarity  of  our  ideas  to  independ- 
ent entities,  but  of  the  results  of  the  interaction 
of  ideas  and  things — ideas  and  things  both  being 
entities  of  a  dynamic  sort,  distinguishable  but  not 
independent,  similar  but  not  identical. 

A.  Clinton  Watson 

METEMPSYCHOSIS.— See  Transmigration. 

METHODISM.— The  name  of  the  religious 
system  held  by  a  number  of  Christian  denomina- 
tions. It  was  applied  primarily  in  connection 
with  a  group  of  Oxford  students  (1729-1735)  who 
because  of  their  careful  observance  of  method  in 
study  and  in  the  fulfilment  of  religious  duties 
were  called  Methodists. 

I.  Contributory  Conditions. — The  religious 
deficit  characteristic  of  England  in  the  first  fifty 
years  of  the  18th.  century  supplied  both  the  oppor- 
tunity and  the  demand  for  the  Methodist  revival. 
Testimony  to  the  fact  of  a  relative  declension  in  that 
period  is  not  scanty.  Emphatic  words  of  Bishop 
Butler  and  Archbishop  Seeker  assure  us  that  the 
skepticism  which  came  to  expression  in  the  writings 
of  the  Deists  flowed  with  a  broad  current.  His- 
torians of  the  eminence  of  Lecky  and  Green  use 
very  forcible  terms  in  describing  the  extent  to 
which  the  revolt  against  both  reUgious  faith  and 
moral  restraint  was  carried  at  the  extremes  of 
society — among  the  ignorant  poor  and  the  pampered 
rich  alike.  For  the  task  of  stemming  this  adverse 
tide  the  established  Church  showed  little  compe- 
tency. The  moral  essays,  so  commonly  delivered 
from  her  pulpits,  could  not  grip  the  masses,  and  in 
the  lack  of  proper  church  extension  great  numbers 
were  left  practically  unchurched.  It  redounds  to 
the  honor  of  the  Methodist  evangelists  that  they 
.saw  the  situation  with  open  eyes,  and  responded  to 
its  demands  with  quenchless  zeal. 

II.  Three  Marked  Stages. — The  first  stage 
extended  Uttle  beyond  the  brief  interval  during 
which  the  group  of  young  men  at  Oxford  adhered 


281 


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Methodism 


to  the  scheme  which  won  them  the  name  of  Metho- 
dists. At  this  time  their  pecuharity  was  that  they 
joined  with  views  of  a  high  church  type  a  piety 
which  was  somewhat  ascetic  and  legaUstic  in  tone. 
At  a  later  date  the  representatives  of  the  Oxford 
regime  had  a  keen  sense  of  its  shortcomings.  This 
was  especially  true  of  their  foremost  leader,  John 
Wesley.  That  regime,  however,  was  not  without 
incidental  results  of  considerable  value.  It  inured 
its  subjects  to  criticism  and  scorn,  and  schooled 
them  in  hardihood. 

The  second  stage  in  Methodist  history  may 
be  dated  from  the  crucial  epoch  in  John  Wesley  s 
reUgious  experience.  This  came  shortly  after  his 
return  from  the  disappointing  mission  to  Georgia. 
On  May  24,  1738,  partly  through  the  good  effect  of 
Moravian  tuition,  he  was  led  into  a  reaUzation 
of  evangelical  freedom  and  power,  and  felt 
qualified  as  an  emancipated  man  to  preach  an 
emancipating  message.^  A  similar  spiritual  upUft 
had  already  been  experienced  by  George  Whitefield 
and  Charles  Wesley.^  The  message  of  these  men 
was  too  earnest  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  Established 
Church  which  they  wished  to  serve  as  loyal  sons. 
Her  pulpits  were  closed  against  them.  Conse- 
quently they  betook  themselves  to  the  streets  and 
the  fields  (1739).  From  that  date  till  near  the 
close  of  the  century  outdoor  evangehsm  was  the 
chosen  expedient.  In  wielding  this  instrumentality 
a  growing  band  of  lay  preachers  was  utilized.  ^  To 
conserve  results  the  converts  were  gathered  into 
societies.  These  were  supposed  to  be  affiilated 
with  the  Established  Church;  but  the  relation  was 
very  loose,  since  the  Methodist  movement  was 
practically  disowned  by  that  Church.  In  the 
enterprise  of  forming  and  directing  the  societies 
the  organizing  skill  of  John  Wesley  was  very 
largely  employed.  His  headship  extended  over 
the  societies  generally,  with  the  exception  of  the 
two  Calvinistic  branches,  known  as  the  Lady 
Huntingdon  Connexion  and  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Methodism.  A  Uke  relation  was  held  by  him  to 
the  societies  which  began  to  be  founded  in  Ireland 
(1747),  in  the  present  territory  of  the  United 
States  (1766),  in  Newfoundland  (1765-66),  Nova 
Scotia  (1772),  and  Canada  (1774-80). 

In  the  third  stage  Methodism  passed  from  the 
estate  of  societies  nominally  affiliated  with  the 
Church  of  England,  and  assumed  a  distinctly  inde- 
pendent position.  A  basis  for  the  independence  of 
the  English  societies  was  effected  in  1784  by  the 
Deed  of  Declaration,  which  provided  that  after 
the  death  of  John  Wesley  the  conference  of  preach- 
ers, or  designated  members  thereof  (the  so-called 
Legal  Hundred),  should  have  control.  By  the 
action  of  the  conference  (1795)  in  granting  to  the 
societies  the  right  to  claim  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  through  their  own  representatives 
the  way  was  opened  to  a  speedy  consummation  of 
disconnection  with  the  Anglican  EstabUshment. 
In  the  same  year  with  the  publication  of  the  Deed 
of  Declaration  the  Methodist  societies  in  the  United 
States,  by  the  initiative  of  John  Wesley,  were 
organized  into  an  independent  Church,  with  Thomas 
Coke  and  Francis  Asbury  as  bishops,  the  former 
only  an  occasional  resident  in  the  country,  the 
latter  constantly  engaged  in  the  American  field 
from  the  time  of  his  arrival  (1771),  and  commonly 
accounted  above  aU  others  the  apostle  of  Methodism 
in  the  New  World. 

III.  Main  Achievements. — Some  of  the  more 
notable  developments  within  this  period  of  full 
ecclesiastical    independence    were    the    following: 

(1)  The  pushing  of  missionary  enterprise  into  a 
large  proportion  of  the  open  fields  of  the  world. 

(2)  A  great  expansion  of  educational  facihties, 
the  organization  of  a  full  list  of  academies,  colleges, 


universities,  and  theological  schools.  (3)  A  twofold 
movement,  first  in  the  direction  of  division,  and 
then  toward  union.  The  former  covered  the  first 
half  of  the  18th.  century,  the  latter  became  note- 
worthy near  the  close  of  the  century.  Over  half  a 
dozen  distinct  branches  were  formed  in  England, 
the  most  important  numerically,  after  the  parent 
Church,  being  the  Primitive  Methodist.  In  the 
United  States  not  less  than  seventeen  branches 
emerged,  eight  of  them  being  composed  of  colored 
members.  Most  of  the  divisions  occurred  over 
questions  of  poUty  and  administration.  Two  of 
those  in  this  country  were  precipitated  by  the 
slavery  agitation.  In  1843  the  Methodist  Wesleyan 
Connexion  was  formed  in  protest  against  slavery, 
and  in  1844  the  great  disruption  took  place,  giving 
origin  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 
The  reverse  union  movement  reached  its  goal 
first  of  all  in  Canada,  all  the  Methodist  bodies  in 
that  country  being  brought  into  a  single  communion 
in  1883.  A  hke  result  was  reached  m  Australia  in 
1902.  The  excess  of  competing  bodies  in  England 
was  appreciably  reduced  m  1907  by  the  union  of 
several  of  them  into  che  United  Methodist  Church. 
In  recent  years  an  attempt,  so  earnest  as  to  give 
good  promise  of  success,  has  been  made  to  bring 
about  the  union  of  the  two  leading  branches  in  the 
United  States — the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 

IV.  Polity. — Taken  in  its  general  range  Meth- 
odism exhibits  a  combination  of  Episcopalian 
and  presbyterian  elements.  In  the  United  States 
most  of  the  branches  exhibit  both  orders  of  ele- 
naents  in  their  pohty,  since  they  are  supplied  with 
bishops  as  well  as  with  a  series  of  assemblies. 
Elsewhere  the  presbyterian  phase  is  in  the  ascend- 
ant. The  representatives  of  a  congregational 
pohty  are  numerically  insignificant.  In  the  higher 
assembhes  as  now  constituted — the  conferences 
having  ultimate  legislative  power — ^laymen  are 
conjoined  with  the  ministers. 

y.  Doctrine. — Aside  from  the  comparatively 
hmited  branches  which  adopted  the  Calvinistic 
standpoint  of  Whitefield,  organized  Methodism 
has  held  with  substantial  unanimity  throughout 
its  history  to  the  essentials  of  evangehcal  Arminian- 
ism  as  taught  by  John  Wesley  and  his  saintly 
coadjutor,  John  Fletcher.  No  one  of  the  schisms 
which  was  precipitated  had  its  principal  cause  in 
doctrinal  convictions.  Perhaps  this  relative  homo- 
geneity in  doctrine  may  have  been  due  very  largely 
to  the  superior  emphasis  placed  upon  vital  rehgious 
experience  as  compared  with  the  championing  of 
dogmatic  details.  Universally  it  has  been  char- 
acteristic of  Methodism  in  the  Wesleyan  line  of 
descent  to  advocate  very  zealously  both  a  staunch 
doctrine  of  the  spiritual  dependence  of  men  and  of 
their  common  opportunity  to  partake  of  the  salva- 
tion provided  in  Christ.  It  has  also  been  character- 
ized generally  by  a  disposition  to  place  very  high 
the  ideal  of  possible  religious  attainment  in  this 
life.  This  ideal  has  been  described  imder  such 
terms  as  "perfect  love"  and  "entire  sanctification." 
Few  Methodists  would  count  it  appropriate  to 
strive  for  any  lesser  attainment.  But  a  real  con- 
viction of  the  legitimacy  of  formally  professing  the 
possession  of  the  high  estate  has  been  practically 
rather  the  property  of  a  school  in  Methodism  than 
of  Methodism  as  a  whole.  In  recent  decades  this 
has  been  very  evidently  the  case. 

VI.  Lines  op  Influence. — It  has  often  been 
acknowledged  that  the  Methodist  movement  in 
England  in  the  18th.  centurjr  so  far  leavened  the 
masses  with  moral  and  reUgious  principles  as  to 
afford  a  valuable  safeguard  against  the  transference 
to  that  country  of  the  wildfire  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion.   That   the   same   movement  served  in  an 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


282 


appreciable  degree  to  impart  a  salutary  stimulus 
to  the  Established  Church  cannot  justly  be  denied. 
Ultimately  Methodism  added  strength  to  the  Non- 
conforming interest  in  Great  Britain.  In  America 
its  organization  and  methods  qualified  it  in  a 
special  measure  to  meet  progressively  the  religious 
needs  of  outlying  settlements.  Its  relative  homo- 
geneity and  steadiness  in«doctrine  have  enabled  it  to 
exert  a  conserving  influence  in  behalf  of  what  might 
be  termed  the  catholic  Christian  faith,  while  its 
predominant  adhesion  to  the  Arminian  teaching 
has  wrought  to  some  extent  to  tone  down,  at  least 
in  pulpit  utterance,  the  expression  given  to  a  more 
rigorous  theological  type.  Finally,  remaining  fairly 
true  to  John  Wesley's  abhorrence  of  antinomianism, 
theoretical  and  practical,  it  has  continually  empha- 
sized the  need  of  exemphfying  religious  faith  and 
zeal  in  temperate,  righteous,  and  brotherly  conduct. 

VII.  Statistics. — The  membership  of  the  larger 
Methodist  communions,  for  the  year  1916,  has  been 
reported  as  follows:  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church 
(Great  Britain),  494,993,  Primitive  Methodist, 
205,323;  United  Methodist,  183,431;  Australian 
Methodist,  149,878;  New  Zealand  Methodist, 
24,730;  Methodist  Episcopal  (including  members 
in  mission  fields)  4,131,337;  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South,  2,145,309;  African  Methodist  Episcopal, 
620,000;  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion, 
568,608;  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal,  240,798; 
Canadian  Methodist,  372,266.  At  present  the 
total  Methodist  membership  comes  very  near 
to  10,000,000.  The  number  of  adherents— in- 
cluding besides  members  those  connected  with 
Methodist  Sunday  Schools  and  congregations — 
is  computed  to  be  about  30,000,000. 

H.  C.  Sheldon 

METHODIUS  (260-3 12)  .—Greek  church  father, 
influenced  strongly  by  Platonism  and  Stoicism, 
an  influential  theologian  writing  in  opposition  to 
some  of  Origen's  doctrines. 

METROPOLITAN.— The  title  given  in  the 
Eastern  Church  to  a  bishop  in  the  chief  city  (metrop- 
olis) of  a  province.  In  the  R.C.  church  the  arch- 
bishop holds  this  position. 

MEXICO,  RELIGIONS  OF.—The  people  of 
Mexico,  of  whom  about  twenty  per  cent  are  of 
white  (chiefly  Spanish)  blood,  while  the  great  body 
of  the  population  is  composed  of  Indians  and  mixed 
bloods,  has  been  Roman  Catholic  in  religion  since 
the  forced  conversions  following  the  Spanish 
Conquest.  The  Roman  church,  however,  is  given 
no  exclusive  privileges;  aU  religions  are  free,  and 
Protestantism  is  not  without  a  small  following  in 
the  country.  Many  of  the  Indians  are  still  actual 
or  virtual  pagans,  although  most  of  them  are 
nominal  Christians.  The  pre-Spanish  religions 
of  Mexico  are  the  most  interesting  of  primitive 
America;  broadly  considered,  they  fall  into  three 
groups.  (1)  That  part  of  Mexico  north  of  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  was  mainly  peopled  by  wild 
tribes,  each  with  its  own  cults,  whose  religious 
ideas  and  rites  differed  little  from  those  of  other 
North  American  Indians,  although  they  were  to 
some  extent  influenced  by  the  peoples  to  the 
south.  (2)  The  Aztec  Empire,  with  its  capital  in 
Tenochtitlan  (Mexico  City)  held  sway  over  most 
of  the  territory  between  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and 
Yucatan;  and  in  this  whole  region  the  Aztecs 
were  the  chief  among  a  series  of  barbarous  nations 
resembling  one  another  in  culture.  Their  religion 
was  a  complicated  polytheism,  with  more  or  less 
nationalized  gods  and  goddesses,  numerous  temples, 
elaborate  festivals,  and  rites  quite  unexampled  in 
human  annals  for  the  bloody  ferocity  of  their 
human  sacrifices.    Along  with  the  hideousness  of 


the  great  majority  of  the  Aztec  gods  and  the 
cruelty  of  their  worship,  and  in  striking  contrast 
to  these,  appear  a  few  deities  worshipped  in  a  more 
humane  manner  and  apparently  reflecting  a  higher 
plane  of  culture,  while  many  of  the  Aztec  prayers 
and  rituals,  as  preserved  by  their  historians,  are 
remarkable  for  the  poetry  and  fervor  of  religious 
feeling.  It  is  doubtful  if  an  equal  contradiction 
of  high  and  low  can  be  found  in  any  other  religion. 
(3)  It  is  believed  by  many  scholars  that  the  finer 
elements  in  Aztec  civilization  were  derived  from 
the  Maya  race,  whom  the  Spaniards  found  inhabit- 
ing Yucatan,  in  a  state  of  decline  after  centuries 
during  which  they  had  reached  the  highest  civiliza- 
tion attained  in  pre-Columbian  America,  as  evi- 
denced by  the  ruins  of  the  numerous  cities.  Maya 
religion  was  in  many  respects  that  of  the  Aztec, 
but  it  was  far  more  humane,  human  sacrifices 
being  relatively  rare,  and  in  art  and  architecture 
it  has  left  to  us  the  most  notable  of  native  monu- 
ments. In  the  religions  of  both  the  Maya  and  the 
Aztec  regions  the  Spaniards  discovered  so  many 
resemblances  to  Christian  rites  that  they  were 
easily  persuaded  that  the  Indians  must  at  some 
remote  date  have  been  missionized.  Baptism, 
confession,  penance,  sacraments,  worship  of  the 
cross,  and  myths  of  a  first  human  pair  and  a  world- 
flood  destroying  mankind,  all  seemed  to  point  to 
identity  ^  with  Christian  teaching.  This  notion 
was  fortified  by  the  myths  of  the  white,  bearded 
deity,  Quetzalcoatl,  who  had  come  among  them 
with  a  religion  of  peace  and  purity,  departing 
over  the  waters  with  a  promise  to  return  bringing 
again  his  millennial  rule — a  myth  found  far  into  South 
America.  Students  of  American  Indian  religions 
have,  however,  been  able  to  explain  all  of  these 
elements  as  of  native  origin.      H.  B.  Alexander 

MEZUZAH.— (Hebrew:  "doorpost.")  Jewish 
ceremonial  object  consisting  of  a  piece  of  parch- 
ment inscribed  with,  the  Biblical  verses,  Deut.  6 : 4-9; 
and  11:13-21,  contained  in  a  small  case  of  wood, 
glass,  or  metal.  The  mezuzah  is  fastened  to  the 
doorpost,  in  accordance  with  the  BibUcal  command 
in  Deut.  6:9. 

MICHAELMAS.— The  church  festival  in  honor 
of  Michael  and  all  angels,  observed  by  western 
Christendom  on  Sept.  29  and  in  the  East  on  Nov.  8. 

MIDGARD-SERPENT.— One  of  the  giant 
race  in  Teutonic  mythology,  offspring  of  Loki, 
who  fights  with  Thor  at  Ragnarok.  It  is  perhaps 
a  sjmabol  of  the  encircUcg  sea. 

MIDRASH.— A  word,  derived  from  Biblical 
Hebrew  Darash  to  investigate.  It  is  applied 
in  rabbinical  Uterature  to  the  study  of  the  Old 
Testament  for  the  purpose  of  defining  a  law  or  a 
dogma,  and  especially  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  a 
moral  lesson.  The  Midrash  sometimes  establishes 
a  law  (Halakah)',  in  other  cases  moral  lessons 
(Haggadah)  are  derived  either  from  an  individual 
expression  or  from  a  story.  An  instance  of  the 
first  case  is:  Everybody  must  show  respect  to  the 
people,  for  king  David  when  he  addressed  the  people 
arose  and  said:  (I  Chron.  28:2):  Hear  me,  my 
brethren  (Sotah,  40a).  An  instance  of  the  second 
kind  is  the  lesson:  No  man  shall  show  a  preference 
for  one  of  his  children  over  the  others,  for  Jacob's 
partiaUty  to  Joseph  brought  all  the  misery  of 
Egypt  upon  Israel  (Sabbath,  10b).  Occasionally 
the  Midrash  method  is  used  for  dogmatic  purposes 
as  in  the  proof  for  bodily  resurrection  from  the 
passage  (Deut.  11:21):  God  has  sworn  to  give  the 
land  to  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  (Sanhedrin,  90b, 
cf.:  Matt.  12:27). 


283 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Millenarianism 


These  explanations  are  by  later  authorities 
divided  into  Peshat  (literal),  Remez  (indicated), 
Derush  (homiletical),  and  Sod  (mystic).  The 
Midrash  is  found  scattered  in  the  Talmud  (q.v.). 
Later  special  compilations  of  Midrashic  remarks 
were  made.  The  most  popular  of  these  is  Midrash 
Rabba,  giving  the  homilies  on  the  Pentateuch, 
and  the  five  Megilott.^  At  a  still  later  period 
anthologies  of  Midrashim  were  compiled,  as  the 
Pesikta  containing  selections  of  Midrashim  for  holy 
days  and  other  special  occasions,  and  the  Yalkuthy 
Simeon  Kara,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  Bibhcal 
books.  The  lliterature  of  Midrashim  extended  to 
the  end  of  the  12th.  century,  while  later  homiletic 
literature  uses  the  Midrashim  as  texts,  just  as  the 
Midrash  used  the  Bible.        Gotthard  Deutsch 

MIH-TI  (MOH-TI).— An  original  thinker  of 
China  belonging  to  the  period  between  Confucius 
and  Mencius.  Like  Confucius  he  idealized  the 
past  and  lamented  that  his  own  age  was  a  time  of 
disorder  and  strife.  He  traced  the  evils  of  social 
life  to  selfishness  and  offered  as  a  solution  the  gospel 
of  universal  love.  Love  would  end  strife  and  make 
wars  impossible.  If  each  citizen  could  be  persuaded 
to  sacrifice  himself  for  the  good  of  others  all  the 
sorrows  of  social  life  would  disappear  and  a  new 
society  of  peace  and  happiness  would  emerge. 
He  wrote  against  the  extravagance  of  the  _  day, 
counselling  thrift.  He  has  been  called  socialist, 
pacifist  and  even  "the  Christ  of  China."  Mencius 
and  Chuang-tse  opposed  him  chiefly  on  the  grounds 
that  unrestrained  altruism  would  break  down  the 
historic  family  loyalties  of  China  and  undermine 
the  central  virtue  of  the  old  ethics,  fiUal  piety. 

MILITARISM.— The  theory  held  and  the 
national  policy  and  condition  created  by  those 
who  claim  that  the  war  system  is  effective  in  achiev- 
ing justice  and  permanent  national  advantage  and 
has  a  biologic,  economic  or  other  valid  basis. 

Some  miUtarists  consider  war  inevitable.  "War 
is  an  element  of  the  order  of  the  world  established 
by  God"  (von  Moltke);  "War  has  been  the  chief 
and  leading  condition  of  human  progress"  (Lester  F. 
Ward).  Reasons  for  this  view  are:  Confounding 
struggle  with  war  (i.e.,  identifying  wholesome 
contest  against  the  evils  with  organized,  collective, 
wholesale  homicide  (see  quotations  above) ;  narrow 
patriotism ;  lack  of  the  international  mind ;  economic 
illusions  and  trade  barriers;  desire  for  rnaterial 
growth  rather  than  for  democracy  and  justice; 
exploitation  of  rich,  undeveloped  regions;  failure  to 
perceive  the  f  utihty  of  force  under  modem  conditions 
to  achieve  lasting  gains. 

War  has  sprung  from  civiUzation,  not  civilization 
from  war.  The  mihtarist  nations  of  antiquity  have 
vanished;  unwarUke  China  alone  survives.  MiU- 
tarism  has  been  most  developed  in  Prussia.  It 
ia  autocratic  and  discourages  free  thought  and 
speech;  it  develops  under  republican  governments 
when  economic  freedom  is  suppressed.  Common 
mihtarist  assumptions  are  that  all  government  is 
based  on  force  instead  of  on  consent  of  the  governed, 
courts,  legislatures,  money,  industry,  etc.;  that 
war  promotes  virility;  that  questions  of  honor  can 
be  settled  by  force;  that  justice  and  victory  are 
inherently  connected.  See  Peace  Congresses 
AND  Movements.  Lucia  A.  Mead 

MILITARY  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS.— The  Cru- 
sades produced  the  order  of  Templars  (1120),  monks 
who  were  also  knights  fighting  to  protect  pilgrims 
and  the  Holy  Places.  The  prestige  of  this  order 
with  its  two  ideals  of  Good  Samaritan  and  Soldier 
of  Christ  led  to  the  transformation  of  Jerusalem 
fraternities   caring   for   the  sick  into   companies 


of  monastic  knights  after  the  model  of  the  Templars. 
So  the  brothers  of  an  1 1th.  century  hospital  became 
in  the  12th.  Knights  of  St.  John  (Hospitallers) ;  and 
brothers  of  a  hospital  for  German  pilgrims  became 
the  Teuton 'c  Knights.  Recruited  only  from  the 
nobihty  these  aristocratic  orders  gained  great  pos- 
sessions of  land  and  lost  religious  zeal.  When 
Palestine  was  finally  lost,  the  Templars,  discredited, 
came  to  a  tragic  end.  The  Hospitallers  kept  some 
sovereignty  in  Cyprus,  then  Rhodes,  then  Malta, 
which  in  1798  was  lost  to  the  French.  The  Teu- 
tonic Knights  found  a  new  career  as  conquerors  of 
the  pagan  Prussians  who  after  fifty  years  of  resist- 
ance received  Christianity  at  the  point  of  the 
sword  (1283).  The  orders  survive  chiefly  as  a 
decorative  title  conferred  by  sovereigns. 

F.  A.  Christie 
MILK,  RELIGIOUS  USE  OF.— The  phrase 
"milk  and  honey"  was  in  ancient  times  a  symbol  of 
plenty  not  only  with  the  Hebrews,  but  also  with 
neighboring  peoples,  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  MiUc  was  offered  in  libations,  in 
connection  with  honey,  and  in  the  early  Christian 
Church  the  newly  baptized  were  given  milk  and 
honey  to  taste.  It  is  regarded  as  probable  by  some 
authorities  that  a  milk  baptism  was  practiced  by 
the  Orphics. 

MILL,  JOHN  STUART  (1806-1873).— EngUsh 
philosopher  and  pohtical  economist,  son  of  the 
philosopher,  James  Mill.  As  an  employee  of  the 
India  House,  he  gained  practical  acquaintance 
with  affairs,  which  is  reflected  in  his  pohtical  phi- 
losophy. In  psychology  he  belonged  to  the  Asso- 
ciationaUst  school.  In  ethics  and  religion  he 
developed  the  theory  of  Utilitarianism  (q.v.) 
which  states  that  "actions  are  right  in  prop)ortion 
as  they  tend  to  promote  happiness,  wrong  as  they 
tend  to  produce  the  reverse  of  happiness."  He 
makes  liberty  essential  to  human  virtue,  and  the 
state  subservient  to  the  individual.  His  view 
of  the  universe  was  somewhat  pessimistic,  and  he 
conceived  of  God  as  good  but  Umited  in  power. 

MILLENARIANISM.— The  behef  that  the 
Messiah  will  visibly  reign  over  the  whole  earth  at 
the  end  of  this  present  "age"  for  a  thousand  years. 

Of  Jewish  origin,  it  marks  the  loss  of  the  pro- 
phetic expectation  of  eternal  world  dominion  under 
the  direct  authority  of  Yahweh  and  the  substitution 
therefor  of  the  hope  of  a  supernatural  dominion 
under  a  Messiah  sent  from  heaven  and  lasting  for 
a  time  till  the  creation  should  pass  away.  The 
Egyptian-born  Enoch  makes  the  period  1000 
years,  but  IV  Esdras  makes  it  400  years  ( =  the  length 
of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt)  and  Messiah  dies  at  its 
close.  The  behef  was  supported  by  the  authority 
of  a  canon  of  sacred  Scriptures  and  especially  by  an 
allegorical  interpretation  of  the  days  of  the  creation 
story  combined  with  Dan.  9,  and  Ps.  90 : 4.  Thus 
Millenarianism  is  a  special,  but  not  universal, 
feature  of  Jewish  Messianism. 

Millenarianism  as  a  theory  is  a  distinctively 
Jewish  application  of  a  popular  two-world  phi- 
losophy that  regards  the  present  physical  univerge 
with  its  mixture  of  good  and  e^il  as  the  outcome  of 
a  conflict  between  good  and  evil  beings  higher  than 
men  and  as  destined  to  pass  away  through  a  final 
conflict  in  which  the  evil  will  be  worstejl.  Chris- 
tian Millenarianism  is  the  Jewish  doctrine  modified 
by  the  behef  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah.  Rev.  20 : ' 
1-10  is  the  only  distinctly  millenarian  statement 
in  the  N.T.  but  advocates  of  the  doctrine  suppose 
it  to  agree  with  the  many  N.T.  passages  referring 
to  a  second  advent  of  Jesus  and  to  his  kingdom. 
To  the  prevaihng  Christian  expectation,  in  the 
first  century,  under  Jewish  influence,  of  a  second 


Millennial  Dawn 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


284 


personal  advent  of  Jesus  at  the  end  of  the  world 
to  judge  all  men  and  consign  them  to  their  eternal 
abode,  it  adds  the  belief  in  his  millennial  reign  with 
the  risen  martyrs,  followed  by  the  resurrection 
of  all  and  a  universal  judgment.  Christian  mil- 
lenarians  have  always  based  the  doctrine  .on  Jewish 
Scripture  predictions  that  in  view  of  their  exegesis 
await  real  fulfilment.  These  they  connect  with 
sayings  of  Jesus  and  teachings  of  his  apostles  under- 
stood in  harmony  with  the  Revelation  of  John. 
Many  other  features  accompany  the  doctrine,  such 
as  behef  in  the  appearing  of  the  Anti-Christ  and 
the  return  of  the  Jews  to  Jerusalem;  but  on  such 
points  there  has  been  no  general  agreement. 

Uln  apostoUc  times  the  theory  found  a  place 
3ng  Christians  as  a  support  against  persecution, 
particularly  by  the  Roman  Empire.  Later  the 
growing  recognition  of  the  church's  task  to  regener- 
ate society  in  this  present  world  supported  by  the 
spiritualizing  tendency  of  the  Alexandrian  school 
of  thought  under  such  men  as  Clement  and  Origen 
tended  to  discredit  the  doctrine  or  to  minimize  its 
importance.  The  Eastern  Church  and  its  great 
thinkers  mainly  follow  this  trend.^  Although  the 
West,  in  contrast  with  the  East  generally,  held 
to  the  canonicity  of  John's  Revelation,  it  was  able 
to  repudiate  Millenarianism  through  Augustine's 
spirituahzation  of  it  and  his  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Genesis  story  of  creation.  The  seventh 
period  of  a  thousand  years  was  identified  by  Augus- 
tine with  the  new  age  introduced  at  the  union  of 
the  Church  with  the  Empire. 

Millenarianism  throughout  the  Christian  cen- 
turies has  had  its  representatives.  It  appeared 
sporadically  in  the  Roman  church  before  the 
Reformation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Joachimites  and 
the  Spiritual  Franciscans.  Hussites  before  the 
Reformation  and  groups  of  Anabaptists  during  the 
Reformation  revived  it  for  a  time.  The  strong 
bibhcism  of  orthodox  Protestantism  has  produced 
vigorous  outbursts  of  Millenarianism,  but  the 
doctrine  has  had  no  recognition  in  the  great  Con- 
fessions of  Faith.  jSn  attempted  compromise 
known  as  Post-Millenarianism — the  result  of  trying 
to  unite  a  recognition  of  the  authority  of  John's 
Revelation  with  confidence  in  the  eventual  conquest 
of  the  world  by  the  Gospel — has  been  rejected  by 
the  Pre-Millenarians,  who  seek  to  revive  the 
ancient  Millenarianism,  but  they  greatly  disagree 
in  details.  The  Irvingites,  Millerites,  Plymouth 
Brethren,  Second  Adventists  and  Christadelphians 
are  the  best  known  advocates.  The  Bible  Schools 
in  the  United  States  are  at  present  engaged  in 
vigorous  propaganda  for  the  doctrine.  See  Escha- 
tologt;  Messiah.  George  Cross 

MILLENNIAL  DAWN.— The  name  of  a  series 
of  books  (1886-1904)  by  "Pastor  Russell"  (Charles 
Taze  Russell,  1852-1916). 

The  titles  suggest  the  general  aim:  I.  The 
Divine  Plan  of  the  Ages.  II.  The  Time  Is 
at  Hand.  III.  Thy  Kingdom  Come.  IV.  The 
Battle  af  Armageddon.  V.  The  Atonement. 
VI.  The  New  Creation.  The  doctrine  is  that 
although  sin  brings  destruction,  yet  Christ  by 
his  death  and  spiritual  resurrection  provides  a 
ransom-price  from  it.  Between  the  first  and  the 
second  (spiritual)  coming,  inaugurated  in  1874, 
Christ  gathers  from  among  men  those  who  are  to 
have  part  in  the  chief  resurrection  and  to  share  in 
his  reign.  "Pastor  RusseU"  regarded  himself  as  the 
"faithful  and  wise  servant"  to  whom  Christ  had 
committed  the  harvest  work.  The  Millennium  has 
thus  dawned;  during  the  thousand  years  all  the 
dead  are  to  be  raised  and  given  a  fair  trial,  the  dis- 
obedient destroyed,  the  obedient  perfected  to  dwell 
forever  on  the  renewed  earth.      C.  A.  Beckwith 


MILLENNIUM. — An  era  a  thousand  years  in 
length.  In  Christian  theology  the  thousand  years 
during  which  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  will  be  estab- 
lished on  earth.     See  Millenarianism. 

MILLER,  WILLIAM  (1782-1849).— The  founder 
of  the  Adventists  (q.  v.)  whose  followers  took  their 
original  designation  from  his  name.  He  reckoned 
the  "  two  thousand,  three  hundred  days  "  of  Dan. 
7:14  from  Ezra's  coming  to  Jerusalem,  457  B.C., 
thus  fixing  1843  as  the  date  of  Christ's  second 
coming.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

MILMAN,  HENRY  HART  (1791-1868).— 
AngUcan  church  historian  and  poet ;  a  liberal 
theologian,  favoring  the  abolition  of  compulsory 
subscription  to  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles ;  a  pioneer 
in  genuinely  historical  depiction  of  biblical  Ufe. 
His  histories  of  Latin  Christianity  and  of  the  Jews 
are  especially  well  known. 

MILTON,  JOHN  (1608-1674).— English  poet, 
an  AngHcan,  reared  under  Puritan  influence; 
disgusted  with  the  established  church  under  Laud 
and  opposed  to  the  policies  of  the  Presybterians, 
he  nevertheless  maintained  his  interest  in  Protes- 
tantism. He  defended  the  supremacy  of  conscience 
and  individual  liberty.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  English  poHtics,  defending  the  regicide  of  Charles 
and  the  Commonwealth,  and  opposing  the  re- 
estabhshment  of  monarchy.  His  contributions  to 
religious  poetry  were  numerous  but  the  most  monu- 
mental was  Paradise  Lost,  the  greatest  of  modern 
epics. 

MIMBAR. — The  pulpit  in  a  Mohammedan 
mosque. 

MINERVA. — A  Roman  goddess,  patron  of 
artisans  and  skilled  hand-workers,  who,  later, 
under  the  influence  of  the  Greek  Athene,  became 
goddess  of  wisdom. 

MINHAH.— (Hebrew:  "afternoon.")  The  Jew- 
ish daily  afternoon  ritual,  recited  in  the  Synagog 
following  the  morning  service. 

MINIMI. — A  small  R.C.  religious  order  of  men 
in  Italy  and  France,  founded  in  the  15th.  century. 
One  of  them,  Bernard  Boil,  was  the  first  Vicar 
Apostolic  in  America,  appointed  in  1493. 

MINISTER  and  MINISl'RY.— The  name  and 
office  of  the  leader  of  the  church  considered  as  the 
servant  of  Christ  to  serve  the  rehgious  needs  of 
the  people.    See  also  Pastor;  Pastoral  Theology. 

1.  The  Minister  in  Christian  History. — 
1.  The  Early  Church. — The  necessities  of  church 
organization  resulted  in  the  development  of  an 
officiary,  which,  however  informal  it  may  have 
been  in  the  beginning,  very  soon  became  a  sepa- 
rate clerical  class  distinguished  from  the  laity  by 
the  ceremonial  of  ordination.  Oratory  was  held  in 
such  high  esteem  in  the  Greco-Roman  world  that 
it  was  natural  for  the  church  to  fashion  the  training 
of  the  minister  upon  that  of  the  rhetorical  schools. 
Important  centers  of  theological  learning  were 
developed,  the  most  noted  being  that  of  Alexandria. 

2.  The  Middle  Ages. — Clergy  and  laity  were 
significant  terms  in  the  Middle  Ages  when  the 
former  monopolized  the  learning  in  the  cathedral 
schools  and  the  monasteries.  The  function  of  the 
minister  became  more  sacerdotal,  a  great  deal  of  his 
training  being  concerned  with  the  acquisition  of  the 
technique  of  the  church  service.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  required  to  officiate  at  baptisms,  marriages, 
and  funerals  and  was  expected  to  visit  the  sick  and 
to    catechize    the    children    and    servants.    See 


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Miracles 


Gate  chism.  The  preaching  function  of  the  minister 
was  not  prominent,  largely  owing  to  the  meager 
ability  of  the  ordinary  parish  priest.  This  led  to 
the  founding  of  the  great  preaching  orders  of  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans. 

3.  The  Protestant  minister. — The  Reformation 
laid  emphasis  upon  the  evangeUstic  doctrines  and 
put  the  minister  mto  the  place  of  moral  and  spiritual 
leadership.  His  remarkable  influence  in  the  Scottish 
parish  and  in  the  New  England  community  is 
written  in  all  the  Uterature  of  the  time.  He  was  a 
man  of  learning.  Most  of  the  early  American 
colleges  were  founded  in  order  to  provide  an  edu- 
cated ministry.  The  minister  in  the  pulpit,  in  his 
visitations  in  the  parish,  and  in  his  oversight  of  the 
schools  was  the  dominating  intellectual  force  in  his 
community.  The  names  of  the  great  men  in 
Britain  and  America  whose  early  homes  were  the 
manse  or  the  parsonage  make  an  imposing  roll. 

II.  The  Modern  Minister.— 1.  His  changing 
status. — The  great  increase  of  learning  has  brought 
it  about  that  the  minister  is  only  one  of  a  large 
educated  class  in  his  community.  Instead  of  three 
learned  professions  there  are  many,  and  an  increasing 
number  of  business  men  are  college  graduates.  The 
educational  profession  which  was  formerly  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  minister  has  now  a  status  of  its 
own,  and  the  clerical  educator  survives  in  only  a 
few  college  presidents.  The  increase  of  newspapers, 
magazines,  books,  lectures  and  varied  means  of 
developing  public  opinion  has  left  the  minister  a 
humbler  place  in  intellectual  leadership. 

2.  His  developing  functions. — At  the  same  time 
the  demands  upon  the  minister  are  becoming  more 
and  more  complex.  A  well  organized  church  requires 
a  business  manager  to  keep  its  many  activities  in 
harmonious  operation.  The  development  of  men's, 
women's  and  young  people's  societies,  of  boys'  and 
girls'  clubs,  of  home  and  foreign  mission  societies,  of 
the  recreational  responsibiUties  of  the  church;  in 
short,  all  the  great  task  of  rehgious  education  (q.v.) 
levies  upon  the  minister's  time  and  strength 
until  he  is  often  hard  bestead  to  find  leisure  for 
pulpit  preparation.  Yet  he  is  expected  to  speak  to 
his  congregation  twice  on  Sunday,  and  is  called 
upon  for  public  speeches  upon  many  subjects  in 
the  community  and  abroad.  While  all  this  indicates 
that  the  church  should  have  a  diversified  ministry 
it  calls  for  a  higher  order  of  abiUty  to  fill  the  position 
at  the  present  time. 

3.  His  training. — The  traditional  theological 
seminary  is  being  modified  to  meet  the  new  demands 
upon  the  ministry.  A  classical  discipline,  with 
practice  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  from  the 
original  tongues,  is  no  longer  enough.  The  minister 
must  pursue  studies  which  will  give  him  the  scientific 
point  of  view.  He  must  be  informed  on  the  eco- 
nomic and  social  problems  of  the  day.  He  must 
appreciate  the  new  demands  upon  the  pulpit. 
See  HoMiLETics.  The  broadest  university  training 
is  essential  if  he  is  to  keep  his  place  as  a  spiritual 
leader  of  men. 

4.  His  opportunity. — The  modem  minister  is 
in  the  making.  A  man  of  prophetic  insight,  of 
spiritual  power,  effective  in  pubhc  speech,  has  an 
opportumty  of  unsurpassed  significance  in  the 
modern  world.  Books  and  magazines  can  never 
take  his  place;  nor  can  the  lecture  take  the  place 
of  the  sermon.  If  the  church  shall  prove  wilUng  to 
give  her  preachers  Uberty  to  speak  and  shall  provide 
suflBcient  professional  workers  in  church  activities 
so  that  the  minister  shall  have  time  for  his  unique 
functions,  if  denominationaUsm  can  be  modified 
so  as  to  make  possible  congregations  of  respectable 
size,  and  if  the  minister  be  given  a  fiving  wage  so 
that  he  can  maintain  his  self-respect,  the  future  of 
this  great  calling  is  full  of  promise. 


5.  Women  in  the  ministry. — The  great  churches 
have  never  recognized  the  eUgibiUty  of  wx)men  for 
ordination.  A  few  bodies  have  occasionally  and 
rather  grudgingly  accepted  women  in  the  pulpit. 
One  of  the  interesting  problems  in  the  future  is 
whether  this  calUng  for  .which  women  have  many 
marked  aptitudes  shall  be  generally  open  to  such 
as  manifest  the  ability  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
modern  church.  Theodore  G.  Scares 

MINORITIES.— See  Friars,  Minor. 

MINUCIUS  FELIX,  MARCUS.— Latin  apolo- 
gist of  Christianity,  who  Uved  about  the  end  of  the 
2nd.  century.     See  Apologists. 

MINYAN.— (Hebrew:  "count.")  A  quorum  for 
worship  in  the  orthodox  Jewish  synagog,  consisting 
of  ten  men  (or  boys  over  thirteen  years  of  age) 
this  being  the  minimum  necessary  for  pubUc 
worship. 

MIRACLES. — Events  inexplicable  by  the  opera- 
tion of  natural  forces  and  therefore  regarded  as 
manifestations  of  special  divine  activity. 

1.  Signs  and  wonders. — The  rehgious  folklore 
of  all  peoples  abounds  in  stories  of  wonderful 
occurrences  due  to  the  activity  of  demons  or 
sprites  or  spirits.  Often  these  occurrences  are 
regarded  simply  as  the  play  activity  of  the  spirits. 
But  they  may  be  of  such  importance  as  to  take  on  a 
serious  rehgious  significance.  Gods  or  spirits  may 
be  specially  induced  by  sacrifices,  prayers  or  incanta- 
tions to  act  favorably.  This  naive  beUef  in  spirit- 
acts  involves  httle  or  no  conception  of  an  order 
of  natural  law;  hence  such  events  are  marvels 
rather  than  miracles  as  above  defined. 

2.  Special  divine  manifestations. — The  literature 
of  every  reUgion  contains  accounts  of  important 
epochs  or  crises  in  which  the  special  activity  of  the 
god  or  gods  was  exercised.  Great  personages  in 
the  history  of  a  rehgion  have  their  authority 
attested  by  miracles  in  connection  with  their  birth 
or  pubhc  career.  The  bibhcal  characters  of  Ehjah, 
Ehsha,  and  Jesus  are  striking  examples.  Buddha, 
Zoroaster,  and  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  are  non-biblical 
instances.  The  heahng  of  disease,  casting  out  of 
demons,  raising  from  the  dead,  summoning  super- 
natural powers  to  discomfit  an  enemy,  and  successful 
defiance  of  the  ordinary  powers  of  nature  are  the 
usual  forms  of  miracles.  Protestant  theology 
usually  affirms  that  the  age  of  miracles  is  in  the 
past,  while  in  Catholicism,  miracles  are  declared 
to  be  a  never-ceasing  element  in  rehgion. 

3.  Miracles  as  the  guarantee  of  true  religion. — ■ 
When  a  reUgion  makes  exclusive  claim  to  divine 
authority,  it  becomes  necessary  to  discredit  the 
alleged  miracles  of  false  faiths.  Christian  apolo- 
getic has  sometimes  admitted  the  reahty  of  non- 
Christian  miracles,  attributing  them  to  demons 
(e.g.,  TertuUian).  With  the  growth  of  critical 
investigation,  however,  the  tendency  has  been  to 
deny  the  historical  reality  of  all  except  the  miracles 
belonging  to  the  apologist's  own  faith.  (E.g., 
Warfield,  Counterfeit  Miracles,  1918.)  With  coun- 
terfeit miracles  disposed  of,  the  miracles  of  Chris- 
tian revelation  are  cited  as  absolute  proof  of  the 
divine  origin  and  sanction  of  Christianity. 

4.  The  relation  of  miracles  to  natural  law. — 
Whenever  men  come  to  hold  the  idea  of  an  orderly 
cosmos,  miracles  can  no  longer  be  viewed  merely  as 
capricious  acts,  but  must  be  related  definitely  to 
the  providentially  ordained  "natural  order." 
Augustine  first  raised  this  problem  in  Christian 
history,  and  suggested  the  solution  which  has  been 
generally  accepted  by  scholastic  theology.  "Natu- 
ral law"  covers  only  the  cosmic  forces  known  to  us. 


Miracle  Play 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


286 


But  human  knowledge  is  limited.  Events  which 
transcend  the  order  of  nature,  as  known  to  us, 
are  miracles.  From  the  divine  point  of  view 
they  are  part  and  parcel  of  the  providential  plan. 
They  may  be  subsumed  under  "higher  laws" 
unknown  to  us.  Miracles  are  thus  "above  nature," 
but  not  "contrary  to  nature."  The  question 
whether  a  miracle  "suspends"  a  law  of  nature  is 
variously  answered  according  to  the  conception 
of  "law"  which  is  held.  If  law  be  rigidly  conceived, 
a  "suspension"  of  it  would  seem  to  be  necessary 
if  God  is  to  be  able  to  exercise  sovereign  freedom. 
If,  however,  a  "law"  is  loosely  conceived  as  a 
convenient  way  of  summarizing  habitual  occur- 
rences, there  is  room  for  special  activities  not 
thus  catalogued,  without  interfering  with  the  law. 
5.  Modern  estimates  of  miracles. — In  recent 
religious  thinking  the  tendency  has  been  to  lay 
less  emphasis  on  miracles.  The  development  of 
strictly  scientific  ways  of  explaining  phenomena 
has  created  a  hesitancy  about  recognizing  unsci- 
entific explanations  of  events.  Indeed,  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  suggest  some  scientific  hypothesis  to 
account  for  a  bibhcal  marvel.  Moreover,  if  the 
content  of  faith  can  be  rationally  justified, 
there  is  no  need  of  appealing  to  miracles  to 
authenticate  doctrine.  Some  theologians  (e.g., 
Schleiermacher  and  Ritschl)  have  defined  miracle 
in  a  purely  religious  way,  calling  any  event 
miraculous  which  convinces  the  believer  of  the 
direct  activity  of  God.  Since  natural  events 
may  be  emotionally  capable  of  arousing  a 
sense  of  the  presence  of  God,  this  definition  abandons 
the  traditional  notion  altogether.  See  Super- 
natural. Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MIRACLE  PLAY.— A  play  dealing  with  the 
life,  particularly  the  miracles  or  the  martyrdom, 
of  a  saint. 

At  the  end  of  the  11th.  century  the  spread  of 
saints'  cults  and  the  embeUishment  of  the  church 
service  on  saints'  days  led  to  the  dramatization  in 
churches  in  Germany  and  France  of  incidents  from 
the  lives  of  saints,  after  the  model  of  early  litur- 
gical plays.  See  Mystery  Play.  The  vogue  of 
miracle  plays  spread  rapidly  through  western 
Europe.  Like  mysteries,  they  passed  from  Latin 
into  the  vernacular,  were  taken  over  by  laymen,  and 
expanded  greatly.  In  1511  the  presentation  of  one 
French  miracle  play  required  nine  days.  Scores  of 
these  plays  are  preserved  or  recorded  in  France  in 
honor  of  various  saints  and  of  the  Virgin.  A 
French  manuscript  of  the  14th.  century  contains 
forty  "miracles"  of  the  Virgin  that  were  probably 
acted  by  some  gild  for  her  worship.  They  illus- 
trate the  tendency  of  miracle  plays  to  appropriate 
secular  romantic  themes.  Fewer  names  are  pre- 
served in  England,  but  enough  to  indicate  an 
extensive  vogue  from  the  11th.  to  the  16th.  century. 
A  play  on  St.  Katherine  was  acted  at  Dunstable 
about  1100.  Plays  celebrating  St.  George  were 
extremely  popular,  but  none  have  survived.  The 
15th.  century  St.  Paul  and  Marie  Magdalene  are 
close  akin  to  mysteries.  The  Play  of  the  Sacra- 
ment, of  another  type,  exalts  the  Eucharist.  Like 
other  religious  plays,  miracle  plays  declined  during 
the  Renaissance,  but  they  survived  till  the  end 
of  the  19th.  century  in  provincial  regions,  notably 
in  the  Basque  and  Breton  provinces  of  France. 

C.  R.  Baskervill 

MISERERE.— The  fifty-first  Psahn  (fiftieth  in 
the  Vulgate),  chanted  as  a  prayer  in  the  hturgies 
of  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  so 
named  from  the  first  word  of  the  Latin  version. 

MISHNAH. — A  neo-Hebraic  word,  probably 
derived  from  the  biblical  Mishneh  (Deut.  17 :  18) 


meaning  a  repetition,  or  compendium  of  the  law. 
It  is  used  either  in  the  wider  sense  for  the  totaUty 
of  the  rabbinical  law  literature  {Ahot,  3,  6,  Yebamot, 
49b)  or  in  the  specific  sense  for  the  work  containing 
the  rabbinical  laws  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
Talmud  (q.v.).  This  work  is  composed  of  six 
parts:  (1)  ZeraHm,  chiefly  laws  of  agriculture,  as 
tithes,  etc.;  (2)  Mo'ed,  laws  of  Sabbath  and  holy- 
days;  (3)  Nashim,  matrimonial  laws;  (4)  Nezikin, 
jurisprudence;  (5)  Kodashim,  sacrificial  laws; 
(6)  Toharot,  laws  of  levitical  purity.  Each  of 
these  parts  (Seder)  is  subdivided  into  tractates 
(Masekta),  (e.g.,  Mo'ed  into  laws  of  Sabbath, 
Passover,  New  Year,  Day  of  Atonement,  etc.),  and 
each  of  these  tractates  into  chapters  (Perek),  and 
every  chapter  into  paragraphs,  each  called  a  Mish- 
nah.  The  Mishnah  contains  both  laws  derived 
from  the  Biblical  text  and  opinions  of  the  rabbis. 
Its  compiler  evidently  meant  to  preserve  the  rabbinic 
law  as  developed  up  to  his  time.  Later  orthodoxy 
made  of  it  a  divinely  revealed  code  going  back  to 
Moses  who  taught  these  explanations  of  the  Penta- 
teuch on  Mount  Sinai,  as  he  had  received  them 
froni  God  (Berakot,  5a).  The  compilation  is 
ascribed  to  Judah  Hanasi,  the  Patriarch  (ca.  135- 
216);  but,  while  he  originated  it,  he  cannot  have 
written  it  in  the  shape  in  which  we  possess  it,  for 
even  his  death  is  mentioned  there  (Sotah,  49a). 
The  Mishnah  has  been  often  edited,  either  sepa- 
rately or  with  the  Gemara  in  the  Talmud  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into  various  languages. 
Its  language  _  is  good  Bibhcal  Hebrew  with  an 
Aramaic  coloring,  such  as  the  Biblical  books  of  Esther, 
Ecclesiastes  and  Chronicles  show.  Its  laws  are 
rational  in  civil  cases,  apologetically  humanitarian 
in  criminal  cases,  and  minute  in  ritual  questions. 
It  also  contains  fine  moral  lessons,  drawn  from  the 
laws.    See  Talmud.  Gotthard  Deutsch 

MISSAL.— The  R.C.  book  in  which  is  pre- 
scribed the  Uturgy  for  the  Mass  throughout  the  year. 

MISSION,  INNER.— See  Inner  Mission. 

MISSIONARY  MOVEMENT.— The  self- 
propagating  activity  of  Christianity  by  which 
the  Gospel  _  is  communicated  and  the  Church 
established  in  non-Christian  countries. 

I.  Scope  and  Objective. — Historically  re- 
viewed the  movement,  in  its  broadest  sense,  is 
identical  with  the  total  spread  of  the  Christian 
religion  from  its  native  Palestine  in  the  1st.  century 
A.D.  to  all  regions  of  the  globe  to  which,  with  various 
interpretations,  it  has  subsequently  been  extended. 
Prospectively  considered,  the  movement  aims  to 
complete  the  process  _  of  world-evangelization. 
Present-day  foreign  missions  normally  embrace  the 
efforts  and  agencies  of  all  Christian  communions 
of  nominally  Christian  countries,  directed  toward 
the  Christianization  of  peoples  of  alien  faiths  in 
foreign  lands,  i.e.,  in  Asia,  Africa,  the  pagan  sections 
of  the  Island  World  and  of  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
Included  among  their  foreign  fields  by  some  evangeli- 
cal missionary  societies  are  territories  regarded  as 
spiritually  destitute  and  inadequately  occupied 
by  the  ancient  Oriental  Churches  in  Egypt  and 
the  Near  East;  also  sections  of  Europe  and  Latin 
America.  Some  Roman  Catholic  societies,  on 
the  other  hand,  maintain  foreign  dioceses  in  non- 
pagan  parts  of  predominantly  Protestant  countries. 

II.  Relation  op  Home  Missions. — From  for- 
eign missions,  as  comprehensively  defined  above, 
it  is  still  possible  and  convenient  to  differentiate 
home  or  domestic  missions,  although  there  is  much 
confusion  in  present  practice.  Home  missions  is  a 
term  properly  restricted  to  the  extension,  within 
the  confines  of  a  prevaiUngly  Christian  area,  of 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Missionary  Movement 


Christian  operations  administered  usually  by  a 
home  mission  board,  but  emanating  from,  and 
supported  by,  the  church  or  churches  indigenous 
to  that  area.  See  Home  Missions.  ^  The  modern 
philosophy  of  missions  tends  increasingly  to  con- 
ceive the  enterprise  as  a  unitary  world  task,  whose 
ultimate  objective  is  to  universalize  in  the  life  of 
mankind  the  spirit  and  principles  of  Jesus. 

III.  Basis  and  Motive.— That  such  a  world- 
mission  for  Christianity  finds  its  origin  and  authority 
in  Jesus  himself  is  a  conviction  which  constitutes 
the  primary  incentive  to  missionary  endeavor. 
Ideally  the  enterprise  is  his  creation;  actually  it 
has  flowed  from  him.  Its  basis  lies  in  the  inherent 
universalism  of  his  gospel  as  revealer  of  God  and 
redeemer  of  man.  It  is  distinctly  enjoined  in  his 
diversely  recorded  command  (Matt.  28:18-20; 
cf.  Mark  16:15;  Luke  24:46-49;  John  20:21; 
Acts  1:8-10).  Historical  criticism  negates  the 
command  but  straightway  concedes  that  "the  uni- 
versal mission  was  an  inevitable  issue  of  the 
religion  and  spirit  of  Jesus"  (Hamack).  Modern 
duty  and  desire  to  mediate  to  non-Christian  peoples 
the  Christian  message  with  its  attendant  philan- 
thropies and  institutions  are  felt  less  and  less  to 
depend  primarily  upon  a  formal  injunction,  but 
rather  to  spring  irresistibly  from  the  whole  implica- 
tion and  impact  of  Christ's  personality  and  example, 
from  the  essential  nature  and  total  intention  of  his 
teaching  in  relation  to  actually  disclosed  conditions 
among  the  nations.  Increasing  knowledge  of  the 
non-Christian  world  during  the  past  four  decades, 
through  the  historico-comparative  study  of  its 
religious  and  social  life,  has  not  "cut  the  nerve  of 
missions."  On  the  contrary  it  has  tended  to 
strengthen  the  sense  of  missionary  obligation  and 
to  augment  the  volume  of  the  work. 

IV.  Methods  and  Departments. — Missionary 
methods  have  varied  with  the  cultural  status  of  the 
church  and  its  environment  in  different  lands  and 
ages.  During  the  early  centuries  the  faith  was 
disseminated  chiefly  by  evangelistic  proclamation, 
and  the  silent  contagion  of  Christian  character. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  agricultural,  industrial  and 
educational  methods  were  developed.  Modern 
missions,  grappling  at  first  hand  with  social  prob- 
lems of  immense  variety  and  magnitude,  are  more 
complex.  In  their  social  passion  and  outreach  they 
exhibit  the  supreme  experiment  in  appUed  Chris- 
tianity— a  vast  and  versatile  ministry  to  every 
aspect  of  human  need.  Modem  missionary  activi- 
ties are  classified  in  the  following  main  departments: 
evangeUstic,  educational,  medical,  social,  agricul- 
tural, industrial  and  Uterary — operating  through 
churches,  chapels,  schools  of  all  grades,^  colleges, 
theological  seminaries,  universities,  hospitals,  dis- 
pensaries, orphanages,  refuges,  leper  and  blind 
asylums,  social  centers,  institutes,  farms,  industrial 
centers  and  printing  presses.  The  translation 
and  circulation  of  the  Bible  is  a  paramount  factor. 

V.  Historical  Survey. — Missionary  history 
may  be  briefly  outlined  in  three  main  periods, 
early,  middle  and  modern. 

1.  Early  period  (30-500  a.d.). — ^The  first  five 
centuries  registered  the  initial  advance  of  Chris- 
tianity over  the  Roman  Empire  and  contiguous 
regions  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Atlantic,  from 
Britain  to  Babylon,  from  Egypt  and  North  Africa 
to  Dacia  and  the  Rhine.  This  was  the  period  of 
spontaneous  diffusion,  especially  down  to  the 
4th.  century.  There  were  conspicuous  leaders 
from  Paul  to  Patrick — apostles,  prophets,  teachers, 
presbyters,  bishops,  apologists,  martyrs,  who 
were  formal  missionaries  or  promoters  of  expansion; 
but  the  rapid  spread  of  the  faith  was  chiefly  due  to 
a  host  of  lay  evangehsts,  unofficial  and  unnamed, 
the   rank  and  file  of  Christians  who  witnessed 


wherever  they  went.  There  was  little  co-ordinated 
procedure  of  propagation,  and  no  missionary 
organization  other  than  the  church  itself. 

Early  missions  radiated  from  strategic  centers. 
Jerusalem  evangelized  Palestine.  Syrian  Antioch, 
whence  Paul  bore  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles, 
became  by  320  a  Christian  metropolis  with  a  church 
of  100,000,  superintending  propaganda  from  the 
Syrian  seaboard  to  Mesopotamia  and  the  Caucasus. 
Ephesus  was  a  similar  fulcrum  for  western  Asia 
Minor.  Cappadocian  Caesarea  sent  Gregory  the 
Illuminator  to  win  Armenia  (ca.  300).  From 
Edessa  the  Syriac-speaking  church  spread  to 
Parthia  and  Bactria.  From  cosmopolitan  Alex- 
andria churches  extended  up  the  Nile,  gathering 
more  than  a  million  Christians  by  325.  The  same 
capital  sent  missionaries  to  Abyssinia.  Carthage, 
from  about  140,  was  a  center  of  diffusion  over 
North  Africa.  The  Rhone  Valley,  with  churches  of 
Graeco- Asiatic  origin  before  177,  was  a  fount  of 
missions  for  Gaul;  so,  later,  were  Tours  (372-}-) 
and  the  islet  of  Lerins  (400+ ).  From  Italy  and 
Gaul  the  Gospel  spread  to  Britain,  whose  early 
church  gave  Patrick  to  Ireland  (432-461).  From 
Constantinople,  Arian  missionaries  followed  Ulfilas 
(d.  381),  apostle  to  the  Dacian  Goths.  The 
cardinal  center  for  all  the  West  was  Rome  with 
100,000  Christians  by  312.  Estimates  of  the 
number  of  Christians  in  the  Empire  under  Con- 
stantino range  from  9,000,000  (Schaff)  and 
12,000,000  (Schultze),  to  20,000,000  (Keim)  and 
30,000,000  (Orr).  The  period  closes  with  the  con- 
version of  the  Franks,  which  began  with  the  baptism 
of  King  Clovis  (496).  Among  the  last  missionaries 
in  the  wake  of  the  Gothic  migrations  were  Severinus 
in  Noricum,  and  Fridolin  in  the  Black  Forest 
(ca.  500). 

2.  Middle  period  (500-1500).— The  middle 
period,  between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  eve  of  the 
Reformation,  claimed  Europe  as  its  principal 
field.  Its  achievements  were  (1)  extension  of  the 
church  in  regions  adjacent  to  established  centers, 
(2)  reoccupation  of  areas  whose  earlier  Christian 
foundations  had  been  obliterated  by  the  barbarian 
invasions  and  the  conquests  of  Islam.  (3)  the 
pioneer  penetration  of  central,  northern  and  eastern 
Europe.  Projection  into  Asia  was  also  begun. 
Missions  here  predominantly  became  official  enter- 
prises of  organized  ecclesiasticism,  conducted  by 
monastic  and  secular  clergy.  They  should  be 
studied  as  a  phase  of  the  gigantic  struggle  between 
civilization  and  barbarism.  Conversion  was  fre- 
quently tribal  or  national,  and,  therefore,  super- 
ficial. At  times  it  was  induced  by  political  and 
even  military  compulsion.  The  outstanding  mis- 
sions were  Celtic,  JRoman,  Greek,  and  Nestorian. 

Celtic  Missions  were  pioneer  enterprises  which 
sprang  from  the  abbeys  of  Ireland  (550-750). 
Scoto-Irish  monks  heralded  the  Gospel  and  Christian 
culture  from  Iceland  to  the  Alps.  On  the  British 
mainland  the  sea-girt  cloisters  of  lona  and  Lindis- 
farne,  founded  respectively  by  Columba  (567)  and 
Aidan  (635),  coped  victoriously  with  paganism 
from  Pictland  to  the  Thames.  On  the  continent 
the  monasteries  of  Columbanus  (580-615)  and  his 
successors  for  over  a  century  diffused  the  faith  and 
built  Christian  settlements  among  Franks,  Celts, 
Burgundians,  Alemanni,  Swabians,  Lombards  and 
Germans.  The  Celtic  missions  were  graduaUy  ab- 
sorbed by  the  stronger  organization  of  Rome. 

Roman  Missions  were  aggressively  connected 
with  the  growth  of  the  papacy  from  the  6th. 
century  to  the  12th.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
projected  a  vigorous  policy  of  expansion,  whose 
chief  agency  was  the  rising  Benedictine  Order  (q.v.) 
which  he  imbued  with  a  missionary  impulse.  To 
Britain,    repaganized    by   Teutonic    conquest,    he 


Missionary  Movement 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION"  AND  ETHICS 


dispatched  from  Rome  in  596  the  momentous 
mission  of  Augustine  (q.v.).  This  resulted  by  700 
in  a  national  English-Roman  church,  itself  the 
base  of  a  powerful  movement  to  the  heathen.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  became  ardent  evangelizers  of  their 
continental  kinsmen;  first,  of  the  fierce,  seaboard 
Frisians  and  cognate  tribes  of  the  Netherlands, 
whose  foremost  pioneer  was  Wilhbrord  (690-730); 
and  more  successfully,  after  716,  of  Thuringia, 
Hesse  and  Bavaria,  where  Winfrith  (Boniface) 
clothed  with  papal  authority  and  supported  by 
the  Frankish  kmgs,  was  Germany's  premier  apostle. 
Charlemagne's  wars  (772-804)  upon  the  Old  Saxons, 
south  of  Friesland,  conspicuously  exhibit  the 
anomaly  of  Christianization  by  violence.  Their 
wiUing  allegiance  was  later  won  by  peaceable 
methods.  English  and  German  missionaries,  sup- 
ported by  royal  crusades,  had  permanently  planted 
the  church  in  the  Scandinavian  lands  by  1150, 
three  centuries  after  Ansgar  laid  the  foundations 
in  Denmark  (826-850).  Through  the  coercion 
of  their  kings  who  married  Christian  Bohemian 
princesses,  Hungary  and  Poland  received  Christian 
teachers  (c.  1000).  The  last  and  most  difficult 
conquest  of  the  Latin  church  was  the  kingdoms  of 
the  northern  Slavs  which  clung  about  the  Baltic, 
from  the  Elbe  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  In  the 
process  the  Wends  were  ahnost  exterminated  and 
the  Prussians  reduced  by  the  sword.  Lithuania 
adhered  to  heathenism  until  1386.  The  13th. 
century  marked  Rome's  earliest  expeditions  ^  to 
Asia  under  the  Mongol  Empire.  A  beginning 
was  made  in  South  India  in  1290.  The  Franciscan 
mission  among  the  Tatars,  founded  by  Corvino 
in  Peking  (1293),  flourished  till  its  overthrow  by 
the  Mings  (1386). 

Greek  Missions  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  or 
Byzantine  church  of  Constantinople  embraced  the 
eastern  Slavs,  whose  evangelization  was  inaugu- 
rated in  Bulgaria  (860),  Moravia  (863)  and  Bohemia 
(871)  by  Methodius.  His  co-worker,  Cyril,  invented 
a  Slavonic  alphabet  and  translated  the  Bible  and 
the  Greek  liturgy.  Moravia  and  Bohemia  became 
politically  united  and  adhered  to  Rome.  The  Greek 
Church  prevailed  in  Bulgaria.  _  Its  greatest  triumph 
was  the  winning  of  Russia  during  two  centuries  after 
the  compulsory  mandate  of  Vladimir  in  988. 

Nestorian  Missions,  emanating  from  the  Syro- 
Persian  church  of  Nestorius  (q.v.),  paralleled  in 
the  East  the  pioneer  exploits  of  the  Celts  in  the 
West.  From  their  center  at  Nisibis,  ^  during  the 
6th.  century,  they  broke  the  first  Christian  paths 
into  middle,  eastern  and  southern  Asia.  By  1050 
the  Nestorian  patriarch  at  Bagdad  ruled  a  vast 
communion  with  missionary  sees  extending  from 
the  Tigris  to  Peking,  from  Mongolia  to  Malabar. 
The  Central  Asian  missions  were  finally  destroyed 
by  the  Tatar  invasions  of  the  14th.  century. 

By  1500  the  Mongol  and  Moslem  conquests 
had  left  Uttle  Christianity  in  Asia.  Europe  had 
reached  the  state  of  combined  recession  and  awaken- 
ment  which  precipitated  the  Lutheran  revolt. 

3.  Modern  period  (1500-1921).— It  is  during  the 
modern  period  from  the  Reformation  to  the  present, 
when  the  geographical  extent  of  the  whole  world 
has  been  gradually  disclosed,  that  foreign  missions 
have  actually  entered  on  a  world-wide  stage. 
Almost  hterally  the  entire  inhabited  globe  as  a 
mission  field  lies  today  within  the  purview  of  the 
church,  in  the  sense  that  non-Christian  areaswith 
comparatively  insignificant  exceptions  (Afghanistan, 
Inner  Tibet,  Nepal,  Bhutan;  some  enclaves  of  local 
fanaticism  in  actual  mission  lands)  are  open  and 
accessible.  Missions  of  either  the_  Protestant  or 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and,  in  most  cases, 
of  both  branches  of  Christendom,  exist  in  practically 
all   but  forbidden   countries.    Yet,    within   areas 


long  since  entered,  notably  in  Asia  and  Africa, 
there  are  vast  sections  unreached  by  Christian 
ministries,  and  many  milUons  who  have  not  been 
evangelized.  A  distinguishing  feature  of  present 
day  missions  is  their  promotion  and  direction  by 
special  organizations  within  the  home  churches; 
in  evangelical  communions  through  missionary 
societies  or  boards;  in  the  Roman  Church  through 
monastic  orders,  seminaries  and  agencies  Like  the 
French  Societe  des  Missions  Etrangbres — all  subject 
to  the  general  directorate  at  Rome,  of  the  Congre- 
gatio  de  Propaganda  Fide.  The  modern  period  di- 
vides into  two  epochs,  the  colonial  and  the  universal. 
Colonial  Missions. — The  term  as  here  used 
comprises  aU  efforts  to  Christianize  the  natives  of 
oversea  countries  in  connection  with  the  colonial 
and  commercial  expansion  of  Europe,  chiefly  from 
the  16th.  century  to  the  18th.  Such  attempts  at 
conversion  fell  in  a  romantic  age  of  emulous  dis- 
covery and  racial  conflict.  They  were  resplendent 
with  individual  devotion  and  achievement.  But  in 
general  they  were  disadvantageously  limited  in 
both  methods  and  results  by  their  relation,  direct 
or  indirect,  to  territorial  conquest,  economic 
exploitation  and  mercantile  aggression.  Of  such 
colonial  missions  there  were  six  cycles,  three 
Roman  CathoUc  and  three  Protestant.  The 
Catholic  cycles  were  (1)  the  Portuguese,  beginning 
in  1491  mingled  with  slave-trade  in  West  Africa, 
encompassing  Portugal's  East  Indian  Empire 
(1500-1640)  ^  and  extending  to  Brazil  in  1549; 
(2)  the  Spanish,  integrally  bound  up  with  the  whole 
period  and  process  of  Spain's  discoveries  and 
conquests  in  the  New  World;  and  (3)  the  French, 
following  the  flag  of  France  from  Acadia  up  the 
St.  Lawrence,  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  down  the 
Mississippi  to  Louisiana  (1614-1765).  Of  these 
colonial  apostolates  the  earliest  executants,  Domini- 
can and  Franciscan  friars,  were  later  reinforced  by 
other  orders,  most  effectively  by  the  Jesuits  (q.v.), 
whose  leadership  became  pre-eminent  with  the 
career  of  Frangois  Xavier  (q.v.)  in  India,  Ceylon, 
Malacca  and  Japan  (1542-1549).  With  the  rise 
of  the  Jesuits,  Catholic  missions  date  their  golden 
prime.  Their  greatest  achievements  were  in 
Brazil,  Paraguay  and  Canada.  The  three  Protes- 
tant cycles  co-operant  with  state  extension  issued 
from  Holland,  England  and  Denmark.  They 
were  (1)  the  Dutch  government  missions  in  the 
East  Indies  (after  Holland's  ejection  of  Portugal 
in  the  17th.  century) — ^also  in  Formosa  and  Brazil; 
(2)  efforts  to  convert  the  Indians  of  England's 
North  American  colonies  begun  by  Roger  Williams 
(1631),  John  Eliot  (1646)  and  the  Mayhews 
(1650);  (3)  the  Danish-Halle  mission  established 
in  1705  by  the  King  of  Denmark  in  Danish  India 
(Tranquebar).  The  latter  was  a  fruitful  movement 
under  the  leadership  of  the  German  Pietists, 
Ziegenbalg,  Plutschau  and  Schwartz. 

Universal  Missions. — Of  the  present  epoch  of 
universal  missions  the  precursors  were  the  German 
Moravians  (q.v.),  the  first  evangelical  communion 
stirred  to  action  by  the  claims  of  heathen  humanity 
apart  from  colonial  considerations.  From  1732 
onward,  they  went  to  the  crudest  and  remotest 
peoples,  from  Lapland  to  South  Africa,  from  Green- 
land to  the  Guianas.  The  Wesleyan  revival  in 
England  prepared  the  way  for  the  larger  enterprise 
inaugurated  by  William  Carey,  whose  foundation 
of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1792),  followed 
by  his  colossal  work  in  India  (1793-1834),  effectively 
voiced  the  call  of  the  world  to  Christendom,  Here 
began  the  rapid  rise  of  the  missionary  societies 
which  continued  to  be  formed  throughout  the  19th. 
century  in  Great  Britain,  and  her  English-speaking 
colonies,  in  America,  and  on  the  European  continent 
(Germany,  Holland,  France,  Switzerland,  Scandi- 


28vi 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Modernism 


navia).  Following  Carey's  organization  quickly 
arose  the  London  Missionary  Society  (1795),  the 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Societies  (1796),  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  (1799)  and  others. 
The  first  in  the  United  States  were  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  (Congregational)  (1810), 
and  the  American  Baptist  Union  (1814).  World 
Statistics  of  Christian  Missions  Usts  412  societies 
now  directing  work  in  foreign  fields,  besides  287 
auxiliary  organizations.  Of  these  about  100  have 
arisen  in  mission  lands.  Woman's  organized  work 
which  began  in  England  in  1837,  and  in  America 
on  a  larger  scale  in  1861  has  been  a  powerful 
instrument  of  missionary  promotion.  Of  Protes- 
tant missionaries,  men  and  women,  there  are 
24,500  (of  whom  10,700  proceed  from  the  U.S.)  at 
work  in  34,793  stations  and  outstations  in  all 
mission  lands.  The  native  helpers  number  111,469. 
The  income  of  all  Protestant  societies  for  1920 
was  $47,541,859.  Roman  Catholic  missions,  which 
suffered  echpse  in  the  18th.  century,  have  revived 
since  1822.  They  report  a  foreign  force  of  12,000 
priests,  6,000  brothers,  20,000  sisters.  The  Russian 
Orthodox  Church  maintains  missions  in  Russia 
proper,  Siberia,  Japan  and  Alaska.  (For  the 
present  scope  and  status  of  missions  in  different 
fields  see  articles  on  respective  countries.). 

Since  the  Edinburgh  Conference  (1910)  and 
the  Panama  Congress  (1916)  the  Protestant  enter- 
prise has  undergone  a  process  of  survey  and  self- 
criticism,  whose  results  are  rapidly  developing 
into  a  science  of  missions.  The  (British)  Board 
of  Studies  and  the  (American)  Board  of  Missionary 
Preparation  (1912)  are  promoting  faciUties  for 
the  special  training  of  future  missionaries.  The 
latest  significant  step  in  the  development  of  a 
missionary  statesmanship  was  the  approval  by 
the  Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America 
(Garden  City,  1921)  of  the  International  Missionary 
Committee.  Chaeles  T.  Paul 

MITER  or  MITRE.— An  official  head-dress 
designating  official  ecclesiastical  position,  worn 
by  bishops,  patriarchs,  and  some  abbots. 

MITHRAISM.— See  Mystery  Religions,  III. 

MIXCOATL. — A  prehistoric  Mexican  god,  called 
"cloud  serpent,''  who  was  credited  with  the  making 
of  fire  and  functioned  as  the  patron  deity  of  hunting. 
He  was  undoubtedly  in  origin  a  lightning  god. 

MOABITES.— The  inhabitants  of  the  land  of 
Moab,  which  lay  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  south  of  the  territory  of  Reuben. 
See  MoABiTE  Stone. 

Hebrew  tradition  recognizes  them  as  of  close 
kin  to  Israel,  and  as  having  become  a  settled  people 
prior  to  Israel's  entry  into  Canaan.  The  relations 
of  the  two  peoples  were  less  frequently  hostile  than 
was  the  case  between  Israel  and  any  other  immediate 
neighbours.  This  was  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
the  Dead  Sea  separated  them. 

The  Moabites  seem  to  have  worshiped  one 
national  god,  viz.,  Chemosh  (Num.  21:29;  Jer. 
48:26),  who  is  called  Ashtar-Chemosh  on  the 
Moabite  Stone.  This  latter  name  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  a  goddess  was  associated  with  Che- 
mosh. The  same  type  of  religion  is  reflected  in  the 
story  of  Baal-Peor  (Num.  25:1-5).  Human 
sacrifice  was  also  practiced,  at  least  in  critical 
situations  (II  Kings  3:27).  They  made  no  perma- 
nent contribution  to  history.     J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

MOABITE  STONE.— An  inscription  of  Mesha, 
King  of  Moab,  found  in  1868  a.d.  at  Dhiban 
(Dibon)  in  Moab  by  the  Rev.  F.  Klein,  an  English 


missionary.  It  records  in  ancient  Hebrew  char- 
acters and  speech  Mesha's  successful  revolt  from 
Israel's  sovereignty  which  had  been  imposed  on 
Moab  by  Omri  and  Ahab.  The  stone  which  was 
shattered  by  the  natives  after  Klein's  discovery 
has  been  restored  and  is  now  in  the  Louvre.  See 
Moabites. 

MODALISM. — An  interpretation  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  which  regards  the  three  "per- 
sons" as  "modes"  in  which  the  one  God  manifests 
Himself. 

MODERATES  and  MODERATISM.— A  party 
in  the  Scotch  church  that  during  the  last  half  of 
the  18th.  century  advocated  a  pohcy  of  accommoda- 
tion to  the  spirit  of  the  time.  With  no  formal 
creed  it  allowed  wide  latitude  of  opinion,  and 
emphasized  the  ethical  requirements  of  Christianity. 
It  sought  ministers  whose  teachmg  and  social 
qualities  would  commend  rehgion  to  the  upper 
classes  who  had  been  aUenated  by  traditional 
theology.  Its  failure  to  raise  ministerial  standards, 
and  to  attract  the  educated,  and  its  support  of  the 
arbitrary  and  increasingly  unpopular  system  of 
patronage,  gradually  lessened  its  control  in  the 
General  Assembly,  until  with  the  secession  of  the 
Free  Church  it  passed  into  eclipse.  See  Free 
Church  op  Scotland.  Peter  G.  Mode 

MODERATOR.— The  name  of  the  presiding 
officer  in  the  Presbyterian  bodies,  session,  presby- 
tery, synod,  and  general  assembly,  and  in  some 
other  democratic  church  bodies. 

MODERNISM.— A  critical  and  Uberal  move- 
ment within  the  Roman  CathoUc  church,  con- 
demned in  1907. 

1.  History. — During  the  last  two  decades  of  the 
19th.  century,  two  brilliant  scholars  in  the  Catholic 
Institute  at  Paris,  Louis  Duschene  and  Alfred 
Loisy,  employed  radical  historical  criticism  in  the 
treatment  of  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  material. 
As  a  consequence,  considerable  modifications  of 
the  traditional  Catholic  positions  appeared,  and  the 
ultimate  decision  of  certain  important  questions 
was  found  in  critical  scholarship  rather  than  in 
ecclesiastical  pronouncements.  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
appointed  a  commission  on  biblical  studies  to 
formulate  approved  CathoUc  principles  in  this 
realm,  and  in  other  ways  attempted  to  bring 
official  pressure  on  Catholic  teachers.  Pope  Pius  X. 
took  more  vigorous  action,  bringing  about  the 
condemnation  of  five  of  Loisy's  books  in  1903. 
On  July  3,  1907  he  issued  the  famous  decree 
Lamentabili  sane  exitu,  in  which  65  propositions 
were  proscribed  and  condemned.  Loisy  immediately 
acknowledged  certain  of  these  as  his  own  teaching, 
and  the  warfare  was  on.  Sept.  8,  1907,  the  pope 
issued  the  encyclical  letter,  PasceJidi  Dominid  regis, 
which  in  detail  expounded  and  criticized  the  teach- 
ings of  the  hberal  group,  and  gave  the  name 
Modernism  to  the  movement,  characterizing  it  as 
"the  synthesis  of  all  heresies."  Vigorous  repressive 
measures  were  taken  and  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  modernists  were  either  silenced  or  compelled 
to  withdraw  from  the  church.  In  addition  to  the 
French  scholars  mentioned  above,  Father  George 
Tyrrell  in  England,  and  Romolo  Murri  in  Italy 
were  leading  spirits. 

2.  Content. — While  Modernism  makes  signifi- 
cant modifications  in  the  doctrines  of  CathoUcism, 
its  most  important  feature  is  its  adoption  of  critical 
scholarship  as  the  ultimate  court  of  appyeal.  This  is 
made  clear  in  the  notable  document.  The  Pro- 
gramme of  the  Modernists,  anonymously  issued 
in  reply  to  the  papal  encyclical.     Modernism  treats 


Modernist 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


290 


Christianity  as  a  historical  movement,  beginning 
as  a  Jewish,  messianic  faith  attached  to  the  person  of 
Jesus,  subsequently  developing  under  Hellenistic 
influences  into  the  system  of  doctrine  which  the 
Catholic  church  administered  through  the  Middle 
Ages.  Modern  science  makes  imperative  a  further 
development  of  Christian  ideas.  Thus  in  the 
place  of  a  system  originally  communicated  to  the 
church  in  perfection,  the  modernist  contends  that 
we  have  a  Christian  ideal  ceaselessly  developing  in 
human  history.  The  self-identity  of  this  ideal 
under  changing  forms  constitutes  the  unity  of  true 
Catholicism.  The  modernist  thus  regards  external 
doctrines  and  rites  as  merely  relative.  The  papal 
encyclical  insists  that  this  would  mean  the  end  of  the 
authority  of  the  CathoUc  church. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
MODERNIST.— A  term  currently  applied  to 
those  who  conceive  the  task  of  religious  interpre- 
tation to  be  that  of  setting  forth  the  rehgious 
significance  of  present-day  ideals  rather  than 
the  reproduction  of  authorized  beliefs.  See 
Modernism. 

MOFFAT,  ROBERT  (1795-1883).— Scottish 
missionary  to  South  Africa,  a  pioneer  explorer  and 
indefatigable  worker  among  the  natives. 

MOHAMMED  (died  632  a. d.).— Founder  of 
the  rehgion  and  civilization  which  Western  people 
name  after  him,  Mohammedanism. 

Trustworthy  records  of  his  early  days  are 
wanting.  The  date  of  birth  usually  given,  570  a.d., 
is  the  earhest  possible;  more  probable  is  a  date 
5-15  years  later.  His  own  words  (Koran,  Sur.  93) 
describe  him  as  an  orphan,  perhaps  a  foundling, 
adopted  into  a  poverty-stricken  lower  middle 
class  family  of  Mecca. 

His  first  rise  in  the  social  scale  came  with  his 
marriage  to  the  well-to-do  widow  Khadljah.  With 
affluence  and  leisure  assured,  obscure  rays  of 
Christian  and  Jewish  monotheism  began  powerfully 
to  impress  him,  as  they  had  a  few  others  before 
him.  His  native  ability  for  leadership  asserted 
itself,  and  he  felt  these  impressions  to  be  prophetic 
revelations  which  he  must  impart  to  others.  He 
began  to  do  this,  after  a  period  of  mental  anguish, 
in  his  own  family.  Outside  his  family  the  first 
notable  convert  was  Abu  Bakr,  a  clever,  steady, 
and  weU-to-do  lower  middle  class  merchant. 

The  rich  banker-lords  of  Mecca  viewed  Moham- 
med's actions  at  first  with  patronizing  complaisance. 
When  'Uthman  of  the  noble  'Umayyad  family 
was  converted,  and  they  saw  that  their  social 
system  and  profits  were  threatened,  they  tried  to 
annihilate  the  reformer  by  insolent  and  implacable 
opposition.  This  was  strong  enough  to  make 
Mohammed  send  'Uthman  with  a  number  of 
wavering  adherents  to  Christian  Abyssinia  (he 
knew  no  difference  between  Christianity  and  his 
teaching),  to  seek  protection  and  perhaps  military 
aid  against  Mecca.  The  conversion  of  the  fiery 
and  able  but  distinctly  lower  middle  class  'Umar 
brought  new  hopes  and  some  new  converts.  The 
upper  classes,  however,  proved  too  strong,  especially 
after  the  death  of  Khadijah  and  of  his  "uncle 
and  protector  Abu  Talib.  A  gentleman's  agree- 
ment was  forced  upon  Mohammed  to  abstain 
from  further  propaganda  in  Mecca.  An  attempt 
to  gain  a  footmg  in  the  aristocratic  Alpine  city  of 
Taif  proved  very  nearly  fatal.  A  period  of  hope- 
lessness ensued,  Mohammed  casting  about  for  a 
more  promising  field  outside  Mecca.  The  Meccan 
period  of  Islam's  beginnings,  usually  placed  by 
schematic  conjecture  at  10  years,  may  not  have 
been  more  than  3-5  years.  No  decided  doctrinal, 
ritual,  or  organizational  development  is  discernible. 


A  simple,  but  very  rigid  monotheism,  an  ill-defined 
bit  of  ritual,  kindness  to  fellowmen  in  need,  and 
a  lurid  eschatology :  from  first  to  last  this  is  Moham- 
med's message.  It  is  revealed  in  bits  from  a  perfect 
heavenly  book;  system  and  consistency  are  not 
essential.  Freewill  and  fatalism  vary  with  Moham- 
med's moods  and  needs.  Former  prophets  (among 
them  Alexander  the  Great)  become  in  Mohammed's 
mind  "Virgilian  shadows"  of  himself,  and  warning 
examples  of  peoples  who  opposed  them  are  adduced 
in  bewildering  confusion  in  the  latter  half  of  this 
period.  Throughout  Mohammed  is  a  mere  warn- 
ing voice,  increasing  somewhat  in  authority,  but 
not  yet  on  a  par  with  great  prophets  like  Jesus 
and  Abraham,  never  as  yet  God's  ambassador  pleni- 
potentiary. 

To  this  degree  he  advances  in  Yathrib,  presently 
called  al-Medina,  "the  city,"  namely  of  the  prophet. 
Thither  he  was  called  by  that  city's  Arabic  over- 
lords, embroiled  in  deadly  feud  amongst  themselves, 
with  none  of  their  own  able  to  heal  the  breach  and 
stave  off  ruin.  Three  Jewish  tribes  in  their  midst 
made  the  quite  un- Arabic  worldview  and  messiapic 
hope  proclaimed  by  Mohammed  somewhat  less 
unacceptable  to  them.  The  Hidjra,  "emigration" 
(not  flight!)  to  Medina,  622  a.d.,  sets  its  imprint  on 
the  rest  of  Mohammed's  life  and  on  Mohammedan- 
ism to  this  day. 

From^  the  beginning  Mohammed's  position  and 
attitude  in  Medina  are  very  different  from  those  of 
Meccan  days.  Here  he  is  at  the  top  of  the  social 
scale,  no  other  leader's  prestige  and  influence 
greater  than  his.  Called  to  create  a  unified  com- 
munity he  naively  approached  the  Jews,  about 
whose  religion  he  knew  as  little  in  detail  as  he  knew 
of  Christianity.  He  learned  and  accepted  from 
them  elements  of  ritual  (set  times  of  prayer  and  of 
public  service,  fasting,  direction  of  prayer  at  first 
toward  Jerusalem),  fragments  of  Old  Testament 
history,  bits  of  law  and  perhaps  larger  things  m 
the  developing  ideal  of  a  theocratic  political  organ!  i 
zation.  But  he  found  the  Jews  unassimilable.  He 
could  not  be  Messiah  of  the  Jews,  so  he  would  be 
Messiah  of  the  Arabs.  Inevitably  he  was  drawn 
into  the  nationalistic  current.  For  this  he  needed 
Mecca.  He  discovered — he  thought  it  revealed  to 
him — since  Abraham  through  Ishmael  was  the 
forefather  of  the  Arabs,  that  the  great  Meccan 
sanctuary  must  be  of  Abrahamic  origin  and  musi 
be  restored  to  Abrahamic  purity.  Five  greate./ 
campaigns  subjected  Mecca  to  his  command.  Inter- 
spersed with  these  were  measures  of  varying  harsh- 
ness which  eliminated  the  Jews  from  Medina  and 
made  tributary  those  of  its  environs.  One  really 
bloody  battle  tamed  the  surrounding  Bedouin  and 
gave  Mohammed  Taitf.  He  was  now  "king  of  the 
Hidjdz." 

He  was  by  no  means  master  of  all  Arabia  and 
he  scarcely  dreamed  of  actual  conquest  beyond  it. 
But  his  name  was  great  throughput  the  peninsula 
and  his  influence  was  felt  to  its  farthest  corners. 
His  nod  was  law  to  many;  to  them  he  was  God's 
plenipotentiary.  Many  Arabs  were  flocking  to 
the  banners,  bounty,  and  booty  of  Islam,  rather 
than  to  its  beliefs  and  laws,  which  would  follow 
in  due  time.  And  thus  death  overtook  Mohammed 
in  632,  his  work  well  begun,  but  roughhewn  and 
unfinished  on  all  hands.  See  Koran;  Moham- 
medanism. M.  Spkengling 

MOHAMMEDANISM.— The  religion  founded 
ca.  610-30  A.D.  by  Mohammed.  It  is  properly 
called  Islam,  "surrender"  of  self  to  God,  its  pro- 
fessors Muslims  (Moslems).  It  may  be  best  to 
reserve  this  name  for  the  religion  proper,  using  the 
term  Mohammedanism  for  the  sum  total  of  the 
civilization  wrought  by  it  or  in  connection  with  it. 


291 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Mohammedanism 


I.  History. — For  its  beginnings  see  Moham- 
med, Koran.  After  Mohammed's  death,  for  which 
he  had  made  no  provision,  his  first  successors 
(caUphs,  i.e.,  lieutenants,  vicegerents),  Abu  Bakr  and 
'Umax  (see  Mohammed),  were  men  of  Mohammed's 
inner  circle.  With  no  desire  to  conquer  or  convert 
the  world,  they  merely  attempted  to  hold  together 
the  reUgio-poUtical  organism  which  Mohammed  had 
left  as  the  realm  of  Allah  and  Islam.  Force  of 
arms  was  necessary  so  to  hold  turbulent  Arabs, 
impatient  of  any  political  control.  Unexpected 
successes  of  a  very  able  general  (Khalid,  "the 
Sword  of  God,"  an  aristocratic  Meccan),  huge 
accretions  to  glory-  and  booty-laden  Moslem 
armies,  the  weakness  of  neighboring  Byzantium 
and  Persia  after  a  terrific  war  against  each  other, 
the_  necessity  of  keeping  the  momentarily  unified, 
nationalistically  proud  masses  of  Arabic  warriors 
satisfied  with  ever  new  forays  and  plunder — these 
things  made  early  Islam  practically  synonymous 
with  a  conquering  Arabic  empire. 

Syria,  a  large  part  of  Persia,  Egypt  with  Lybiar 
Cyrenaica,  and  Mesopotamia  were  conquered, 
when  with  the  third  caliph  'Uthman  (see  Moham- 
med) this  great,  growing  empire  was  taken  in  hand 
by  the  old  patrician  family  of  the  'Umayyads. 
Thejr  held  sway  (except  for  the  brief  reign  of 
inefficient  'Alt,  the  prophet's  son-in-law,  656-661 
a.d.)  for  something  over  a  century,  a  period  of 
marvelous  expansion  to  the  Pyrenees  and  Sicily, 
beyond  the  Oxus  and  the  Indus,  with  campaigns  to 
Constantinople.  Arab  world  dominion  was  their 
Islam,  religious  absorption  of  the  great  reaches 
and  heterogeneous  masses  following  slowly  and 
without  official  application  of  force. 

They  were  followed  by  kin  of  the  prophet,  but 
not  of  'All's  numerous  offspring — the  'Abbasids, 
who  rode  to  power  on  the  principle  of  a  prophetic 
dynasty  and  on  the  shoulders  of  a  largely  non- 
Arabic  army.  At  their  advent  the  simple  religious 
code  of  Islam  and  the  language  of  the  Arabs  was 
firmly  planted;  for  the  rest  the  balance  began 
naturally  to  swing  in  favor  of  the  non-Arab.  Cycles 
of  centuries  siun  up  the  Abbasids:  a  century  of 
energetic  rulers  (best  known,  not  best,  Hariin  ar- 
Rashld);  a  century  of  Turkish  praetorian  guard 
rule;  a  century  of  Persian  mayors  of  the  palace; 
a  century  of  Seljuk  Turkish  Sultans  (speedily 
absorbed  by  Islam,  giving  renewed  expansive 
power  in  Asia  Minor);  a  century  of  decentralized 
disorder  (Saladin  the  outstanding  figure).  Then 
ruthless  Mongols  (Jenghiz  Khan,  Hulagu)  swept 
away  the  Abbasid  Caliphs  (1258),  with  much  that 
was  great  and  fine  (art,  learning)  and  some  that 
was  evil  (secret  society  of  Assassins)  in  the  civiUza- 
tion  of  the  once  great  Abbasid  realm. 

With  the  Mongol  invaders  in  turn  absorbed 
by  Islam,  the  following  century  once  more  gave 
brief  promise  of  a  universal  Mohammedan  empire 
with  the  conqueror  Tamerlane.  After  him  Mongol 
power  wanes  rapidly  away  in  hither  and  central 
Asia,  but  leaves  an  afterglow  in  the  expansion  of 
Islam  in  India  under  the  Mogul  emperors,  whose 
rule  is  brought  to  an  end  with  English  suzerainty. 
In  the  Mediterranean  world  first  the  Mameluke 
(i.e.,  Turkish  mercenary  soldier)  sultans  of  Egypt, 
and  presently  the  growing  Ottoman  dynasty, 
bureaucracy,  and  armies,  not  Turkish,  but  mixed, 
even  in  language,  takes  over  the  position  of  leading 
Mohammedan  power  and  therewith  what  is  left 
of  reality  in  the  institution  of  the  Caliphate. 

Since  ca.  1500  Persia  is  definitely  separated  from 
the  Mediterranean  world  and  leads  a  more  or  less 
independent  national  existence  under  Shiite  (see 
below)  rulers.  Spanish  Mohammedanism  broke 
away  in  early  Abbassid  times  to  independence,  at 
first   glorious   under  an   able  'Umayyad  dynasty, 


presently  receding  with  Berber  domination  before 
the  pressure  of  Europe,  until  it  is  thrust  back  to 
Africa.  Berber  and  Egyptian  North  Africa  have 
had  much  histonr  of  their  own  and  have  at  all 
times  proved  difficult  to  control  for  long  by  any 
outside  Mohammedan  power.  Recent  democratic 
experiments  in  Mohammedan  lands  have  not 
thus  far  proved  very  successful,  partly  by  reason 
of  too  much  Em-opean  interference.  At  present 
all  real  poUtical  independence  for  Mohammedan 
peoples  is  imder  an  eclipse,  whether  temporal  or 
permanent  remains  to  be  seen. 

II.  The  Religious  Divisions. — As  a  religion 
Islam  claims,  and  is  from  the  beginning  closely 
connected  with,  political  sovereignty.  It  has, 
however,  been  shown  that  the  two  did  not  always 
advance  together.  At  first  sovereignty  outran  reli- 
gious expansion;  for  some  time  now  religious  expan- 
sion has  begun  to  outstrip  the  waning  boundaries 
of  sovereignty.  If  Islam  in  Russia,  China,  and  the 
Malay  island  world  to  the  Philippines  cannot  be 
said  to  have  taken  firm  root  without  military  and 
political  aid,  the  peaceful  penetration  of  Islam 
m  Africa,  proceeding  apace  at  the  present  moment, 
cannot  be  gainsaid. 

As  with  the  political  unity,  so  also  with  the 
religious  unity  of  Islam  it  has  not  gone  well. 
The  first  divisions  of  this  nature  are  largely  political 
in  origin.  As  against  the  great  catholic  mass  of 
Islam,  the  Sunnites  (literally  "traditionalists";, 
the  greatest  schismatic  body  within  Islam,  itself 
variously  split,  are  the  Shiites.  Shiites  means  men 
of  the  party  {sht'a),  viz.,  of  'All  (see  above).  With 
this  party  from  the  first  more  or  less  wild,  syn- 
cretistic,  gnostic,  apocalyptic  and  eschatological 
religious  ideas,  and  presently,  especially  in  Persia, 
ethnic  peculiarities  and  nationalistic  aspirations 
had  a  way  of  joining  themselves.  From  the  Shiites 
proceeded  the  great  extravagant  sects  of  the 
Druses  and  the  Babt-Behdis  (q.v.).  Another 
schismatic  movement  which  deserves  mention  is 
that  of  the  Kh&ridjites  (literally  "the  forthgoers"). 
They  went  forth,  protesting  against  any  feasible 
form  of  external  authority,  from  'All's  armies. 
Split  into  innumerable  divisions  they  clung  to 
existence  with  a  tenacity  worthy  of  a  better  cause. 
On  the  one  hand  they  produced  the  extravagant  sect 
of  the  Yezldts  or  so-called  devil  worshippers;  on 
the  other  hand  they  are  still  found  in  isolated  com- 
munities, distinguished  in  little  but  name  from 
the  surrounding  mass  of  catholic  Sunnite  Islam. 

III.  Religious  Beliefs. — In  early  Islam  the- 
ology was  a  simple  matter.  The  few  vague  and 
general  formulations  of  Mohammed  were  held  to 
suffice  for  all  needs.  Contact  with  more  developed 
theologies,  chiefly  Christian  (John  of  Damascus, 
etc.),  but  also  Jewish,  and  others,  started  philosophiz- 
ing and  theologizing  in  Islam.  A  period  oi  ill- 
disciplined  and  presently  fanatical  rationalizing 
ensued,  the  kcddm  (philosophical  formulation)  of  the 
Mu'tazilites  (literally  "those  who  hold  aloof" 
from  extremes,  "those  who  remain  neutral"  between 
parties).  Then  orthodox,  catholic  Islam  began 
its  own  formulation  {kaldm),  which  issued  in  the 
scholastic  formulae  of  Ash'arl  (the  Aquinas  of  Islam, 
died  932)  and  the  more  vital  statements  of  Ghazdll. 
See  GhazalI,  al.  These  two  are  the  standards  of 
orthodox  Islam  to  this  day.  For  about  a  century 
and  a  half  now  a  sort  of  Calvinist-Puritan  reform 
movement  (forbidding  saintworship,  the  use  of 
tobacco,  etc.)  has  gained  and  retained  a  firm  foot- 
hold in  north  central  Arabia,  spreading  thence 
especially  to  India.  Late  political  developments 
have  been  unfavorable  to  it.  A  modernist  move- 
ment in  India,  Egypt,  Constantinople,  etc.,  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  gained  recognized  standing  as 
yet. 


Moksha 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


292 


IV.  Mohammedan  Law, — Between  Islam  as 
a  religion  and  its  theological  formulation  and  Islam 
as  a  theocratic  political  organism  Mohammedan 
law  occupies  a  sort  of  middle  ground.  Mohammed 
had  left  little  in  the  way  of  laws  and  that  little 
suitable  for  special  problems  of  the  primitive 
society  of  early  Mecca  and  Medina  only  and  not 
systematically  organized.  With  many  troubles, 
disputes,  and  quarrels  his  followers  succeeded  at 
length  in  creating  a  usable  body  of  canon  law, 
regulating  every  minute  of  a  really  pious  Muslim's 
Ufe,  by  using  chiefly  fictitious  precedents  woven  about 
the_  idealized  figure  of  Mohammed,  his  sayings  and 
actions.  The  debates  issued  in  four  great  schools, 
differing  only  in  nonessentials,  and  now  all  accepted 
as  part  of  catholic  Islam.  The  use  of  "analogy," 
i.e.,  remotely  similar  precedent,  and  the  acceptance 
of  what  the  Mohammedan  community  in  general 
agrees  upon  as  an  established  fact,  provide  in 
some  measure  for  the  contingencies  of  changing 
conditions.  A  really  tenable  and  permanent 
modus  Vivendi  between  the  operations  of  the  civil 
law  of  a  Mohammedan  or  non-Mohammedan 
modern  state  and  this  canon  law  has  not  yet  been 
found. 

The  Mohammedans  in  all  their  branches  now 
number  between  200,000,000  and  250,000,000. 
Despite  their  political  decline  they  appear  to  be 
growing  and  expanding.  Only  in  a  few  isolated 
places  have  Christian  missions  succeeded  in  halting 
or  retarding  this  advance.  Catholic  Christian  mis- 
sions of  some  sort  have  been  active  among  Moham- 
medans since  the  days  of  the  Crusades.  Protestant 
missions  are  of  later  date,  but  now  of  greater 
extent  and  financial  strength.  American  mission 
work  has  produced  two  great  schools  in  the  Moham- 
medan world  (Beyrouth  and  Constantinople). 
English  missions  (Church  Missionary  Society) 
have  done  much  in  the  way  of  medical  and  sanita- 
tional  work.  Actual  conversions  to  Christianity 
are  neither  frequent  nor  numerous.  It  has  been 
said  that  Islam  was  inoculated  with  just  enough 
Christianity  and  Judaism  to  make  it  immune. 
Extravagant  hopes  of  a  sudden  change  based  on 
recent  political  developments  should  be  received 
with  caution.  For  a  characteristic  feature  of 
modern  Mohammedan  piety  and  religious  life,  see 
Dervish.  M.  Sprengling 

MOKSHA. — The  word  for  salvation  in  the 
religious  systems  of  India. 

MOLINISM.— The  doctrine  of  Luis  MoUna 
(1535-1600),  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  his  followers  v/ho 
attempted  to  make  a  place  for  human  merit  without 
detracting  from  the  doctrine  of  predestination, 
claiming  that  God's  foreknowledge  of  how  man 
will  choose  enables  him  to  decree  exactly  what  will 
take  place. 

MOLINOS,  MIGUEL  DE  (1640-1697).— The 
founder  of  quietism  in  Spain  and  author  of  the 
Spiritual  Guide.  His  mysticism  spread  among 
Roman  Cathohcs  and  Protestants  and  brought 
on  Jesuit  opposition,  culminating  in  his  con- 
demnation by  the  Inquisition  and  confinement  in 
a  Dominican  monastery. 

MOLOCH. — A  West-Semitic  deity,  probably  a 
solar  deity  and  symbolized  by  two  pillars  and  by  a 
bull.  His  cult  included  fire-worship,  human  sacrifice, 
and  self-mutilations.  The  cult  was  probably  of 
Phoenician  origin. 

MOLOKANS.— See  Russian  Sects. 

MOMENTARY  GODS.— In  the  history  of 
reUgions,  an  object,  such  as  a  fetish  or  idol,  which 


is  believed  to  be  at  the  time  of  worship  possessed 
by  a  deity  or  spirit. 

MONADISM  or  MONADOLOGY.— The 

theory  that  the  universe  can  be  explained  in 
terms  of  ultimate  monads,  or  self-complete  units, 
which  are  centers  of  fundamental  forces,  such 
as  in  the  philosophical  systems  of  Bruno,  Leibniz, 
Wolff  and  Lotze.  Bruno's  system  was  pantheism, 
hence  monads  were  eternal  and  mirrors  of  deity. 
Leibniz  said  that  the  different  orders  of  monads 
represent  the  same  universe  each  in  its  own  way, 
and  all  are  organized  by  a  pre-established  harmony 
due  to  the  will  of  God. 

MONASTICISM.— A  system  of  religious  dis- 
cipline intended  to  keep  the  devotee  pure  in  life 
and  free  from  worldly  practices. 

Christian  Monasticism  is  the  resultant  of  various 
ascetic  tendencies  within  primitive  Christianity 
itself  or  in  those  circles  of  Jewish  and  Greek  thought 
with  which  Christianity  early  came  into  contact. 
While  Jesus  himself  was  not  an  ascetic,  his  absti- 
nence from  marriage,  his  countenance  of  fasting 
(Matt.  4:2;  6:16)  and  his  approval  of  continence 
(Matt.  19:22)  lent  itself  unquestionably  to  an 
ascetic  interpretation.  These  tendencies  were 
even  more  marked  in  Paul  (Gal.  5:17;  I  Cor.  9:27; 
7 : 5,  8,  25-40) .  They  were  reinforced  by  the  teach- 
ing of^  the  Essenes,  and  still  more  by  the  dualistic 
ideas  imbedded  in  both  Persian  and  Greek  thought. 
All  these  influences  combined  in  the  2nd.  and  3rd. 
centuries  in  the  development  of  ascetic  classes 
within  the  church  (Virgins,  Widows,  Encratites) 
and  the  conception  of  a  double  standard,  those 
devoted  to  asceticism  being  regarded  as  Christians 
of  a  higher  order.  From  these  ascetic  tendencies 
grew  Monasticism. 

1.  Eastern  Monasticism. — 1.  Eremites. — Secu- 
larization in  the  church  of  the  3rd.  century  pro- 
duced eremitic  or  hermit  monasticism  (Egypt, 
Palestine,  Asia  Minor).  St.  Anthony  (d.  ca.  355), 
who  spent  over  eighty  years  in  retirement  in 
Egypt,  was  the  first  and  most  noted  of  these  hermit 
monks. 

2.  Cenohites. — Hermit  monasticism  speedily 
developed  into  cenobitic  or  group  monasticism. 
Pachomius  (d.  ca.  346)  built  in  Egypt  the  first 
monastery,  and  formulated  a  rule  involving  solitude, 
labor,  fasting  and  prayer.  The  movement  spread 
both  East  and  West. 

II.  Western  Monasticism. — ^Athanasius,  visit- 
ing Rome  ca.  340,  introduced  a  knowledge  of 
rnonasticism  to  the  West,  It  caught  the  iraagina- 
tion._  In  the  early  5th.  century  Jerome  wrote 
glowingly  of  monastic  ideals,  while  Ambrose 
of  Milan,  Martin  of  Tours,  and  Augustine  of 
Hippo  established  monasteries. 

1.  Benedictines. — Benedict  of  Nursia,  early 
6th.  century,  determined  the  form  western  monasti- 
cism was  to  assume  by  giving  it  a  Rule  in  which 
manual  and  intellectual  labor  was  combined  with 
religious  exercises.  The  monks  took  the  threefold 
vow  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience.  By  the 
10th.  century  the  Benedictine  Rule  was  dominant 
everywhere  in  the  West.  At  the  height  of  its 
prosperity  this  Order  included  37,000  monasteries. 
Learning  was  fostered.  Libraries  were  gathered, 
manuscripts  copied,  and  agriculture  developed. 
Theoretically  abandoning  the  world,  its  monks 
actually  came  to  rule  both  the  world  and  the  church. 
For  the  Order  furnished  22  popes,  200  cardinals, 
and  4,000  bishops.  The  decline  of  the  Order  through 
secularization  led  to  the  establishment  of  various 
reform  congregations  (Cluniacs,  Carthusians,  Cis- 
tercians) which  in  turn  underwent  the  same  process 
of  decay. 


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Montanism 


2.  Later  developments. — The  Military  Orders 
(Templarsj  Hospitalers,  etc.)  were  called  into 
being  during  the  Crusades,  to  protect  and  care 
for  pilgrims  to  the  holy  places.  They  united 
monastic  with  chivalric  ideals.  The  Mendicant 
Orders  (13th.  century)  combined  the  ideal  of_a 
Ufe  of  practical  helpfulness  in  the  world  (Francis- 
cansj  with  the  defense  of  the  faith  (Dominicans) 
through  preaching  and  discipline  (Inquisition). 
With  the  Jesuit  Order  (16th.  century),  established 
by  Loyola  to  combat  Protestantism,  monasticisra 
"passed  out  of  the  cell  forever"  to  become  a  mili- 
tant force  in  the  world.  Henry  H.  Walker 

MONERGISM.— The  doctrine  that  regenera- 
tion is  effected  exclusively  by  divine  gi*ace,  with 
no  contribution  from  the  human  will.      See  Syn- 


MONISM. — The  explanation  of  the  universe 
and  of  Ufe  in  terms  of  a  single  principle,  in  contrast 
to  DuaUsm  or  Pluralism  (qq.v.). 

Philosophers  and  religious  leaders  often  seek  to 
overcome  the  contradictions  and  conflicts  found  in 
our  experience  of  the  world  by  reducing  all  the 
variety  to  a  single  principle  or  origin.  Complete 
rationality  and  complete  religious  loyalty  would 
thus  be  made  possible. 

A  monistic  philosophy  is  reached  by  selecting 
some  one  of  the  many  aspects  of  experience  as 
supreme  and  treating  all  other  aspects  as  deriva- 
tive. Monism  thus  may  be  either  optimistic  or 
pessimistic,  spiritualistic  or  materialistic.  Typical 
forms  of  monism  are  that  of  neoplatonism,  with  an 
/ )  indefinable  Infinite  from  which  all  reality  emanates; 
^ )  ?Ke~  aJtEinStollMZlSubstance  of  Spinoza,  whicTi 
differentiates  itself  Into  "modes"  of  existence;  the 
)  ganlpgism  of  Hegel,  according  to  which  any  finite 
reahty  is  a  moment  in  the  all-inclusive  process  of 
X infinite  thought;  the  pessimistic  conception  of 
''^'^  Schopenhauer,  who  viewed  alT^existence  as  the 
unintelligent  striving  of  sheer  will;  and  the  quasi- 
c!\s£ien.tifii5_monism  of  Haeckel,  who  posits  a  universe 
^  of  hylozoistic  atoms  capable  of  producing  out  of 
themselves  all  the  different  forms  of  existence. 

From  the  religious  point  of  view  monism  makes 
possible  an  entire  surrender  of  the  soul  to  God,  since 
God  is  all  in  all.  Evils  are  regarded  as  defects  in 
our  apprehension  of  reality  rather  than  as  posi- 
tive factors.  Mystical  devotion  accompanied  by 
abstruse  metaphysical  speculations  constitute  the 
ideal  life.  Brahmanism  in  India,  and  Christian 
Science  in  the  western  world  are  thorough-going 
monistic  religions.  An  attempt  was  made  in  Ger- 
many to  estabhsh  a  non-theistic  monistic  religion  on 
the  basis  of  HaeckePs  pEITosbphyporsOffie^sIInttar 
form  of  dynamic  physfcaHiieoTy  and  an  organiza- 
tion called  the  Monistenbund  was  formed  to  propa- 
gate this  faith.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MONOPHYSITISM.— The  doctrine  that  Christ 
had  but  one  composite  divine-human  nature,  a 
position  polemically  developed  in  opposition  to  the 
decision  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  which 
held  to  the  unconfused  existence  of  two  distinct 
natures,  the  human  and  the  divine,  in  Christ. 
At  the  5th.  General  Council  at  Constantinople 
(553  A.D.)  Monophysitism  was  condemned.  The 
Monophysites  (adherents  of  Eutychian  Christology) 
were  united  in  the  6th.  century  under  a  Syrian 
Monk  Jacob,  and  this  sect  still  exists  as  the  Jacobite 
church.     See  Etjtyches. 

MONOTHEISM.— The  belief  in  one,  and  only 
one,   God. 

Monotheism  is  usually  contrasted  with  poly- 
theism.    In  early  stages  of  human  life,  the  world  is 


conceived  as  fiUed  with  spirits  and  powers  of  all 
kinds.  See  Primitive  Peoples,  Religion  of. 
With  the  development  of  a  unified  culture,  religion 
is  similarly  unified.  Thus  the  higher  religions 
are  almost  always  monotheistic  or  monistic. 

1.  Personal  or  ethical  monotheism  arises  from 
the  exaltation  of  one  of  the  pantheon  of  gods  to  a 
supreme  position.  The  other  gods  are  more  and 
more  subordinated  until  at  last  they  virtually  dis- 
appear. At  just  what  point  in  the  process  a  reli- 
gion can  be  called  monotheistic  is  uncertain;  for 
m  practice  subordinate  objects  of  veneration  or 
worship  often  continue  in  a  nominally  monotheistic 
religion.  The  religion  of  Israel  is  the  best  known 
example  of  the  development  of  personal  monotheism. 
Here  the  tribal  God,  Yahweh,  ultimately  became 
worshiped  as  the  sole  God,  although  for  most  of 
the  period  of  Israelitish  history  the  reality  of  other 
gods  was  taken  for  granted.  Christianity  and 
Mohammedanism  inherited  the  theology  of  Jewish 
monotheism.  Mohammedanism  especially  stresses 
the  affirmation  of  one  God,  and  accuses  Christianity 
of  harboring  polytheism  in  its  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity. 

2.  Metaphysical  monotheism  is  due  to  the  uni- 
fying of  philosophical  thought.  The  ultimate 
substance  or  principle  which  unifies  the  cosmos  is 
by  ideaUstic  philosophy  interpreted  in  terms  of 
inteUigence.  Hence  it  is  identified  with  God. 
The  relation  of  this  ultimate  unity  to  the  multt=> 
plicity  of  things  in  the  world  is  variously  interpreted. 
There  may  be  a  large  recognition  of  personality 
in  God,  in  which  case  we  have  theism  or  deism; 
or  there  may  be  a  stressing  of  purely  logical  and 
metaphysical  factors,  in  which  case  we  have  pan- 
theism. In  general  the  word  monotheism  is  appUed 
only  to  the  former  type.     See  God;  Monism. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
MONOTHELITES.— The  designation  of  the 
party  which  maintained  that  Christ  had  only  one 
will.  They  opposed  ^the  advocates  of  orthodoxy 
who  declared  that  the  two  natures  in  Christ 
involved  two  wills.  The  Lateran  Synod  (649) 
decided  against  Monothelitism;  and  Dyothehtism 
(q.v.)  was  officially  declared  to  be  orthodoxy  by 
the  6th.  Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople 
(680). 

MONSIGNOR.— A  R.C.  ecclesiastical  title  of 
honor,  formerly  reserved  to  Cardinals,  now  given 
to  bishops  and  priests  who  have  been  appointed 
honorary  papal  chaplains,  and  to  all  higher  ecclesi- 
astical dignitaries  in  general. 

MONSTRANCE.— A  transparent  vessel  for- 
merly used  to  display  relics  but  now  used  by  the 
R.C.  Church  to  exhibit  the  consecrated  host. 
Also  called  Ostensorium. 

MONTANISM. — A  movement  that  arose  in 
the  Phrygian  church  about  156  a.d.  The  founders, 
Montanus(whence  the  name),  Prisca,  andMaximilla, 
claimed  to  be  prophets,  receiving  a  special  revelation 
from  the  Paraclete.  Montanists  beUeved  in  a 
rigid  legaUsm  with  ascetic  tendencies,  which  led 
them  to  extravagant  claims  of  a  monopoly  of 
pure  Christianity.  They  first  enunciated  the  dis- 
tinction between  mortal  and  venial  sins,  afterwards 
adopted  by  the  Catholic  church.  In  doctrine  they 
did  not  differ  fundamentally  from  orthodoxy,  save 
for  an  emphasis  on  primitive  eschatology.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  3rd.  century  a  modified  form  of 
Montanism  appeared  in  North  Africa  which  was 
primarily  a  protest  against  secularism  in  the 
church.  TertuUian  (q.v.)  identified  himself  with 
the  movement  which,  however,  disappeared  in  the 
4th.  century. 


Montgomery,  James 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


294 


MONTGOMERY,  JAMES  (1771-1854).— Eng- 
lish hymn  writer  and  religious  poet;  a  member 
of  the  Moravian  church,  himself  renowned  for  his 
piety  and  philanthropy;  author  of  several  famiUar 
hymns. 

MOODY,  DWIGHT  LYMAN  (1837-1899).— 
American  evangelist;  conducted,  with  Ira  D. 
Sankey,  evangelistic  campaigns  in  America  and 
England  with  marked  success;  organized  schools 
at  Northfield,  Mass.,  and  at  Chicago  for  training 
along  biblical  and  practical  Unes,  and  initiated  the 
"Northfield  Conferences"  held  annually  for  quick- 
ening the  religious  Ufe. 

MORAL  ARGUMENT.— The  evidence  for  the 
existence  of  God  derived  from  the  logical  impUca- 
tions  of  mora!  facts.  It  is  one  of  the  four  so-called 
proofs  of  the  existence  of  God,  the  others  being 
the  ontological,  the  cosmological,  and  the  teleological 
arguments. 

If  our  moral  convictions  are  vaUd,  there  must 
be  something  in  the  cosmic  order  to  uphold  them. 
Belief  in  goodness  involves  belief  in  a  moral  order. 
Kant  (q.v.)  especially  stressed  the  moral  argument, 
holding  that  morality  is  irrational  unless  it  eventu- 
ates in  happiness,  and  unless  it  is  capable  of  being 
developed  to  perfection.  Our  temporal  life  does  not 
guarantee  these;  hence  we  must  assume  the  reality 
of  another  realm  in  which  God  rewards  virtue  and 
secures  moral  perfection.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MORAL  LAW. — A  principle  of  moral  right 
which  it  is  man's  duty  to  obey. 

Moral  law  is  usually  understood  as  an  expression 
of  the  ultimate  principles  of  the  moral  order  in  the 
universe,  as  law  of  nature  expresses  the  principles  of 
cosmic  order.  The  idea  presupposes  an  objective 
metaphysical  basis  for  moral  distinctions,  and  inter- 
prets ethical  conduct  in  terms  of  obedience  to  law. 
In  legaUsm  (q.v.)  moral  law  is  traced  to  the  specific 
commands  of  God.  Philosophical  ethics  refers  it  to 
the  eternal  nature  of  reality  as  constituted  by 
divine  wisdom.  The  most  vigorous  interpretation 
of  the  concepcion  is  found  in  Kant's  ethics.  He 
defined  morality  as  obedience  to  the  commands  of  the 
categorical  imperative,  and  insisted  on  voluntary 
submission  to  the  requirements  of  absolutely 
rational  moral  maxims.  Popular  ethics  to  a  large 
extent  pictures  morality  as  obedience  to  an  authori- 
tative moral  law.  The  conception  preserves  the 
dignity  and  authority  of  moral  principles,  but  a 
historical  study  of  ethics  shows  that  the  actual 
content  of  any  particular  moral  law  is  derived  from 
the  exigencies  of  human  experience.  See  Ethics; 
Conscience;  Law  of  Nature;  Moral  Sense. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MORAL  OBLIGATION.— A  requirement  laid 
upon  a  person  by  ethical  considerations. 

As  contrasted  with  what  is  technically  or  con- 
ventionally expected  of  men,  moral  obligation  rests 
upon  the  more  searching  requirements  of  personal 
and  social  uprightness.  E.g.,  a  man  may  feel  under 
moral  obligation  to  pay  a  debt  which  cannot  be 
legally  collected.  The  sense  of  moral  obligation  is 
indispensable  to  moral  conduct.  Theories  as  to 
its  origin  and  sanction  differ.  At  present  great 
stress  is  laid  on  its  social  character,  the  natural 
craving  of  man  for  social  unity  with  his  fellows  and 
for  harmony  with  God  furnishing  the  primary 
motive.  See  Moral  Sense;  Coitscience;  Moral 
Law;  Ethics;  Duty.         Gerald  Birney  Smith 

MORAL  SENSE. — A  term  denoting  an  intuitive 
capacity  to  feel  moral  distinctions. 

Several  influential  ethical  writers  in  the  18th. 
century  developed  the  conception  of  an  independent 


moral  sense.  The  most  important  exponent  was 
Hutcheson.  Empirical  psychology  and  the  his- 
torical study  of  morality  have  led  to  an  aban- 
donment of  the  conception.  Social  sympathy  is 
now  taken  as  the  primary  source  of  moral  emotion. 
See  Conscience;  Intuitionalism. 

MORAL  THEOLOGY.— In  general,  the  ethical 
as  distinguished  from  the  doctrinal  portion  of  system- 
atic theology.  In  the  Roman  CathoUc  system,  it  is 
elaborated  for  the  guidance  of  father  confessors  so 
as  to  adjust  penance  to  the  sins  confessed.  See 
Casuistry. 

MORALITY.-^ee  Ethics. 

MORALITY  PLAY.— A  dramatized  allegory 
didactic  in  purpose. 

Though  allegory  was  popular  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  abstract  figures  sometimes 
appeared  in  early  mystery  plays  (q.v.),  the  earUest 
known  use  of  pure  allegory  for  drama  dates  from 
about  1400.  The  masterpiece  of  early  moralities, 
Everyman,  translated  from  Dutch  into  English 
about  1500,  deals  with  the  appraisement  of  Man's 
fife  at  the  coming  of  Death.  The  most  frequent 
morality  theme,  however,  especially  in  England, 
was  the  conflict  between  Virtue  and  Vice  (to  be 
traced  back  through  medieval  allegories  to  Pru- 
dentius'  Psychomachia,  ca.  400).  In  The  Castle 
of  Perseverance  (ca.  1425)  Humanum  Genus  falls 
into  sin  through  Luxuria,  reforms,  and  withstands 
the  assaults  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins  under  the 
leadership  of  the  World,  the  Flesh,  and  the  Devil. 
But  he  sins  again  in  age,  and  is  saved  at  the  coming 
of  Death  only  through  the  intercession  of  Mercy  and 
Peace  against  the  demands  of  Justice  and  Truth. 
Early  in  the  16th.  century  the  influence  of  the 
Renaissance  frequently  transferred  the  conflict  from 
the  field  of  religion  to  that  of  government,  as  in 
Skelton's  Magnificence,  or  of  education,  as  in  a 
series  of  English  plays  with  Wit  and  Science  as 
chief  characters.  From  Germany  the  Prodigal 
Son  theme  was  introduced  into  a  number  of  educa- 
tional moralities.  During  the  Reformation  the 
morality  was  freely  used  for  church  polemics.  Later 
rehgious  moralities,  with  personified  sins  narrowed  to 
a  few  comic  figures,  often  approximated  farce.  At 
last  a  single  figure,  called  the  Vice,  was  introduced 
in  transitional  Renaissance  plays  to  furnish  a  plot 
through  his  intrigues  and  comic  interest  through 
his  buffoonery.  Of  these  plays  the  masterpiece  is 
the  tragedy  Nice  Wanton.  By  1580  the  moraUty 
as  a  type  practically  disappeared. 

C.  R.  Baskervill 

MORAVIAN  BRETHREN.— Dissatisfied  with 
the  Utraquists  (followers  of  Hus  who  had  insisted 
upon  granting  the  sacramental  cup  to  the  laity),  a 
reforming  group  under  the  leadership  of  Peter  of 
Chilchic  and  John  Rokycana  organized  in  Moravia 
and  Bohemia  independent  church  groups  upon  the 
basis  of  Wycliffe-Waldensian  principles.  Later 
(1467)  they  broke  entirely  from  the  papacy  and 
accepted  the  Bible  as  the  sole  standard  of  faith 
and  practice.  Emphasizing  conduct  rather  than 
doctrine,  a  vigorous  enforcement  of  discipline,  a 
presbyterial  polity,  the  Brethren  (named  by  them- 
selves Jednota  Bratrska — meaning  communion  of 
brethren)  made  such  rapid  progress  that  by  the 
beginning  of  the  17th.  century  they  numbered 
about  50  per  cent  of  the  Protestant  constituency 
of  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  But  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  with  its  mihtary  reverses  and  persecutions, 
brought  disastrous  consequences,  and  only  a  few 
survived  in  Moravia  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop 
Comenius.  Led  by  Christian  David,  these  perse- 
cuted folk  (1720)  crossed  into  Saxony,  and  upon 


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Morrison,  Robert 


invitation  of  Count  Zinzendorf,  settled  on  his 
estate  in  the  village  of  Herrnhut.  On  account  of 
the  pietistic  state-church  principles  of  Zinzendorf, 
these  Moravians,  joining  with  the  Lutherans  in  a 
church  ritual,  did  not  revive  their  Orders  until  the 
emigration  of  some  of  their  colony  to  Georgia 
(1735)  made  an  episcopal  appointment  necessary. 
At  Herrnhut  they  built  Brothers'  and  Sisters' 
Houses,  from  which  as  rallying  centers,  they  carried 
their  evangel  to  all  parts  of  Germany.  Maldng  no 
efforts,  however,  to  detach  their  disciples  from 
the  national  church,  their  numerical  strength  in 
Germany  was  never  proportioned  to  their  evangelical 
influence  throughout  the  world.  As  proponents  of 
foreign  missions,  they  have  rendered  unique  service 
in  insisting  that  the  evangelization  of  the  world  is 
an  obligation  of  Christian  discipleship,  and  more 
than  a  phase  of  enlightened  colonial  policy.  In 
the  17th.  and  18th.  centuries  no  religious  body 
did  such  aggressive  religious  work  in  establishing 
mission  stations  throughout  widely  scattered 
portions  of  the  globe.  Their  church  government 
provides  for  deacons,  presbyters,  bishops,  and  a 
general  synod  meeting  decennially  with  delegates 
from  the  various  provinces  of  their  constituency. 
Each  province  enjoys  large  independent  functions. 
In  doctrine  they  profess  substantial  agreement 
with  the  Westminster  and  Anglican  confessions 
of  faith.  Recent  negotiations  toward  church 
union  indicate  that  while  desirous  of  co-operating 
with  evangelical  churches,  they  wish  to  preserve 
their  independent  episcopal  functions. 

MORE,  SIR  THOMAS  (1478-1535).— English 
statesman  and  philosopher.  His  humanistic  sym- 
pathies imbibed  at  Oxford  especially  from  Erasmus, 
found  expression  in  a  consistent  activity  for  popular 
rights.  He  wrote  the  Utopia  in  which  he  inveighed 
against  the  abuses  of  power,  and  declared  for 
reUgious  toleration.  He  incurred  the  hostility 
of  Henry  VIII.  by  persistently  refusing  to  approve 
his  marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and  later  by  refusing 
to  recognize  Henry  as  head  of  the  English  church.  He 
was  put  to  death  on  a  ridiculous  charge  of  treason. 

MORMONISM. — The  name  commonly  applied 
to  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints, 
a  religious  sect  founded  upon  revelations  attributed 
to  Joseph  Smith. 

Joseph  Smith,  of  neurotic,  superstitious  parent- 
age, claimed  that  in  September,  1823,  the  angel 
Maroni  communicated  to  him  the  existence,  on  a 
certain  hill  of  golden  plates,  a  breast-plate,  and  a 

Eair  of  spectacles  consisting  of  two  crystals.  These 
e  claimed  to  have  unearthed  in  September,  1827, 
according  to  heavenly  directions,  on  his  father's 
farm  near  Manchester,  New  York  State.  From 
behind  a  curtain  he  dictated  a  translation  of  the 
plates  to  certain  amanuenses.  This  appeared  in 
1830  as  the  Book  of  Mormon  accompanied  by  the  tes- 
timonv  of  the  amanuenses  that  they  had  themselves 
seen  the  plates  of  which  the  book  was  a  translation. 
This  book  professes  to  give  a  history  of  America 
from  its  first  settlement  by  a  colony  of  Jaredites 
dispersed  in  the  confusion  of  Babel  down  to  the 
year  5  a.d.  Mormon  collected  the  records  compiled 
by  successive  priests  and  kings,  and  Maroni,  his 
son,  made  additions  and  deposited  them  on  the 
hill  where  Smith  was  directed  to  make  his  discovery. 
Where  Smith  secured  the  contents  of  the  book  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  Its  style  is 
very  poor.  Speeches  of  primitive  Indian  chiefs 
have  19th.  century  phraseology,  and  lengthy 
quotations  are  made  from  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession of  Faith. 

This  book,  sustained  by  his  alleged  frequent 
revelations,  soon  drew  to  Smith  many  followers, 


and  a  church  was  organized  April,  1830,  in  Seneca 
County,  New  York.  Persecuted  by  law  suits. 
Smith  and  his  friends  proceeded  to  Kirkland,  Ohio, 
where  ill-repute  and  a  banking  scandal  made 
their  removal  in  1839  a  necessity.  The  Missourians 
in  turn  did  not  take  to  their  new  neighbors,  who 
upon  invitation  of  Illinois  politicians  who  hoped 
to  secure  their  vote  in  a  presidential  election, 
removed  to  a  site  subsequently  named  Nauvoo, 
where  they  established  a  city  with  a  charter  prac- 
tically independent  of  the  state  government.  Here 
a  magnificent  temple  was  erected  in  1846.  But 
the  polygamous  practices  of  Smith  and  his  lieuten- 
ants arousing  growing  indignation,  and  when  legal 
technicalities  blocked  the  course  of  prosecution, 
the  citizens  finally  stormed  the  prison  at  Carthage 
and  shot  both  Joseph  and  his  brother  Hiram, 
June,  1844.  Brigham  Young,  succeeding  to  the 
presidency,  executed  a  masterly  march  of  his 
persecuted  coreligionists  to  Salt  Lake  City,  where 
for  several  years  organized  as  the  state  of  Deseret, 
they  defiantly  resisted  federal  authority  and  com- 
mitted many  outrages  against  non-Mormon  citizens 
and  representatives  of  federal  control.  Congress 
therefore  as  early  as  1862  took  steps  to  punish 
Utah  polygamous  practices,  but  it  was  not  until 
1887,  under  the  Edmunds-Tucker  Act,  that  thou- 
sands were  made  to  feel  the  weight  of  criminal 
sentence.  Shortly  after  (1890)  Woodruff,  the 
Mormon  president,  issued  a  manifesto  advising 
all  Latter  Day  Saints  to  refrain  from  marriages 
forbidden  by  the  law  of  the  land.  Utah's  admission 
to  the  Union  in  1896  was  conditioned  upon  its 
prohibition  of  polygamy.  Senator  Smoot's  evi- 
dence in  1906  maintained  that  the  large  majority 
of  Mormons  at  that  time  had  become  monogamists. 

In  government  the  Mormon  Church  is  a  hier- 
archy, controlled  by  a  president  who  possesses 
supreme  authority,  two  counsellors  who  advise 
with  a  president,  a  patriarch  who  performs  ordina- 
tions, twelve  apostles  who  form  a  traveling  high 
council,  and  seven  presidents  who  compile  the 
annual  reports.  In  doctrine,  Mormonism  is  poly- 
theistic, the  place  of  the  supreme  ruler  being 
filled  by  Adam,  associated  with  Christ,  Mahomet, 
Joseph  Smith,  and  his  successors.  The  function  of 
the  god  is  to  propagate  souls  for  bodies  begotten 
on  earth.  Saints  are  glorified  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  their  wives  and  children.  Polyga- 
mous marriage  makes  possible  enough  bodies  for 
the  spirits  that  are  ever  awaiting  incarnation. 
Marriage  is  for  eternity,  and  a  necessary  prerequisite 
to  heavenly  bliss.  A  man  may  be  sealed  to  any 
number  of  women,  but  no  woman  to  more  than  one 
man.  A  woman  cannot  be  saved  except  through 
her  husband.  The  Mormons  believe  in  prophecy, 
miracles,  the  imminent  approach  of  the  end  of  the 
world,  their  identity  with  the  ruling  saints  of 
apocalyptic  glory,  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
baptism  by  immersion,  and  the  liberty  of  private 
judgment  m  religious  matters.  With  a  membership 
(census  1916)  of  approximately  400,000,  they  have 
shown  remarkable  increase  during  the  preceding 
decennial  period. 

A  reorganized  church  of  Latter  Day  Saints, 
formed  in  1852,  repudiates  the  doctrine  of  polygamy, 
human  sacrifice,  the  deity  of  Adam,  and  Utah  as 
the  Zion  gathering  place  of  the  saints.  It  regards 
Brigham  Young  as  an  interloper.  Its  headquarters 
were  transferred  from  Piano,  Illinois,^  in  1881,  to 
Lamani,  Iowa.  On  two  occasions  it  has  been 
declared  bj'-  the  United  States  courts  as  the  legal 
successor  of  the  church  founded  by  Joseph  Smith, 
Jr.     It  has  a  membership  of  approximately  60,000. 

Peter  G.  Mode 

MORRISON,  ROBERT  (1782-1834).— Of  Scot- 
tish birth,  first  Protestant  missionary  to  China. 


Mortal  Mind 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


296 


He  translated  the  Bible  into  Chinese,  wrote  a 
Chinese  Grammar,  and  an  extraordinarily  complete 
Dictionary;  established  a  college  and  a  dispensary 
at  Malacca. 

MORTAL  MIND. — See  Christian  Science,  es. 

MORTAL  SIN.— A  term  in  R.C.  theology 
denoting  a  deliberate  transgression  of  God's  law. 
Mortal  sin  alienates  the  sinner  from  God,  eliminating 
the  work  of  grace  from  his  soul  and  so  rendering 
him  liable  to  eternal  punishment.  The  sinner 
can  be  forgiven  only  as  he  comes  under  the  discipline 
of  the  sacrament  of  penance  (q.v.).  See  Sin; 
Venial  Sin. 

MORTIFICATION.— The  subjugation  of  the 
appetites  and  passions  through  self-inflicted  torture, 
penance,  etc.,  growing  out  of  the  view  that  the  flesh 
is  naturally  evil.  Illustrations  abound  in  the 
ascetic  practises  of  Christian  hermits,  Hindu  j^ogis, 
and  Buddhist  monks.  More  generally,  the  subjuga- 
tion of  all  natural  suggestions  to  the  guidance  of  the 
Spirit  of  God;  as  in  Rom.  8:12. 

MOSES,  ASSUMPTION  OF.— An  apocalyptic 
work  dating  from  the  first  part  of  the  1st.  Christian 
century  and  containing  a  short  historical  sketch 
of  Israel  from  Moses  to  the  Messianic  age. 

MOSES  BEN  NACHMAN  (1194-1270).— 
Spanish  Jewish  physician,  scholar,  and  writer  on 
talmudic,  homiletic,  exegetical  and  devotional 
themes.  As  a  result  of  the  disputation  with  the 
apostate  Pablo  Christiani,  he  was  banished  from 
Spain  and  spent  his  decUning  years  in  Palestine. 
Chief  among  his  many  works  is  a  complete  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch,  noteworthy  because 
of  its  attractive  style,  its  interesting  mystical 
interpretations,  and  the  spirit  of  deep  piety  that 
pervades  it. 

MOSHEIM,  JOHANN  LORENZ  VON  (ca. 
1694-1755). — German  Lutheran  theologian  and 
historian.  Author  of  a  church  history  which  was 
for  a  long  time  a  standard  work. 

MOSLEM. — ^The  general  term  for  a  believer  in 
Islam. 

MOSQUE. — ^The  temple  of  worship  in  Moham- 
medanism, consisting  usually  of  a  building  with  an 
open  court  around  which  are  arcades.  A  fountain 
in  the  middle  of  the  court  enables  the  faithful 
to  perform  ablutions  before  prayer.  Each  moscjue 
has  a  "Meccha  niche"  so  located  that  when  facmg 
it  a  Moslem  is  turned  toward  Mecca  in  his  devotions. 
One  or  more  minarets  furnish  a  conspicuous  place 
from  which  the  muezzin  calls  behevers  to  prayer. 

MOTHER-GODDESSES.— A  term  applied  to 
deities  of  a  well-defined  type  personifying  the 
female  principle  of  hfe  and  source  of  all  fertility. 

The  mother-goddess  was  an  especially  con- 
spicuous figure  in  the  religions  of  those  ancient 
peoples  who  inhabited  the  lands  about  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  basin  and  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
valley.  Among  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  her 
most  common  name  was  Ishtar  (q.v.).  Through- 
out the  whole  course  of  their  religious  history  she 
was  revered  as  the  source  and  protector  of  life 
and  fertility.  Apparently  her  original  function  was 
the  maintenance  more  particularljr  of  nature's 
fruitfulness.  It  was  through  her  kindly  acti\aty 
that  vegetation  revived  in  the  springtime,  while 
the  withering  of  vegetation  in  the  autumn  and 
winter  signified  the  withdrawal  of  her  care.     In 


mythology,  her  connection  with  the  death  and 
awakening  of  nature  was  depicted  in  terms  of  her 
descent  to  the  lower  world  where  she  remained  a 
prisoner  during  the  winter  season  but  returned  to 
restore  hfe  in  the  spring.  Thus  she  served  as  a 
mother-goddess,  insuring  powers  of  reproduction 
for  both  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  world. 
Another  representation  of  Ishtar's  reproductive 
functions  appears  in  the  myth  of  Tammuz  (q.v.),  a 
youthful  male  deity  associated  with  the  goddess. 
He  is  typical  of  the  awakening  life  of  spring,  which 
is  thought  of  as  a  product  of  Ishtar's  delight  in  his 
presence.  But  with  the  advancing  season  the 
decline  of  nature's  vitality  is  symboUzed  by  the 
death  of  the  young  god,  whom  Ishtar  laments^  until, 
as  a  result  of  his  annual  restoration  to  her  in  the 
spring,  she  again  fills  all  nature  with  a  new  display 
of  her  Ufe-giving  potency.  A  closely  kindred  phase 
of  her  character  as  a  mother-goddess  is  seen  in 
certain  of  her  rites  symbolizing  the  idea  of  fructifica- 
tion through  sexual  union.  Naturally  she  was  the 
goddess  of  love,  and  Herodotus^  (I.  ^  199)  affirms 
that  in  his  day  sacred  prostitution  in  connection 
with  a  sanctuary  which  apparently  was  Ishtar's 
was  a  universal  custom  among  the  women  of 
Babylonia.  Gross  and  obscene  as  some  of  her 
rites  became  through  the  sophistication  of  later 
times,  originally  the  sexual  features  in  her  worship 
doubtless  rested  upon  simple  reverence  for  mother- 
hood and  awe  in  the  presence  of  the  mystery  of 
procreation. 

Mother-goddesses  closely  akin  to  Ishtar  were 
worshiped  at  various  places  in  Phoenicia,  SjTia 
and  Asia  Minor.  In  Phoenicia  Ishtar  emerges  as 
Ashtart — the  Ashtoreth  of  the  O.T. — who  is  the 
Syrian  Aphrodite  and  the  Venus  of  Graeco-Roman 
times.  When  the  Phoenicians  colonized  Cyprus, 
Sicily  and  North  Africa  they  carried  thither  with 
them  the  cult  of  their  favorite  mother-goddess,  and 
her  counterpart  Aphrodite  enjoyed  a  similar  popu- 
larity. A  kindred  goddess  of  Syria,  who  had  a 
famous  shrine  at  Hieropolis,  bore  the  name  Atar- 
gatis  (q.v.).  In  Phrygia  the  most  distinguished 
deity  was  Cybele  (q.v.),  who  was  frequently 
termed  "Great  Mother  of  the  Gods"  or  simply 
"Great  Mother."  Her  chief  shrine  was  at  Pessinus, 
but  essentially  the  same  goddess  was  worshiped 
under  various  names  at  several  different  places  in 
Asia  Minor.  In  fact,  on  the  Hittite  monuments 
the  prototype  of  Cybele  is  clearly  discernible. 
Thus  throughout  the  whole  of  western  Asia  one 
readily  detects,  regardless  of  the  specific  names  of 
the  deities,  the  characteristic  features  of  the  typi- 
cal mother-goddess.  She  is  always  essentially  a 
nature  deity  personifying  the  powers  of  reproduc- 
tion. Sometimes  hardly  distinguishable  from 
mother-earth  itself,  she  is  always  the  great  source  of 
life.  Indeed  occasionally  she  seems  to  have  been 
regarded  as  capable  of  generating  life  apart  from 
association  with  a  male  deity,  and  consequently 
she  could  be  tenned  "virgin  mother."  But  the 
tradition  as  at  present  available  usually  provides 
the  mother  with  a  youthful  male  companion — 
sometimes  called  her  son  but  often  represented 
also  as  the  object  of  her  amorous  desires — whose 
annual  decease  issues  in  a  season  of  sorrow  when 
the  goddess  allows  all  life  to  decline  until  she  is 
rejoiced  by  the  resurrection  of  her  companion  in 
the  spring.  Frequently  her  rites  are  sexual  in 
character,  even  to  the  extent  of  inculcating  sacred 
prostitution. 

Recent  discoveries  seem  to  show  that  in  the 
ancient  rehgion  of  Crete  a  mother-goddess  very 
similar  to  Cybele  occupied  a  dominant  p>osition 
in  the  cultus.  Probably  she  is  identical  with  the 
Rhea  of  Greek  mythology.  In  Greece  proper, 
the  figiire  of  the   mother   Demeter   (q.v.),   as   a 


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Mozetta 


genuine  nature  deity  and  guardian  of  vegetation, 
IS  too  well  known  to  need  further  comment.  Also 
among  the  Egyptians  mother-goddesses  were  not 
lacking.  Of  these  Isis  (q.v.)  was  the  most  illus- 
trious. Tradition  ascribed  to  her  a  great  variety 
of  motherly  functions  including  a  special  care  for 
the  fecundity  of  mankind  and  the  maintenance  of 
natural  affection  between  parents  and  children. 

Probably  beUef  in  a  mother-goddess  goes  back 
to  that  primitive  stage  of  social  organization  in 
which  polyandry  prevailed,  and  hence  descent 
was  traced  through  the  mother.  The  men  wandered 
about  from  place  to  place,  while  the  mother 
remained  with  her  own  kinsfolk  and  retained  a 
permanent  residence,  thus  constituting  the  stable 
unit  of  society.  Consequently  a  mother-goddess 
and  she  alone  could  represent  the  great  life- 
sustaining  power  of  plants  and  animals.  But 
with  a  further  development  in  organization  by 
which  the  man  became  the  controlling  factor  in 
society,  male  deities  and  the  conception  of  divine 
fatherhood  gradually  assumed  a  position  of  suprem- 
acy. In  the  eastern  Mediterranean  world,  however, 
the  divine  mother  was  never  completely  obscured, 
and  until  the  time  of  paganism's  final  collapse 
she  continued  to  hold  a  large  place  in  the  affection 
of  her  devotees  where  she  established  herself  beside 
the  divine  father.  Her  youthful  associate,  whose 
genesis  had  formerly  been  often  vague,  now  became 
very  definitely  her  son.  Even  Christianity  was 
able  in  a  measure  to  satisfy  this  age-old  quest  of 
the  Mediterranean  peoples  for  a  mother-goddess. 
Mary  was  interpreted  as  originally  a  divine  virgin 
mother  who  bore  a  divine  son  begotten  by  the 
surpeme  father-god.  See  Mystery-Religions; 
Virgin  Birth.  S.  J.  Case 

MOTHER  OF  GOD.— (Gr.  theotokos,  "god- 
bearer.")  A  term  applied  to  Mary  the  mother  of 
Jesus  Christ  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  that  she 
was  the  mother  of  his  person  and  so  of  the  two 
natures. 

The  term  theotokos  and  Mother  of  God  had 
come  into  popular  use  in  the  5th.  century  when 
Nestorius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  opposed  it. 
Holding,  as  was  charged,  the  view  (later  condemned) 
that  the  incarnation  involved  two  persons  as  well  as 
two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ  (see  Nestorianism)  he 
taught  that  Mary  gave  birth  only  to  the  human 
nature  which  became  the  "temple"  of  the  Second 
Person  of  the  Trinity.  Nestorius  in  reality  held 
to  the  unity  of  subject  in  Jesus  Christ,  yet  claimed 
that  the  two  natures  were  spoken  of  as  two  persons. 
The  Council  of  Ephesus  431  condemned  him  and 
sanctioned  the  use  of  the  term  theotokos.  To 
Protestant  ears  "Mother  of  God"  has  sounded 
blasphemous,  but  to  the  R.C.  Church  Genetrix 
del  means  that  the  actual  incarnation  of  the  God- 
man  was  accomplished  through  birth  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  In  this  sense  Mary  is  spoken  of  as  Mother  of 
God,  and  not  as  originating  the  eternal,  divine 
nature  of  the  Son.  The  Greek  theotokos  is  therefore 
more  precise  than  its  Latin  equivalent. 

Shailer  Mathews 

MOTHERHOOD. — Parental  care  was  the 
source  of  family  hfe,  and  family  life  has  been  the 
source  of  the  main  forms  of  social  relationship 
and  of  social  values.  Back  of  these,  however,  Ues 
the  fact  of  motherhood,  the  first  and  the  chief 
form  of  parental  care.  Not  until  the  patriarchal 
system  was  reached  in  the  development  of  human 
culture  did  fatherhood  assume  anything  hke 
proportionate  social  importance.  Until  that  stage, 
what  is  known  as  mother-right  may  be  said  to  have 
dominated  human  society;  that  is,  the  mother  was 
socially  recognized  as  the  center  of  the  family,  and 
children  took  her  name  and  belonged  to  her  kin- 


ship group.  See  Family.  Mother-right  persisted 
through  uncounted  generations,  and  among  bar- 
barous peoples  down  to  the  present;  but  it  never 
was  a  system  of  Amazonism,  or  government  by 
women,  although  naturally  in  this  stage  women  had 
more  poUtical  rights  than  later.  Even  under  the 
patriarchal  system  the  woman  who  was  a  mother 
had  such  social  respect  and  prestige  that  her  influence 
in  all  social  matters  was  very  considerable,  even 
though  she  had  lost  her  legal  rights.  See  Patei- 
archaIj  System. 

On  account  of  the  obvious  social  importance 
of  motherhood  many  reUgious  systems  have  exalted 
motherhood.  Among  maternal  peoples  the  mother- 
hood of  God  rather  than  the  fatherhood  of  God  is 
naturally  emphasized.  This  is  probably  the 
source  of  the  conception  of  God  as  mother  in 
advanced  reUgions,  such  as  those  of  India.  It 
may  be  also  a  basis  for  the  veneration  of  the 
Vir^n  in  Christianity. 

ihe  present  tendency  in  social  and  ethical 
movements  is  undoubtedly  to  recognize  again  the 
primacy  of  motherhood  in  human  relationships. 
This  is  seen  in  the  eugenics  movement,  in  the 
movement  for  the  economic  independence  of  women, 
and  in  the  movement  for  birth  control,  though  the 
latter  two  are  often  apparently  negative  as  to  the 
social  value  of  motherhood.  The  best  social 
thinkers  in  the  main  stiU  support  the  ideal  of 
"motherhood  supported  by  fatherhood." 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 

MOTIVE. — ^Any  conscious  element  considered 
as  prompting  to  a  decision.  The  Utihtarians 
distinguished  motive,  as  directed  to  the  desired 
consequence  alone,  from  intention,  as  directed  to  all 
foreseen  consequences  of  a  decision,  whether 
desired  or  not.  Recent  discussion  has  emphasized 
the  close  integration  of  all  the  factors  entering  into 
conduct;  feeling  and  thinking,  deeper  instinctive 
tendencies  and  immediate  impulses,  specific  desires 
and  conduct  as  a  whole.  Motives  thus  cannot 
be  sharply  isolated,  as  was  attempted  in  much  of 
the  controversy  about  them.        J.  F.  Crawford 

MOTU  PROPRIO.— A  papal  decree  emanating 
from  the  Pope  himself  and  hence  considered  by 
CathoUcs  to  be  of  absolute  ecclesiastical  authority. 

MOUNTAIN-GODS.— In  many  religions  there 
is  a  tendency  to  attribute  a  sacred  character  to 
mountains,  because  of  their  vastness,  the  meteoro- 
logical phenomena  around  them,  or  the  mythology 
of  the  people  woven  about  them.  Some  primitive 
peoples  regard  particular  or  peculiarly  shaped  hills 
as  deities.  Others  associate  mountains  with  gods  as 
their  dwelling  places  or  places  enjoying  their 
favor,  as  the  Indians,  Greeks,  and  Chinese.  Mt. 
Olympus  in  Greece  is  the  best  known  example. 
Mountains  are  frequently  regarded  as  the  haunts 
of  spirits  both  good  and  evil.  Their  sacred  char- 
acter leads  to  cults  arising  in  connection  with 
their  deities,  in  the  erection  of  shrines  thereon, 
and  the  making  of  pilgrimages  thereto. 

MOZARABIC  LITURGY.— An  ancient  liturgy 
diverging  somewhat  from  the  Latin  hturgy  used  by 
the  Christians  of  Toledo,  Spain,  while  under  the 
pohtical  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  the  name  signifying 
non-Arabic  peoples  who  belong  to  an  Arab  com- 
munity. 

MOZETTA  (or  MOZZETTA).— A  cape  to 
which  a  small  hood  is  attached,  worn  by  certain 
dignitaries  of  the  R.C.  church,  the  color  of  the 
mozetta  being  a  distinguishing  mark  of  the  office  of 
the  dignitary. 


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298 


MUELLER,  GEORG  FRIEDRICH  (1805-1898). 
— Founder  of  the  Bristol  (England)  Orphanages. 
A  German  by  birth  and  education  and  a  minister  of 
the  Plymouth  Brethren.  The  orphanage  work 
had  neither  endowment  nor  stated  support,  but 
Mueller  depyended  on  prayer,  faith,  and  advertising 
for  the  support  of  a  work  which  grew  to  large  pro- 
portions. He  wrote  an  account  of  his  work  in 
The  Lord's  Dealings  with  Georg  Mueller. 

MUFTI. — ^A  teacher  of  the  canon  law  of  Islam 
who  interprets  the  meaning  of  the  law  on  any 
question  of  conduct  for  the  layman.  His  decision 
is  called  afatwa.  A  canonist  who  is  the  appointed 
advisor  of  the  government  in  religious  matters  is 
an  official  mufti. 

MUJTAHID.— A  teacher  of  Moslem  theology 
and  canon  law  who,  in  view  of  his  understanding 
of  the  general  sense  of  the  religion,  gives  independ- 
ent judgments  without  the  necessity  of  supporting 
his  decision  on  the  authority  of  the  divines  and 
canonists  of  the  past.  Mujtahids  are  now  found 
only  in  Shi'ite  Islam. 

MUKTL— Another  form  of  the  word  Moksha. 

MULLA. — ^An  educated  moslem  who,  by  virtue 
of  his  higher  training  in  the  mosque  schools,  ranks 
as  an  official  and  one  of  the  learned  (  Ulama). 

MULLER  FRIEDRICH  MAX  (1823-1900).— 
Comparative  philologist  and  orientalist,  professor 
at  Oxford,  Eng.  He  achieved  fame  through  his 
editorship  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  his 
share  in  estabUshing  the  scientific  study  of  religion, 
and  his  contributions  to  the  critical  study  of 
Indian  philosophy. 

MULLER,  JULIUS  (1801-1878).— German 
Lutheran  theologian;  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the 
view  of  the  Tubingen  School  (q.v.)  and  an  earnest 
advocate  of  a  common  confession  of  faith  for  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  branches  of  the  Protestant 
church  in  Germany.  His  monumental  work  is  the 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin. 

MtJNZER,  THOMAS  (ca.  1490-1525).— 

One  of  the  leaders  in  the  Peasant's  War;  a  man  of 
irregular  habits  and  revolutionary  ideas.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Reformation,  but 
taught  extreme  views  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  com- 
munion, etc.  With  Heinrich  Pfeiffer,  he  instigated 
the  Peasant's  Revolt,  and  on  its  suppression  was 
beheaded. 

MURATORIAN  CANON.— The  earliest  known 
list  of  New  Testament  books  (discovered  by 
Muratori  in  1740),  representing  the  usage  of  the 
Roman  church  about  the  end  of  the  2nd.  century, 
and  perhaps  from  the  hand  of  Victor,  Bishop  of 
Rome.  Of  our  twenty-seven  books  it  includes  all 
except  Hebrews,  James,  I,  II  Peter,  III  John,  and 
adds  "the  Wisdom  written  by  the  friends  of  Solomon 
in  his  honor"  and  the  Revelation  of  Peter. 

MURJITES. — ^An  early  group  of  Moslems  who 
came  to  terms  with  the  Umayyad  usurpation  of  the 
khalifate  by  the  theory  that  God  must  finally 
decide  regarding  the  status  of  man.  They  were 
called  "Postponers."  In  theology  they  taught 
that  faith  was  the  prime  essential  and  that  one  who 
professed  Islam  and  outwardljr  conformed  to  its 
requirements  should  be  recognized  as  a  Moslem. 
At  the  day  of  judgment  God  would  give  the  ultimate 
decision. 


MURRAY,  JOHN  (1741-1815).— Founder  of 
the  Universalist  denomination  in  U.S.A.;  an 
Englishman  by  birth  who  received  a  Calvinistic 
training.  In  1770  he  emigrated  to  U.S.A.  where 
he_  began  to  preach.  His  main  doctrines  were 
universal  salvation  and  a  modalistic  conception  of 
the  Trinity.    See  Universalism. 

MUSE.— -In  ancient  mythology,  a  nymph 
inhabiting  springs  regarded  as  possessing  inspira- 
tional powers;  later,  one  of  the  goddesses  of  song 
and  inspiration;  finally,  one  of  the  female  deities 
inspiring  poets,  artists  and  scientists. 

MUSIC  AND  RELIGION.— Throughout  the 
history  of  mankind  we  find  a  constant  connection 
between  music  and  religious  acts  and  emotions. 
In  the  magical  incantations  of  primitive  peoples 
this  connection  is  based  on  belief  in  the  efficacy  of 
tone,  both  vocal  and  instrumental,  as  an  agent 
for  obtaining  control  over  invisible  powers.  Out 
of  these  crude  rites,  as  culture  develops,  symboUc 
ceremonies  proceed,  which  are  intended  to  act  upon 
the  mind  of  the  subject  as  well  as  upon  the  object 
of  the  appeal,  leading  finally  to  the  most  refined 
expressions  of  love  and  contrition  by  which  the 
believer  is  aided  in  maintaining  a  mystical  union 
with  the  Infinite  Power.  In  the  developments  of 
the  religious  consciousness  and  its  corresponding 
manifestation  by  word  and  action  music  has  always 
held  a  conspicuous  place. 

There  are  three  phases  in  the  history  of  religious 
music.  In  the  first  phase  are  found  the  beginnings 
of  conscious  musical  expression,  when  music  exists 
not  for  aesthetic  but  for  utilitarian  purposes.  The 
second  phase  is  that  of  the  civilized  nations  of 
antiquity  and  the  great  historic  religions  which 
arose  among  them,  such  as  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Roman,  Japanese,  the  religions  of  India,  the 
Mohammedan,  and  the  Christian  down  to  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance.  These  two  phases 
merge  into  one  another  without  any  distinct  line 
of  demarcation.  In  neither  did  music  exist  as  an 
independent,  progressive  art.  The  third  phase, 
that  of  the  music  of  the  Christian  church  dating 
from  the  later  Middle  Ages,  has  grown  under  the 
impulse  of  the  modern  conception  of  music  as  a 
free  art,  released  from  its  bondage  to  word  and 
action,  and  has  been  developed  alongside  secular 
music,  subject  to  artistic  laws  which  apply  equally 
to  both.  In  this  third  phase,  also,  we  find  survivals 
of  the  others,  especially  in  the  forms  employed  in 
the  CathoUc  and  Greek  churches;  but  with  the 
exception  of  the  ecclesiastical  chant,  the  music  of 
all  the  hturgical  churches  has  been  a  part  of  one 
universal  musical  system. 

In  this  later  epoch,  also,  music  is  employed  in 
connection  with  religious  ideas  outside  of  actual 
reUgious  worship.  Such  music  is  religious  concert 
or  dramatic  music,  and  is  found  in  the  great  majority 
of  oratorios,  a  few  operas,  such  as  Wagner's  Parsi- 
fal, and  a  multitude  of  religious  songs.  Church 
music  is  a  department  of  religious  music,  but  the 
two  are  not  equivalent.  The  definition  of  church 
music  is,  music  that  is  composed  for  the  church,  for 
use  in  an  organized  religious  ceremony.  Its  text 
unites  in  character  and  purpose  with  the  other 
offices  of  worship.  If  instrumental,  it  is  primarily 
intended  for  church  use.  For  instance,  an  aria  such 
as  "It  is  enough,"  from  Elijah  is  rehgious,  but 
it  is  not  church  music. 

Religious  music  has  had  a  progressive  history 
only  in  Christendom.  Then  it  became  church 
music  and  passed  through  three  stages,  each 
moulded  by  the  religious  and  social  ideas  and  usages 
of  its  time: 


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Mystery  Play 


1.  The  liturgical  chant,  unharmonized,  vinac- 
companied,  applied  to  every  member  of  the  liturgy, 
was  the  exclusive  form  of  church  music  from  the 
founding  of  Christianity  to  about  the  11th.  century. 
It  still  continues:  in  the  Cathohc,  Eastern  and 
Anglican  churches,  as  the  essential  and  official  form  of 
the  music  of  the  church  in  its  mediatorial  capacity. 

2.  The  contrapuntal,  involving  chorus,  both 
a  cappella  and  accompanied  was  based  on  the 
mediaeval  scale  system,  and  employed  in  every 
portion  of  the  ritual  in  which  the  priestly  chant 
was  not  obHgatory.  This  form  reached  its  com- 
pletion in  the  16th.  century. 

3.  The  form  now  dominant  in  the  church  at 
large,  viz.,  mixed  solo  and  chorus  music,  with 
free  instrumental  accompaniment,  employing  either 
the  contrapuntal  or  the  homophonic  principle  of 
structure,  and  based  on  the  modern  major  and 
minor  scales. 

With  the  Reformation  a  new  power  entered 
into  the  service  of  the  church,  viz.,  congregational 
singing.  While  not  excluded  from  the  Catholic 
and  Eastern  churches,  the  people's  hymn  has 
reached  its  great  historic  importance  in  the  nurture 
of  the  Protestant  church.  Its  influence  has  been 
felt  not  only  in  stimulating  religious  emotion,  but 
also  in  disseminating  and  confirming  doctrinal  ideas. 

ReUgious  concert  and  dramatic  music  is  espe- 
cially free  in  style  and  form;  church  music  is 
conservative.  For  church  music  alone  among  all 
forms  of  musical  art  theoretically  exists  not  for 
musical  pleasure,  but  in  subordination  to  an  aim 
that  is  not  aesthetic.  The  periods  of  dechne  in 
church  music  have  been  those  in  which  the  church 
has  yielded  to  the  aesthetic  conception  proceeding 
froni  secular  art.  Edward  Dickinson 

MUT. — A  mother-goddess  of  ancient  Egypt 
associated  with  Amon  and  Khensu  in  the  divine 
triad  of  Thebes. 

MUTAKALLIM. — ^A  scholastic  theologian  of 
Islam.  They  were  called  "Debaters"  because, 
instead  of  accepting  the  religion  in  simple  faith, 
they  tried  to  give  it  a  rational  basis. 

MU'TAZILITES.— A  rationalistic  school  of 
theological  thought  in  Islam.  They  made  the 
first  attempt  to  refine  away,  by  the  use  of  reason, 
the  stark  anthropomorphism  and  naive  literalism 
of  the  orthodox  creed.  Accepting  the  Koran  as 
divine  revelation  they  refused  to  believe  that  it  was 
uncreated  and  eternal  or  to  take  its  sayings  literally. 
The  crude  eschatology  of  popular  faith  was  dis- 
carded. They  taught  that  God  could  have  neither 
form  nor  place  since  he  is  spiritual,  eternal  and 
infinite;  that  his  attributes  are  his  essence  and 
not  in  it  or  separable  from  it;  that  he  wills  what 
is  best  for  his  creatures  but  allows  free-will  to 
man.  Challenging  thus  the  orthodox  doctrines 
regarding  God,  his  attributes,  the  Koran,  predestin- 
ation, authority  and  eschatology,  their  teaching  met 
with  bitter  opposition.  The  school  never  recovered 
from  the  attack  of  Al-Ashari  in  the  10th.  century. 

MUTILATIONS. — Mutilations  of  the  body  for 

reUgious  or  superstitious  reasons  are  common  among 
most  savages  and  primitives.  The  motive  is  most 
frequently  propitiatory,  as  the  gashing  of  the  flesh 
or  the  cutting  off  of  a  finger  joint  to  insure  success 
in  war — a  practice  not  only  contemporary  among 
American  Indians,  but  apparently  practised  thou- 
sands of  years  ago  in  palaeoUthic  Europe.  Other 
motives  lead  to  ascetic  mutilations,  as  among  the 
fakirs  of  India  and  in  certain  ancient  rites,  and  in  a 
lesser  way  in  wounding  penances.  Mutilations 
especially  of  the  teeth,  ears,  head-form,  and  scarifi- 


cations and  tatooings  are  also  common  forms  of  dis- 
tinguishing rank  or  family,  of  commemorating  prow- 
ess, and  perhaps  also  of  enhancing  beauty  according 
to  savage  standards.     See  Circumcision;  Hair. 

H.  B.  Alexander 
MYSTAGOGY. — Instruction   given   as  a  part 
of  initiation   into   the   mysteries.     See  Mystery 
Religions.     In  the  Greek  church  the  instruction 
to  candidates  before  the  sacraments. 

MYSTERY  PLAY.— A  part  of  the  Story  of 

the  Bible  dramatized. 

I.  Origin. — About  the  9th.  century  the  dramatic 
tendency  of  the  church  service  shown  in  pageantry 
and  responses  of  the  service  resulted  in  additions 
to  the  Uturgy  called  tropes  one  of  which— -deaUng 
with  the  visit  of  the  Marys  to  Christ's  tomb,  sung 
for  the  Introit  of  the  Mass  on  Easter  morning — ■ 
was  a  four-Une  dialogue,  beginning.  Quern  quaeritis 
in  sepulcro,  O  Christicolae?  This  dialogue  was 
rapidly  expanded,  and  its  use  as  a  drama  spread 
over  western  Europe.  Similarly,  the  service  at 
Christmas  developed  in  imitation  a  play  on  the 
shepherds'  visit  to  the  infant  Christ. 

II.  Expansion. — To  these  two  brief  liturgical 
dramas  new  scenes  were  added,  and  the  plays 
became  detached  elements  of  the  service,  while 
similar  plays  were  developed  for  other  festival 
days.  By  about  1 100  a  cycle  of  such  scenes  existed. 
The  Christmas  group  came  to  include  plays  on  the 
Visit  of  the  Magi,  the  FUght  into  Egypt,  the 
Slaughter  of  the  Innocents,  and  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  foretelling  the  coming  of  Christ.  The 
Easter  cycle  expanded  to  include  the  Visit  to 
the  Disciples  and,  somewhat  later,  the  Passion,  the 
Crucifixion,  and— in  connection  with  the  idea  of 
Redemption — the  Harrowing  of  Hell  and  the  Fall 
of  Man. 

III.  Secularization. — Gradually  between  the 
12th.  and  the  14th.  century,  the  plays  passed  into 
the  vernacular;  were  transferred  to  churchyards 
and  finally  to  town  greens;  and  were  taken  over  by 
lay  actors — village  groups,  guilds,  etc. 

IV.  Zenith. — The  plays  were  at  their  zenith 
from  1350  to  1550.  Single  plays  were  still  pre- 
sented in  church  or  castle,  particularly  at  Christmas, 
but  the  great  summer  festivals,  notably  the  church 
festival  of  Corpus  Christi,  became  the  occasion  for 
a  continuous  dramatic  presentation  of  much  of  the 
story  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Apocrypha,  from 
the  Fall  of  Lucifer  to  the  Judgment.  In  France  the 
emphasis  on  the  death  of  Christ  gave  the  mysteries 
the  name  passion  plays.  Greban's  Passion,  of  over 
35,000  fines,  written  in  the  15th.  century,  is  the 
most  famous.  Of  the  many  English  cycles  those 
of  York  (48  plays),  Chester,  and  Wakefield  are 
preserved,  besides  scattering  plays  and  a  cycle 
known  as  Lvdus  CoveMriae. 

V.  PRESENTATiON.^-On  the  Continent  generally 
and  in  parts  of  England  the  entire  performance  was 
given  on  a  single  fixed  stage.  The  characteristic 
English  method,  especially  in  the  north,  was  to 
assign  a  single  play  of  a  cycle  to  a  certain  trade  or 
craft  guild,  who  presented  it  on  a  movable  pageant 
wagon.  This  wagon  passed  from  one  "station" 
in  a  town  to  the  next,  where  the  play  was  repeated, 
to  be  succeeded  by  the  next  play  of  the  cycle  on  a 
separate  wagon. 

VI.  Decay.— In  the  middle  of  the  16th.  century 
the  Reformation  produced  a  reaction  against 
mediaeval  religious  plays  of  all  types.  The  famous 
Paris  Confrerie  de  la  Passion,  hcensed  to  present 
passion  plays,  was  abohshed.  Enghsh  plays  died 
out  under  Puritan  attacks.  There  have  been  some 
scattering  survivals,  the  most  famous  being  the 
decennial  performance  at  Oberammergau  in  Bavaria. 

C.  R.  Baskbrvill    ^ 


Mystery  Religions 


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300 


MYSTERY  RELIGIONS.— A  name  originally 
used  of  certain  Greek  cults  distinguished  for  secret 
rites  of  initiation.  But  nowadays  the  term  is 
extended  to  cover  also  certain  similar  cults  of 
Asiatic  and  Egyptian  origin. 

The  mystery  type  of  religion  displays  distinctive 
features  that  contrast  somewhat  sharply  with  those 
of  the  usual  ethnic  cult.  The  latter  is  primarily 
an  affair  of  a  local  or  national  group,  whose  members 
are  entitled  to  its  favors  mainly  by  right  of  birth. 
Its  outstanding  ceremonies  are  public  sacrifices  and 
festivals,  and  the  concern  of  the  deity  or  deities 
worshiped  is  first  the  welfare  of  the  community 
and  only  secondarily  that  of  the  individual.^  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  mysteries  the  individual 
rather  than  the  community  is  the  center  of  interest. 
Only  those  can  be  adherents  of  the  cult  who  on 
their  own  initiative  obtain  admission  by-  the 
observance  of  specific  initiatory  rites.  Not  public 
sacrifices  and  festivals,  but  sacramental  practices 
and  solemn  ceremonies  of  initiation,  of  which  the 
culminating  act  is  usually  a  carefully  guarded 
secret,  attract  chief  attention.  The  resulting 
benefit  is  also  a  distinctly  personal  satisfaction, 
consisting  of  a  present  emotional  uplift  and  the 
assurance  of  a  blessed  immortality  for  the  soul. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era  several 
different  mystery  cults  had  become  prominent  in 
the  religious  life  of  the  Roman  Empire.  These  can 
be  described  most  conveniently  by  classifying 
them  according  to  the  coimtries  from  which  they 
originally  emanated. 

I.  Greek  Mysteries. — 1.  Eleusinian. — Several 
different  mystery  religions  flourished  in  Greece. 
Chief  among  these  was  an  ancient  cult  celebrated 
at  Eleusis  a  few  miles  frorn  Athens,  and  at  an 
early  date  incorporated  officially  into  the  religion 
of  the  Athenian  state.  This  official  connection 
prevented  the  Eleusian  rites  from  migrating  freely 
to  foreign  lands,  but  the  fame  of  the  cult  spread 
so  widely  that  people  from  all  parts  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  even  emperors  themselves,  visited  Athens 
to  secure  initiation.  In  early  times  Greeks  only 
could  be  admitted,  but  in  the  Roman  period  any 
person  with  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language  to  participate  intelligently  in  the  ritual  was 
eligible  for  membership. 

Elaborate  ceremonies  attended  the  process  of 
initiation.  After  observing  _  certain  purificatory 
rites  the  candidate  was  admitted  to  the  so-called 
"Lesser  Mysteries"  which  were  celebrated  in 
February.  The  chief  ceremony,  which  lasted 
several  days,  took  place  in  September.  At  this 
time  the  sacred  emblems  were_  brought  from  Eleusis 
to  Athens,  where  the  applicants  for  admission 
were  assembled  and  warned  against  unworthy 
participation  in  the  rites.  After  further  purifica- 
tions a  procession  moved  to  Eleusis  where  the 
process  of  initiation  was  completed.  The  oath 
of  secrecy  has  been  kept  so  well  that  the  precise 
nature  of  the  ceremonies  still  remains  obscure  at 
many  points.  Apparently  after  partaking  of  a, 
sacred  drink  and  food,  the  candidates  gathered  in 
the  assembly  hall  known  as  the  telesterion,  to  which 
no  outsiders  were  admitted.  Here  they  listened 
to  a  discourse  by  the  priest  and  witnessed  some 
sort  of  drama  enacted  upon  a  stage  in  the  center 
of  the  hall.  This  scenic  display  seems  to  have  been 
the  central  feature  of  the  entire  ceremony.  The 
character  and  meaning  of  this  performance,  as  its 
import  doubtless  was  explained  by  the  priest, 
constituted  the  real  mystery  that  was  so  carefully 
guarded  from  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  profane. 

Immediate  and  lasting  benefits  were  thought 
to  attend  initiation.  The  devotee  enjoyed  an 
elation  of  feeling  in  consequence  of  his  new  relation 
to  the  deity  and  his  conviction  that  he  had  peered 


into  divine  secrets.  He  also  believed  that  as  the 
result  of  his  initiation  the  future  well-being  of  his 
soul  had  been  made  eternally  secure.  This  assur- 
ance seems  to  have  been  derived  from  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  drama  witnessed  in  the  telesterion. 
The  teaching  of  the  cult  centered  around  the 
experiences  of  a  mother-goddess,  Demeter,  and 
her  daughter  Kore  (Persephone).  The  daughter 
had  been  carried  off  by  Hades  and  the  mother 
refused  to  be  comforted  until  Kore  had  been 
recovered.  This  victory  over  the  power  of  the 
lower  world  probably  was  the  theme  of  the  passion- 
play  depicted  before  the  eyes  of  the  initiate,  and  in 
this  triumph  of  the  goddess  over  death  he  not 
unnaturally  read  the  promise  of  his  own  future 
victory.  At  any  rate,  nothing  is  more  certain 
than  that  the  scenic  display,  constituting  the 
central  mystery  of  the  cult,  in  some  way  signified 
for  the  devotee  a  highly  prized  emotional  satisfac- 
tion for  his  spirit  in  this  hfe  and  the  safety  of  his 
soul  in  the  world  beyond  the  grave. 

2.  Dionysiac— Other  mystery  cults  among  the 
Greeks  were  not  attached  to  any  one  locality,  as 
were  the  Eleusinian,  but  were  celebrated  in  various 
places  wherever  a  properly  constituted  society  of 
believers  existed.  Conspicuous  among  these  mys- 
teries was  the  cult  of  Dionysus,  who  is  identical 
with  Bacchus.  Though  the  worship  of  Dionysus 
originally  came  from  Thrace,  it  had  a  wide  vogue 
in  Greece  and  was  well  known  to  the  Roman  world 
at  large  in  imperial  times.  The  Dionysiac  cere- 
monies were  notoriously  orgiastic.  When  experi- 
encing initiation,  individuals  became  so  highly 
emotional  that  they  were  said  to  be  "possessed" 
and  "maddened"  by  the  deity.  Drinking  the  warm 
blood  and  eating  the  raw  flesh  of  the  sacred  victim 
were  realistic  means  employed  for  attaining  union 
with  the  god,  a  union  so  vividly  conceived  by  the 
votary  that  he  felt  himself  "full  of  god."  Union 
with  Dionysus  also  insured  a  blessed  future  for  the 
soul,  for  he  too,  hke  Kore,  was  a  deity  who  had 
triumphed  over  death. 

3.  Orphic. — The  Orphic  mysteries  are  hardly 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  Dionysiac,  since 
Dionysus,  often  called  Zagreus  in  this  connection, 
is  the  chief  deity  of  the  cult.  The  Orphic  move- 
ment appeared  in  Greece  in  the  7th.  century  b.c. 
and,  though  probably  of  foreign  origin,  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  subsequent  times  not  only 
among  the  Greeks  but  throughout  the  Mediterran- 
ean world.  The  initiation  ceremonies  exhibited 
the  orgiastic  features  characteristic  of  the  worship 
of  Dionysus,  and  the  devotee  professed  to  realize 
vividly,  not  only  union  with  the  god,  but  his  own 
actual  deification.  Orphism,  however,  is  especially 
noteworthy  for  certain  distinctive  teachings  of  a 
philosophic  character  that  became  widely  influential 
even  beyond  the  limits  of  the  cult.  The  physical 
body  of  man  was  called  the  prison-house  of  his 
soul.  Only  by  the  aid  of  purificatory  rites  and 
mystical  experiences  could  this  bodily  defilement 
be  effaced  and  the  soul  prepared  for  its  journey  to 
the  happy  home  beyond  the  grave.  Pythagoras 
(q.v.)  drew  largely  upon  Orphic  notions  for  the 
content  of  his  teaching.  Plato  (q.v.)  was  also 
indebted  to  the  Orphics,  notwithstanding  his 
well-known  ridicule  of  their  rites.  Even  after 
the  Orphic  brotherhoods  had  long  since  ceased  to 
exist,  their  doctrines  frequently  inspired  various 
ascetic  movements  witlun  the  Mediterranean 
world  of  Roman  times. 

4.  Andaman,  Samothracian,  etc. — ^The  wide 
popularity  of  both  the  Eleusinian  and  the  Dionysiac 
(Orphic)  rites  did  not  prevent  the  Greeks  from 
cherishing  several  other  less  conspicuous  mystery 
cults.  From  very  ancient  times  local  mysteries 
had  been  celebrated  at  Andania  in  Messenia,  where 


301 


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Mystery  Religions 


several  different  deities  had  come  to  be  associated 
together  in  the  ceremonies.  The  island  of  Samo- 
thrace  was  also  the  seat  ot  a  distinct  mystery- 
religion  whose  popularity  was  second  only  to 
that  of  the  Eleusinian  and  Dionysiac  cults. 
Still  other  mysteries  are  known  at  least  by  the 
name  of  the  deity  reverenced,  e.g.,  those  of 
Aglauros  at  Athens,  Ge  at  Phlye,  and  Hecate  at 
Aegina. 

II.  Phrygian  Mysteries. — The  most  note- 
worthy contribution  of  Phrygia  to  the  religious 
history  of  antiquity  was  the  cult  of  the  mother- 
goddess,  Cybele,  and  her  male  associate  Attis. 
At  an  early  date  Cybele  came  to  Greece.  As  Rhea- 
Cybele  she  exhibited  Cretan  features,  and  her 
likeness  to  Demeter  was  also  pronoimced.  Attis, 
who  is  the  Phrygian  Dionysus,^  had  migrated  to 
Greece  under  the  name  of  Sabazius  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Demosthenes.  The  rites  of  Cybele,  who  is 
commonly  known  as  the  Great  Mother  of  the 
Gods,  or  more  simpljr  the  Great  Mother,  were 
established  in  Rome  in  204  B.C.,  but  her  real 
popularity  among  the  Romans  did  not  begin  until 
early  imperial  times. 

The  secret  rites  of  the  cult  are  veiled  in  much 
obscurity,  but  its  public  demonstrations  were 
spectacular  and  attended  by  displays  of  violent 
emotion.  The  devotees  were  taught  that  Cybele 
had  raged  in  wild  grief  over  the  death  of  Attis, 
and  had  rejoiced  at  his  restoration  to  life.  The 
death  and  resurrection  of  Attis  were  celebrated 
every  spring  with  dramatic  ceremonies  in  which  the 
deceased  god  was  represented  as  a  pine  tree  clad 
as  a  corpse.  Wild  lamentations  accompanied  the 
celebration  of  his  funeral.  Then  followed  mystic 
performances  of  a  secret  nature  by  which  the  initiate 
seems  to  have  attained  a  unique  experience  _  of 
union  with  the  deity.  Afterwards  Mie  resurrection 
of  Attis  was  hailed  with  great  joy,  and  apparently 
was  regarded  by  the  votaries  as  a  guaranty  of  their 
own  safe  immortality  in  the  world  beyond  the  grave. 
This  assurance  is  expressed  thus  in  one  of  their 
hymns:  "Take  courage  initiates,  since  the  god  has 
been  saved,  for  you  too  will  have  salvation  from 
troubles." 

III.  Persian  Mysteries. — Persia  was  the  home 
of  a  mystery  religion  which  spread  rapidly  over 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  2nd.  and  3rd.  centuries 
A.D.  Its  hero-divinity  was  Mithra,  a  very  ancient 
god,  who  had  been  subordinated  to  Ahura  Mazda  in 
the  Zoroastrian  theology  but  who  regained  his 
popularity  with  the  dechne  of  Zoroastrianism 
(q.v.).  In  pre-Christian  times  the  cult  of  Mithra 
established  itself  at  different  places  in  Asia  Minor 
and  was  carried  to  Rome  in  67  B.C.  But  not  until 
toward  the  close  of  the  1st.  century  a.d.,_  when 
Rome  began  recruiting  her  armies  from  Asia,  did 
Mithraisra  become  popular  among  the  Romans.  In 
the  3rd.  century  it  was  at  the  height  of  its  popularitjr. 
but  in  the  next  century  it  declined  rapidlj^  until 
finally  it  was  supplanted  by  Christianity  in  the 
West  and  Manicheism  (q.v.)  in  the  East. 

The  Mithraic  rites  of  initiation  provided  for 
seven  successive  degrees  of  attainment  by  the 
devotee,  but  not  until  the  fourth  was  reached 
did  the  initiate  become  a  full-fledged  member  of 
the  cult — a  "participant,"  as  he  was  called.  The 
various  grades  of  initiation  were  reached  by  observ- 
ing rites  of  a  purificatory  and  sacramental  character 
including  the  oath  of  secrecy,  repeated  ablutions, 
ceremomes  symbolic  of  a  new  birth,  and  participa- 
tion in  a  religious  meal.  Conspicuous  among  the 
religious  satisfactions  offered  the  worshiper  were 
faith  in  Mithra  as  a  mediator  between  god  and 
mortals  and  the  assurance  of  a  blessed  immortality. 
Mithraism  taught  belief  in  a  last  judgment,  a 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  a  final  conflagration 


of  the  world.    Through  all  of  these  crises  Mithra 
was  to  be  the  unfailing  protector  of  his  disciples. 

IV.  Syrian  and  Babylonian  Mysteries.— 
A  mother-goddess  similar  in  many  respects  to  the 
Greek  Demeter  and  the  Phrygian  Cybele  was 
prominent  also  in  Syria.  She  appears  under 
different  names,  e.g.,  Ashtart,  Aphrodite,  Atargatis, 
"Syrian  Goddess,"  but  the  cult  always  exhibits 
those  mystic  orgiastic  features  that  characterize 
the  worship  of  Cybele.  Frequently  there  is  asso- 
ciated with  her  also  a  youthful  male  divinity, 
about  whose  death  and  resurrection  the  ceremonies 
and  myths  of  the  cult_  center.  At  least  in  some  of 
their  aspects  these  Syrian  religions  have  Babylonian 
antecedents  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  well-known 
Ishtar  and  Tammuz,  the  former  figuring  as  a  weep- 
ing mother  and  the  latter  as  a  dying  and  rising 
son  or  consort.  His  sufferings  and  triumph  were 
celebrated  at  a  yearly  festival  where  hymns  of 
lamentation  were  sung,  and  probably  also  some 
sort  of  mystic  pantomime  was  staged  as  a  feature 
of  the  rites. 

The  best-known  Syrian  counterparts  of  Ishtar 
and  Tammuz  in  Graeco-Roman  times  were,  respec- 
tively, Aphrodite  and  Adonis.  The  chief  seats  of 
their  worship  wereByblos  in  Syria  and  Paphos  in 
CjT^rus,  but  their  rites  had  been  carried  to  various 
places  about  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean 
centuries  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  death  of  Adonis,  lamentation  over  his 
demise,  rejoicing  at  his  resurrection,  and  his 
marriage  to  the  goddess  were  aU  depicted  in  the 
form  of  a  passion-play. 

V.  Egyptian  Mysteries. — In  Roman  times  the 
mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris  enjoyed  a  prestige  hardly 
less  great  than  that  of  the  Eleusinian.  These 
Egyptian  rites  were  known  to  the  Greeks  in  the 
time_  of  Herodotus,  _  who  respected  their  secrecy 
but  in  a  veiled  way  indicated  that  the  outstanding 
feature  of  the  celebration  was  a  pantomimic 
representation  of  the  death  of  Osiris  and  his  recovery 
by  the  sorrow-stricken  Isis.  The  usual  displays  of 
emotion  were  a  prominent  part  of  the  ceremonies 
and  initiation  secured  for  the  individual  character- 
istic satisfactions  pertaining  both  to  this  life  and 
to  the  hereafter.  Attachment  to  these  deities 
meant  the  guaranty  of  present  protection,  and  for 
those  who  were  temperamentally  capable  of  the 
experience  it  also  gave  a  sense  of  mystical  union 
with  the  god.  The  assurances  of  immortaUty 
were  particularly  strong,  for  Osiris  was  pre-eminently 
a  victor  over  death  and  was  thought  able  to  insure 
beyond  question  the  future  bliss  of  all  his  disciples. 

VI.  Origin  and  Nature  op  the  Mysteries. — 
Originally  the  mysteries  seem  to  have  been  primitive 
nature  cults  in  which  the  mother-goddess  was  a 
personification  of  mother-earth,  while  her  dying 
and  reviving  associate  represented  the  annual 
decay  and  revival  of  nature's  hfe.  Probably  the 
rites  of  the  cult  as  originally  observed  were  designed 
to  insure  the  return  of  nature's  life  in  the  springtime 
and  to  persuade  mother-earth  to  give  abundant 
crops.  The  notion  of  secrecy  may  have  been 
derived  from  an  original  custom  of  excluding 
strangers  from  the  ceremonies  lest  enemies  of  the 
clan  or  tribe  should  acquire  this  sacred  knowledge 
and  thereby  obtain  for  themselves  a  similar  pros- 
perity. With  advancement  in  culture  this  agrarian 
interest  was  pushed  into  the  background  and  the 
efficacy  of  the  cult  ceremonies  to  restore  and  preserve 
hfe  was  connected  with  the  spirit  and  immortal 
soul  of  man. 

VII.  Relation  op  Christianity  to  the 
Mysteries. — At  the  time  of  Christianity's  rise 
the  mystery  type  of  rehgion  was  well  knowa  among 
the  Gentiles.  Attachment  to  a  dying  and  reviving 
redeemer-god,  initiatory  rites  including  ablutions 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


302 


and  sacred  meals,  emotional  satisfactions  for  the 
individual,  and  assurances  of  blessed  inunortality 
were  the  outstanding  features  of  the  mysteries. 
Christianity  also  appealed  to  the  Gentiles  as  a 
religion  of  redemption  to  be  secured  through 
attachment  to  the  crucified  and  risen  Jesus,  mem- 
bership in  the  new  cult  involved  participation  in 
the  sacred  rites  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper, 
the  experience  of  initiation  produced  an  emotional 
upHft  explained  as  due  to  union  with  Christ,  and 
a  blessed  immortality  was  the  confident  hope  of 
all  Christians.  These  phenomena  force  upon  one 
the  question  of  how  extensively  the  development 
of  early  Christianity  on  gentile  soil  was  affected 
by  the  mystery  religions  already  present  in  the 
same  territory.  That  there  was  a  measure  of 
influence  from  the  mysteries  upon  Christianity  and 
that  this  influence  increased  in  volume  and  power 
as  the  new  religion  gradually  crystallized  into  that 
ecclesiastical  organism  known  as  the  ancient  Catholic 
church  is  now  generally  recognized  by  historians. 
But  the  precise  extent  of  such  influence  and  the 
date  at  which  it  began  to  operate  are  problems 
still  in  debate.  S.  J.  Case 

MYSTICISM. — Mysticism  is  a  word  used  so 
loosely  and  for  such  varied  experiences  and  phe- 
nomena that  definition  is  possible  only  by  drastic 
hmitation.  Occult  phenomena  and  obscurantist 
faiths  have  frequently  been  included  in  "mysticism," 
but  that  practice  brings  confusion  rather  than 
clarity  to  the  subject.  In  the  narrower  and  more 
genuine  sense  of  the  word,  mysticism  is  a  type  of 
religion  which  puts  the  emphasis  on  immediate 
experience  of  God,  a  direct  and  intimate  conscious- 
ness of  divine  Reahty.  It  naturally  involves  a 
reaction  against,  or  even  a  revolt  from,  ecclesiasti- 
cism,  ritualism,  abstract  theology,  and  all  tendencies 
toward  reUgious  crystallization,  in  behalf  of  the 
direct  testimony  of  the  soul  of  man.  It  is,  thus, 
reUgion  in  an  acute,  intense,  dynamic,  and  vital  stage. 

Treated  as  experience,  mysticism  is  an  inrush  of 
new  energies,  which,  to  the  recipient,  burst  upon 
the  soul  with  unifying,  fusing  and  intensifying 
effect.  It  is  an  undifferentiated  state,  in  which 
subject  and  object  seem  merged  in  an  undivided, 
organic  whole  of  experience,  intensely  joyous  and 
marked  by  increased  depth  of  insight  and  greatly 
enhanced  life.  Deep-lying,  sub-conscious  powers 
are  released  and  Hberated,  and  the  person  feels  as 
though  he  were  in  contact  with  realities  beyond 
himself. 

The  most  impressive  form  of  historical  mysticism 
is  that  derived  from  the  Neo-Platonist  movement, 
and  bound  up  with  a  well-marked  type  of  meta- 
physics. In  this  system  of  metaphysics,  God  is 
conceived  as  absolute,  immutable  reality,  a  One 
beyond  and  above  all  multipUcity  and  variety.  He 
is,  therefore,  unknown  and  unknowable  and  can 
be  "found"  only  in  an  ecstatic  experience  which 
transcends  "knowledge."  The  mystic  way  thus 
becomes  a  via  negativa,  a  process  of  separation  from 
and  elevation  above  all  that  is  temporal  and  finite, 
a  mounting  upward  by  distinct  steps  or  grades  to 
the  One  and  Only  Real.  The  three  great  stages  of 
this  ascent  of  the  soul — often  called  the  Mystic 
Way — are  usually  called  by  mystics  of  this  type 
the  purgative  stage,  the  illuminative  stage,  and  the 
xmitive  stage.  The  great  exponents  of  this  type  of 
mysticism  are  Plotinus  (205-265),  "Dionysius  the 
Areopagite"  who  wrote  in  the  5th.  century,  John 
Scotus  Erigena  (810-880);  Meister  Heinrich 
Eckhart  (1260-1327);  John  Tauler  (1300-1361); 
Jan  Ruysbroeck  (1293-1381);  the  anonymous 
author  of  Theologia  Germanica,  written  about  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century;  Thomas  a  Kempis 
(1380-1471),  author  of  The  Jmitation  of  Christ, 


The  Counter-Reformation  produced  a  new  group 
of  mystics  who  were  extremely  devout,  but  at  the 
same  time  rigorous,  ascetic,  and  even  more  em- 
phatically negative  than  were  the  mystics  of  the 
14th  century.  They  aimed  at  the  complete 
crucifixion  df  self,  the  utter  annihilation  of  self- 
wiU  and  the  attainment  of  total  absorption  in  God. 
They  laid  the  foundations  for  the  extreme  form 
of  Quietism  which  succeeded  a  century  later.  The 
greatest  names  in  this  group  are  St.  Teresa  (1515- 
1582);  St.  John  of  the  Cross  (1542-1591);  St. 
Francis  de  Sales  (156f-1622);  and  St.  Jeanne 
Francoise  de  Chantal  (1572-1B42). 

Protestant  mysticism  has  been  founded,  on  the 
whole,  more  directly  upon  the  New  Testament 
and  has  moved  away  from  the  influence  of  Neo- 
Platonism.  It  has  always  been  profoundly  affected 
by  the  teaching  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  by  St. 
Paul's  Epistles.  It  is,  thus,  more  positively  affirma- 
tive than  was  medieval  mysticism,  and  it  insists 
upon  the  formation  of  Christ  as  living,  eternal 
Spirit  within  the  soul.  The  great  interpreters  of 
this  type  of  mysticism  are  Jacob  Boehme  (1575- 
1624);  George  Fox  (1624-1691);  and  WiUiam  Law 
(1686-1761). 

The  present  century  has  been  marked  by  a  pro- 
found revival  of  interest  in  mysticism,  due  to  the 
immense  present  day  interest  in  the  inner  life  of 
man ;  to  the  psychological  study  of  the  subconscious ; 
to  a  reaction  against  "intellectualism,"  and  to  the 
quest  for  God  in  fresh  ways  which  the  development 
of  the  scientific  method  and  of  historical  criticism 
has  aroused.  This  revival  has  produced  a  large 
literature.  Rufus  M.  Jones 

MYTHS.— Myth  may  be  defined  as  the  effort  of 
primitive  man  to  account  for  the  phenomena  sur- 
rounding him,  so  that  it  represents  the  earliest 
phase  of  scientific  thought.  Originally  all  myths 
seem  to  have  been  aetiological  as  dealing  with  the 
causes  of  things.  Thus,  a  frequent  theme  is  the 
relation  between  sun  and  moon,  the  former  usually 
regarded  as  masculine,  and  the  latter  as  feminine. 
The  sun  is  drawn  across  the  sky  in  a  chariot,  he 
casts  his  darts  at  those  who  offend  him;  the  moon 
is  his  wife  or  his  sister,  whom  he  pursues,  or  she 
sails  the  sky  in  a  silver  boat;  both  sun  and  moon 
are  exposed  to  attacks  of  malevolent  monsters  who 
swallow  them  (thus  causing  eclipse)  and  must  be 
driven  away  by  man.  Or,  the  sky  is  a  father  and 
the  earth  a  mother,  and  their  children  are  the  lesser 
gods  and  the  races  of  men  and  animals. 

The  origin  of  the  universe,  including  the  earth 
and  its  phenomena  (seas,  rivers,  trees,  etc.),  is  a 
fertile  ground  for  the  mythic  tendency,  as  are 
important  discoveries  of  early  man,  notably  the 
finding  of  fire.  The  problem  of  life  after  death, 
complicated  by  the  perception  that  the  vegeta- 
tion which  seems  to  die  revives  again,  is  another 
source  of  myth;  and  historical  events  and  charac- 
ters, as  the  siege  of  Troy  or  Charlemagne,  are 
later  elaborated  in  mythic  form.  Certain  myths 
find  their  origin  in  attempts  to  explain  rituals 
or  customs  whose  true  cause  has  been  forgotten; 
and  in  later,  philosophic  periods  purely  allegorical 
myths,  as  that  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  were  in- 
vented. 

Similarity  of  myths  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  must  not  be  construed  to  imply  common 
source  or  even  borrowing;  and  in  every  such 
instance  the  problem  must  be  judged  on  its  own 
merits  according  to  the  evidence  in  each  specific 
case.  Neither  can  any  single  method  of  interpre- 
tation be  applied  to  explain  all  myths,  so  that  the 
mode  of  investigation,  for  example,  of  an  historical 
myth  must  be  entirely  dissimilar  to  that  of  the 
study  of  a  meteorological  myth.    Louis  H.  Grat 


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Naturalism 


N 


NAIAD. — In  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the 
nymphs  (q.v.)  inhabiting  fotintains,  rivers  and  lakes. 

NAME. — In  primitive  thought  a  name  is  not  a 
mere  appellative,  but  is  itself  an  entity  or  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  person  or  thing  which  it 
denotes.  Hence  it  is  highly  important  to  know  the 
real  name  of  a  person  or  thing  if  power  is  to  be 
exercised  over  such  person  or  thing;  while,  con- 
versely, it  is  frequently  advisable  to  conceal  one's 
true  name  and  to  substitute  for  it  a  "nickname," 
lest  some  enemy,  knowing  or  learning  the  actual 
appellative,  exercise  dangerous  dominion  over  its 
owner.  This  principle  is  even  carried  from  the 
human  to  the  divine  sphere,  for,  in  certain  stages  of 
reUgions,  the  gods  themselves  are  subject  to  the 
"power  of  the  name,"  so  that  they  seek  to  conceal 
their  real  names,  which  man  tries  to  discover. 

Similarly,  the  conferring  of  a  name  upon  a 
person  gives  him  at  least  some  of  the  qualities  of 
the  person  or  deity  after  whom  he  is  named,  whence 
the  person  or  deity  from  whom  the  name  is  derived 
is  inevitably  connected  with  the  person  to  whom 
his  name  is  given,  or  in  whom  the  person  concerned 
may  even  be  re-incarnate;  while  the  deity  interested 
is  not  only  beheved  to  endow  the  individual  with 
at  least  some  of  his  own  distinctive  qualities,  but 
is  bound,  in  self-defence,  to  protect  him  with  special 
care.  Louis  H.  Gkay 

NANAK  (1469-1538).— The  founder  of  the 
Sikh  religion.  He  was  of  mystical  temperament 
which  in  the  social  milieu  of  India  had  free  play, 
but  his  Moslem  training  saved  him  from  pantheism. 
His  teaching  is  a  curious  blend  of  Moslem  and 
Hindu  elements.     See  Sikhs. 

NANTES,  EDICT  OF.— See  Edict  op  Nantes. 

NARAYANA.— One  of  the  titles  of  Vishnu  in 
modem  Hinduism. 

NARTHEX. — In  church  architecture,  the  long 
arcaded  porch  where  the  penitents  and  catechumens 
entered,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
plant  of  the  same  name.  Occasionally  there  was 
an  inner  narthex  inside  the  building. 

NASI. — (Hebrew : '  'prince . " )  The  title  assigned 
by  the  Jews  to  the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin 
during  the  period  of  the  second  Temple,  and  con- 
tinued as  the  title  of  the  rehgious  head  of  the 
Palestinian  community  for  some  generations  there- 
after. 

NASORAEANS.— See  Mandbans. 

NATURAL  LAW.— See  Law,  Natural. 

NATURAL  RELIGION,  NATURAL  THEOL- 
OGY.— The  rehgious  beliefs  which  man's  natural 
powers  can  affirm  without  the  aid  of  supernatural 
revelation. 

The  great  theologians  of  the  late  Middle  Ages, 
developed  a  well-formulated  natural  theology, 
based  on  an  adaptation  of  AristoteUan  metaphysics. 
The  religious  conclusions  of  natural  reason  served 
as  a  foundation  on  which  to  build  the  structure  of 
supernatural  doctrines.  With  the  Renaissance 
came  the  desire  to  employ  reason  exclusively. 
Descartes,  Spinoza,  and  Leibnitz  constructed  elabo- 
rate theological-philosophical  systems  resting  on 
reason  alone. 

During  the  17th.  and  18th.  centuries  attempts 
were  frequently  made  to  obviate  current  theological 
polemics  by  setting  forth  a  "natural  rehgion     to 


which  all  men  might  subscribe,  and  which  should 
supersede  the  supernaturahstic  appeals  so  fraught 
with  rehgious  warfare.  In  content  this  natural 
rehgion  emphasized  God  as  creator  and  moral  law- 
giver, freedom,  moral  responsibihty,  and  immor- 
tahty  with  future  retribution  in  accordance  with 
one's  moral  deserts.  See  Deism;  Rationalism. 
Paley's  Natural  Theology  (1802)  was  an  elaborate 
display  of  evidences  of  divine  purpose  in  the  natural 
world. 

Historical  study  has  made  it  clear  that  real 
rehgion  always  includes  mystical  and  supernatural 
elements  not  recognized  by  the  "natural  religion" 
of  the  rationahsts.  Interest  has  shifted  from  the 
futile  attempt  to  discover  a  universal  religion  of 
this  kind  to  the  investigation  of  actual  religions. 
Natural  Theology,  for  similar  reasons,  has  given 
way  to  Philosophy  of  Rehgion  (q.v.). 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

NATURAL  RIGHTS.— Those  rights  inherent 
in  the  requirements  of  human  nature,  which  there- 
fore cannot  justly  be  restricted  or  annulled. 

The  moral  justification  of  any  code  of  laws  is  the 
intention  to  promote  human  welfare.  Lying  back 
of  actual  legislation,  therefore,  is  this  moral  demand. 
Greek  ethics  set  forth  the  conception  of  a  realm  of 
eternal  justice  which  should  always  be  normative 
for  legislation.  The  Stoic  doctrine  of  a  divinely 
authorized  "Law  of  Nature"  (q.v.)  was  extensively 
used  in  later  centuries  to  determine  fundamental 
moral  relationships.  The  principles  of  this  Law  of 
Nature  could  be  cited  in  protest  against  arbitrarj^ 
exercise_  of  authority.  Grotius,  e.g.,  laid  the 
foundations  of  international  law  by  asserting  the 
divine  authority  of  the  Law  of  Nature. 

The  18th.  century  saw  a  marked  development 
of  the  belief  in  natural  rights  as  one  phase  of  the 
consciousness  of  the  Third  Estate  and  democracy. 
The  outstanding  exponent  of  the  movement  was 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (q.v.),  who  made  the 
assumption  of  such  rights  inherent  in  a  state  of 
nature  central  in  his  philosophy.  In  England  and 
America  the  same  view  was  prevalent,  although 
reached  less  by  philosophy  than  by  the  general- 
izing of  the  rights  of  Englishmen. 

In  the  struggle  against  political  tyranny  in 
England  and  in  the  American  colonies,  demands 
were  made  that  the  "natural  rights"  of  men  should 
be  inviolate.  These  comprised  the  rights  to  "hfe, 
liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness,"  and  were 
developed  into  the  doctrine  of  full  citizenship. 
Popular  government,  as  advocated  by  John  Locke 
and  by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  was  conceived  as  a  means  of  securing  men's 
"natural  rights"  against  the  exercise  of  arbitrary 
power.  The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  and  of 
the  Citizen  set  forth  the  principles  of  the  French 
Revolution,  designed  to  secure  freedom  and  justice. 

The  precise  content  of  natural  rights  can 
scarcely  be  determined.  Any  movement  for 
greater  human  freedom  is  hkely  to  appeal  to  the 
sanctity  of  natural  rights.  On  this  ground  the  right 
of  suffrage,  the  right  to  hold  property,  the  right  to 
work,  etc.,  have  been  defended.  Modern  social 
philosophy,  however,  uses  a  humanitarian  plea  in 
the  place  of  the  more  abstract  conception  of  natural 
rights.     See  Law  of  Nature;  Justice. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

NATURAL  THEOLOGY.— See  Natural  Re- 


NATURALISM. — The  attempt  to  explain  all 
reahty,  including  psychical  activity,  in  terms  of 
"natural"  processes,  in  opposition  to  any  appeal  to 
occult  or  supernatural  forces. 


Nature 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


304 


Naturalism  makes  thoroughgoing  use  of  the 
principles  of  natural  science  to  secure  a  unified  plii- 
losophy .  Mental  or  spiritual  life  is  regarded  as  con- 
tinuous with  physical  phenomena.  "Nature"  is 
the  all-sufficient  source  of  everjdihing.  The  prob- 
lems of  a  duaUstic  metaphysics  are  thus  set 
aside. 

The  precise  content  of  Naturalistic  philosophy 
will  obviously  depend  upon  the  conception  of 
"Nature"  which  is  held.  If  Nature  is  conceived  in 
terms  of  physical  force,  NaturaUsm  will  be  closely 
alhed  to  Materialism  (q.v.).  Usually,  however, 
some  more  technical  interpretation  of  Nature  is 
employed.  Haeckel's  Monism,  e.g.,  was  a  kind 
of  hylozoism,  in  which  ultimate  physical  forces 
were  pictured  as  having  rudimentary  psychic 
powers  of  attraction  or  repulsion.  All  attempted 
naturalistic  metaphysical  explanations,  however,  are 
so  vulnerable  that  a  characteristic  modern  attitude 
is  to  insist  on  Agnosticism  (q.v.)  beyond  the  realm 
of  demonstrable  relationships.  Naturalism  in  this 
sense  means  a  refusal  to  indulge  in  speculation 
beyond  the  realm  of  scientific  investigation. 

Religiously,  NaturaUsm  denotes  a  refusal  to 
recognize  any  appeal  to  supernatural  forces.  Reli- 
gious experience  is  declared  to  be  expUcable  in  terms 
of  natural  processes.  Here,  again,  any  particular 
naturaUstic  explanation  of  religion  is  conditioned  by 
a  prior  conception  of  "Nature."  If  Nature  be 
viewed  as  a  purely  physical  reaUty,  the  objects  of 
rehgious  faith  are  declared  to  be  figments  of  the 
imagination.  If,  however,  Nature  be  idealistically 
construed,  religion  may  be  regarded  as  an  interpre- 
tation of  the  spiritual  aspects  of  the  universe. 
This  latter  position,  while  denying  the  supernatural, 
may  affirm  God  as  immanent  in  the  universe,  and 
religious  knowledge  as  a  natural  achievement. 

In  ethics,  NaturaUsm  denotes  the  theory  that 
men  should  be  guided  in  conduct  by  natural  impulses 
and  interests,  instead  of  being  required  to  obey  alien 
authority.  Here,  too,  the  term  is  ambiguous.  It 
may  at  one  extreme  mean  sheer  sensualism,  or,  at 
the  other,  it  may  indicate  a  fine  rational  self- 
control,  as  in  the  Stoic  precept  to  "Live  accord- 
ing to  Nature,"  Nature  here  signifying  a  divine 
order  of  things.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

NATURE.— The  totality  of  things  in  tune  and 
space,  with  all  their  operations. 

Primitive  Christianity  inherited  the  Jewish  con- 
ception of  nature,  based  on  the  earUer  Hebrew 
conception,  according  to  which  natural  objects  had 
been  created  by  God  s  act,  and  natural  events  were 
the  direct  manifestation  of  God's  will.  Beyond 
the  necessary  dependence  on  them  for  simple  agri- 
cultural and  industrial  uses,  there  was  no  reflection 
upon  natural  processes  in  themselves,  no  interest 
in  natural  science.  On  the  contrary  the  events  of 
nature  were  charged  with  the  moral  purposes  of 
God.  There  was  no  sharp  distinction  between 
natural  and  supernatural  events,  although  special 
events  or  "wonders"  were  unusually  clear  manifesta- 
tions of  God's  will.  This  Hebrew  conception  was 
modified  in  Jewish  thinking  by  emphasis  on  the 
moral  transcendence  of  God,  from  whom  nature  had 
been  morally  sundered  (the  fall),  and  whose  holiness 
removed  Him  from  the  world  of  nature  except  as 
He  was  expected  to  over-master  it  again  in  an 
apocalyptic  future  (redemption). 

This  early  Jewish  and  Christian  conception  was 
diversely  modified  by  Greek  influences.  These 
were  mainly  Stoic  and  Neoplatonic.  The  Stoics 
(q.v.)  had  developed  a  theory  of  nature  as  a  theory 
or  system  of  natural  laws,  in  the  operation  of  which 
the  wise  man  acquiesced.  Marcus  Aurelius  had 
exclaimed,  "O  Nature,  from  thee  are  all  things,  in 
thee  are  all  things,  to  thee  all  things  return."     Neo- 


platonism  (q.v.)  had  considered  nature  to  be  an 
emanation  from  God,  originating  in  the  divine  and 
destined  to  be  absorbed  again  into  the  divine. 
This  influence  combined  wdth  that  of  the  Stoics  to 
produce  a  tendency  toward  pantheism  (q.v.);  God 
and  nature  were  identified.  On  the  other  hand  Neo- 
platonism  regarded  the  present  world  of  nature, 
already  emanated  and  not  yet  re-absorbed,  as 
contrary  to  the  divine  nature  and  utterly  evil. 
This  condemnation  of  nature  led  to  a  strongly  ascetic 
attitude.  In  the  history  of  Christian  thinking 
these  three  conceptions,  of  a  transcendent  God 
making  and  using  nature,  of  God  and  nature  as 
aspects  of  one  rationally  ordered  reality,  and  of  nature 
as  the  embodiment  of  evil  in  duaUstic  separa- 
tion from  God,  are  usually  present,  in  antagonism, 
combination,  or  unstable  equiUbrium. 

After  the  powerful  effort  of  Augustine  (q.v.) 
to  combine  these  tendencies  in  a  coherent  theological 
system,  medieval  Christianity  fell  back  in  some 
degree  into  a  crude  sort  of  animism  (q.v.).  Nature 
was  viewed  practically  as  the  seat  of  numberless 
evil  spirits,  from  whom  men  were  liable  to  sustain 
moral  and  physical  injury,  and  against  whom  ascetic 
practices  and  religious  and  magical  rites  were 
required  as  a  safeguard.  In  this  welter  of  diabolism 
the  conception  of  a  world  ordered  by  divine  wisdom 
was  almost  lost.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages,  however, 
the  scholastic  thinkers  took  up  again  with  great 
intellectual  vigor  the  theistic  conception  of  the 
natural  world  as  the  object  of  God's  creation, 
providence,  and  grace. 

The  modern  age  has  been  marked  by  interest  in 
nature  for  its  own  sake,  direct  study  of  its  processes, 
extended  formulation  of  its  laws,  practical  use  of  its 
operations,  and  reverence  for  nature  as  a  whole; 
these  may  be  regarded  as  various  phases  of  natural- 
ism. Naturalism  has  had  but  little  effect  upon  the 
more  rigidly  orthodox  theism,  for  which  nature  is 
vehicle  of  (jod's  grace  and  providence,  and  evidence 
of  His  existence  and  attributes;  nor  upon  the 
adventistic  conception  of  nature  as  the  platform  of 
a  supernatural  age-long  drama.  It  has,  however, 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  much  Christian 
thinking,  partly  by  compelling  it  to  forge  ideas 
with  which  to  meet  naturalism  as  an  external  foe, 
and  partly  by  finding  lodgment  within  avowed 
Christianity  and  modifying  it  internally.  This 
scientific  temper  is  revealed  in  several  tendencies. 

1.  Much  Christian  thinking  is  more  or  less 
pantheistic,  divine  transcendence  giving  place  to 
divine  immanence  in  nature.  Where  earlier  pan- 
theism was  mystical  and  ascetic,  the  modern 
tendency  accepts  nature  freely,  seeks  acquaintance 
with  actual  laws  of  nature,  and  reverences  nature 
as  thus  known, 

2.  Specifically  this  tendency  minimizes  the 
place  of  miracles  in  the  conception  of  nature.  When 
the  possibility  of  miracles  is  not  denied,  they  are 
often  explained  away  in  fact  as  due  to  known  or  yet 
unknown  natural  processes,  or  at  least  practically 
ignored  as  significant  for  Christian  thinking. 
Nature  as  one  great  miracle,  every  process  a  divine 
revelation,  are  naturaUstic  conceptions;  and  so  far 
as  they  attach  to  positive  inquiry  into  concrete 
facts  of  nature,  they  are  entirely  modern. 

3.  The  scientific  temper  is  often  skeptical  of 
any  realities  beyond  nature.  Apart  from  its 
extreme  form  of  dogmatic  materiaUsm  (q.v.), 
which  has  scarcely  found  acceptance  in  avowedly 
Christian  minds,  and  from  the  earlier  positivism 
of  Comte  (q.v.),  which  set  up  a  rival  naturalistic 
religion,  a  tendency  toward  agnosticism,  or  acquies- 
cence in  religious  uncertainty,  has  found  a  consider- 
able place  in  Christian  thinking.  This  appears  for 
example  in  surrender  of  clear  religious  conceptions 
because   unattainable,   in   minimizing   the  super- 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Negroes 


natural   and    the    other-worldly,    and    in    definite 
separation  of  attitude  from  knowledge. 

4.  The  doctrine  of  evolution  has  given  the  con- 
ception of  nature  greater  unity,  flexibility,  and 
vitality.  It  has  accelerated  the  tendency  toward 
naturalism  within  religious  thinking,  but  has  also 
rendered  naturalism  less  mechanical,  more  hospi- 
table to  interpretations  in  terms  of  value,  more 
open  to  a  "religion  of  science." 

J.  F.  Crawford 

NATURE-WORSHIP.— The  worship  of  all 
objects  of  nature,  including  natural  phenomena, 
heavenly  bodies,  plants  and  animals. 

In  one  form  or  another,  nature  worship  is  com- 
mon to  all  primitive  religions.  There  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  be  any  tendency  toward  the 
worship  of  nature  in  general,  but  rather  many 
specialized  attitudes  varying  among  different 
peoples  according  to  their  economic  and  social  rela- 
tions. The  objects  of  nature  that  are  worshiped 
are  those  aspects  of  the  physical  and  social  environ- 
ment which  seem  to  be  vitally  connected  with  the 
continuation  of  the  life  process.  Instead,  then, 
of  supposing,  as  did  Max  Miiller,  that  it  is  the 
expression  of  a  general  feeling  of  wonder,  or  awe, 
experienced  by  the  savage  as  he  views  natural 
phenomena,  it  is  more  probable  that  the  attitude 
was  the  purely  practical  one  of  maintaining  life 
and  that  the  attention  was  attracted  by  and  the 
worship  evolved  about  those  objects  and  processes 
which  helped  or  interfered  in  what  the  primitive 
man  was  trying  to  do.  Thus  if  the  sun  is  worshiped 
it  is  because  it  forces  itself  upon  him  by  its  burning 
heat,  its  welcome  warmth,  or  by  its  relation  to 
plant  growth  on  which  he  depends.  A  river  or  the 
sea,  furnishing  subsistence  to  a  tribe,  becomes  a 
focus  of  attention  and  possibly  of  worship.  Not  all 
economically  important  objects  or  phenomena,  how- 
ever, attract  attention  but  rather  those  which  pre- 
sent elements  of  uncertainty  or  of  danger.  The 
objects  of  nature  worship  in  their  relation  to  man 
were  variously  interpreted,  sometimes  as  the  abode 
of  spirits  and  sometimes  merely  as  the  seat  of 
magic  powers. 

Granted  such  an  interest  in  certain  objects  and 
processes  of  nature,  together  with  the  primitive 
philosophy  of  animism,  and  we  have  the  basis  for 
all  sorts  of  elaborate  developments  of  cult  through 
the  reaction  of  social  structures  and  social  habits  of 
the  various  types  of  people  concerned. 

Irving  Kino 

NAVE. — ^The  central  portion  of  a  church  extend- 
ing from  the  chancel  or  choir  to  the  portal.  The 
word  is  derived  from  Latin  navis,  a  ship. 

NAZARENES. — (1)  A  Jewish-Christian  sect 
in  the  early  centuries.  Some  writers  identify 
them  with  the  Ebionites  (q.v.).  (2)  A  sect  number- 
ing some  15,000  members  in  Southern  Hungary, 
observing  extreme  literalism  in  the  use  of  the  New 
Testament,  refusing  to  take  oaths  or  to  render 
military  service,  and  insisting  on  freedom  from  all 
secular  contamination.  (3)  A  sect  in  the  U.S.,  hold- 
ing to  a  literal  interpretation  of  the  Bible  and 
endeavoring  to  reproduce  the  Christianity  of 
apostolic  days. 

NAZIRITES  or  NAZARITES.— The  name  of  a 
group  of  Hebrew  ascetics  (usually  men)  who,  as  the 
result  of  their  vows  to  Yahweh,  abstained  from  the 
use  of  wine,  the  cutting  of  their  hair,  contact  with 
dead  bodies  and  the  use  of  ceremonially  unclean  food. 
At  first  their  vows  seem  to  have  been  taken  for 
life,  but  later  were  limited  to  the  time  required  to 
gain  some  end.  Elaborate  ceremonies  were  required 
for  release  from  the  vows.  Nazirites  are  mentioned 
in  New  Testament  times.    The  Talmud  devotes 


an  entire  tractate  to  the  ceremonies  connected 
with  taking  and  release  from  Nazirite  vows. 

NEANDER,  JOHANN  AUGUST  WILHELM 

(1789-1850). — German  church  historian  and  theo- 
logian, professor  at  Berlin;  a  pupil  of  Schleier- 
macher  and  Planck.  Several  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  Enghsh. 

NECESSITARIANISM.— See  Libertarianism. 

NECESSITY. — A  state  of  existence  or  a  relation- 
ship which  cannot  be  different  from  what  it  is. 
A  situation  which  is  inevitable. 

Strictly  speaking,  a  necessity  is  always  relative 
to  some  physical  or  logical  condition.  The  necessi- 
ties of  fife,  e.g.,  are  those  items,  like  food  and  shelter, 
without  which  life  could  not  exist.  A  logical 
necessity  indicates  an  inevitable  conclusion  if 
certain  premises  be  affirmed.  Logicians  and 
philosophers  have  distinguished  and  named  various 
kinds  of  necessity,  such  as  internal  or  inherent, 
external  or  causal,  logical,  etc.  The  ontological 
argument  (q.v.)  for  the  existence  of  God  asserts  the 
absolute  necessity  of  an  actual  existence  of  God 
on  the  ground  of  our  necessary  idea  of  a  perfect 
Being;  but  Kant's  criticism  showed  that  this  is  a 
relative  rather  than  an  absolute  necessity. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

NECROLOGY.— A  register  of  the  dead  for 
whom  prayers  are  to  be  offered,  or  a  hst  of  persons 
who  have  died  in  a  specific  place  or  during  a  specific 
period,  usually  accompanied  with  obituaries. 

NECROMANCY.— A  method  of  divination 
through  conjuring  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  through  the  misinterpretation  of  a 
corrupt  Latin  form  of  the  word,  it  was  taken  to 
mean  black  art  and  was  appUed  to  all  forms  of  sorcery 
and  evil  magic. 

The  practice,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  is 
found  among  all  primitive  peoples  and  has  persisted 
until  comparatively  modern  times  among  the  civil- 
ized peoples  of  Europe.  It  was  condemned  in  the 
Mosaic  law  although  probably  practiced  more  or 
less  secretly  as  is  witnessed  by  Saul's  invoking  the 
spirit  of  Samuel  through  the  witch  of  Endor.  It 
was  also  known  and  practiced  by  the  Homeric 
Greeks  and  is  often  referred  to  in  the  classic  htera- 
ture  of  Greece  and  Rome.  In  the  early  Christian 
centuries,  while  given  credence  by  the  Church,  it 
was  condemned  as  an  unholy  practice. 

The  rites  of  necromancy  were  often  elaborate  and 
differed  according  to  the  prevailing  conception  of 
the  nature  and  location  of  the  spirits.  As  many 
departed  spirits  were  conceived  as  gods,  we  find 
necromancy  running  over  into  the  rites  associated 
with  the  oracles  of  the  gods.  Irving  King 

NEED-FIRE.— A  new  fire  kindled  by  primitive 
methods  used  as  a  magical  means  of  removing  injury 
from  field  or  herd  and  of  bringing  good  fortune  and 
prosperity  to  the  family  groups  by  contact.  The 
hearth  fires  were  extinguished  and  relit  from  the 
new  fire.  It  dates  back  to  prehistoric  times  among 
the  Aryans  and  survives  in  some  modern  European 
folk  customs. 

NEGROES,  RELIGION  AND  EDUCATION 
AMONG. — I.  Statistics. — There  were  in  1916  in 
the  United  States  42,281  Negro  churches:  6,171 
with  656,848  communicants  were  ^  members  of 
white  denominations,  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  having  more  than  half  this  membership; 
36,210  churches  with  4,231,678  communicants 
were  members  of  independent  Negro  denominations; 
the  Baptists  being  by  far  the  most  numerous  of  all. 


Negroes 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


306 


Baptists  and  Methodists  claim  94  per  cent  of  the 
independent  Negro  churches,  and  97  per  cent  of  the 
membership  of  such  churches.  There  were  in 
1916,  39,186  Negro  Sunday  Schools  in  the  United 
States  with  an  enrollment  of  2,226,156,  5,240  of 
which,  with  an  enrollment  of  300,628,  were  main- 
tained by  Negro  churches  connected  with  white 
denominations;  and  33,946,  with  an  enrollment  of 
1,915,428,  by  independent  Negro  churches.  The 
value  of  Negro  church  property  is  $85,914,873. 
Of  this  stun,  $71,685,347  represents  the  value  of 
property  of  the  independent  Negro  churches. 

It  is  estimated  that  Negro  churches  are  con- 
tributing annually  $300,000  to  missions,  $200,000  of 
which  is  for  home  and  the  remainder  for  foreign 
missions.  The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
began  its  foreign  mission  work  in  1844  and  is  now 
carrying  on  work  in  eight  foreign  countries.  It 
maintains  two  bishops  in  Africa,  where  it  had  before 
the  war  118  ordained  ministers  and  479  unordained 
ministers  and  teachers.  The  Negro  Baptist  Con- 
vention first  organized  a  foreign  mission  board  in 
1880.  Mission  work  is  carried  on  in  five  countries, 
with  51  stations,  83  out  stations  and  43  organized 
churches.  The  mission  work  of  the  African  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Zion  church  was  begun  in  1892.  This 
church  maintains  three  stations,  five  out-stations 
and  eleven  organized  churches  in  the  foreign  field. 

The  Negro  churches  support  175  schools,  with 
property  valued  at  $2,500,000.  The  African  M.E. 
Church  raises  about  $500,000  every  year  for  the 
support  of  its  20  colleges  and  normal  schools.  The 
Negro  Baptists  maintain  altogether  110  colleges 
and  academies,  so-called,  although  many  of  them 
are  little  more  than  primary  schools.  The  Negro 
denominations  publish  68  periodicals,  of  which  57 
are  issued  weekly  and  11  are  issued  monthly  or 
quarterly.  Of  the  57  weekly  journals  29  are  pub- 
lished by  the  Baptist  denomination  and  9  by  three 
different  branches  of  the  Methodist  Church. 

II.  History.— Independent  Negro  churches 
were  established  as  early  as  1776.  The  most  notable 
of  the  early  Negro  churches  is  the  First  African 
Baptist  church.  Savannah,  Ga.,  established  in  1787 
by  Rev.  Abraham  Marshall  (white)  and  Rev. 
Jesse  Peters  (colored).  Andrew  Bryan,  a  slave  of 
Jonathan  Bryan,  was  the  first  preacher.  In  1792, 
after  serious  persecutions,  Bryan  began  the  erection 
of  a  church  building  of  his  own,  and  it  is  notable 
that  he  had  by  this  time  so  far  gained  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  community,  that  the  city  of  Savannah 
gave  the  congregation  a  lot  for  this  purpose.  It 
was  in  the  Negro  church  that  the  earliest  evidences 
of  Negro  race  consciousness  manifested  itself,  and 
in  its  religious  organizations  that  the  Negro  com- 
munity first  sought  and  gained  independence  and 
recognition.  This  lends  significance  to  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  first  African  Baptist 
Church  in  Savannah  was  founded. 

The  first  organization  of  Negro  churches  as 
an  independent  denomination  had  its  origin  when 
an  attempt  was  made  at  St.  George's  Church, 
Philadelphia,  to  move  Richard  Allen  and  some  other 
Negro  members  of  the  congregation  from  their 
accustomed  seats  in  the  body  of  the  church  to  the 
gallery.  The  Negroes  objected,  and  walked  out 
of  the  church.  April  17,  1787,  Richard  Allen 
and  Absalom  Jones  formed  the  Free  African  Society, 
a  sort  of  union  or  community  Negro  church, 
"formed  without  regard  to  religious  tenets,  pro- 
vided the  persons  live  an  orderly  and  sober  life," 
but  inspired,  so  far  at  least  as  its  leaders  were 
concerned,  by  "a  love  of  the  people  of  their  own 
complexion."  But  it  was  not  possible  at  that  time, 
and  for  these  people,  to  maintain  for  long  a  church 
without  a  creed.  In  1790  Allen,  with  a  few  fol- 
owers,  withdrew  from  the  fellowship  and  started 


the  Independent  Methodist  Church.  In  1816 
a  conference  of  other  independent  Negro  Methodist 
churches  was  held  and  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  founded  with  Richard 
Allen  as  first  bishop. 

In  1796  colored  members  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  in  New  York  decided  to  form  a 
separate  congregation  in  which  they  "might  have 
opportunity  to  exercise  their  spiritual  gifts  among 
themselves  and  thereby  be  more  useful  to  one 
another."  This  was  the  nucleus  of  what  is  now 
known  as  the  "Zion"  Methodist  connection.  From 
1801  to  1820  this  organization,  although  it  had  its 
own  preachers,  was  under  the  pastoral  supervision 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  In  1820 
colored  Methodist  congregations  in  New  York, 
New  Haven,  Long  Island,  and  Philadelphia  severed 
their  connections  with  the  Methodist  church  and 
United  to  form  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Connection. 

Until  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  the  Negro 
Methodists  of  the  Southern  States  remained  within 
the  fold  of  the  Methodist  churches  and  at  the 
close  of  the  war  there  were  207,742  colored  members 
of  the  Methodist  Church  South.  By  1866  this 
number  had  been  reduced  to  78,742.  In  that  year 
the  Southern  Methodist  Church  authorized  its 
colored  members,  at  their  own  request,  to  organize 
separate  congregations  under  their  own  preachers, 
and  in  1870  two  bishops  were  appointed  to  organize 
the  colored  conference  into  a  separate  and  independ- 
ent association  which  took  the  name  of  the  Colored 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  In  1908  representa- 
tives of  the  A.M.E.,  the  C.M.E.,  and  the  A.M.Z. 
churches  met  in  the  First  Council  of  the  United 
Board  of  Bishops.  The  purpose  of  this  council  was 
to  establish  closer  working  relations  between  the 
three  more  important  Methodist  bodies. 

The  first  Negro  Baptist  association  in  the  United 
States,  the  Providence  Baptist  Association,  was 
organized  in  Ohio  in  1836  and  in  1880  the  National 
Baptist  Convention  was  organized  at  Montgomery, 
Ala. 

III.  Edttcation. — The  education  of  the  Negro 
was  begun  by  the  first  missionaries  sent  out  from 
England  to  the  Indians  and  the  slaves.  The 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts  established  a  school  for  Negroes  in  Charleston 
in  1745.  The  St.  Francis  Academy  for  colored 
people  was  established  at  Baltimore  in  1829  by 
the  Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence,  a  colored  woman's 
sisterhood  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  Society  of  Friends  (Quakers)  in  1837 
established  what  is  now  the  Cheyney  Training 
School  for  Teachers  at  Cheyney,  Pa.  _  In  1854 
the  Presbyterians  established  at  Hinsonville, 
Chester  County,  the  Ashmun  Institute,  since  1866 
known  as  Lincoln  University.  In  1856  the  Ohio 
Conference  of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  which  had  opened  Union  Seminary  twelve 
miles  west  of  Columbus,  united  with  the  Ohio 
Conference  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  establishing 
Wilberforce  University  near  Xenia.  In  1863 
this  institution  was  sold  to  Bishop  Payne  and 
passed  wholly  into  the  hands  of  the  African  M.E. 
church. 

It  was  not  until  the  Proclamation  of  Emanci- 
pation that  the  work  of  educating  the  Negro  was 
undertaken  on  any  large  scale  by  the  churches. 
The  first  school  for  the  freedmen  was  established 
by  the  American  Missionary  Association  at  Fortress 
Monroe,  September  17,  1861.  This  school,  under 
the  direction  of  Gen.  S.  C.  Armstrong  and  his 
successors,  has  since  gained  international  fame 
under  the  title  of  Hampton  Institute.  The  more 
important  schools  established  by  the  Associa- 
tion after  the  war  were  Fisk  University  at  Nash- 


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Neoscholastlcism 


ville,  Tenn.,  in  1866;  Taledega  College,  Taledega, 
Ala.,  in  1867;  Hampton  Institute  in  1868;  Atlanta 
University,  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  Straight  Uni- 
versity at  New  Orleans  in  1869.  The  Institute  at 
Tuskegee,  Ala.,  founded  by  Booker  T.  Washington, 
derived  its  inspiration  from  Hampton,  and  has 
been  a  pioneer  in  stressing  industrial  eaucation. 

At  first  the  work  of  Negro  education  was  unde- 
nominational, but  eventually  most  of  these  schools 
became  independent  and  schools  established  later 
were  under  the  control  of  the  separate  denomina- 
tions. The  total  number  of  schools  maintained 
by  white  denominations  in  1916  was  354,  of  which 
160  are  classed  as  large  and  194  as  small  or  unimpor- 
tant. The  total  enrollment  in  these  schools  was 
51,529,  of  which  43,605  were  in  elementary,  7,188 
in  secondary,  and  736  in  the  college  grades. 

Of  the  eighteen  societies  which  were  supporting 
Negro  mission  schools  in  the  South  in  1916,  the 
American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  supported 
24  schools,  with  a  total  income  of  $304,861;  the 
Catholic  Board  of  Missions,  112  schools,  with  a 
total  income  of  $146,821;  the  American  Missionary 
Association  (Congregational),  29  schools,  with  a 
total  income  of  $235,764;  the  Board  of  Missions  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  85  schools,  with  a  total 
income  of  $200,124;  the  Board  of  Freedman's 
Missions  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
15  schools,  with  a  total  income  of  $88,512;  the 
Freedman's  Aid  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  18  schools,  with  a  total  income  of  $230,160; 
the  Woman's  Home  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  12  schools,  with  a 
total  income  of  $42,975;  and  the  American  Church 
Institute  (Episcopal),  24  schools,  with  a  total 
income  of  $118,526.  Robert  E.  Park 

NEMESIS. — In  classical  mythology,  the  god- 
dess who  presides  over  moral  retribution,  seeing 
that  rewards  and  punishments  are  proportioned 
to  conduct.  Analogously,  any  event  of  retributive 
fate  due  to  cosmic  or  historical  forces  rather  than 
to  mere  human  activity. 

NEO-CATHOHC. — ^A  term  used  to  designate 
members  of  the  Anglican  church  with  a  pronovmced 
sympathy  with  the  R.C.  system. 

NEOPHYTE. — In  the  mystery  cults,  a  person 
just  initiated.  In  the  early  church,  a  newly  bap- 
tized person  who  ordinarily  wore  a  white  robe 
for  eight  days,  from  Easter  eve  till  the  Sunday 
following  Easter.  In  the  R.C.  church,  a  newly 
ordained  priest;  and,  more  generally,  a  new  convert 
from  another  religious  group. 

NEOPLATONISM. — A  type  of  eclectic  ancient 
mystical  philosophy.  Alexandria,  the  intellectual 
center  of  the  ancient  world  after  300  B.C.,  became 
the  home  of  many  eclectic  philosophies.  When 
Stoicism,  Epicureanism,  and  the  Academic  and 
Peripatetic  Schools  no  longer  satisfied,  new  forms 
of  philosophic  doctrine  were  evolved  in  which 
mysticism  was  combined  with  elements  drawn  from 
the  older  schools,  especially  from  Platonism.  The 
most  influential  of  these  was  Neoplatonism,  which 
through  Augustine  passed  into  Christian  theology. 

I.  Origin. — Tradition  makes  Ammonius  Saccas, 
at  the  beginnmg  of  the  3rd.  century,  the  founder 
of  Neopkitonism.  Of  his  teachings  we  know 
nothing.  The  real  founder  was  Plotinus  (204- 
269);  he  and  his  pupil  Porphyry  are  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  school  in  its  first  period. 
The  system  was  based  on  Platonism  with  large 
borrowings  from  the  Stoic,  Judeo-Alexandrian,  and 
other  schools;  like  other  schools  of  the  day  it  held 
to  a  beUef  in  the  possibiUty  of  a  direct  revelation  of 


God  to  man,  and  had  confidence  in  the  efficacy 
of  an  ascetic  regimen.  The  direct  apprehension 
of  the  divine  was  the  prime  rehgious  passion  of 
the  age. 

II.  Metaphysics  and  Theology. — Meta- 
physicallv  the  problem  for  Neoplatonism  was  to 
explain  the  relation  of  the  one  to  the  many  in  such  a 
way  that  the  spiritual  unity  of  the  universe  could 
be  shown,  and  the  path  to  God  made  clear.  This 
task  it  accomphshed  by  postulating  a  series  of 
gradations,  diminishing  in  perfection,  between 
God  and  Matter.  At  the  head  of  the  series  is  God, 
whose  nature  is  beyond  aU  description,  for  he  is 
above  all  quaUties,  above  knowledge  and  reason. 
He  is  absolute  unity;  relatively  we  must  conceive 
him  to  be  pure  creative  activity,  at  once  the  first 
cause  of  the  cosmos  and  its  final  cause.  Without 
effort  God  overflows  in  emanations,  with  no  loss 
to  himself,  exactly  as  the  sun  sends  forth  its  rays. 
The  first  grade  of  emanation  is  IntelUgence  (nous), 
in  which  are  the  causes  of  aU  things.  The  second 
grade  is  the  World-soul  (psyche),  which  distributes 
itself  into  individual  souls.  The  final  grade, 
farthest  removed  from  the  One,  is  Matter,  wMch  is 
absolute  negation  of  Being  and  hence  evil;  therefore 
the  world  of  sense  is  irrational  and  evil.  When  indi- 
vidual souls  descend  from  the  World-soul  into  matter 
they  forget  their  divine  origin,  even  as  the  sunlight 
is  dimmed  or  lost  when  it  descends  into  darkness. 
The  individual  soul  then  must  be  made  to  remember 
its  divine  source,  to  cease  caring  for  things  which 
are  not  its  concern,  and  to  reverence  the  things  of 
the  spirit.  To  accomphsh  the  soul's  return  Plotinus 
taught  that  an  ascetic  mode  of  hfe  must  be  adopted. 
Porphyry  says  that  his  master  so  despised  his  body 
that  he  seemed  ashamed  of  its  possession,  and  he 
himself  urged  men  to  regard  the  flesh  as  a  garment 
which  burdened  and  defiled  them. 

III.  Virtues. — Plotinus  held  that  the  mass  of 
men  could  not  rise  above  the  senses;  a  small  number 
could  devote  themselves  to  the  virtues  of  the  prac- 
tical life;  a  third  class  could  follow  the  fight  from 
above  and  rise  to  the  contemplative  life,  in  which  the 
virtues  are  related  to  Intelligence  alone.  Finally 
there  were  a  few,  who  in  ecstasy,  when  the  soul 
forgot  thought  and  self,  might  mount  to  union  with 
God  and  to  complete  knowledge.  This  Beatific 
Vision  Plotinus  himseK  received  four  times,  accord- 
ing to  his  biographer. 

IV.  Later  History. — ^The  second  period  in 
Neoplatonism  was  inaugurated  by  lambUcus 
(ca.  280-ca.  330)  who  devoted  himself  to  bringing  into 
a  system  all  the  cults  of  paganism  known  to  him. 
Before  the  end  of  the  4th.  century  even  the  leaders 
reahzed  that  this  had  failed,  and  in  the  third  and 
last  period — -Proclus  (410-485)  is  the  greatest  name 
— the  school  returned  to  the  study  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle.  Clifford  H.  Moore 

NEOPYTHAGOREANISM.— A  late  eclectic 
school  of  Greek  philosophy  whose  best-known  repre- 
sentative was  ApoUonius  of  Tyana  (1st.  century 
A.D.).  Its  distinctive  tenets  were  a  monotheistic 
theology  and  a  sharp  dualism  of  spirit  and  matter, 
man's  body  being  regarded  as  a  prison  from  which 
the  soul  could  be  delivered  only  by  the  aid  of  divine 
revelation. 

NEOSCHOLASTICISM.— A  movement  in 
CathoUc  philosophy,  beginning  in  the  second  half 
of  the  19th.  century,  which  seeks  to  further  the  study 
of  scholasticism  (q.v.)j  to  eliminate  from  it  false 
and  useless  notions  while  retaining  its  fundamental 
principles,  to  assimilate  to  it  modern  scientific 
and  historical  knowledge,  and  while  remaining 
strictly  orthodox  to  apply  it  to  modern  conditions. 
Its   leading   representative   has   been   Mgr.    (now 


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308 


Cardinal)  Mercier  of  the  University  of  Louvain; 
its  leading  organ,  Revue  neoscolastique.  The  move- 
ment includes  CathoUc  writers  and  teachers  in  most 
countries.  Its  best  expression  in  English  is  the 
Stonyhurst  series  of  textbooks  in  the  several  philo- 
sophic disciplines.  J.  F.  Crawford 

NEPTUNE.— A  water  deity  of  the  early 
Romans,  later  assimilated  -to  the  Greek  Poseidon. 
He  became  the  symbol  of  the  sea  and  searpower. 

NEREID. — In  Greek  mythology  one  of  the 
nymphs  (q.v.)  of  the  sea. 

NERGAL. — A  sun-god  of  Babylonia  who 
became  specialized  to  represent  the  destructive  power 
of  the  sun.  As  maleficent  he  was  also  the  god  of 
disease,  pestilence  and  death;  later  he  became 
joint  ruler  of  the  underworld  realm  of  the  dead, 
Aralu. 

NERTHUS.— A  mother-goddess  of  the  Teutons 
who  was  represented  in  some  tangible  form  and 
drawn  about  in  a  chariot  amid  rejoicings  at  the 
spring-time  festival.  She  symbolizes  the  life- 
giving  fertility  of  the  Garth. 

NESTORIANISM.— The  doctrine  that  the  divine 
and  the  human  natxires  of  Christ  were  so  distinct 
that  the  latter  only  was  subject  to  human  conditions. 
To  call  Mary  "Mother  of  God"  {theotokos)  was 
improper,  since  only  the  human  nature  was  bom  of 
her.  The  doctrine  was  advocated  by  Nestorius  and 
at  the  council  of  Ephesus  (431)  was  declared 
heretical. 

NESTORIANS.— A  Christian  sect  which  arose 
in  the  5th.  century.  Ibas,  a  presbyter  from  Edessa, 
had  supported  Nestorius  at  Ephesus.  His  school 
at  Edessa  was  suppressed  in  489  and  its  members 
scattered,  carrying  Nestorian  views  everywhere. 
In  Syria  and  Persia  the  Nestorian  church  expanded 
very  rapidly.  When  the  Mohammedans  overran 
Persia  the  Nestorians  removed  to  Mesopotamia. 
Persecuted  by  the  orthodox  church  and  by  the 
Byzantine  empire,  they  were  driven  eastward. 
Their  missionary  activities  carried  them  to  Armenia, 
Arabia,  Media,  China,  and  India.  The  Indian 
Syrian  church,  which  still  exists  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  was  founded  by  the  Nestorian  missionaries 
in  the  7th.  or  8th.  century.  There  are  evidences  of 
Nestorian  Christianity  in  China  from  the  7th.  to  the 
9th.  centuries.  The  modern  Nestorians  are  found 
in  Persia  and  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  church  has  been 
comparatively  static  both  as  regards  cult  and 
doctrine.  Nestorius  is  commemorated  and  invoked 
as  a  saint.  The  Virgin  Mary  is  venerated,  but  the 
expression,  "Mother  of  God"  (q.v.)  is  denied. 
The  services  are  highly  hturgical.  Missions  to  the 
Nestorians  have  been  conducted  by  the  R.C. 
Dominicans  in  Turkey  since  1838,  the  American 
Presbyterians  in  Persia  since  1834,  the  Church  of 
England  in  Assyria  since  1886,  and  the  Russian 
Orthodox  church  in  Assyria  since  1898. 

NESTORIUS.— Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
428-431.  He  opposed  the  designation  "Mother 
of  God"  apphed  to  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus. 
The  council  of  Ephesus  (431),  condemned  his 
position.  He  was  banished  in  435,  and  died  in  450. 
See  Nestorianism. 

NE  TEMERE.— A  decree  promulgated  by 
Pop©  Pius  X.  in  1907,  declaring  that  baptized 
Catholics  can  be  validly  married  only  before  the 
Catholic  pastor  of  the  place  and  two  witnesses,  A 
non-Catholic,  marrying  a  Catholic,  must  promise 


not  to  interfere  with  the  Catholic  party's  practice 
of  religion  and  to  rear  the  children  in  the  CathoUc 
faith. 

NEUCHATEL,  INDEPENDENT  EVAN- 
GELICAL CHURCH  OF.— An  independent  Evan- 
geUcal  church,  organized  1873  in  the  canton  of 
Neuchatel.  The  movement  began  in  the  16th. 
century,  through'  Farel's  (q.v.)  preaching.  Till 
1848  it  was  controlled  by  the  "Company  of  Pastors." 
The  Revolution  of  1848  brought  state  interference 
and  reorganization,  administration  centering  in  a 
synod  (lay  and  clerical).  The  efforts  of  rehgious 
hberals  in  government  to  disrupt  the  movement 
(1865)  led  to  a  further  reorganization  (1873),  inde- 
pendent of  the  state.  The  church  is  still  synodically 
controlled.  Henry  H.  Walker 

NEW  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.— An  offshoot  of 
the  CathoUc  Apostolic  church  (q.v.),  having  the 
same  type  of  organization,  the  same  doctrinal 
basis,  with  a  single  modification  as  to  poUty. 

In  1862,  owing  to  a  disagreement  in  the  CathoUc 
ApostoUc  church  in  Germany  over  the  selection  of 
apostles,  the  New  ApostoUc  church  was  organized. 
The  parent  organization  had  been  founded  on  the 
basis  of  twelve  apostles;  the  new^body  held  that, 
although  the  number  of  the  apostles  might  never 
be  less,  it  might  be  more  than  twelve.  The  three 
great  creeds.  Apostles',  Nicene,  and  Athanasian,  are 
the  standard  of  belief  and  teaching.  The  supreme 
officers  of  the  church  are  apostles  whose  decision 
is  final  on  matters  of  doctrine  and  poUty.  The 
first  church  in  the  United  States  was  organized  in 
1897,  and  there  are  now  thirteen  churches,  nineteen 
ministers,  and  about  two  thousand  members. 

C.  A.  Beckwith 

NEW  ENGLAND  THEOLOGY.— A  type  of 
theology  which  flourished  in  the  Congregational 
churches  of  America  from  about  1750  to  1900. 

Arising  on  the  background  of  the  Westminster 
Confession  (q.v.),  it  was  an  attempt  to  shift  the 
emphasis  from  divine  decrees  to  human  agency  and 
to  harmonize  theology  with  experience  and  especially 
reason.  The  subjects  of  discussion  were:  (1)  the 
decrees  and  agency  of  God;  (2)  the  will  and  moral 
agency  of  man;  (3)  the  nature  and  source  of  sin; 
(4)  the  divine  "permission"  of  sin;  (5)  "power  to 
the  contrary";  (6)  place  of  sin  in  a  moral  system; 
(7)  the  atonement;  (8)  regeneration;  (9)  the 
Trinity.  In  the  old  world  the  reason  had  sub- 
mitted itseK  to  the  established  authority,  but  in  the 
new  world  under  the  new  political  and  reUgious 
freedom,  it  would  call  no  man  master.  The  rational 
awakening,  due  to  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz, 
Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Reid  and  to  the  English 
Deists,  applied  itself  to  untrammeled  investigation 
of  the  orthodox  belief.  Attention  was  concentrated 
whoUy  on  the  experience  of  sin  and  salvation,  and 
this  was  subjected  to  acute  psychological  analysis. 
Final  authority  was  allowed  to  the  individual 
judgment  alone.  Although  the  Scriptures  were 
freely  used  for  exposition,  illustration,  and  proof- 
texts,  yet  at  best  they  sustained  no  vital  but  only 
a  formal  relation  to  theology.  In  their  controversies 
with  the  UniversaUsts  and  Unitarians  (qq.v.)  the 
New  England  theologians  assumed  the  same 
attitude  toward  the  reason  and  the  authority  of 
the  Scriptures  as  their  opponents,  only  they  repre- 
sented a  different  point  of  view.  Their  radical 
difference  lay  in  their  conception  of  Christian 
experience. 

^he  essential  meaning  of  the  New  England 

theology  is  that  it  was  the  first  thorough-going 

ittempt  completely  to  rationaUze  the  evangelical 

faith.     The  finished  product  was  labeled  a  modified 

[Calvinism,   although   it   had   been   shorn   of   the 


309 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


New  l^estament 


essential  features  of  Calvinism.  After  1860  new 
creative  forces  appeared  iu  America — the  piii- 
losophy  of  Kant  and  Hegel,  the  theory  of  evolution, 
the  historical  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  in  general 
a  new  attitude  and  approach  to  rehgion.  By  1900 
the  New^  England  theology  had  become  only  a 
tradition  in  every  lecture-room  of  the  denomination. 
It  had,  however,  prepared  the  way  for  a  new  order, 
and  the  transition  was  made  silently  and  without 
loss  of  any  values  dear  to  faith.  Chief  representa- 
tives of  the  system  were  the  two  Edwardses,  father 
and  son,  Joseph  Bellamy,  Samuel  Hopkins,  Stephen 
West,  Timothy  Dwight,  Nathaniel  Emmons,  Asa 
Burton,  Leonard  Woods,  Nathaniel  W.  Taylor, 
Samuel  Harris,  and  Edwards  A.  Park. 

C.  A.  Beckwith 
NEW     JERUSALEM,     CHURCH     OF.— The 
name  assumed  by  those  who  accept  the  teachings 
of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  as  authoritative. 

1.  History. — Swedenborg  (1688-1772)  appears 
not  to  have  contemplated  founding  a  church.  Six 
years  after  his  death,  English  translations  of  his 
works  began  to  appear,  many  influential  people 
adopted  his  teachings,  several  clergymen  preached 
the  doctrines  from  their  pulpits  and  in  missionary 
tours  acquainted  large  circles  with  the  new  evangel. 
In  1787  the  first  church  was  organized.  Several 
ministers  who  had  been  Methodist  preachers  were 
ordained.  The  new  teaching  found  converts  also 
in  France,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Sweden.  As 
early  as  1784  Swedenborg's  doctrine  reached 
Philadelphia.  In  1789  Benjamin  Franklin  and 
others  of  note  subscribed  for  an  edition  of  True 
Christian  Religion.  In  1792  a  society  was  organ- 
ized in  Baltimore,  and  was  soon  followed  by  others 
in  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Cincinnati,  and  New  York. 
In  1915  there  were  in  Great  Britain  72  societies, 
46  ministers,  and,  including  Ireland,  about  10,000 
members;  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  96 
societies,  103  ministers,  and  6,363  members. 

2.  Organization. — The  officers  of  the  church  are 
ordaining  ministers  or  general  pastors,  ordained 
ministers,  leaders,  and  preachers.  In  Great  Britain 
the  church  unites  in  an  annual  "General  Confer- 
ence"; in  America  a  similar  body  is  designated  as 
the  "General  Convention." 

3.  Teachings. — The  characteristic  teachings  of 
the  church  are:  (1)  the  Scriptures  are  the  word  of 
God;  they  contain  a  twofold  meaning,  literal,  and 
celestial;  (2)  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  the  first  one 
to  whom  this  celestial  meaning  was  disclosed, 
made  this  known  in  his  writings;  (3)  according  to 
this  revelation — (a)  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Father  in  his 
essential  divinity,  the  Son  in  his  essential  humanity; 
(6)  both  evil  and  good  spirits  attend  man,  keeping 
his  free  will  in  equilibrium;  (c)  regeneration  is 
progressive,  through  love  and  faith;  (d)  Jesus 
instituted  baptism  as  sign  of  entrance  to  the  church, 
the  Lord's  Supper  as  sign  and  seal  of  introduction 
into  heaven;  (e)  the  church  is  to  the  world  what 
heart  and  lungs  are  to  the  body;  (/)  man  rises  from 
death  in  substantial,  perfect  human  form;  {g)  by 
this  revelation  through  Swedenborg  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  makes  his  second  advent  to  the  world, 
thus  bringing  to  pass  a  new  dispensation  of  judg- 
ment and  a  consummation  of  the  age. 

4.  Ritual. — This  is  patterned  after  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer;  all  prayers  are,  however, addressed 
to  Jesus  Christ  as  the  only  God. 

5.  Education. — Training  is  provided  in  a  pre- 
paratory school  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  in  the  New 
Church  University,  Urbana,  Ohio,  the  Theological 
School,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  in  the  New  Church 
College,  London. 

6.  Publications. — The  writings  of  Swedenborg 
have    been    translated    into    various    languages — • 


Arabic,  Danish,  English,  French,  Hindu,  Icelandic, 
Italian,  Magyar,  PoUsh,  Russian,  Swedish,  and 
Welsh.  Many  hundreds  of  volumes  are  annually 
distributed  without-  cost  to  clergymen  in  Great 
Britain  and  America.  There  are  also  the  New 
Church  Magazine,  New  Church  Quarterly  Review, 
New  Church  Review,  and  other  periodicals  in 
various  languages.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

NEW  MANICHAEANS.— A  generic  term  for 
certain  mediaeval  sects  which  indicate  a  revival 
of  Manichaeism  (q.v.)  in  their  dualism,  asceticism 
and  organization.  In  the  East,  Manichaean  doc- 
trines reappeared  in  the  Bogomiles  and  Euchites, 
and  in  the  West  in  the  Albigenses,  Cathari  and 
Bulgari.  (qq.v.) 


^ 


NEW  TESTAMENT.— An  abbreviation 
"The  Books  of  the  New  Testament,"  i.e.,  the  Chris- 
tian as  distinguished  from  the  ancient  Scriptures 
Christianity  was  identified  with  the  new  covenant 
foretold  in  Jer.  31:31,  and  the  Greek  word  diatheke  = 
"covenant"  had  also  the  meaning  of  a  "testament" 
or  "will."  Owing  to  this  confusion  a  wrong  trans- 
lation was  given  in  Latin  (and  hence  in  English)  to 
the  title  "The  Books  of  the  New  Covenant." 

The  N.T.  (in  the  West)  consists  of  27  writings, 
varying  in  length  and  character,  which  were 
composed  from  about  50-130  a.d.  The  four  Gospels 
and  the  Epistles  of  Paul  form  the  nucleus  of  the 
volume.  The  Gospel  history  is  continued  in  the 
book  of  Acts,  while  to  Paul's  Epistles  are  added 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  so-called 
Catholic  Epistles  (James,  I  and  II  Peter,  I,  II,  and 
III  John,  Jude).  An  apocalyptic  work.  Revelation, 
is  appended  in  the  Western  canon.  The  writings 
are  composed  in  Greek,  which  was  the  language 
generally  current  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  Roman 
empire;  but  the  Greek  employed  is  the  spoken  as 
contrasted  with  the  hterarjr  dialect.  It  is  possible 
that  primitive  documents  in  Aramaic  or  Hebrew 
may  underUe  several  of  the  books  (Matt.,  Mark, 
Luke,  Acts  1-12,  Rev.).     See  Canon;  Gospel. 

The  Bible  of  the  Christian  church  was  originally 
the  Old  Testament,  but  the  sayings  of  Jesus,  pre- 
served orally  or  in  short  written  collections,  seem 
from  the  first  to  have  had  scriptural  authority. 
They  were  incorporated  in  various  Gospels,  of 
which  four  were  ultimately  selected,  and  which 
hkewise  ranked  as  Scripture,  Paul's  Epistles 
were  held  in  high  honor,  but  for  nearly  a  century 
were  regarded  merely  as  edifying  works.  The 
idea  of  a  New  Testament  seems  to  have  originated 
about  150  A.D.  with  Marcion  (q.v.),  who  shared 
the  Gnostic  antipathy  to  the  Old  Testament,  and 
.sought  to  replace  it  by  a  purely  Christian  Bible. 
His  N.T.  consisted  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke  and 
ten  Epistles  of  Paul.  The  orthodox  church  took 
up  Marcion's  idea  the  more  readily  as  many  heretical 
works  were  in  circulation  under  the  names  of 
revered  Apostles.  Writings  with  an  authentic 
claim  were  singled  out,  and  were  placed  on  a  Ust  or 
"canon,"  which  was  not  finally  settled  tiU  about  the 
middle  of  the  4th.  century.  Ostensibly  the  selec- 
tion was  made  according  to  certain  literary  and 
theological  tests;  but  the  books  eventually  accepted 
were  simply  those  which  had  proved  most  valuable 
in  the  religious  life  of  the  church. 

The  writings  of  the  N.T.  all  owed  their  origin 
to  the  immediate  needs  of  the  early  Christian 
mission.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistles  by  way  of  counsel 
or  warning  to  churches  which  he  could  not  personally 
visit.  The  CathoUc  Epistles  were  addressed  to 
the  church  generally,  in  view  of  urgent  dangers, 
especially  from  false  teaching.  The  Gospels  and 
Acts  were  handbooks  for  catechetical  instruction, 
while   Revelation   was   intended   to    comfort   the 


New  Thought 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


310 


church  in  a  crisis  of  persecution.  Ahnost  all  the 
books  present  very  difficult  problems — theological, 
exegetical,  Uterary,  historical — which  have  been 
examined  according  to  sound  critical  methods  only 
in  modern  times.  Chief  among  these  problems 
are:  (1)  the  relation  of  the  first  three  Gospelato 
one  another;  (2)  the  authorship  and  character  of 
the  Fourth  Gospel;  (3)  the  authenticity  of  some 
of  the  Epistles  attributed  to  Paul  (especially 
Eph.,  I  and  II  Tim.,  Titus);  (4)  the  origin  and 
destination  of  Hebrews;  (5)  the  sources  and 
purport  of  Revelation.  Of  late  years  much  light 
has  been  thrown  on  the  N.T.  by  our  increasing 
knowledge  of  the  general  life  and  history  of  the 
1st.  century.  To  a  far  greater  extent  than  was 
formerly  suspected  its  authors  were  men  of  their 
time,  who  gave  expression  to  the  new  revelation  in 
contemporary  forms  of  thought  and  language. 

E.  F.  Scott 

NEW  THOUGHT.— A  modern  type  of  opti- 
mistic reUgious  ideaUsm  which  affirms  the  possibility 
of  a  complete  control  of  all  the  conditions  of  Ufa 
by  rightly  directed  thinking,  and  develops  a  specific 
discipline  so  as  to  secure  spiritual  and  physical 
welfare. 

The  term  covers  a  considerable  number  of 
kindred  movements,  grouped  usually  around  some 
gifted  exponent  of  the  possibilities  of  right  thinking. 
While  there  are  minor  variations,  the  following 
principles  are  generally  emphasized:  (1)  A  vital 
conception  of  divine  immanence.  God's  power  and 
activity  are  as  universally  accessible  as  the  air 
which  we  breathe.  (2)  The  natural  kinship  between 
man  and  God,  whereby  man  at  his  best  may  become 
a  complete  sharer  of  the  divine  life.  Opportunity 
rather  than  a  "state  of  sin"  should  be  the  starting- 
point  of  reUgious  thinking.  (3)  The  exaltation  of 
right  thinking  as  the  means  of  appropriating  the 
divine  life.  Thoughts  are  dynamic  entities,  capable 
of  attracting  to  themselves  power.  A  right  thought 
brings  to  the  thinker  the  divine  resources  which  the 
thought  represents.  Wrong  thinking  cuts  the 
thinker  off  from  these  resources,  and  may  lead  from 
bad  to  worse  because  it  attracts  evil  forces.  (4) 
Spiritual  peace,  mental  power  and  physical  health 
("Peace,  power,  and  plenty,"  R.  W.  Trine)  may 
be  secured  by  discipline,  which  consists  in  daily 
study  in  which  the  principles  and  applications  of 
New  Thought  are  expounded  in  detail,  accompanied 
often  by  certain  physical  exercises  intended  to 
bring  muscular  relaxation  and  a  calm  and  expectant 
mental  attitude. 

The  literature  of  New  Thought  has  an  extensive 
circulation.  Its  unbounded  optimism,  its  use  of 
psychological  and  philosophical  terms  with  an 
air  of  scientific  authority,  its  daring  promise  of  cure 
for  all  ills,  its  high  moral  tone,  its  eclectic  method  of 
reaffirming  the  good  in  other  philosophies,  its  skilful 
preparation  of  uplifting  and  practical  lessons  for 
daily  study,  and  its  warm  religious  proclamation 
of  a  gospel  of  oneness  with  the  divine  make  it 
especially  attractive  to  those  who  are  not  too 
critical  in  their  demand  for  scientific  accuracy, 
and  who  dislike  the  dogmatism  of  traditional 
theology.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

NEW  YEAR.— (Jewish.)  Solemn  holy  day 
observed  on  the  first  (and  by  orthodox  Jews  also  on 
the  second)  of  Tishri  (the  month  corresponding 
approximately  to  October) ,  It  is  called  the  ' '  Day  of 
Judgment"  on  which  God  judges  the  souls  of  men; 
and  the  "Day  of  Memorial"  for  men  to  make  an 
inventory  of  their  moral  Uves.  It  is  distinguished 
by  the  blowing  of  the  Shofar  (q.v.)  a  distinctive  and 
inspiring  liturgy.  It  is  followed  by  the  ten  peniten- 
tial days,  which,  in  turn,  are  concluded  by  the  Day 
of  Atonement. 


NEW  YEAR'S   CELEBRATIONS.— The   New 

Year  was  marked  in  Jewish  ritual  (Ezek.  45:18) 
and  in  pagan  Rome  was  an  occasion  for  popular 
masquerades  and  excesses.  As  Christians  con- 
tinued to  take  part  in  these,  the  Church  (4th.  to 
7th.  centuries)  vainly  tried  to  make  it  a  fast  day. 
Since  the  6th.  century  it  has  been  the  feast  of  the 
Lord's  circumcision.  The  pagan  tradition  of  merry- 
making persisted  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  from  the 
11th.  to  15th.  centuries,  in  France  and  the  Rhine 
country.  New  Year's  had  a  Feast  of  Fools  in  which 
the  sub-deacons  indulged  in  a  parody  on  the  mass. 

F.  A.  Christie 

NEWMAN,  JOHN  HENRY  (1801-1890).— 
At  first  a  Calvinist  Evangelical  in  sympathy, 
Newman  under  the  influence  of  Keble  and  R.  H. 
Froude  espoused  the  Catholic  conception  of  the 
Enghsh  Church  and  led  a  reaction  against  theological 
liberalism  and  the  parliamentary  control  of  the 
Church.  The  battle  began  in  1833  with  Tracts 
for  the  Times  justifying  belief  and  practices  like 
those  of  Romanism.  Newman's  Tract  90  on  the 
Articles  being  censured  by  the  University  and  the 
bishop  of  Oxford,  he  withdrew  to  Littlemore  (1841), 
joined  the  Roman  Church  (1845)  and  became  priest 
of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  of  Neri  (1847).  He 
was  Rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Dublin 
(1851-58),  after  which  he  lived  as  teacher  and 
author  in  the  Birmingham  Oratory.  His  prag- 
matist  apologetic  {Grammar  of  Assent,  1870)  and 
his  theory  of  historical  Development  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (1845)  have  given  him  great  influence  in 
the  modernizing  party  of  French  Catholicism. 
He  was  made  a  Cardinal,  May  12,  1879. 

F.  A.  Christie 

NICENE  CREED.— See  Creeds. 

NICHIREN  (1222-1282  A.D.).— A  saintly 
teacher  and  reformer  of  Buddhism  in  Japan.  He 
based  his  message  on  the  "Lotus  of  the  True  Law" 
which  he  held  to  be  the  consummation  of  all 
Buddhist  truth  and  the  sole  authority.  Confident 
that  he  was  himself  the  true  apostle  of  the  faith 
and  divinely  commissioned  to  be  the  savior  of  the 
new  age  he  gloried  in  exile  and  persecution.  Fol- 
lowing the  Lotus  he  taught  that  the  spiritual  reality 
acting  in  all  existence  is  the  Eternal  Buddha  in 
whose  life  we  share  when  by  meditation  we  become 
conscious  of  the  truth  and  by  moral  action  give 
expression  to  the  true  Dharma  or  law. 

NICHOLA  S. — ^The  name  of  five  popes  and  one 
antipope. 

Nicholas  I. — Pope,  858-867.  His  papacy  was 
marked  by  three  struggles:  one  with  Photius,  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  an  effort  to  restore 
the  degraded  patriarch  Ignatius;  another  with 
Lothair  I.,  king  of  Lorraine  in  opposition  to  the 
king's  divorcing  his  wife;  and  a  third  in  which  he 
maintained  the  right  of  bishops  to  appeal  from  their 
metropolitans  to  the  Roman  See. 

Nicholas  //.—Pope,  1058-1061.  Hildebrand 
dictated  the  policy  of  his  pontificate  toward  the 
independent  power  of  the  papacy.  The  "Donation 
of  Constantine"  (q.v.)  was  caUed  into  service  to 
that  end. 

Nicholas  ///.—Pope,  1277-1280. 

Nicholas  /F.- Pope,  1288-1292. 

Nicholas  F.— (1)  Antipope,  1328-1330,  during 
the  pontificate  of  John  XXII.  (2)  Pope,  1447- 
1455. 

NICHOLAS,  SAINT.— Bishop  of  Myra  in 
Lycia,  who  was  persecuted  in  the  reign  of  Dio- 
cletian, and  incarcerated  until  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine, and  is  said  to  have  been  present  at  the 
Nicene     Council.     Almost     notliing    is     certainly 


311 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Nominatio  Regia 


known  about  him.  He  is  venerated  by  the  Greek 
and  Roman  church  as  a  saint  on  Dec.  6,  and  is  the 
patron  saint  of  Russia. 

NICODEMUS,  GOSPEL  OF.— An  apocryphal 
gospel  consisting  of  two  works,  united  at  an  early 
date:  The  Acts  of  Pilate,  containing  a  detailed 
account  of  Jesus'  trial  before  Pilate,  and  The 
Descent  of  Christ  to  the  Underworld  which  relates 
the  story  of  Carinus  and  Leucius,  two  men  raised 
from  the  dead. 

NICOLAITANS.— An  early  heretical  sect, 
known  only  through  the  condemnatory  references 
of  opponents,  apparently  extremely  free  from  con- 
ventional restraints  in  their  habits  of  life.  Also  a 
mediaeval  sect  which  claimed  immediate  revelation 
and  abandoned  celibacy  in  the  priesthood  and  other 
traditional  practices  currently  regarded  as  sacred. 

NIETZSCHE,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM  (1844- 
1900). — -Professor  of  classical  philology  at  Basel, 
1868-79,  writer  on  philosophical  and  ethical  sub- 
jects. Deeply  influenced  at  the  start  by  Greek 
studies  and  by  the  philosophy  of  Schopenhauer,  he 
advanced  the  idea  of  a  new  "tragic  culture  for 
Germany  and  the  modem  world — a  counterpart  to 
the  old  Greek  culture  (i.e.,  before  the  age  of  Socrates 
and  Euripides,  with  their  rationalizing  tendencies) 
— ^in  which  Dionysiac  art,  represented,  as  he  thought, 
by  Richard  Wagner,  should  vitally  function.  Later, 
disillusioned  as  to  Wagner,  and  become  skeptical 
of  the  saving  power  of  art  in  general,  his  thought 
was  mainly  critical,  though  the  hope  for  a  new 
culture  led  him  to  propose  extensive  practical 
changes  in  social  and  poUtical  life — m,  broadly 
speaking,  an  aristocratic  direction.  In  his  con- 
cluding period,  we  find,  along  with  continued  and 
often  mordant  criticism  of  current  philosophical 
and  ethical  views,  a  glowing  faith  in  the  possibility 
of  man's  rising  to  practically  superhuman  heights. 

His  style  is  Uterary  rather  than  technical,  and 
bold  phrases,  such  as  "superman,"  "beyond  good 
and  evil,"  "immorahst,"  "blond  beast,  "will  to 
power,"  easily  mislead;  he  needs  to  be  studied. 
For'  example,  "beyond  good  and  evil"  means  tran- 
scending, not  morality,  but  the  now  reigning 
Christian  type  of  moraUty,  the  main  antithesis  of 
which  is  "good  and  evil";  the  antithesis  "good  and 
bad,"  which  he  thinks  prevailed  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  moralit};^  he  reasserts — calUng  the  one  a 
herd-  or  slave-morahty,  the  other  a  master-morality, 
in  accordance  with  what  he  deems  their  respective 
inspirations.  His  extreme  hostiUty  to  Christianity 
is  because  it  so  takes  the  side  of  the  weak  and 
inferior,  that  the  higher  master-type  of  man  becomes 
almost  impossible  in  its  atmosphere.  "Immoral- 
ist"  is  primarily  the  critic  (dissector  or  analyst) 
of  moraUty.  By  "blond  beast"  he  means  the 
Aryan  who  came  down  on  and  conquered 
the  dark-haired  aborigines  of  Europe  ages  ago, 
laying  the  foundations  of  a  higher  civiUzation. 
"WiU  to  power"  is  his  fundamental  reading  of  man 
and  the  world — this  will  having  aU  shades  and 
degrees,  the  highest  being  reached  in  the  philosopher 
and  saint. 

The  hope  for  a  new  culture  led  him  to  look  for 
a  united  Europe,  in  which  the  various  clashing 
nationaUstic  aims  ruUng  at  present  would  be 
transcended  and  Europe  take  the  lead  in  organizing 
the  world,  to  the  end  of  providing  favorable  world- 
wide conditions  for  the  emergence  of  the  higher 
types  of  men.  Not  all  men,  but  the  highest  men, 
not  man,  but  superman,"  was  to  him  the  goal: 
he  was  as  anti-democratic  as  anti-Christian,  and  for 
the  same  reason.  Though  atheist,  this  maximal 
evolution  of  the  species  made  for  him  a  kind  of 


substitute  for  God.  Moreover,  though  change 
was  the  law  of  things,  there  was,  owing  to  the 
finiteness  of  the  world's  forces,  a  limit  to  the  possible 
varieties  of  change — so  that  when  once  the  gamut 
of  combinations  had  been  run,  the  old  combinations 
would  recur  ("eternal  recurrence"),  the  world  thus 
maintaining  a  certain  identity  despite  change  (even 
each  separate  human  life  recurring). 

William  M.  Salter 
NIHILIANISM.— The  view  that  when  God 
became  man  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  human  nature  was 
a  mere  vesture,  having  no  real  substance.  The 
view  arose  in  the  12th.  century,  but  soon  dis- 
appeared. 

NIHILISM. — The  philosophical  doctrine  of 
the  negation  or  denial  of  any  real  existence,  and  its 
counterpart  the  illusory  character  of  all  human 
knowledge.  Usually  employed  in  a  derogatory 
sense.  Among  religions.  Buddhism,  with  its 
doctrine  that  desire  causes  suffering,  and  rehef 
comes  through  a  negation  of  desire,  tends  toward 
nihiUsm.  Vedantic  philosophy  denies  the  world 
of  appearances,  and  one  school  of  Buddhists — the 
Qunyavadins — deny  existence. 

NIHONGL— A  collection  of  "Chronicles"  of 
old  Japan  made  in  720  a.d.  The  work  was  written 
in  Chinese  and  under  Chinese  influence  but  pre- 
serves valuable  materials  for  the  interpretation  of 
the  ancient  religion  of  Japan. 

NIMBUS. — A  halo  or  aura  of  light  which  in  art 
is  represented  as  encircling  the  head  of  holy  persons, 
and  sometimes  royal  persons  and  other  dignitaries. 
The  symbol  is  found  among  the  Greek,  Roman, 
Brahmanic,  Buddhistic,  Slavonic,  and  Christian 
reUgions.  Among  the  ancients  it  was  a  symbol  of 
deity,  supposed  to  indicate  the  appearance  of  the 
gods  on  the  earth. 

NINIB. — An  ancient  sungod  of  Nippur,  in 
Babylonia  who  was  replaced  at  the  head  of  the 
pantheon  at  that  place  by  Enlil  (q.v.). 

NIRMANAKAYA.— See  Dharmakaya. 

NIRVANA. — The  state  of  complete  salvation 
set  as  the  goal  before  the  Buddhist  disciple.  It  was 
a  condition  of  peace  and  joy  achieved  by  final 
emancipation  from  the  torture  of  earthly  desires. 
Since  man  has  no  permanent  ego  it  is  not  described 
as  an  immortal  life  of  bliss  yet  it  is  forbidden  to  call 
it  bluntly  annihilation.  It  was  escape  from  the 
endless  wheel  of  transmigration  and  since  the 
arahat  enjoyed  such  perfect  peace  and  poise  in  this 
earthly  life  there  may  have  been  an  unformulated 
faith  that  the  after-life  would  be  a  state  of  quiet 
joy.     Here  Buddhist  teaching  is  vague. 

NIX. — In  Teutonic  folk-lore,  a  water-spirit, 
ordinarily  regarded  as  evil,  but  capable  of  being 
conciliated  by  votive  offerings;  supposed  to  appear 
in  human  or  half-human  and  half-fish  forms. 
Feminine,  nixie  or  nixy. 

NOCTURN.— (1)  In  the  primitive  church,  a 
prayer  and  praise  service  held  at  midnight  or 
daybreak.  (2)  In  the  R.C.  church,  one  of  the  three- 
fold divisions  of  the  office  of  matins,  consisting  of 
psalms,  lessons  and  antiphons. 

NOMINALISM. — See  Realism  and  Nomi- 
nalism. 

NOMINATIO  REGIA.— The  royal  right  to 
nominate  for  an  ecclesiastical  office,  a  right  formerly 
claimed  by  the  Frankish  and  German  emperors. 


Nomism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


312 


NOMISM. — The  conception  that  religion  con- 
sists in  exact  obedience  to  a  definite  code  of  laws. 
See  Legalism. 

NON-CONFORMITY.— A  neglect  or  refusal 
to  act  in  harmony  with  any  established  belief  or 
usage.  More  specifically  it  is  applied  to  religious 
dissent.  The  passage  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in 
1662  led  to  the  withdrawal  from  the  English  state 
church  of  some  2,000  ministers  who  refused  to  use 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  as  required  by  this 
Act.  The  term  Non-Conformists  was  applied  to 
them,  and  then  was  gradually  extended  to  include 
all  other  dissenting  Protestants. 

Non-Conformists,  differing  among  themselves, 
were  agreed  in  their  opposition  to  the  established 
church.  Under  the  last  two  Stuarts  the  attempt 
was  made  to  suppress  them  altogether,  and  they 
suffered  severely.  The  Act  of  Uniformity,  requir- 
ing the  use  of  the  Prayer  Book  under  heavy  penal- 
ties, was  followed  by  the  Corporation,  Conventicle, 
and  Test  Acts  which  completely  ehminated  all 
dissenters  from  the  public  life  of  the  nation — ^reli- 
gious, civil,  and  military — and  also  suppressed 
private  worship.  In  the  interest  of  the  CathoUcs, 
both  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  attempted  to  mitigate 
the  sufferings  of  dissenters,  but  the  effort  was  without 
success  and  James  was  overthrown  in  the  attempt. 

Under  WilUam  and  Mary  considerable  relief 
was  granted  in  the  great  Act  of  Toleration  in  1689. 
EarKer  penal  laws  were  not  repealed  but  they  were 
no  longer  enforced,  while  church  organization  and 
pubhc  worship  were  permitted  under  careful 
governmental  supervision.  The  struggle  for  com- 
plete freedom  and  equality  with  the  estabUshed 
church  continued  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
18th.  and  most  of  the  19th.  centuries.  In  1836 
the  right  to  solemnize  marriages  with  their  own 
ceremonies  was  extended  to  dissenting  ministers,  a 
national  school  system  alongside  the  state  system 
was  established;  later  new  universities  without  reli- 
gious tests  have  been  founded,  in  1871  the  two  old 
universities  were  thrown  open  to  Non-Conformists 
and  in  1880  the  right  of  burial  in  consecrated  church 
yards  was  secured. 

Thus  most  of  the  privileges  of  the  establishment 
have  been  taken  away,  but  the  highest  aim  of  the 
Non-Conformists,  the  complete  disestablishment  of 
the  church,  has  not  been  attained.  However,  the 
Non-Conformists  have  continued  to  make  progress 
and  now  furnish  leaders  in  all  liberal,  social  and 
political  movements.  W.  J.  McGlothlin 

NON  EXPEDIT.— (Latin:  ''it  is  not  expedient.") 
A  formula  used  by  the  pope  in  1868  in  advising 
Italian  Catholics  to  abstain  from  using  their 
franchise  in  parliamentary  elections,  as  a  protest 
against  the  policy  of  the  Government. 

NON- JURORS. — A  group  of  Anglican  ecclesi- 
astics who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
William  and  Mary  in  1689  because  they  considered 
themselves  bound  by  their  oaths  to  James  II. 
They  formed  separate  congregations  which  persisted 
until  1805. 

NON-RESISTANCE.— A  refusal  to  employ 
physical  force  in  order  to  enforce  one's  purposes. 
The  advocates  of  non-resistance  appeal  to  the 
teaching  of  Jesus  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
("Resist  not  evil"),  and  regard  war  as  unjustified 
under  any  circumstances.  Those  who  refused 
to  enter  miUtary  service  for  this  reason  during  the 
Great  War  were  known  as  "conscientious  objectors." 

NONES. — The  service  for  the  ninth  hour  in  the 
Roman  breviary,  normally  recited  at  3  p.m.,  but 
sometimes  earUer. 


NORITO. — A  Japanese  prayer-spell.  This 
name  is  given  to  a  collection  of  ancient  state  rituals 
which  have  the  nature  of  magic  spells  directed  by 
the  Emperor  for  the  protection  and  prosperity  of 
the  land  and  ruUng  house. 

NORNS. — ^Three  maidens  who,  according  to 
Teutonic  mythology,  fix  the  destinies  of  men, 
bestowing  good  and  evil  by  inexorable  decree  and 
determining  the  day  and  manner  of  death. 

NORTH  AFRICAN  CHURCH.— An  inclusive 
term  for  the  orthodox  Christian  communities  of 
North  Africa  in  the  early  centuries.  Christianity 
came  to  Africa  doubtless  from  Rome,  and  probably 
in  the  1st.  century.  Its  rapid  spread  through 
Proconsular  Africa,  Mauretania  and  Numidia 
was  due  to  social  and  religious  causes,  especially, 
however,  to  the  outstanding  personalities  and 
labors  of  Tertullian  (q.v.),  Cyprian  (q.v.),  and 
Augustine  (q.v.).  The  church  suffered  from  false 
teaching  (Manicheism,  q.v.)  and  schism  (Montan- 
ism  and  Donatism,  qq.v.).  It  was  crushed  by  the 
Vandals  in  the  5th.,  and  practically  annihilated  by 
Islam  in  the  7th.  and  8th.  centuries. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS,  MISSIONS 
TO. — The  evangeUzation  of  the  Indians  was  one  of 
the  prime  motives  professed  by  Spanish,  French, 
and  English  in  their  plans  for  the  colonization  of 
North  America.  Spanish  success  was  spectacular 
in  Florida,  New  Mexico,  and  CaUfornia.  But  the 
permanent  results  were  meager.  French  Recollets 
and  Jesuits  served  the  Indians  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
Basin  and  the  Mississippi  Valley  with  notable 
devotion  and  won  large  niunbers  of  loyal  converts 
to  the  Roman  faith. 

The  accomplishment  of  the  Anglican  church  was 
very  small  during  the  17th.  century  although  its 
leaders  in  England  intended  an  aggressive  program. 
The  plan  for  the  founding  of  the  University  of 
Henrico  was  abandoned  after  the  natives  had 
brutally  massacred  many  of  the  colonists.  Both 
Pilgrims  and  Puritans  were  slow  in  beginning  their 
work  among  the  red  men,  due  largely  to  economic 
problems  and  to  the  lack  of  ministers  who  could 
be  spared  for  the  task.  John  EUot  and  the  five 
generations  of  the  Mayhew  family  stand  out  as  the 
pioneers  of  Protestant  missions  among  the  American 
Indians. 

The  18th.  century  saw  a  slackening  of  interest 
in  Indian  missions  due  to  the  wars  of  France  and 
England,  in  which  the  red  men  were  used  by  both 
sides.  Unique  was  the  undertaking  of  Eleazar 
Wheelock.  His  private  school  in  which  he  trained 
natives  to  become  missionaries  among  their  own 
people  resulted  in  the  estabhshment  of  Dartmouth 
College.  The  outstanding  Presbyterian  leaders 
were  David  and  John  Brainerd  and  the  Mohegan, 
Samson  Occom.  The  efforts  of  the  Quakers  were 
directed  largely  to  securing  peaceful  conditions 
for  the  Indians.  With  remarkable  patience  the 
Moravians  labored  in  difficult  fields.  Local 
churches  and  zealous  leaders  among  the  Baptists 
made  small  beginnings  in  New  England .  One  of  the 
main  causes  for  the  organization  of  the  Society 
for  Propagating  the  Gospel  (Episcopal)  was  the 
hope  of  Christianizing  the  Indians. 

The  leading  agency  during  the  first  half  of  the 
19th.  century  was  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions.  _  This  body  repre- 
sented Congregational,  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
interest.  Practically  every  denomination  under- 
took Indian  missions  upon  an  organized  basis  during 
the  early  years  of  the  century.  In  1870  a  new  plan 
was  inaugurated  through  the  initiative  of  President 
Grant.     Since  this  date,  the  Indian  tribes  have 


313 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS       North  American  Indians 


been  divided  among  the  denominations  so  that  dupli- 
cation is  avoided.  The  usual  situation  now  is  that 
there  are  the  Catholic,  Episcopal,  and  one  Protestant 
denomination  on  each  reservation. 

From  the  beginning,  the  mission  interest  was 
wider  than  mere  evangeUzation.  From  the  day 
of  Eliot  on,  the  effort  was  to  civiUze  as  well  as 
convert  the  Indians.  Schools  provided  both 
intellectual  and  industrial  training.  In  general, 
it  may  be  said  that  there  have  been  four  main 
difficulties  which  have  been  encountered  all  along 
the  line:  intertribal  warfare  detracted  attention 
from  religion;  the  powpow  or  medicine-man  con- 
ducted a  bitter  campaign  against  the  new  faith; 
the  white  frontiersman  introduced  vices  and 
mistreated  the  Indian;  the  United  States  govern- 
ment constantly  moved  the  tribes  farther  west  and 
seldom  moved  them  far  enough  to  insure  a  settled  life. 

Practically  all  of  the  Indians  are  now  within  easy 
reach  of  Christian  missions.  In  1920,  there  were, 
however,  still  fifty  thousand  natives  who  were  pagans 
and  a  hundred  thousand  more  who  were  not 
claimed  by  any  church.     Harry  Thomas  Stock 

NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS,  RELIGIONS 

OF. — The  rehgious  beliefs  of  the  North  American 
Indians  differ  considerably  in  various  parts  of  the 
continent.  In  the  southwest  among  the  sedentary 
tribes  a  fairly  systematic  mythology  has  developed, 
while  in  the  extreme  north  and  on  the  western 
Plateaus,  the  world  is  believed  to  be  filled  by  super- 
natural beings  which,  however,  are  not  organized 
in  a  hierarchy  of  gods.  This  is  a  reflection  of  the 
general  social  status  of  the  Indians,  the  super- 
natural beings  being  more  or  less  organized  in  the 
same  way  as  are  the  tribes  themselves.  There  is 
often  a  vague  concept  of  a  great  power  which 
sometimes  has  been  identified  with  a  supreme 
being.  It  may  be  identified  with  the  dayUght  or 
with  the  sun,  but  it  does  not  play  any  very  impor- 
tant part  in  the  religious  life  of  the  people,  except 
insofar  as  moral  actions  are  generally  stated  to  be 
pleasing  to  the  supreme  power.  The  term  "mani- 
tou"  of  the  Eastern  Algonquins  seems  to  be  origi- 
nally used  for  expressing  the  idea  of  supernatural  or 
wonderful  power  residing  in  any  object,  animal  or 
man,  and  which  is  manifested  in  the  most  diverse 
ways;  but  it  may  also  be  used  to  designate  the 
bearer  of  this  quality.  The  stones  which  are  used  in 
thesteambath  have  manitou  power  and  are  manitou. 
The  same  idea  of  power  which  is  distinct  from  the  con- 
cept of  the  supernatural  being  itself,  is  held  by  the 
Iroquois,  Sioux  and  the  Northwest  Coast  Indians. 
It  is  also  found  in  the  southwest  and  is  probably  a 
general  Indian  idea. 

Most  of  the  Prairie  and  Eastern  Indians  have  a 
puberty  ceremonial  in  which  boys  after  a  period  of 
fasting  have  a  vision  in  which  a  being  endowed  with 
supernatural  power  appears  to  them  and  becomes 
their  protector.  This  may  be  the  hereditary 
property  of  his  family,  or  it  may  answer  to  his 
ambitions,  enabling  him  to  accumulate  wealth,  to 
become  a  successful  warrior  or  shaman,  or  to  be 
successful  in  gambling.  Sometimes  the  super- 
natural beings  are  attached  to  different  localities 
without  being  attached  to  the  individual  Indian. 

Systematic  mythology  is  on  the  whole,  rare. 
It  is  found  in  the  southwest,  in  CaUfornia  and  also 
locally  elsewhere.  Ordinarily,  the  story  of  creation 
consists  of  a  large  mass  of  disconnected  transforma- 
tion tales.  The  typical  underlying  idea  of  origin 
is  that  the  phenomena  of  our  world,  including  social 

Ehenomena,  pre-existed  in  a  spiritual  world  and  that 
y  an  ancestor  or  hero  who  visited  the  spiritual 
world,  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  society  were 
brought  to  us.  Thus  the  sun,  fire,  and  water  may 
have  been  in  possession  of  powerful  beings  and 


were  stolen  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.  The  idea 
of  a  creation  by  will  power  is  very  rare  in  America. 
It  occurs  in  a  pronounced  form  only  in  California 
and  to  a  sUght  extent  in  the  southwest.  Animals 
play  a  prominent  role  in  the  origin  stories  of  most 
tribes,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  Eskimo.  The 
animal  stories  are  analogous  to  the  short  animal 
tales  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  dealing  with  the 
origin  of  things. 

Shamans  are  a  class  of  individuals  who  obtain 
from  tho  supernatural  powers  the  ability  to  cure 
disease,  either  by  removing  from  the  body  physical 
sickness,  or  by  capturing  the  soul  which  has  left 
the  body  of  the  patient.  Shamanism  may  be 
acquired  by  the  acquisition  of  a  guardian  spirit. 
It  may  be  innate,  or  may  be  acquired  by  a  person 
who  himself  has  been  cured  by  shamanistic  means. 
On  the  whole,  the  methods  of  shamanistic  pro- 
cedure do  not  differ  much  from  those  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  although  the  theory  of  shaman- 
istic treatment  is  quite  varied.  The  theory  of  the 
soul  as  held  by  the  North  American  Indians  does 
not  seem  to  show  any  pronounced  characteristics. 
Many  cases  occur  of  beliefs  in  multiple  souls  which 
represent  the  life,  the  memory  image,  personality,  the 
power  of  free  movement  in  dreams,  etc.  The  loss 
of  any  of  these  entails  sickness  and  death.  After 
death  the  souls,  either  in  their  entirety  or  in  part, 
go  to  the  country  of  the  souls,  which  in  some  cases 
is  believed  to  be  in  the  extreme  west,  in  other  cases 
under  ground  or  in  the  sky.  We  find  also  concepts 
of  different  lands  of  the  souls  according  to  the 
manner  of  death  of  the  individual.  Thus,  among 
the  Eskimo  those  who  die  a  violent  death  go  to  the 
sky,  while  those  who  die  of  disease  go  into  the  lower 
world.  An  ethical  concept  is  not  connected  with 
the  locations  of  these  worlds. 

Magical  procedure  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  religious  life  of  the  Indians,  though  much  of  it 
might  as  well  be  called  scientific  procedure,  being 
purely  rational  and  based  on  the  assumed  inter- 
relation between  processes  that  show  certain  kinds 
of  similarities.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of 
American  magic  is  the  almost  complete  absence  of 
the  use  of  decorative  design  for  magical  purposes, 
which  plays  an  important  part  in  the  magic  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  Asiatic  areas.  Locally  pro- 
tective designs  are  found,  but  they  are  not  of 
extended  use. 

The  good  will  of  supernatural  powers  is  obtained 
by  prayer  and  sacrifice.  Owing  to  the  absence  of 
domesticated  animals,  bloody  sacrifices  are  rare  in 
North  America.  In  Mexico  human  sacrifices  had 
been  enormously  developed,  but  in  North  America 
they  are  found  rarely,  for  instance,  among  the 
Pawnee.  Among  the  Iroquois  dogs  were  sacrificed, 
but  ordinarily  gifts  to  the  supreme  powers  consist 
of  food  thrown  into  the  fire,  or  of  other  property 
that  is  destroyed.  In  a  number  of  districts  com- 
pelHng  incantations  are  in  use,  as,  among  the 
Eskimo  and  among  some  Californian  tribes. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  North  American  Indian  is  the 
high  development  of  ceremonial.  Their  ceremonials 
are  of  a  most  complex  character  and  are  participated 
in  by  either  the  whole  tribe  or  by  certain  religious 
societies,  the  rest  of  the  tribe  being  merely  witnesses 
of  the  exoteric  part  of  the  ceremony.  The  existence 
of  an  esoteric  teaching  in  charge  of  certain  indi- 
viduals, requires  a  priestly  class.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  existence  of  a  priestly  class  favors  the 
further  development  of  esoteric  teaching.  Thus  it 
appears  that  among  tribes  like  the  Indians  of  the 
northwestern  Plateaus,  among  whom  ceremonialism 
is  only  sUghtly  developed,  there  is  also  no  priestly 
class,  while  among  the  tribes  like  the  southwestern 
sedentary  Indians  who  have  a  highly  developed 


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314 


ceremonial,  there  is  a  well  developed  priesthood. 
The  ceremonials  consist  of  dances  accompanied  by 
songs  and  generally  require  the  use  of  certain 
definitely  arranged  ceremonial  objects  which  may 
be  designated  as  altars,  which  on  account  of  the 
nomadic  habits  of  the  Plains  Indians,  can  be  packed 
up  in  bimdles  and  are  generally  designated  as  "Sacred 
Bundles."  The  sedentary  southwestern  Indians 
are  also  in  the  habit  of  putting  up  their  altars  only 
during  the  ceremonial.  Among  the  best  known 
ceremonials  is  the  Sun  Dance  of  the  Plains  Indians 
which,  notwithstanding  its  external  similarity,  has 
a  great  variety  of  forms  of  religious  significance. 
It  may  be  connected  with  war  and  it  may  be  per- 
formed by  a  person  who  made  a  vow  when  ill.  In 
other  regions  the  ceremonials  are  performed  during 
a  certain  season  when  the  supernatural  beings  are 
supposed  to  be  present  in  the  villages.  In  the 
southwest  there  is  a  complete  ceremonial  calendar 
in  which  different  ceremonies  are  performed  which 
are  connected  with  the  occupations  and  religious 
events  of  the  year. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  recognized  that,  owing 
to  contact  and  diffusion,  the  ritualistic  elements 
and  external  forms  of  religious  life,  as  well  as  the 
mythological  concepts,  have  spread  considerably 
among  neighboring  tribes,  while  on  the  other  hand, 
the  rehgious  interpretation  of  ceremonies  and  of 
mj^hology  is  much  more  strongly  individuaUzed 
in  different  tribes,  so  that  the  outer  forms  of  reli- 
gious Ufe  may  be  very  much  the  same  in  two  neigh- 
boring tribes,  while  the  interpretation  and  rehgious 
significance  may  be  quite  different.     Franz  Boas 

NOTRE  DAME.— (French:  "Our  Lady.")  A 
French  designation  of  the  Virgin  Mary;  and 
thus  the  popular  name  of  R.C.  cathedrals  dedi- 
cated to  the  Virgin;  especially  the  famous  cathedral 
in  Paris,  begun  in  1163,  a  splendid  example  of 
Gothic  architecture. 


r. — A  Roman  presbyter  who  in  Mar., 
as  elected  rival  bishop   ("the  first 


NOVATIAN. 

or  Apr.,  251  was 

antipope")  in  opposition  to  CorneUus.  The  schism 
was  due  to  Novatian's  protest  against  the  readmis- 
sion  into  membership  in  the  Catholic  church 
of  Christians  who  lapsed  during  the  Decian  persecu- 
tions. He  was  excommunicated  in  Oct.,  251,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Valerian.  He  was  the 
first  Roman  Christian  to  write  extensively  in  Latin. 

NOVATIANISM. — The  movement  begun  by 
Novatian  (q.v.)  protesting  against  the  readmission 
into  the  church  of  Christians  who  had  become 
apostates  during  the  Decian  persecution.  The 
party  contended  that  mortal  sms  could  not  be 
absolved  by  the  church.  The  Council  of  Nicea  made 
provision  for  the  readmission  of  Novatian  clergy  into 
the  church,  but  the  sect  continued  in  the  West  until 
the  5th.,  and  in  the  East  until  the  7th.  century. 

NOVENA. — A  devotion  repeated  on  nine  suc- 
cessive days  in  the  form  of  a  prayer  for  a  particular 
blessing. 


NOVICE. — An  inexperienced  person  entering 
upon  a  new  occupation  or  mode  of  hfe;  specifically 
one  who  enters  a  religious  community  or  house 
subject  to  a  period  of  probation.     See  Monasticism. 

NUMBERS,  SACRED.— Among  very  many 
peoples  certain  numbers  were,  and  are,  associated 
with  peculiar  sanctity,  as  three,  four,  seven,  and 
their  various  multiples,  e.g.,  nine,  twelve,  etc.  In 
many  cases  their  origin  is  clear.  Thus,  twelve  is 
the  number  of  the  zodiacal  signs  and  of  the  months 
of  the  year;  five  is  the  number  of  the  digits  of  one 
hand;  twenty,  of  the  fingers  and  toes.  Prime 
numbers,  three,  five,  seven,  eleven,  thirteen,  etc., 
are  also  regarded  with  special  awe,  as  are  their 
multiples,  e.g.,  nine  (3X3),  thirty-three  (3X11),  etc. 
The  number  one  obviously  denotes  unity;  two, 
the  duality  of  life  and  death,  etc.;  three,  past, 
present,  and  future,  etc.;  four,  the  cardinal  points, 
and  so  on.  In  general,  however,  the  real  origin  of 
the  sanctity  of  a  given  numeral  is  forgotten,  and 
new  reasons  are  assigned  for  the  later  beliefs  in 
its  holiness,  so  that  it  is  very  difficult — often 
impossible — to  determine  the  true  source  of  its 
sacrosanct  character.  Lotris  H.  Gray 

NUMEN. — The  Roman  term  for  any  vague 
supernatural  potency  which  can  be  recognized  only 
by  its  effects  and  is  never  clearly  defined  as  indi- 
vidual or  personal,  e.g.,  there  were  numina  of 
trees,  rivers,  storehouses,  fields,  etc.  Cf.  Mana; 
Kami. 

NUN. — A  member  of  a  community  of  women, 
bound  by  religious  vows  of  celibacy,  poverty  and 
obedience,  such  as  those  existing  among  Roman 
Catholics  and  Buddhists.     See  Monasticism. 

NUNC  DIMITTIS.— The  Kturgical  name  for 
the  song  of  Simeon  recorded  in  Luke  2:29-32,  so 
called  from  the  first  words  of  the  Latin  version. 

NUNCIO. — See  Legates  and  Nuncios,  Papal. 

NUREMBURG,    RELIGIOUS    PEACE    OF.— 

A  peace  concluded  between  Emperor  Charles  V. 
and  the  Protestants  at  Nuremberg  in  Bavaria  in 
1532,  whereby  the  legal  status  of  the  Protestant 
churches  was  assured  for  a  time. 

NUSKU. — The  god  of  fire  in  Babylonian  religion. 

NUT. — The  sky-goddess  of  ancient  Egypt  sepa- 
rated from  her  husband  the  earth-god,  Geb,  by  the 
air-god,  Shu. 

NYMPH.  — (Greek:  "bride.")  In  classical 
mythology,  one  of  a  class  of  half  superhuman 
maidens,  portrayed  as  taking  up  their  residence  in 
the  ocean,  a  spring,  a  mountain,  or  a  grove,  who 
were  favorites  with  the  greater  gods,  and  guardian 
deities  of  human  beings. 


OATH  MORE  JUDAICA.— Special  form  of 
oath  required  of  Jews  by  European  courts  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  down  to  the  19th.  century. 

OATHS  and  VOWS. — 1.  Nature  of  an  oath.— 
According  to  primitive  ideas  certain  words  and 
formulas,  such  as  personal  names,  titles  of  super- 
natural beings,  incantations,  and  blessings  and 
curses,  are  objective  things  possessing  a  potency 
pf  their  own.    Especially  is  this  true  of  the  curse, 


which  is  regarded  as  a  sort  of  baneful  miasma 
which  is  capable  of  injuring  or  destroying  anyone 
to  whom  it  cUngs  (see  Blessing  and  Cursing). 
An  oath  is,  in  essence,  a  self-curse,  by  which  a 
person  subjects  himself  to  some  evil  if  what  he 
says  is  not  true.  The  effect  of  the  oath  is  purely 
mechanical,  for  the  person  who  swears  falsely  in 
ignorance  calls  down  upon  himself  the  same  pen- 
alty as  that  to  which  the  wilful  perjurer  exposes 
himself. 


315 


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Occultism 


2.  Effectiveness  of  an  oalh. — Various  methods 
are  employed  to  charge  a  curse-oath  with  magical 
efficacy.  The  person  taking  the  oath  may  establish 
contact  with  some  object  which  represents  the 
state  referred  to  in  the  oath,  in  order  to  absorb  its 
quality  if  he  perjures  himself.  Thus  the  Kandhs  of 
India  swear  upon  the  hzard's  skin,  whose  scaliness 
will  be  their  lot  should  they  speak  falsely.  Another 
method  is  for  the  oath-taker  to  call  upon  some 
animal  to  punish  him  if  he  lies.  The  Ostiaks  of 
Siberia  swear  on  the  nose  of  a  bear,  an  animal  which 
they  believe  to  be  endowed  with  supernatural 
power.  Oaths  may  also  be  taken  on  holy  objects: 
idols,  sacred  books,  relics,  and  the  like.  The  oath 
becomes  a  form  of  prayer  or  appeal  to  God,  when 
a  deity  is  invoked  to  visit  a  breach  of  faith  with 
punishment.  But  Wester marck  is  doubtless  right 
in  holding  that  originally  the  efficacy  of  the  oath  is 
entirely  magical,  the  penalty  consequent  on  perjury 
being  supposed  to  result  directly  from  the  power 
inherent  in  the  cursing  words. 

3.  Oath  forms  and  formulas. — The  principal 
forms  of  the  oath  are  connected  with  the  general 
idea  of  giving  efficacy  to  the  swearer's  words. 
The  custom  of  swearing  by  weapons  is  found 
among  the  Nagas  of  Assam  and  other  rude  peoples, 
while  it  was  practiced  by  the  ancient  Scythians  and 
various  Germanic  tribes.  Invocation  of  natural 
objects — a  sacred  tree  or  river,  the  sun  or  the 
heavens — is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  many 
classical  oaths.  The  gesture  of  Ufting  the  hand 
toward  heaven  was  also  a  Hebrew  practice, 
which  established  itself  in  Christendom  and  has 
lasted  on  into  modern  times.  The  words  of  the 
oath  tend  to  harden  into  a  set  formula,  which,  when 
properly  pronounced  by  the  swearer,  allow  him  no 
loophole  of  escape  from  the  consequences  of  his 
action. 

4.  Nature  of  a  vow. — A  vow  may  be  regarded  as 
a  variety  of  the  curse-oath.  By  a  vow  a  man 
dedicates  himself  or  something  belonging  to  himself 
to  a  god,  who  will  punish  him  if  he  breaks  it.  A 
person  or  object  thus  consecrated  to  deity  becomes 
rituaUy  holy  or  sacrosanct.  The  various  absti- 
nences which  accompany  vows — not  to  cut  the 
hair,  not  to  eat  flesh  food,  not  to  drink  fermented 
liquors,  not  to  shed  blood,  not  to  indulge  in  sexual 
intercourse,  not  to  touch  a  dead  body,  etc. — must 
be  explained  as  ritual  interdictions  incident  to  a 
state  of  consecration.  In  other  words,  they  are 
tabus.  See  Taboo.  The  vow  of  the  Nazarite 
(Num.  6:1-21),  for  instance,  presents  the  closest 
resemblance  to  the  rehgico-magical  restrictions 
found  in  Polynesia,  the  home  of  tabu.  Even  the 
mode  of  terminating  the  Nazarite's  vow  corresponds 
to  Polynesian  methods  of  breaking  a  tabu. 

5.  Instances  of  vows. — As  a  religious  transaction 
the  vow  belongs  particularly  to  the  more  advanced 
faiths.  Instances  of  it  are  numerous  in  Greek 
and  Roman  paganism,  in  the  Bible  (Jephthah's 
vow,  Judges  11;  Paul's  vow,  Acts  18:18),  and  in 
Christianity  and  Islam.  The  custom  of  votive 
offerings,  which  had  a  wide  prevalence  in  classical 
antiquity,  still  retains  its  popularity  in  Mediter- 
ranean countries.  Monkish  vows,  especially  those 
of  Eastern  monks,  contain  many  survivals  of  the 
old  tabu  element,  in  the  ritual  of  separation  from 
the  outside  world.  The  Crusader's  vow  in  the 
Middle  Ages  was  indissoluble,  save  by  the  Pope's 
consent;  from  the  moment  of  taking  it  the  Crusader 
belonged  to  the  Church.  In  Mohammedan  law 
the  resolution  to  visit  a  distant  shrine  is  expressly 
reckoned  as  a  vow,  so  that  pilgrims  come  under 
all  the  restrictions  usually  imposed  on  other  votaries. 

HuTTON  Webster 
OBEDIENCE. — The  subordination  of  the  will 
to  and  ordering  of  conduct  according  to  another's 


will.  In  certain  human  relationships  as  children 
to  parents,  servants  to  masters,  citizens  to  the  law, 
obedience  is  a  moral  obligation  necessary  to  the 
social  order.  Religiously,  obedience  to  the  will  of 
God  is  an  evidence  of  piety.  The  hierarchical 
organization  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  makes 
obedience  of  inferiors  to  superiors  a  demand. 
Obedience  is  one  part  of  the  threefold  monastic 
vow. 

OBERAMMERGAU.— A  Bavarian  village  in 
which  the  Passion  Play  has  been  enacted  decennially 
from  the  17th.  century.  The  play  is  given  in 
fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  in  1633  in  gratitude  for 
the  stopping  of  a  deadly  plague. 

OBLATE.— In  the  R.C.  church  one  dedicated  to 
the  church  but  not  taking  monastic  vows,  such  as  a 
child  handed  over  to  a  monastery  to  be  reared  as  a 
monk,  or  a  person  who  consecrates  his  property  to 
a  monastery  and  lives  therein  without  taking  the 
vows.  There  are  various  orders  and  societies  of 
oblates  among  Roman  Catholics,  in  which  the 
community  life  similar  to  that  in  monasteries 
exists. 

OBLATIONS.— In  the  early  church,  gifts  of 
bread  and  wine  for  the  Lord's  Supper;  bence 
anything  offered  in  worship.  The  elements  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  are  called  the  lesser  oblation  when 
unconsecrated  and  the  greater  oblation  after  conse- 
cration. 

OBLIGATION.— The  binding  power  of  an 
external  legal  compulsion  or  an  internal  moral 
constraint,  or  that  to  which  one  is  bound  in  either 
respect;  in  ethics,  this  comes  to  mean  either  the 
objective  fact  or  the  subjective  feeling  of  oughtness. 

Three  main  problems  are  involved  in  moral 
obligation:  (1)  the  psychological  nature  of  the 
sense  of  oughtness;  (2)  its  genetic  development  in 
society  and  in  the  child;  (3)  the  validity  of  its 
objective  claim  to  authority.  See  Authority; 
Duty;  Kant.  J.   F.   Crawford 

OBSESSION. — ^A  conception  that  obstinately 
persists  in  the  mind  controlling  one's  thought  and 
action  and  unaffected  by  criticism  or  opposition. 
In  Spiritualism  it  indicates  control  of  a  medium's 
consciousness  by  a  spirit. 

OCCAM,  WILLIAM  OF  (ca.  1280^1349).— 
Franciscan  schoolman;  leader  of  nominalism.  As 
a  theologian  he  declared  a  scientific  verification 
of  dogma  impossible,  as  theology  is  not  a  science 
but  a  mode  of  the  working  of  an  "infused  faith." 
He  claimed  that  biblical  authority  alone  was 
sufficient,  though  in  practice  he  included  the  Fathers 
and  the  Church.  He  held  that  God's  sheer  will  is 
a  sufficient  cause  for  what  exists. 

OCCASIONALISM.— The  theory  that  no  direct 
causal  relation  exists  between  states  of  conscious- 
ness and  the  corresponding  events  in  the  physical 
world.  Any  physical  change  is  an  occasion  for  the 
production  by  God  of  a  corresponding  change  in 
consciousness,  and  vice  versa.  The  theory  was  a 
speculative  device  for  surmounting  the  logical 
difficulty  in  supposing  that  mind  can  affect  matter 
matter,  or  matter  mind. 

OCCULTISM. — The  claim  that  reliable  knowl- 
edge may  be  obtained  by  mysterious  or  secret 
powers  of  insight  other  than  the  methods  of  the 
experimental  and  observational  sciences  (e.g.,  by 
magic,  alchemy,  astrology,  and  theosophy) .  Knowl- 
edge,  normally   unattainable,   is  declared   to   be 


Oceania 


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316 


possible  in  occult  fashion  by  an  expansion  of  the 
psychical  powers,  e.g.,  by  trance,  clairvoyance, 
clairaudience,  psychometry,  or  mystic  meditation. 

OCEANIA. — In  the  mythology  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  a  nymph  of  the  sea,  of  whom  Oceanus,  the 
ocean  god,  was  father. 

OCTAVE.— In  R.C.  liturgy,  the  celebration 
of  great  festivals  which  last  throughout  a  whole 
week;  also  the  eighth  day  of  such  a  festival  which 
is  regarded  as  of  greater  importance  than  the  others. 
Examples  are  Easter,  Pentecost,  Corpus  Christi 
and  Christmas. 

ODHIN.— The  chief  god  of  the  Teutons,  called 
also  Wodan.  He  is  a  god  of  winds  and  tempest, 
of  agriculture  and  of  war.  When  storms  approach 
he  is  thought  to  ride  in  the  Wild  Hunt  on  his 
heavenly  steed  clad  in  broad-brimmed  hat  and 
flowing  cloak  followed  by  the  souls  of  the  heroic 
dead.  His  dwelling  is  in  Walhalla,  a  place  of 
daily  fighting,  feasting  and  happiness. 

OECOLAMPADIUS,  JOHANN  (1482-1531).— 
German  Reformer,  his  real  name  being  Heussgen. 
He  worked  with  ZwingU  in  introducing  reforms  in 
Swiss  worship,  and  supported  his  interpretation  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  in  opposition  to  Luther.  He 
was  greater  as  a  preacher  than  as  a  theologian. 

OFFERTORY.— (1)  The  sentences  said  or 
music  sung  when  the  offerings  are  collected,  a  custom 
current  in  various  churches.  (2)  In  the  R.C.  Mass, 
the  offering  of  the  elements  about  to  be  consecrated 
or  the  prayers  recited  by  the  priest  over  them. 

OFFICE. — A  prescribed  service  especially  that 
for  the  canonical  hours,  but  also  used  of  any  litur- 
gical service,  as  confirmation  or  baptism. 

OFFICE,  HOLY.— The  Roman  congregation 
established  in  the  16th.  century  for  the  preservation 
of  the  true  faith,  especially  for  the  detection  and 
curbing  of  heretical  doctrines.     See  Inquisition. 

OFFICE  OF  THE  DEAD.— In  the  R.C.  liturgy, 
a  service  consisting  of  first  vespers,  mass,  matins,  and 
laud,  recited  as  a  devotion  to  the  dead  by  certain 
religious  orders,  especially  on  All  Soul's  Day,  a 
custom  originating  in  the  7th.  or  8th.  century. 

O'HARAI,  OHOHARAHL— A  Japanese  state 
ritual  of  purification  performed  normally  twice 
a  year  by  the  Emperor  or  his  representative  to 
remove  the  stain  of  all  offenses  committed  by  the 
people  or  their  rulers.  The  ceremony  consists  of  a 
transfer  of  the  taint  of  impurity  to  objects  which 
are  then  thrown  into  water  or  washed  in  water 
that  the  contagion  may  be  carried  away. 

OIL,  HOLY. — Oil  consecrated  for  sacramental 
oflSces,  as  (a)  Oil  of  catechumens,  used  in  anointing 
persons  about  to  be  baptized;  (b)  Oil  of  chrism, 
used  at  baptism  and  confirmation;  (c)  Oil  of  the 
sick,  used  in  extreme  unction.    See  Anointing. 

OLD  CATHOLICS.— A  party  of  schismatic 
CathoHcs  who  separated  from  the  Roman  CathoUc 
Church  after  the  proclamation  of  the  dogma  of 
papal  infallibility  in  1870. 

Prior  to  the  Vatican  Council  papal  infallibility, 
long  earnestly  advocated  by  the  Jesuits  and  others, 
met  opposition  within  the  Catholic  body  especially 
among  the  laymen.  Eventually  all  objecting 
bishops  in  the  Council  except  two  made  their 
peace  with  the  Church  by  submission,  thus  leaving 


to  laymen  the  organization  and  direction  of  the 
new  opposition  movement.  The  leaders  were 
mostly  professors  of  Bonn,  Breslau,  Braunsberg, 
Munich,  Miinster,  Prague,  Wiirzburg  and  other 
universities.  The  general  policy  of  the  schismatic 
movement  was  determined  in  a  Congress  at  Munich, 
September  22-24,  1871,  and  the  organization  of 
congregations  followed  in  many  of  the  leading 
cities  of  Catholic  Germany.  The  new  church 
rejected  the  pope  altogether  but  retained  epis- 
copacy. Prof.  J.  H.  Reinkins  of  Breslau  was 
elected  first  bishop,  and  was  ordained  by  the 
Jansenist  bishop  of  Deventer  in  1872.  The  epis- 
copal succession  thus  obtained  has  been  kept  up 
since. 

The  rejection  of  the  pope  was  followed  by  modi- 
fication of  other  distinctive  Catholic  doctrines  and 
practices.  Jesus  Christ  was  declared  to  be  the 
'  sole  Head  of  the  Church,  confession  was  made 
voluntary,  absolution  was  regarded  as  declaratory 
only,  priests  were  allowed  to  marry,  the  dogma  of 
the  immaculate  conception  was  rejected,  and 
the  vernacular  was  approved  in  worship.  Lay- 
men were  granted  large  infiuence  in  the  affairs 
of  the  local  congregations  and  of  the  church  as  a 
whole. 

W.  J.  McGlothlin 

OLD  ROMAN    CREED    (or    SYMBOL).— See 

Creed;  Rule  of  Faith. 

OLD  TESTAMENT.— A  collection  of  39  books, 
constituting  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  now 
forming  the  first  part  of  our  English  Bible. 

These  books  are  of  various  types  and  arose  in 
order  to  meet  various  religious  needs.  Some  put  on 
record  the  laws  that  controlled  Hebrew  social  and 
religious  life;  others  narrate  the  history  and  the 
traditions  regarding  ancient  Israel;  others  record 
the  sermons  preached  to  their  contemporaries  by 
the  prophets;  still  others  discuss  the  great  problems 
of  life  from  a  practical  or  semi-philosophical  stand- 
point ;  and  one  constituted  the  great  hymn  book  of 
the  Jewish  community.  The  Hebrew  O.T.  is 
arranged  in  three  divisions,  viz.:  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  Writings.  This  arrangement 
represents  the  order  in  which  these  books  attained 
authority  in  the  minds  of  the  Jewish  people,  the 
law  achieving  sanctity  first  of  all,  after  that  the 
prophets  (including  the  early  historical  books), 
and  last  of  all  the  "writings"  (including  the  Psalms, 
Proverb's,  Job,  Chronicles,  etc.). 

As  the  Jewish  people  scattered  over  the  world 
and  came  into  contact  with  other  peoples  and 
languages,  largely  forgetting  their  own  tongue, 
the  need  of  translating  the  sacred  books  arose.  The 
first  translation  was  into  Greek  (the  Septuagint), 
and  this  was  followed  in  due  time  by  a  Syriac 
rendering  (the  Peshitto)  and  a  Latin  (the  Vulgate). 
See  Versions  of  the  Bible.  *  " 

The  process  of  canonization  was  begun  by  the 
Jews  themselves.  Its  origin  dates  back  to  the 
reform  in  Josiah's  day  (621  B.C.),  when  Deuter- 
onomy received  official  sanction  in  a  popular 
assembly.  This  tendency  was  carried  farther  in 
the  times  of  Ezra-Nehemiah;  and  was  fulfilled 
finally  in  the  Jewish  Council  of  Jamnia  (ca.  100  a.d.), 
which  definitely  decided  in  favor  of  Ecclesiastes  and 
Canticles  as  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  Canon.  The 
Protestant  Canon  of  the  O.T.  has  adhered  to  the  list 
of  books  found  in  the  Hebrew  Bible;  but  the 
Roman  Catholic  O.T.  follows  the  Septuagint 
in  including  the  so-called  Apocryphal  Books. 
See  Canon,  Biblical. 

The  use  of  the  O.T..  made  by  the  Christian 
Church  has  changed  as  the  interests  of  the  Church 
have  changed.     'The  early  Church  sought  to  find 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Ontology 


in  the  O.T.  support  for  its  claims  regarding  Jesus. 
Hence  it  magnified  the  predictive  element  and 
sought  to  find  portrayals  of  Jesus  and  his  work  in  the 
O.T.  writings.  Sine©  much  of  the  O.T.  was  not 
susceptible  of  such  interpretation  on  the  face  of  it, 
the  symbolical  and  allegorical  principle  of  exegesis 
was  brought  into  free  play. 

By  regarding  much  of  the  ceremonial  as  sym- 
bolical or  typical  of  him  who  was  to  come,  predic- 
tions of  Jesus  were  found  even  in  the  Law.  Things 
that  apparently  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  coming 
Messiah  were  by  allegorical  interpretation  made 
to  be  specific  announcements  of  the  coming  Christ. 
With  Luther  and  the  Reformation,  the  church  was 
brought  to  see  that  the  only  sound  principle  of 
interpretation  was  to  accept  the  language  of  the 
O.T.  according  to  the  natural,  grammatical  sense 
and  in  accordance  with  the  historical  situations  out 
of  which  the  documents  arose.  But  while  the  Refor- 
mation theory  of  interpretation  was  sound,  in 
practice  the  O.T.  was  always  made  subservient  to 
the  N.T.  and  thus  its  real  significance  was  obscured. 
It  is  only  within  the  last  half-century  that  the 
Reformation  principle  of  interpretation  has  been 
given  full  application  in  what  is  now  called  "the 
historical  method  of  interpretation." 

The  value  of  the  O.T.  is  today  seen  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  record  of  a  long  period  in  the  history 
of  the  purest  religion  that  the  world  knew  prior  to 
the  rise  of  Christianity.  It  shows  us  that  religion  in 
the  making.  It  reveals  to  us  the  faults  and  virtues 
of  the  makers  of  the  Hebrew  rehgion  and  thus 
furnishes  warning  and  inspiration  to  us  in  the  task 
of  meeting  the  religious  needs  of  our  own  day. 
Further,  it  throws  a  bright  light  upon  the  N.T. 
and  so  contributes  greatly  to  our  understanding  of 
the  rise  and  development  of  early  Christianity. 

J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

OLIVETANS. — One  of  the  minor  monastic 
R.C.  orders  founded  by  Bernard  Tolomei  in  the 
14th.  century  and  following  the  Benedictine  rule, 
only  with  augmented  rigor.  The  original  monastery 
at  Accona,  near  Siena  was  renamed  Monte  Oliveto 
from  the  abundance  of  ohve  trees  at  Accona,  and 
as  a  mark  of  devotion  to  the  Passion. 

OLSHAUSEN,  JUSTUS  (1800-1882).— German 
Orientalist  who  made  important  contributions  to 
comparative  philology  and  through  his  work  on  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  added  much  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  rehgions.  He 
al^  issued  commentaries  on  the  Bible. 

OLYMPUS  or  OLYMPOS.— The  mountain 
home  of  the  gods  of  the  Aryan  conquerors  of  Greece. 

CM. — ^A  mystic  symbol  of  India  used  in  religious 
meditation.  It  is  common  to  practically  all  the 
sects.  Sometimes  it  is  expanded  to  read  AUM 
and  so  lends  itself  to  all  the  speculation  associated 
with  the  number  three.  The  essence  of  the  three 
worlds,  the  ultimate  divine  reality,  the  soul  of  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  the  inner  magical  power  of  the 
sacrifices  are  all,  by  a  kind  of  mental  shorthand, 
concentrated  in  this  symbol  which  has  acquired  in 
consequence,  through  the  centuries,  the  mysterious 
power  of  a  spell.  Mantras  (q.v.)  usually  begin  with 
the  word.  Meditation  on  it  is  the  last  mystic 
stage  before  the  final  state  of  imion  which  is  ineffable. 

OMEN. — ^A  sign  in  divination  (q.v.)  which 
may  be  favorable  or  otherwise. 

OMNIPOTENCE.— The  theological  doctrine  of 
the  possession  by  God  of  unlimited  and  unrestricted 
power  for  the  realization  of  all  possibilities  which 
he  may  will. 


OMNIPRESENCE.— The  theological  concep- 
tion that  the  transcendent  God  is  active  at  all  places 
in  the  universe. 

OMNISCIENCE.— The  theological  doctrine  of 
God's  unUmited  knowledge  as  a  necessary  condition 
to  the  doctrine  of  providence. 

ONEIDA  COMMUNITY.— A  communistic  soci- 
ety founded  by  John  Humphrey  Noyes  (1811-1886) 
at  Oneida,  New  York,  which  coupled  industrial 
success  with  its  reUgious  and  social  principles.  See 
Perfectionism. 

ONTOLOGICAL  ARGUMENT.— The  onto- 
logical  argument  has  various  forms,  but  its  goal  is 
to  establish  the  existence  of  God  as  a  necessary 
implication  of  the  idea  of  divine  or  perfect  being; 
a  purely  subjective  or  logical  form  of  argument, 
aiming  to  give  logical  form  to  an  intuitive  con- 
viction of  God. 

In  Augustine  the  form  of  the  argument  is  that  of 
trusting  a  universal  intuition.  In  Anselm  the 
typical  scholastic  syllogism  is  thus  outlined:  We 
have  the  idea  of  an  absolutely  Perfect  Being. 
But  to  be  perfect  a  being  must  have  existence. 
Therefore  an  absolutely  Perfect  Being  must  exist. 
In  Descartes  the  argument  was  assimilated  to  the 
doctrine  of  "innate  ideas."  God  is  an  innate 
original  idea  of  the  mind;  only  God  could  be  the 
adequate  cause  of  such  an  idea.  Therefore  he 
exists. 

In  Kantian  philosophy,  the  ontological  argument 
was  shown  to  be  purely  formal,  indicating  nothing 
more  than  an  inevitable  trust  in  the  vahdity  of 
necessary  concepts.  Modern  philosophy  in  general 
lays  little  stress  upon  it.        Herbert  A.  Youtz 

ONTOLOGISM.— The  philosophic  theory  ad- 
vanced by  Gioberti,  the  Italian  philosopher  (1810- 
1852)  that  man  is  possessed  of  intuitive  knowledge 
of  Absolute  Being.  The  theory  was  advanced 
in  opposition  to  the  current  philosophical  method 
of  analyzing  subjective  consciousness. 

ONTOLOGY.— Literally,  the  "Science  of  Be- 
ing"; an  attempt  to  define  the  nature  of  ultimate 
reality. 

Ancient  and  mediaeval  philosophy  maintained 
the  conception  of  an  ultimate  reality  upon  which 
the  existence  of  any  specific  thing  depends.  To 
determine  the  nature  of  this  ultimate^  meant  to 
state  the  universal  conditions  of  any  kind  of  real 
existence.  The  name  "ontology"  was  first  applied 
to  this  metaphysical  inquiry  by  the  German  phi- 
losopher Wolff. 

Since  Kant's  searching  critique  of  rnetaphysics, 
the  futility  of  attempting  any  definition  of  so 
generalized  a  conception  as  that  of  Pure  Being 
has  been  generally  recognized,  and  the  older 
ontology  has  fallen  into  disrepute.  Modern  phi- 
losophy, however,  proceeding  first  to  analyze^  our 
subjective  sensations,  perceptions,  and  conceptions, 
is  led  to  the  inquiry  as  to  the  character  of  the 
objective  stimuli  of  these  subjective  experiences. 
To  distinguish  the  object  of  knowledge  from  the 
process  of  knowing  calls  for  a  metaphysical  inquiry; 
and  modern  epistemology  has  sought  to  solve  this 
problem.  But  the  impossibility  of  any  empirical 
contact  with  that  which  is  distinct  from  the  knowing 
process  is  so  evident  that  no  ontology  in  the  older 
sense  of  the  term  is  today  elaborated.  It  is  rather 
sought  to  show  that  there  is  a  definite  and  depend- 
able objective  order  which  so  determines  our 
experience  that  reliable  "laws"  of  nature  and 
sequences  of  events  may  be  reckoned  with.  Theo- 
logically, the  ontological  problem  is  that  of  affirming 


Ophites  or  Ophians 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


318 


the  real  objective  existence  of  God  as  distinguished 
from  our  idea  of  God.  See  Ontological  Argu- 
ment. Gerald  Birney  Smith 

OPHITES  or  OPHIANS.— The  generic  desig- 
nation for  certain  sects  of  Gnostics,  the  common 
tenets  of  which  are  uncertain,  although  all  of  them 
abounded  in  pagan  ideas.     See  Gnosticism. 

OPTATUS.— Bishop  of  Numidia  in  Milene,  in 
the  second  half  of  the  4th.  century,  and  author  of 
a  book  Against  the  Donatist  Schism  in  reply  to  the 
treatise  of  Parmenianus. 

OPTIMISM.— The  philosophical  doctrine  that 
the  universe  is  so  ordered  that  the  development  of 
events  is  designed  for  the  highest  good.  Leibnitz 
developed  the  argument  that  since  God  the  creator  is 
infinitely  good,  the  universe  is  the  best  possible 
world.  In  optimism  evil  is  either  explained  away  or 
declared  to  be  a  means  of  good.  Some  of  the  New 
England  theologians  on  the  basis  of  Leibnitz'  optim- 
ism declared  sin  necessary  to  the  manifestation  of 
God's  goodness  and  glory.  In  popular  usage,  the 
word  indicates  the  tendency  to  view  events  and 
things  from  the  bright  side. 

OPUS  OPERATUM.— A  term  used  in  R.C. 
theology  to  affirm  the  inherent  saving  efficacy 
of  a  sacrament.  The  phrase  ex  opera  operatum 
( "through  the  act  performed' ' )  indicates  that  empha- 
sis is  to  be  laid  on  the  sacraments  rather  than  on 
subjective  faith  in  defining  the  conditions  of  salva- 
tion. (Canons  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  Session  VII, 
Canon  8.) 

ORACLE. — A  particular  place  where  a  god 
or  goddess  is  believed  to  answer  the  questions  of 
his  or  her  worshipers,  or  to  give  occult  information; 
a  feature  characteristic  of  the  ancient  Greek  religion. 
In  practise  there  was  associated  with  the  oracle  an 
organized  cult  of  divination.  Delphi  wasjthe  loca- 
tion of  the  most  noted  oracle.  See  Divination. 
The  utterance  coming  from  a  deity  or  from  a  pro- 
phetically inspired  person  is  also  called  an  oracle. 

ORATORIANS.— A  R.C.  congregation  of  men 
founded  by  St.  PhiUp  Neri  in  Rome  in  1564  to 
promote  the  "counter  reformation"  (q.v.)  inaugu- 
rated by  the  Council  of  Trent  (q.v.).  Each  com- 
munity, "Oratory,"  is  independent.  The  members 
take  no  vows,  may  leave  at  any  time,  and  wear 
the  clerical  cassock.  There  are  Oratories  in  most 
of  the  countries  of  Europe,  America,  and  Ceylon. 
Prominent  among  the  EngUsh  Oratorians  were 
Cardinal  Newman  and  W.  Faber. 

ORATORIO. — A  musical  composition  of  a 
sacred  character  for  chorus,  solo  voices  and 
orchestra,  the  text  of  which  is  frequently  taken  from 
the  Bible,  and  which  is  performed  without  costume, 
scenery  or  dramatic  action.  Such  compositions 
date  from  those  of  Carissimi  (1604-1674). 

ORDEALS. — Methods  employed  among  ancient 
Babylonian,  Indian,  Greek,  Germanic,  Hebrew,  and 
other  peoples,  and  among  medieval  Christians, 
for  determining  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  accused 
persons  by  appeal  to  direct  and  miraculous  divine 
intervention  to  save  the  accused  from  harm  if 
innocent.  Common  tests  were  the  duel,  taking 
of  poison,  contact  with  red-hot  iron  or  boiUng 
water,  or  ability  to  swallow  a  consecrated  portion 
of  food.  Most  of  the  ordeals  were  such  that  apart 
from  divine  interposition  (scarcely  to  be  expected) 
or  ability  on  the  part  of  the  accused  to  practise 
illusion,   conviction   was  practically  sure.    From 


the  9th.  century  onward  popes  and  some  civil 
rulers  sought  to  discourage  ordeals  and  sometimes 
prohibited  them;  but  they  persisted  along  with 
belief  in  witchcraft  and  other  superstitions  to  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages  or  later. 

A.  H.  Newman 

ORDER,  HOLY.— The  power  transmitted  to 
a  man  through  ecclesiastical  authority  to  exercise 
certain  spiritual  functions  in  the  Christian  Church. 

I.  Catholic  Theory  and  Practice.— Ordina- 
tion distinguishes  the  recipient  from  the  laity  by 
an  indelible  mark  or  character,  and  is  therefore, 
like  baptism,  not  to  be  repeated.  It  confers  grace 
(cf.  I  Tim.  4:14;  II  Tim.  1:6),  and  is  accordingly 
a  sacrament,  though  the  Anglican  Churches  dis- 
tinguish carefully  between  the  two  sacraments 
authorized  or  instituted  by  Christ  personally 
(baptism  and  the  eucharist)  and  those  rites  which 
later  obtained  this  title.    See  Sacraments. 

In  this  sacrament  various  grades  are  distin- 
guished under  the  title  of  Holy  Orders.  The 
Latin  Church  at  present  commonly  recognizes 
seven  of  these,  comprising  in  succession  from 
higher  to  lower,  priests,  deacons,  subdeacons,  aco- 
lytes, exorcists,  readers,  and  doorkeepers;  but 
there  appears  to  be  no  authoritative  definition  of 
the  number.  _  As  here  given  the  priesthood  includes 
the  bishopric,  probably  because  bishops  and 
priests  alike  have  the  highest  power  of  the  Christian 
ministry,  that  of  consecrating  the  elements  in  the 
eucharist  (so  St.  Thomas  Aquinas) ;  though  the 
office  of  a  bishop,  as  distinct  from  his  order,  is 
universally  held  to  be  superior  to  that  of  a  priest, 
and  includes  certain  functions  not  permitted  to 
priests  (confirmation,  ordination,  mission),  and 
there  appears  to  be  a  growing  tendency  to  account 
the  episcopate  a  distinct  order.  Of  the  orders 
enumerated,  the  priesthood  (or  the  bishopric  and 
priesthood),  diaconate,  and  (in  recent  centuries) 
subdiaconate  are  accounted  major  orders,  the 
others  minor.  Each  lower  order  must  be  conferred 
to  render  a  candidate  eligible  for  the  next  higher, 
though  ordinations  per  saltwn  were  not  unknown 
in  earlier  centuries.  The  minor  orders  have  become 
in  practice  only  formal  steps  preliminary  to  the 
major. 

In  the  Churches  of  the  East  (Russian,  Greek, 
Armenian,  etc.)  which  are  not  in  commimion  with 
the  Churches  of  the  West,  some  variation  of  recog- 
nized number  of  orders  appears  to  exist,  though 
five  are  commonly  so  accounted,  bishops,  priests, 
deacons,  subdeacons,  and  readers,  to  which  singers 
are  sometimes  added. 

The  Anghcan  Churches  since  the  Reformation 
have  recognized  and  continued  but  three  orders, 
those  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons,  of  which  bishops  are  held  to 
be  proper  and  hneal  successors  of  the  apostles, 
according  to  primitive  Catholic  tradition.  The 
necessity  of  minor  orders  is  denied,  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  not  of  the  primary  constitution  of 
the  Church.  The  office  of  lay-readers  (to  which  men 
only  are  admitted),  and  the  order  of  deaconesses, 
both  revived  in  recent  years  in  the  Anglican  com- 
munion, do  not  partake  of  the  nature  of  Holy 
Orders,  though  both  existed  in  the  1st.  or  2nd. 
centuries. 

QuaUfications  for  Holy  Orders  differ  in  different 
Churches.  Among  the  requirements  are  that  candi- 
dates must  prove  by  canonical  tests  their  possession 
of  high  moral  character,  orthodoxy  of  beUef, 
purpose  of  conformity,  and  a  prescribed  amount  of 
learning.  Approval  by  the  laity  as  weU  as  the 
clergy  is  also  scrupulously  provided  for,  in  accord- 
ance with  primitive  tradition.  Candidates  must 
be  of  sufficient  age.  In  the  first  centuries  there 
was  variation  of  Umit,  but  25  years  for  deacons 


319 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Ordinal 


and  30  for  priests  and  bishops  came  to  be  the 
rule,  which  still  holds  in  the  East.  For  the  Latins 
the  council  of  Trent  estabUshed  as  the  requirement 
22  years  for  subdeacons,  23  for  deacons,  25  for 
priests,  30  for  bishops;  but  dispensations  are 
permitted,  and  the  hmit  is  usually  one  year  lower 
m  the  case  of  the  three  orders  below  the  episcopate. 
In  the  AngUcan  Churches  21  years  is  the  age- 
requirement  for  the  diaconate,  24  for  the  priesthood, 
30  for  the  episcopate.  Ordinands  must  possess 
also  a  canonical  "title,"  or  guaranteed  situation 
in  which  to  exercise  their  clerical  function,  diocesan, 

Earochial,  or  academic;  but  in  the  Latin  Church 
ishops  are  sometimes  consecrated  in  recent  cen- 
turies with  the  title  of  some  extinct  see  ("titular 
bishops,"  formerly  called  bishops  in  partibus 
infidelium) .  In  the  East  a  secular  priest  may  be  mar- 
ried before  ordination,  but  is  not  permitted  to  re- 
marry in  case  of  the  death  of  his  wife.  But  a  bishop 
must  be  a  celibate,  and  is  therefore  in  practice 
appointed  from  the  membership  of  a  monastic  order. 
In  the  Latin  Church  cehbacy  is  required  of  all  clergy  in 
major  orders,  with  few  relatively  obscure  exceptions. 
The  Anglican  Churches  since  the  Reformation  have 
returned  to  primitive  practice,  and  permit  marriage 
to  clergy  of  all  orders. 

Rites  of  ordination  differ  according  to  the 
Church,  and  ordinations  may  be  vaUd  though 
irregular  (e.g.,  of  a  man  without  canonical  qualifica- 
tions, or  by  a  suspended,  schismatic,  or  even 
heretical  bishop) ;  but  essential  to  validity  (as  in 
all  sacraments)  are  proper  "intention,"  "matter," 
"form,"  and  "minister."  "Intention"  requires  the 
serious  performance  of  the  rite  by  the  officiant  with 
the  evident  purpose  to  "do  what  the  Church  does" 
(Jacere  quod  facit  Ecclesia).  The  "matter"  and 
"form"  in  ordination  consist  in  the  imposition  of 
hands  with  appropriate  prayer,  though  there  was 
commonly  held  in  mediaeval  and  even  later  times 
in  the  Latin  Church  a  now  discredited  theory  that 
in  ordination  to  the  priesthood  the  essential  matter 
was  the  putting  into  the  ordinand's  hands  of  the 
chalice  and  paten  (the  porrectio  instrumentorum,  ex- 
cluded from  the  AngUcan  rite  since  the  Reformation) . 
The  only  "minister"  of  Holy  Orders  is  a  bishop 
(except  by  occasional  papal  delegation  in  the 
Latin  Church  in  the  conferring  of  minor  orders); 
for  though  in  the  ordination  of  a  priest  the  priests 
present  join  with  the  bishop  in  the  "laying  on  of 
hands"  (cf.  I  Tim.  4:14),  they  do  not  thereby 
ordain.  Apostolic  succession  (q.v.)  is  thus  through 
the  line  of  bishops  only,  and  from  early  centuries  it 
has  been  required  by  custom  and  canon  that  in  each 
consecration  of  a  bishop  at  least  three  bishops  should 
unite  in  the  imposition  of  hands.  Since  each  of 
these  acts  with  the  full  power  of  ordination,  the 
tactual  connection  back  to  apostolic  times  becomes 
not  a  single  chain  but  a  most  complex  network,  in 
which  the  casual  effect  of  any  unsuspected  impair- 
ment in  the  validity  of  a  single  fink  is  obviated 
by  the  coherence  of  the  entire  fabric. 

The  actual  exercise  of  the  powers  conferred  by 
Holy  Orders  is  controlled  by  canon  law;  but 
subject  to  that  legal  direction  a  priest  is  empowered 
to  preach,  and  to  administer  all  of  the  sacraments 
except  Confirmation  and  Holy  Orders  (in  the  East 
he  may  confirm  as  by  delegation  from  the  bishop, 
who  blesses  the  oil  used  in  the  rite);  he  may  also 
pronounce  absolution  and  benediction  in  other 
offices  of  the  Church.  A  deacon  may  assist  the 
priest  in  the  administration  of  sacraments,  in  the 
absence  of  a  priest  may  baptize,  and  may  preach, 
if  especially  licensed  by  his  bishop  to  do  so:  but 
he  may  not  act  as  celebrant  in  the  eucharist,  nor 
pronounce  absolution  or  benediction  (and  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  baptism  is  valid  also  if  adminis- 
tered in  circumstances  of  emergency  by  even  a  lay 


person,  whether  man  or  woman).  Ordinary 
offices  of  public  worship  m  ly  be  conducted  by  any 
cleric  (subject  to  limitations  mentioned  above), 
or  in  emergencies  by  a  layman  or  laywoman. 
Lay  oSiciants  may  not,  however,  pronounce  abso- 
lution or  benediction.  From  Holy  Orders  are 
distinguished  titles  indicating  merely  administrative 
functions,  such  as  cardinal,  patriarch,  primate, 
metropolitan,  archbishop,  dean,  archdeacon,  canon, 
rector,  vicar,  curate,  etc.  Even  the  Pope  is, 
qua  order,  only  Bishop  of  Rome. 

II.  Protestant  Theory  and  Practice.^ 
Though  the  catholic  theory  recognizes  in  the  priest- 
hood both  a  sacerdotal  and  a  ministerial  element, 
it  lays  emphasis  upon  the  former.  Protestant 
churches  generally  hold  to  a  purely  ministerial 
theory  of  the  office,  and  repudiate  for  their  clergy 
all  sacerdotal  pretensions.  These  persons  they 
prefer  accordingly  to  call  ministers,  elders,  or 
pastors,  and  (except  certain  Methodists)  they 
reckon  their  deacons  as  merely  official  laymen, 
thus  holding  to  a  single  clerical  order.  In  these 
respects  they  profess  to  be  following  loyally  the  New 
Testament  model.  Of  course  they  all  (with  the 
exception  of  certain  Presbyterians)  reject  the 
Apostolic  Succession  as  an  unnecessary  or  fictitious 
mediaeval  theory.     See  Clergy. 

Churches  "of  the  Presbyterian  order"  differ 
from  those  "of  the  Congregational  order"  rather 
in  their  theory  and  practice  of  church  government 
than  in  their  concept  of  Orders.  Yet  certain 
"High  Church"  Presbyterians  claim  and  value 
proper  succession  of  their  ministers  from  primitive 
times  on  the  ground  that  ordinations  by  bishops 
have  been  valid  inasmuch,  and  inasmuch  only, 
as  bishops  are  properly  presbyters.  Presbyterians 
are  not  unanimous  on  the  question  whether  a  "rul- 
ing elder"  in  the  local  church  partakes  of  the 
same  order  as  the  mim'ster,  or  is  only  a  layman. 

The  Methodist  followers  of  John  Wesley  dis- 
tinctly reject  all  idea  of  the  episcopate  as  a  separate 
order,  but  the  two  largest  branches  in  the  United 
States  of  America  (and  some  smaller  churches  as 
well)  retain  the  title  for  elders  elected  to  general 
superintendency,  while  they  account  the  diaconate 
to  be  the  lower  order  in  the  twofold  ministry.  ^ 

The  Scandinavian  Churches  of  Lutheran  origin  in 
Norway  and  Denmark  have  bishop-superintendents 
of  only  presbyterian  ordination,  like  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Churches;  but  the  bishops  of  the  Luth- 
eran Church  in  Sweden  can  trace  a  lineal  succession 
from  a  bishop  of  Roman  consecration,  as  apparently 
can  also  the  Moravian  bishops.    E.  T.  MERRiLii 

ORDERS,  RELIGIOUS.— Societies  of  men  or 
women  living  in  community  according  to  rule  for 
the  purpose  of  mutual  edification  or  religious  work. 
Such  orders  existed  in  some  ancient  reUgions,  as 
the  Buddhists.  In  the  early  Christian  centuries 
soUtaries  in  the  deserts  of  Upper  Egypt  and  Syria 
formed  such  communities.  They  probably  entered 
Europe  in  the  late  4th.  century.  St.  Basil  gave  his 
monks  a  rule  in  359,  which  was  later  adopted  by 
nearly  all  the  monastic  orders  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
St.  Benedict  (d.  543)  gave  a  similar  rule  to  the  monks 
of  the  West.  In  the  Middle  Ages  numerous  reli- 
gious orders  sprang  up,  especially  in  the  13th. 
century — Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Augustinians, 
CarmeUtes.  At  present  the  older  orders  continue 
tO'  make  solemn  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience,  and  profess  their  respective  rules.  Those 
of  later  origin,  or  which  do  not  make  solemn  vows, 
are  properly  called  Congregations.  See  Monasti- 
ciSM;  Catholic  Societies.  J.  N.  Reagan 

ORDINAL. — A  guide  to  the  proper  forms 
of    religious    service,    in    pre-reformation    times 


Ordination 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


320 


furnishing  instructions  for  all  the  canonical  hours 
during  the  church  year.  In  the  AngUcan  prayer 
book,  instructions  regarding  the  "making,  ordain- 
ing, and  consecrating  of  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons." 

ORDINATION.— The  formal  appointment  of 
a  person  to  perform  pubhc  reUgious  acts  in  behalf 
of  a  church.  Such  appointment  is  of  two  sorts: 
In  the  case  of  Catholic  churches  it  involves  the 
entrance  of  the  candidate  into  a  holy  order  through 
the  impartation  of  grace  derived  through  an 
apostolic  succession  from  Jesus  Christ.  _  In  the 
case  of  other  bodies  it  is  simply  a  solemn  introduc- 
tion of  the  candidate  to  ecclesiastical  office  and 
duties.  See  Ordek,  Holy;  Apostolic  Succes- 
sion; Bishop;  Deacon. 

OREAD. — In  Greek  mythology,  a  nymph  (q.v.) 
inhabiting  and  presiding  over  a  mountain. 

ORENDA. — An  Iroquois  word  meaning  the 
invisible,  mysterious  potency  by  which  natural 
objects  and  living  beings  accomplish  remarkable 
or  starthng  effects.     See  Mana;   Manitu. 

ORIGEN  (182-251).— A  celebrated  Christian 
teacher  of  Alexandria.  As  a  young  man  he  suc- 
ceeded Clement  of  Alexandria  as  the  head  of  the 
catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  and  soon  became 
the  leading  theological  influence  of  his  day.  _  He  was 
ordained  presbyter  in  Caesarea  (230)  but  in  conse- 
quence was  banished  from  Alexandria.  Thereafter 
he  lived  in  Caesarea,  where  his  teaching  soon 
attracted  large  numbers  of  pupils.  He  finally  died 
of  tortures  inflicted  during  the  persecution  of 
Decius. 

Origen  organized  Christian  teaching  through 
the  use  of  Greek  dialectics  and  philosophy.  His 
system  was  orthodox  but  he  taught  a  view  of  the 
relation  of  the  Son  to  the  Father  which  later  was 
interpreted  as  implying  the  subordination  of  the 
former.  Particularly  was  he  influential  in  giving 
a  Platonic  metaphysical  tendency  to  the  doctrine  of 
God  and  of  the  Logos  as  the  eternally  (i.e.,  time- 
lessly)  begotten  creative  Son  of  the  Father.  He 
also  held  to  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  and 
the  pre-existent  incarnation  of  the  Son.  In  his 
eschatology  he  combatted  millenarianism  and  held 
to  the  final  release  of  human  souls  from  sin  through 
purification. 

No  one  of  the  early  Fathers  surpassed  Origen 
in  boldness  of  speculation  or  solid  learning.  So 
creative  was  his  teaching  in  the  pre-conciliar  age 
that  it  later  became  the  quarry  of  both  orthodox 
and  heretical  schools. 

As  a  biblical  scholar  he  was  approached  only 
by  Jerome.  His  prolific  authorship  resulted  in 
6000  rolls.  His  method  was  both  scientific  and 
allegorical.  His  commentaries  cover  the  chief 
books  of  the  Bible.  His  most  important  critical 
work  is  the  Hexapla  in  which  the  Hebrew,  Ac[uila's 
version,  Symmachus,  Septuagint,  the  version  of 
Theodotian,  as  well  as  variants  and  a  transliteration 
of  the  Hebrew,  were  arranged  in  seven  parallel 
columns.  In  addition  to  his  exegetical  and  theo- 
logical works  (chief  among  which  are  the  De 
Prindpiis,  and  Against  Celsus),  he  left  numerous 
homilies  on  practically  the  entire  Bible  as  well  as 
many  letters.  Shailer  Mathews 

ORIGENISTIC  CONTROVERSIES.— Contro- 
versies originating  in  the  Greek  church  from  the 
4th.  to  the  6th.  centuries  with  reference  to  the 
doctrines  of  Origen  (q.v.).  The  points  of  attack 
were  his  denial  of  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh,  the 
subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  the  pre- 


existence  of  souls,  the  eternal  creation  of  the  world, 
and  the  final  and  universal  restoration. 

ORIGINAL  SIN.— A  congenitaUy  depraved 
nature  alleged  by  orthodox  Christian  theology  to  be 
the  inevitable  heritage  of  every  human  being. 

As  contrasted  with  the  perfect  hohness  of  God, 
human  life  seems  inherently  sinful.  The  profound 
sense  of  sinfulness  felt  by  men  like  Paul,  Augustine, 
and  Luther  found  theological  expression  in  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  according  to  which  Adam's 
fall  so  corrupted  human  nature  that  every  child 
of  Adam  is  born  in  a  state  of  sin.  There  has  been 
considerable  controversy  among  theologians  as  to 
the  exact  extent  of  the  depravity  thus  inherited. 
Augustine,  Luther,  and  Calvin  set  forth  the  doctrine 
of  total  depravity,  "whereby  we  are  utterly  indis- 
posed, disabled,  and  made  opposite  to  all  good,  and 
wholly  inclined  to  evil"  (Westminster  Confession). 
Roman  Catholic  theology  represents  original  sin 
as  the  loss  of  Adam's  original  righteousness,  and 
an  evil  infection  of  human  nature  entailing  God's 
wrath  and  bringing  death  as  its  penalty.  Arminian4 , 
ism  insisted  that  only  when  the  evil  nature  of  maaJ 
is  voluntarily  yielded  to  does  sin  arise.  Pelagiua| 
denied  the  doctrine  in  the  Augustinian  sense,  declar- 
ing that  our  sin  consists  in  following  the  bad  example 
of  _  Adam  rather  than  in  any  innate  disability 
Origen  ascribed  original  sinfulness  to  the  debase- 
ment which  the  soul  incurred  by  sin  in  a  pre- 
existent  state. 

In  present-day  religious  thinking  among  Protes- 
tants, the  doctrine  has  been  somewhat  discredited 
both  because  of  doubt  as  to  the  historicity  of  all 
the  details  in  the  theological  picture  of  Adam,  and 
more  especially  because  of  a  more  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  child  nature.  It  is  recognized  that  physical 
appetites  and  instincts  represent  an  age-long 
development  in  the  race,  while  the  more  refined 
spiritual  attitudes  have  a  comparatively  short 
racial  history.  Religious  and  moral  ideals  thus 
have  a  hard  fight  against  an  animal  inheritance. 
Again,  every  individual  is  born  into  a  society  with 
faulty  moral  ideals  and  practices.  Righteousness 
must  always  contend  against  social  inertia.  Where- 
as salvation  from  original  sin  in  the  older  theological 
sense  requires  a  sacramental  or  mystical  regenera/- 
tion,  salvation  from  animal  passions  and  from  evil 
social  standards  requires  a  religious  and  moral 
training  of  the  body  and  a  "social  gospel."  — 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

ORMAZD.— The  Pahlavi  form  of  Ahura  Mazda, 
"the  Wise  Lord,"  Supreme  Being  in  the  Zoroastrian 
religion.  He  is  the  Creator  of  the  good  world, 
holy,  merciful,  eternal,  omniscient,  leader  of  the  good 
creation  in  the  world  struggle  against  the  wicked 
Spirit,  Ahriman,  creator  of  evil.  In  the  early  period 
Ormazd  is  not  represented  as  omnipotent  but  later 
Zoroastrian  thinkers  give  him  that  attribute.  See 
Persia,  Religions  of;  Zoroastrianism. 

ORPHANS  and  ORPHANAGES.— Orphans  and 

widows  have  generally  been  regarded  as  suitable 
objects  of  charity.  Plato  taught  that  orphans 
should  be  placed  under  pubUc  guardianship.  Rome 
was  less  considerate.  In  mediaeval  times  the 
monasteries  made  them  their  special  care,  and  they 
were  given  schooling  and  trades.  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  among  Catholics  and  the  Grerman  Pietist 
Francke  were  conspicuous  for  their  care  for  orphans. 
The  former  placed  them  in  charge  of  Sisters  of 
Charity,  orders  that  since  then  have  spread  across 
the  world.  An  Orphan  Working  Home  was  founded 
in  England  in  1758. 

The  presence  of  the  poorhouse  with  its  ungraded 
derelicts  led  to  the  abuse  of  child  life  in  both  Eng- 
land  and   America.     In   the   early   factory   days 


mv 


S21 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Oxford  Movement 


orphans  were  sent  into  the  shops  even  when  very 
young,  and  kept  at  work  for  long  hours  in  England. 
Philanthropists  stirred  Parhament  to  legislate,  and 
Dickens  by  his  stories  of  children  aroused  the 
attention  of  the  nation  to  the  evils  of  the  system 
of  child  support.  In  America  private  orphanages 
were  organized  from  the  beginning  of  the  19th. 
century,  but  the  evils  of  the  poorhouse  and  of  the 
apprentice  system  continued  to  prevail  much  longer. 
In  the  orphanages  kinder  treatment  was  the  rule, 
but  the  routine  and  discipline  of  the  institutions  too 
often  crushed  out  initiative  and  originality,  and 
blighted  all  the  romance  of  childhood.  More 
recently  the  old  type  of  institution  has  been  giving 
way  to  the  cottage  or  family  plan,  by  which  children 
are  placed  in  smaller  groups  under  the  care  of  a 
house  mother.  As  often  as  possible  children  are 
placed  out  in  the  homes  of  those  who  are  wilUng 
and  reUable,  and  many  are  adopted  by  foster 
parents. 

Several  approved  methods  are  now  in  vogue 
in  various  states  for  the  care  of  children  outside  the 
almshouses.  The  most  general  is  that  of  a  state 
school,  where  children  are  regarded  as  wards  of 
the  state  and  from  which  they  are  placed  out  in 
families.  Michigan  was  the  first  state  to  bring 
all  needy  orphans  into  one  central  institution  instead 
of  helping  to  pay  the  expenses  of  private  institutions, 
and  a  number  of  other  states  have  followed  that 
example.  Massachusetts  maintained  a  state  pri- 
mary school  for  thirty  years,  and  then  abandoned 
it,  as  nearly  all  the  children  had  been  placed  out. 
Objections  to  the  state  school  plan  have  been  made 
on  the  ground  that  the  schools  are  liable  to  political 
control,  but  on  the  whole  the  plan  has  worked  well. 
A  second  method,  originating  in  Ohio,  was  adopted 
by  several  states.  It  is  called  the  county  children's 
home  system,  but  the  plan  did  not  justify  itself. 
A  third  plan  has  been  for  the  state  to  support  its 
wards  in  private  institutions.  This  subsidy  or 
contract  system  started  in  New  York,  and  extended 
elsewhere.  Increase  of  numbers  faster  than  popula- 
tion, and  sectarian  interference  caused  criticism, 
but  experience  has  yet  to  prove  that  it  is  an  unwise 
system.  PubUc  opinion  is  increasingly  sensitive 
to  the  weKare  of  the  fatherless  child,  and  a  large 
number  of  organizations  supported  by  private  char- 
ity are  now  engaged  in  caring  for  orphans  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  of  social  science. 

Henry  K.  Rowe 

ORPHISM.— See  Mystery  Religions,  I,  3. 

ORTHODOXY,— The  affirmation  of  beliefs  or 
of  a  system  of  doctrines  authoritatively  declared 
to  be  true. 

Orthodoxy  presupposes  the  idea  of  an  authorita- 
tively given  system  to  which  adherents  are  expected 
to  be  absolutely  loyal.  The  conception  developed 
during  the  2nd.  century,  as  a  phase  of  the  attempt 
to  define  true  Christianity  so  as  to  exclude  per- 
verted interpretations.  Over  against  all  other 
claimants  the  Catholic  Church  established  its 
rights  as  the  sole  divinely  established  church, 
to  which  was  committed  the  divine  deposit  of 
truth  by  Christ  through  the  apostles.  Orthodoxy 
consists  in  allegiance  to  the  dogmas  defined  by 
the  church.  See  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
Eastern  church  calls  itself  the  Orthodox  Church. 

In  Protestantism,  orthodoxy  has  usually  been 
determined  in  relation  to  official  confessions  of 
faith.  But  since,  according  to  the  Protestant 
conception,  all  doctrines  must  be  justified  by  scrip- 
tural authority,  orthodoxy  in  the  broader  sense 
denotes  conformity  to  the  teachings  of  the  Bible. 
Dissenters,  however,  have  been  able  to  quote 
scriptural  authority  to  discredit  the  so-called 
orthodoxy  of  ecclesiastical  confessions.    The  devel- 


opment of  numerous  and  complicated  controversies, 
in  which  each  party  claimed  to  represent  true 
bibhcal  doctrine  has  done  much  to  discredit  the 
conception  of  orthodoxy.  Such  statements  as, 
I 'Orthodoxy  is  my  doxy;  heterodoxy  is  your  doxy," 
indicate  a  popular  impatience  with  theological 
polemics.  Less  stress  is  laid  today  in  Protestant 
churches  on  doctrinal  conformity,  emphasis  being 
placed  on  loyalty  to  the  spiritual  ideals  of  Christian- 
ity, leaving  individuals  free  to  formulate  their 
beliefs  in  their  own  way.  Moreover,  the  historical 
view  of  the  rise  and  formulation  of  Christian 
doctrines  renders  the  presuppositions  of  orthodoxy 
untenable.  A  less  precisely  official  view  of  doc- 
trine is  thus  coming  to  be  more  generally  held. 

Gerald  Birnby  Smith 
OSCULATORIUM.— See  Pax. 

OSIANDER,  ANDREAS  (1498-1552).— Ger- 
man reformer  who  participated  in  many  of  the 
important  events  of  the  German  Reformation 
including  the  formulation  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession and  Schmalkald  Articles.  His  interpreta- 
tion of  justification  by  faith  as  a  process  which 
infused  righteousness  in  the  believer  was  con- 
demned as  tending  to  Catholicism  by  his  opponents, 
who  taught  that  righteousness  is  imputed  to  those 
who  accept  Christ's  atoning  work. 

OSIRIS. — A  complex  god  of  Eg5rptian  religion. 
He  is  god  of  the  dead,  sun-god  and  symbol  of 
fertility  and  life.     See  Mysteries. 

OSTENSORIUM.— Same  as  Monsteance  (q.  v.)  . 

OUSIA. — A  Greek  word  important  in  the 
Christological  controversies  of  the  4th.  century. 
The  AristoteUan  usage  of  ousia  denotes  the  essence 
common  to  the  species  of  a  genus  and  this  was  the 
sense  in  which  the  word  was  used  by  the  framers 
of  the  Nicene  creed.  Members  of  the  same  genus 
were  said  to  be  homousios  (q.v.).  The  Neo- 
platonists  said  God  was  beyond  Ousia;  e.g., 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite  used  the  expression 
hyperousios.  Those  who  applied  the  term  to 
God  denied  the  possibility  of  a  definition.  The 
Latin  fathers  beginning  with  Tertullian  adopted 
the  word  substantia  (substance)  as  equivalent  to 
ousia.  In  this  sense  the  Son  is  said  to  be  of  the 
same  substance  as  the  Father. 

OVERSOUL. — ^A  term  used  by  Emerson  for  the 
all-pervading  spiritual  reality  of  the  cosmos,  per- 
meating nature  and  man. 

OWEN,  JOHN  (1616-1683).— Enghsh  Non- 
conformist leader  and  theologian;  a  rigid  Calvinist 
in  theology  and  one  of  the  foremost  leaders  in  the 
struggle  for  reUgious  liberty. 

OXFORD  MOVEMENT.— A  movement 
directed  by  Oxford  divines  to  strengthen  the 
Church  of  England  by  ritualistic  emphasis  and 
a  restoration  of  the  discipfine  of  the  ancient  church. 

Warned  by  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corpora- 
tion Acts  (q.v.)  and  the  CathoMc  Emancipation 
Bill  that  the  Church  of  England  was  still  suffering 
from  the  effects  of  the  Wesleyan  awakening,  the 
liberal  tendencies  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
Erastian  ideas  of  the  church;  thoroughly  alarmed 
at  the  agitation  to  remove  the  bishops  from  the 
House  of  Lords  because  of  their  decisive  influence 
in  blocking  the  Reform  Bill  of  1831;  and  fearful 
lest  church  disestabhshment  might  become  a 
national  issue  especially  after  the  Commons  had 
presumed  to  legislate  ten  Irish  bishoprics  out  of 
existence,    a    group    of   Oxford   leaders — Froude, 


p. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


322 


Palmer,  Percival,  Keble,  Mozley,  and  notably 
Newman,  Pusey,  and  Ward — took  steps  to  organize 
against  further  encroachments.  Petitions  signed 
largely  by  clergymen  and  lay  heads  of  families, 
addressed  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
denounced  innovations  and  pledged  support  in 
reviving  church  discipline.  A  series  of  "Tracts  for 
the  Times"  containing  concise  statements  on 
polity,  doctrine,  and  worship  of  the  church,  aroused 
widespread  interest  because  of  the  increasing 
boldness  with  which  Romanizing  tendencies  were 
mooted.  The  publication  of  tract  No.  90  by 
Newman,  undertaking  to  prove  that  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  are  capable  of  an  interpretation  in 
harmony  with  Roman  Catholic  views,  precipitated 
a  crisis.  Confronted  with  the  secret  purpose  of 
the  propaganda,  many  withdrew  their  allegiance. 
Realizing  the  hopelessness  of  effecting  a  general 
reconciliation  between  the  Anglican  and  Roman 
churches,  Newman,  followed  by  some  of  the  ablest 
members  of  the  party,  made  his  way  into  the  Church 
of  Rome.  Others  more  confident  of  ultimate  suc- 
cess, retained  their  affiliation  with  the  Church 
of  England  and  continued  to  advocate  extreme 


ritualistic  practices,  and  in  defiance  of  the  law  and 
sometimes  of  their  congregations,  introduced  cere- 
monies of  Rome.  Test  cases  submitted  to  the 
Judicial  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  have  given 
considerable  room  for  proselyting.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Real  Presence  and  its  corollary,  the  Euchar- 
istic  Sacrifice,  have  been  openly  and  widely  taught, 
and  have  found  expression  in  a  revived  and  elaborate 
ritual.  Proceedings  instituted  in  1856  against 
Archdeacon  Trenton  and  in  1871  against  Mr. 
Bennett  for  teaching  the  above  doctrines,  have 
only  strengthened  the  cause.  Through  its  aggres- 
sive work  in  founding  brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods 
to  minister  among  the  masses,  and  its  appeal  to  the 
ritualistically  disposed,  the  movement  has  gathered 
within  its  following  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Peter  G.  Mode 

OYOMEI. — A  15th.  century  system  of  Chinese 
religious  philosophy  which  extended  its  influence  to 
Japan.  It  is  a  mystical  monism  seeking  contact 
with  reality,  not  through  the  intellect,  but  by 
intuition.  Its  great  exponent  was  Wang  Yang 
Ming  (q.v.). 


P. — The  abbreviation  for  the  so-called  Priestly 
Code  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  See 
Hexateuch. 

PACHOMIUS  (292-346).— Egyptian  monk, 
founder  of  cenobitic  life  and  organizer  of  monas- 
teries;  also  a  friend  of  Athanasius. 

PACIFIST. — One  who  beUeves  that  peaceable 
settlement  of  all  controversies  is  possible  and  obliga- 
tory. War  is  condemned  per  se.  The  grounds  of 
this  condemnation  are  sometimes  the  teachings  of 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  ("Resist  not  evil"),  and 
sometimes  a  general  humanitarian  philosophy. 
See  Non-resistance. 

PAEDOBAPTISM. — Baptism  of  very  ydung 
children,  or  infant  baptism. 

PAGANISM. — A  name  applied  in  the  4th. 
century  to  the  native  religions  of  distant  places 
not  yet  reached  by  Chi-istianity.  During  the 
Crusades  it  was  applied  to  Mohammedanism. 
The  word  now  refers  to  all  religions  except  Chris- 
tianity, Judaism  and  Islam — these  three  worshiping 
the  same  God. 

PAGODA. — A  word  of  Portuguese  origin  used 
in  the  Orient  for  pyramidal  shaped  non-Christian 
temples;  but  particularly  for  Buddhistic  temples 
of  a  polygonal  form  containing  sacred  reUcs. 

PAIN. — See  Suffering. 

PAINE,  THOMAS  (1737-1809).— EngUsh 
writer;  a  participant  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence;  famous  as  author  of  The  Rights  of 
Man,  a  powerful  plea  for  democracy,  and  The  Age 
of  Reason,  a  somewhat  flippant  polemic  against 
supernaturalism  in  the  interests  of  pure  ethics 
based  on  natural  reUgion. 

PALESTINE     EXPLORATION     FUND.— An 

Enghsh  society  founded  1865  "for  the  purpose  of 
conducting  systematic  and  scientific  research  in  the 
Holy  Land."  The  first  great  task  undertaken 
by  the  Fund  was  the  survey  of  Western  Palestine, 
1871-78.  Since  1890  excavations  have  been 
carried  on  at  different  points  in  Palestine.    The 


most  thorough  work  was  done  at  Tell  el-Hesy  (Lach- 
ish)  and  Abu  Shusheh  (Gezer).  These  excavations 
have  been  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
study  of  the  development  of  civilization  in  Palestine 
(see  Canaanites).  The  Fund  has  also  encour- 
aged private  investigation  by  throwing  open  the 
pages  of  the  Quarterly  Statement,  the  official  organ 
of  the  society,  to  such  as  are  able  to  undertake 
more  or  less  systematic  researches  into  the  archae- 
ology, topography,  ethnology,  etc.,  of  Palestine. 

D.  D.  LuCKENBILIi 

PALEY,  WILLIAM  (1743-1805).— Enghsh  phi- 
losopher and  theologian;  author  of  several  works 
including  Natural  Theology,  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,  and  A  View  of  the  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity. His  argument  for  the  existence  of  God  on 
the  ground  of  the  adaptability  and  unity  of  created 
things  was  long  Quoted  as  a  classic. 

PALIMPSEST.— A  manuscript  from  which  the 
original  writing  was  erased  and  another  written  in, 
a  practise  due  to  the  paucity  of  writing  material  in 
mediaeval  times.  By  using  chemical  reagents 
many  original  manuscripts  have  been  deciphered. 
Several  of  the  biblical  codices  are  palimpsests. 

PALL. — ^A  covering,  consisting  of  a  square- 
shaped  piece  of  cardboard,  faced  on  either  side  with 
hnen  or  lawn,  used  to  veil  the  chahce  in  the  R.C. 
service  of  the  Mass;  or  a  covering  for  a  coffin  or 
hearse.    Thus  figuratively,  anything  inducing  gloom. 

PALLIUM. — ^An  ecclesiastical  vestment  in  the 
form  of  a  white  scarf  having  six  black  crosses, 
worn  over  the  shoulders  and  breast  by  archbishops 
and  metropoUtan  bishops  on  whom  it  has  been 
conferred  by  the  pope,  thus  authorizing  them  to 
officiate  pontifically. 

PALM  SUNDAY.— The  Sunday  preceding 
Easter,  being  the  last  Sunday  in  Lent  and  the 
first  day  of  Holy  Week;  so  designated  from  the 
palm-branches  strewn  before  Jesus  on  his  triumphal 
entry  into  Jerusalem. 

PANBABYLONISM.— An  hypothesis  which  sees 
in  a  Babylonian  or  oriental  philosophy  {Weltan- 
schauung) the  source  of  all  the  mythological  thinking 
of  the  ancient  world. 


323 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Papal  States 


The  fundamental  ideas  of  this  Weltanschauung, 
according  to  Winckler  (Die  Babylonische  Geistes- 
kultur)  are  these :  Law  reigns  in  the  universe.  The 
universe  is  an  emanation  of  the  deity.  Law  and 
all  knowledge  derived  therefrom  are  revealed  by 
God  to  man.  God  is  one,  but  manifests  himself 
in  different  aspects.  Everything  on  earth  and  in 
the  universe  from  the  least  to  the  greatest  is  an 
image  of  the  deity.  This  is  the  idea  underlying 
polytheism.  The  Babylonian  reUgion  was  an 
astral  reUgion. 

This  system^,  according  to  Winckler,  must  be 
viewed  as  prehistoric.  Furthermore,  this  ancient 
oriental  philosophy  had  not  only  permeated  the 
whole  of  Babylonia,  but  Elam,  Arabia,  Syria- 
Palestine,  even  Egypt,  before  the  dawn  of  history. 
The  problem  of  the  student  of  the  Hebrew  religion 
is  to  discover  the  relation  of  that  religion  to  this 
Weltanschauung  of  the  ancient  orient. 

The  opponents  of  this  hypothesis  point  out 
that  Babylonian  speculation  about  the  relation  of 
the  world  to  the  deity  has  not  been  adequately 
formulated  by  Winckler,  and  that,  so  far  from  being 
a  prehistoric  product,  it  shows  steady  development 
through  the  two  and  a  half  millenniums  of  Baby- 
lonian history.  The  hypothesis  has  few  supporters 
today.  D.  D.  Luckenbill 

PANCOSMISM.— A  philosophical  term  denot- 
ing the  explanation  of  everything  in  terms  of  cosmic 
processes,  thus  eliminating  the  conception  of  a 
divine  creator.  It  differs  from  Pantheism  in  that 
the  latter  may  admit  some  conception  of  God. 

PANLOGISM. — A  philosophic  theory  which 
treats  the  universe  as  a  system  of  organized  reason, 
as  Stoicism  or  Hegelianism. 

PANPSYCHISM.— A  philosophic  theory  affirm- 
ing a  psychical  element  in  all  matter,  a  modern  form 
of  ancient  animistic  and  hylozoistic  theories. 

PANTAENUS.— A  Christian  teacher  of  Alex- 
andria during  the  late  decades  of  the  2nd.  century. 
He  is  credited  with  having  founded  the  so-called 
catechetical  school  of  Alexandria  where  Clement  of 
Alexandria  (q.v.)  was  one  of  his  pupils.  A  more 
doubtful  tradition  represents  him  as  a  zealous  mis- 
sionary whose  activities  extended  as  far  as  "India." 

PANTHEISM. — A  form  of  monistic  philosophy 
which  interprets  all  reality  as  a  direct  expression 
of  the  activity  of  the  Absolute,  or  God. 

Pantheism  is  alluring  both  religiously  and 
logically  because  it  seems  to  provide  for  a  unified 
interpretation  of  the  world  which  at  the  same  time 
makes  for  an  all-inclusive  attitude  of  worship. 
Spinoza,  a  typical  pantheistic  philosopher,  was 
known  as  the  "God  intoxicated"  man.  When 
God  is  conceived  as  different  in  nature  from  the 
world  of  our  experience,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  arrive  scientifically  at  a  definition  of  deity; 
for  there  is  no  logical  bridge  by  which  to  pass  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  As  a  matter  of  fact,] 
dualistic  systems  usually  resort  either  to  special 
revelation  or  to  some  form  of  mysticism  in  establish- 
ing the  conception  of  God,  Pantheism,  on  the/ 
contrary,  proposes  to  pass  by  a  continuous  process! 
from  the  world  which  we  know  to  the  immanent' 
divine  source  or  "soul"  of  the  world. 

Yet  in  spite  of  this  apparently  simple  procedure, 
pantheism  may  assume  many  forms,  differing 
as  different  emphases  appear.  There  are  several 
varieties,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1 .  Pantheism  involving  world-renunciation . — This 
is  the  type  found  in  Brahnianism  (q.v.),  and  Neo- 


platonism  (q.v.).  Here  the  ineffable  nature  of 
God  is  so  exalted  that  the  realities  of  the  world  of 
our  ordinary  experience  are  regarded  as  incidental 
modes  or  aspects  of  the  life  of  the  Infinite.  The 
truly  religious  man  will  pursue  a  philosophy  which 
centers  attention  on  the  nature  of  the  Absolute-in- 
himself  rather  than  on  the  ephemeral  expressions  of 
divine  activity  in  the  world.  Thus  although  a 
form  of  pantheism  is  propounded,  the  real  God  is 
hidden,  and  worship  is  directed  to  this  transcendent 
Being  rather  than  to  the  realities  of  the  present 
world. 

2.  Romanticist  pantheism. — Here  the  esthetic 
beauty  of  the  natural  world  is  constantly  empha- 
sized, and  the  reality  of  God  is  found  in  the  divine 
qualities  of  the  world  rather  than  in  a  hidden 
transcendent  Being.  Giordano  Bruno,  the  Roman- 
ticists, and  Goethe  represent  this  type.  God 
tends  here  to  become  a  somewhat  vague  and  dissi- 
pated spiritual  presence. 

3.  Philosophical  pantheism. — Spinoza  is  the 
classic  example  of  this  type.  A  complete  logical 
schema  is  worked  out  through  which  the  Absolute 
One  expresses  his  nature  in  the  variety  of  the 
world  of  our  experience.  Hegel,  while  not  usually 
called  a  pantheist,  yet  represents  this  interest. 

Pantheism  thus  really  conceals  problems  rather 
than  solves  them.  The  facts  of  the  world,  when 
frankly  faced,  are  not  of  such  a  character  as  to 
warrant  the  hypothesis  that  things  as  they  are 
reflect  the  character  of  an  infinitely  good  God. 
Pantheism  thus  must  explain  away  evil,  and  must 
reinterpret  the  data  of  our  experience  in  such 
fashion  as  to  lead  us  to  test  hypotheses  by  a  meta- 
physical assumption  rather  than  by  the  harsh  facts 
which  _  confront  us.  Theological  objections  to 
pantheism  on  the  ground  that  it  denies  personality 
are  scarcely  appUcable  to  all  types  of  pantheism. 
The  most  serious  objection  is  the  inevitable  vague- 
ness and  mysticism  accompanying  the  pantheistic 
ideal.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

PAPACY.— See  Pope. 

PAPAL  STATES.— The  political  [sovereignty 
of  the  Popes  began  in  the  8th.  century.  In  727 
the  Lombards  gave  the  town  of  Sutn  to  Pope 
Gregory  II.  Threatened  by  the  Lombards  and 
left  undefended  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Stephen 
II.  in  753  procured  armed  intervention  from  Pepin 
of  France  who  transferred  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna 
and  other  parts  to  the  pope.  Charlemagne  in  781 
and  787  added  more  territory  in  middle  Italy. 
The  anarchy  of  the  10th.  century  reduced  the 
pope's  authority  to  the  realm  of  religion  only; 
but  political  sovereignty  was  renewed  and  extended, 
1014,  by  the  gift  of  part  of  Tuscany;  1052,  by  the 
gain  of  Benevento;  and  1052,  when  Leo  IX. 
became  suzerain  of  the  Normans  in  Italy.  In 
1115  Countess  Matilda  of  Canossa  bequeathed  to 
the  papacy  various  fiefs  which  could  not  be  securely 
held  against  German  opposition.  After  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.  (1197),  Innocent  III. 
possessed  himself  of  the  March  of  Ancona,  the 
Dukedom  of  Spoleto,  Tuscany,  Assisi,  and  Perugia. 
In  1213  Frederick  II.  confirmed  the  papal  possession 
by  a  golden  bull  of  the  empire.  The  French  king 
gave  the  countship  of  Venaissin  and  in  1348  the 
pope  bought  Avignon.  The  papal  sovereignty  in 
Italy  in  the  Avignon  exile  was  but  nominal  and 
was  first  made  secure  by  the  military  campaigns  of 
JuUus  II.  In  1768  Naples  seized  Benevento  and 
Pontecorvo,  Avignon  and  Venaissin  joined  the 
French  Republic  (1791),  and  later  Napoleon 
incorporated  papal  lands  in  his  empire.  The 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815  restored  the  States  of 
the  Church  but  they  were  finally  lost  in  1870  to 


Papias 


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324 


the  new  Kingdom  of  Italy.  Since  then  the  inde- 
pendent temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope  is  limited 
to  the  Vatican,  the  Lateran  and  a  country  estate 
at  Castel  Gandolfo.  F.  A.  Christie 

PAPIAS. — Bishop  of  Hierapolis  (ca.  a.d.  140) 
who  wrote  a  work  entitled  Interpretations  (Exegeses) 
of  Sayings  of  the  Lord,  in  five  books.  If  we  may 
judge  from  the  few  fragments  that  have  been 
preserved,  he  gathered  up  in  this  work  much  valu- 
able personal  testimony  as  to  early  Christian 
literature  and  biography,  but  was  himself,  as 
Eusebius  says,  a  man  of  very  moderate  intelli- 
gence. 

PAPYRUS,  PAPYRI.— An  Egyptian  water 
plant  which  gave  its  name  to  the  ancient  writing 
material  made  from  its  stalk  and  commonly  used 
about  the  Mediterranean  in  bibUcal  times. 

While  ropes,  mats  and  even  boats  were  made 
of  papyrus,  it  was  especially  suited  for  the  manu- 
facture of  writing  material,  which  was  made  of  it 
from  very  early  times;  the  earUest  Egyptian 
papyrus  extant  is  from  the  36th.  century  B.C.  It 
was  exported  in  early  antiquity  into  Syria.  In  New 
Testament  times  it  was  the  common  writing 
material  in  the  Greco-Roman  world,  and  in  the 
form  of  rolls  (bibUa)  twenty  or  thirty  feet  long  it 
was  used  for  books.  The  Scriptures,  consisting 
of  many  such  roUs,  came  to  be  known  as  the  "bibUa" 
whence  our  word  Bible.  Papyrus  was  also  used 
in  smaller  pieces  for  letters,  accounts,  receipts, 
contracts,  and  petitions.  Thousands  of  these 
documents  from  the  Ptolemaic,  Roman,  and  Byzan- 
tine periods  have  in  recent  years  been  found  in 
Egypt,  preserved  in  house-ruins,  old  convents  or 
dry  strata  of  the  ground.  These  papyri,  mostly 
Greek,  give  us  a  faithful  picture  of  ancient  Greek 
Ufe  in  Egypt,  and  afford  much  material  to  the  New 
Testament  grammarian  and  lexicographer.  The 
literary  papyri  have  not  only  brought  to  light 
many  lost  works  of  classical  writers,  but  numerous 
biblical  texts,  mostly  fragmentary  but  sometimes 
of  considerable  length,  and  some  Christian  pieces 
of  historical  or  literary  interest,  e.g.,  the  Oxyrhyn- 
chus  Logia  (see  Logia),  and  fragments  of  un- 
canonical  gospels.  Aramaic  papyri  found  at 
Elephantme  throw  interesting  Ught  upon  the  hfe 
of  a  Jewish  colony  there  in  the  Persian  period 
(B.C.  408).  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

PARACLETE. — One  called  to  the  assistance  of 
another  as  in  legal  affairs.  Analogically  the  Holy 
Spirit  as  an  advocate  or  helper.  A  transUteration 
of  the  Greek  in  John  14:16,  26  (translated  "Com- 
forter") and  of  I  John  2:1  (translated  "Advocate," 
and  there  used  of  Christ). 

PARADISE.— (Persian:  "garden.")  (1)  The 
garden  of  Eden.  (2)  The  abode  of  the  blest  after 
their  death,  portrayed  as  a  scene  of  glorious  happi- 
ness in  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan 
theology. 

PARALIPOMENON.— In  the  Latin  Bible,  the 
Books  of  Chronicles  which  are  considered  to  be 
supplementary  to  the  Books  of  Kings. 

PARAMITAS. — The  supreme  perfections  in 
Buddhist  ethics,  usually  including— renimciation, 
fortitude,  resolution,  love  of  truth,  patience, 
wisdom,  poise  of  mind,  kindness,  goodness,  benevo- 
lence. 

PARASHAH. — Hebrew  term  used  by  the 
Jews  to  designate  one  of  the  sections  into  which 
the  Pentateuch  is  divided  for  synagogal  reading. 


PARDON. — Remission  of  the  penalty  incurred 
for  the  violation  of  law.  In  theology,  the  waiving 
by  the  act  of  God,  of  the  penalty  incurred  by  the 
violation  of  divine  laws.     See  Forgiveness. 

PARENTS,     RELIGIOUS      DUTIES      OF.— 

Anciently  the  child  had  few  rights.  The  Roman 
father  could  compel  obedience,  could  sell  into 
slavery  or  put  the  child  to  death.  The  Hebrew 
father's  authority  was  not  so  great  but  he  exacted 
imphcit  obedience  and  was  supposed  to  rule. 
Puritanism  insisted  on  ri^d  control,  and  the 
"will"  of  the  child  was,  if  possible,  "broken." 
Modem  doctrines  of  "freedom"  have  made  it  very 
difficult  for  the  parents  of  the  20th.  century.  This 
is  perhaps  more  striking  in  America  than  elsewhere 
owing  to  the  effect  of  the  public  schools  where  for 
eight  years  are  mingled  the  children  from  all  the 
social  and  moral  traditions  of  the  earth.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  exact  obedience  in  the  old  sense,  and  the 
expedient  of  turning  the  task  over  to  others  has 
been  disappointing. 

Modem  thinking  would  seem  fairly  clear  on  at 
least  the  following  points: 

1.  Parents  should  not  attempt  to  reinstate  the 
older  principle  of  unquestioning  obedience  nor 
should  they  evade  the  task  by  allowing  all  the 
guidance  to  come  from  other  sources. 

2.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  parent  to  advocate  the 
moral  and  reUgious  ideals  and  values  which  he 
believes  in  and  to  "expose"  the  child  to  groups  and 
influences  which  tend  to  render  them  attractive. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  the  parent  must  expect 
and  accept  the  competition  of  other  influences  and 
must  learn  to  rejoice  at  new  insights  which  may 
come  to  the  child. 

4.  The  family  exists  for  the  child,  not  the  child 
for  the  family.  Moral  and  religious  progress 
depends  largely  on  the  changes  which  the  children 
will  eventually  make. 

5.  Parents  need  to  remember  that,  in  the  long 
run,  it  is  the  child  who  sits  in  judgment  on  the 
parent.  Ellsworth  Faris 

PARISH. — ^The  name  given  either  to  the  district 
tributary  to  a  church  or  to  the  congregation  wor- 
shiping in  the  church. 

1.  The  parish  as  a  district. — ^The  parish  was 
originally  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  unit  of 
territory.  All  who  Uved  within  that  district 
belonged  to  the  one  church.  They  were  taxed  for 
its  support;  every  child  bom  was  registered  in  the 
books  at  the  time  of  his  baptism;  all  marriages  and 
funerals  which  took  place  within  the  district  were 
recorded  in  the  parish  register.  Education  and 
poor  rehef  were  administered  parochially,  and  in 
each  of  these  functions  the  minister  had  an  important 
place. 

2.  The  parish  as  a  religious  community. — ^With 
the  abolition  of  the  state  church  and  the  growth 
of  free  reUgious  bodies  the  strict  idea  of  the  parish 
disappeared,  and  the  term  has  largely  shifted 
from  a  geographical  to  a  social  significance.  The 
minister's  parish  is  the  body  of  people  for  whom 
he  is  spiritually  responsible.  These  are  the  resi- 
dent members  of  his  church,  the  children  of  the 
Sunday  School,  the  more  or  less  regular  attendants 
upon  the  church  services^  and  in  a  far  less  specific 
way  the  population  withm  walking  distance  of  the 
church  building.  Theodore  G.  Soares 

PARJANYA. — A  ^od  of  the  thimder  and  rain  in 
Vedic  religion.  He  is  one  of  the  divine  powers  of 
the  sky  whose  history  traces  back  to  the  time  before 
the  Indo-Aryans  began  their  wanderings  from  the 
cradle-land  of  the  Aryan  peoples. 


325 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Parsis 


PARKER,  THEODORE  (1810-1860).— Ameri- 
can Unitarian,  whose  views  met  with  opposition 
from  his  own  and  other  churches  in  his  day.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  erudition,  a  great  social  worker, 
preacher,  and  writer.  In  opposition  to  formal 
conceptions  of  religion  he  was  an  ardent  advocate 
of  a  direct  mystical  contact  with  the  immanent 
God. 

PAROCHIAL  SCHOOLS.— A  term  of  definite 
significance  in  countries  where  elementary  schools 
are  provided  by  the  state,  designating  parish  schools 
conducted  by  religious  bodies,  separate  from  public 
schools,  and  giving  instruction  to  pupils  of  the 
elementary  and  the  high-school  grades. 

Historically  parochial  schools  are  in  direct 
lineage  with  the  earliest  provisions  made  by  Chris- 
tian churches  for  the  instruction  of  the  young  and, 
like  these  earlier  agencies,  they  emphasize  the 
teaching  of  reHgious  doctrine.  There  are  four 
principal  types  of  parochial  schools  in  the  United 
States,  conducted  by  the  following  religious  bodies: 
Roman  Catholic,  Lutheran,  Jewish,  and  Mormon. 
Roman  Catholic  parochial  schools  were  ecclesiasti- 
cally recognized  in  the  United  States  by  decree  of 
the  First  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore,  in 
1829,  although  local  schools  were  established  by 
parish  priests  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  particularly 
at  Gosenhoppen,  as  early  as  1745.  The  modern 
schools  are  under  the  control  of  the  hierarchy.  In 
1921  the  Official  Catholic  Directory  reported: 
Parishes  with  schools,  6,048:  pupils  attending, 
1,771,418.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Report  for  1920,  gives  the  enrolment  in 
Catholic  secondary  schools,  for  1915,  74,538  in 
1,276  parochial  high  schools.  A  national  organiza- 
tion "The  Catholic  Education  Association"  and  a 
Bureau  of  Education  in  The  National  Catholic 
Welfare  Council  promotes  these  schools  and  seeks 
to  elevate  their  professional  standards. 

The  many  Lutheran  bodies  in  the  United 
States  report,  for  1919,  a  total  of  5,250  schools, 
with  246,761  pupils  under  parochial  care;  of  these 
nearly  one  half  are  in  the  Missouri  Synod  of  the 
Lutheran  Church.  Lutheran  schools,  as  a  rule, 
are  supported  and  controlled  in  each  case  by  the 
local  church  organization. 

Amongst  the  Jews  in  the  United  States  the 
tendency  is  definitely  toward  the  abandonment  of 
full  parochial  schools  in  which  children  receive 
both  general  and  religious  instruction  and  toward 
the  plan  of  supplementing  the  work  of  the  public 
schools  with  special  schools  maintained  by  local 
congregations  and  conducted  during  the  week  after 
school  hours.  But  up  to  about  1860  nearly  all 
congregations  in  the  larger  cities  maintained  full- 
time  schools  for  their  children,  and  there  are  still  a 
number  of  such  schools  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
Recent  statistics  show  87,000  Jewish  children 
under  twenty-five  years  of  age  receiving  religious 
instruction,  mcluding  those  in  Sabbath  schools. 

The  Mormon  schools  are  known  as  "ward 
schools"  and  are  to  be  found  only  where  this 
church  has  a  predominating  element  in  the  popula- 
tion, as  in  Utah  and  Idaho. 

In  parochial  schools  the  purpose  of  religious 
instruction  is  accomplished  through  four  principal 
means:  worship,  direct  indoctrination,  incidental 
religious  teachings  in  the  course  of  regular  secular 
studies,  and  the  personal  influence  of  the  teachers 
who  are  usually  specially  prepared  for  this  work. 
The  program  usually  provides  for  certain  definite 
periods  of  worship,  catechetics,  and  general  religious 
teaching,  usually  the  first  period  of  the  day.  In 
certain  cities,  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  state  boards  of  education,  parochial  schools 
must  open  forty-five  minutes  earher  than  pubhc 


schools  so  that  the  period  of  "rehgion"  may  not 
encroach  on  the  standard  school  program. 

The  parochial  school  has  been  the  center  of 
bitter  civic  dissension  in  the  United  States  due  to 
the  efforts  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  schools  to  secure 
appropriations  of  state  funds  for  their  work  and  the 
Protestant  opposition  to  the  use  of  such  funds  for 
sectarian  purposes.  The  hterature  on  this  con- 
troversy amounts  to  hundred  of  volumes.  (A  brief 
bibUography  is  pubhshed  by  The  Religious  Educa- 
tion Association,  Chicago.)  On  the  methods  of 
Roman  Catholic  schools,  see  The  Catholic  School 
System  in  the  United  States,  J.  A.  Burns  (Benziger) ; 
on  the  Lutheran  Schools,  see  Schulpraxis,  Linde- 
mann  (Concordia);  the  Mormon  schools  are 
described  in  the  annual  report  for  1913  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Henry  F.  Cope 

PAROUSIA.— A  Greek  word  used  in  the  N.T. 
to  denote  the  "appearance"  or  advent  of  Christ. 
See  Millenarianism;  Advent. 

PARSIS. — The  name  by  which  the  Zoroastrians 
of  India  are  generally  known,  from  their  ancestral 
home  in  Persia  (anc.  P&rsa,  whence  Parsl, 
"Persian"),  whence  they  migrated  to  Hindustan 
after  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Iran  in  the 
7th.  century  a.d.,  in  order  to  escape  Moslem  perse- 
cution and  remain  faithful  to  the  worship  of  their 
god,  Ormazd,  as  inculcated  by  his  prophet  Zoroaster 
(q.v.).  The  name  is  equally  applicable  to  the 
remnants  of  Zoroastrians  still  surviving  in  Persia 
(see  G.\BARs);  and  the  Parsis,  like  their  Iranian 
co-religionists,  strongly  resent  the  term  "Fire- 
worshippers,"  sometimes  erroneously  applied  to 
them.  The  history  of  the  Parsis  in  India,  from 
the  time  of  their  early  settlement  in  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  about  716  a.d.,  forms  an  interesting 
story  as  to  how  a  small  band  of  religious  exiles, 
subject  to  diverse  vicissitudes,  has  been  able  to  rise 
to  the  position  of  a  flourishing,  influential,  and 
highly  respected  community  in  the  land  of  their 
adoption. 

The  Parsis,  though  having  some  minor  sectarian 
differences  among  themselves  in  India,  are  wholly 
united  in  maintaining  all  the  principal  tenets  of 
their  ancient  religion.  See  Zoroastrianism.  They 
acknowledge  Ormazd  as  God,  and  Zarathushtra 
(Zoroaster)  as  his  Prophet.  They  have  a  common 
belief  in  archangels  and  angels  ( Amshaspands 
and  Izads),  the  responsibility  of  man  to  account,  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  and  a  future  life,  the  coming 
of  a  Savior  (Avestan  Saoshyant)  and  the  regeneration 
of  the  world  (Av.  Frashokereli) ,  when  the  devil 
(Ahriman)  shall  finally  be  banished  from  the  uni- 
verse. All  this  is  based  on  the  historic  teachings  of 
their  sacred  book^  the  Avesta  (q.v.);  and  their 
theology  today  is  strongly  monotheistic.  The 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  however, 
seems  at  present  to  be  less  strongly  marked  among 
them  than  their  ancient  texts  would  appear  to 
warrant.  In  their  ethics  they  certainly  live  up  to 
the  code  of  their  Scriptures  which  enjoins  upon 
them  strictly  to  preserve  the  purity  of  body  and 
soul  alike,  and  they  sum  up  the  teaching  m  the 
old  time  Avestan  phrase,  humata,  hukhta.  hvarshta, 
"good  thoughts,  good  words,  good  deeds."  Though 
keen  in  matters  of  business  the  Parsis  are  noted  for 
their  high  moral  standards  and  for  their  progressive 
ideas,  particularly  with  regard  to  promoting  higher 
education  and  the  advancement  of  women.  The 
most  striking  among  their  religious  customs  is  their 
disposal  of  the  dead  upon  Dakhmas,  "Towers  of 
Silence,"  for  vultures  to  devour,  in  accordance 
with  the  historic  injunctions  of  their  faith  to  pre- 
serve the  elements,  fire,  earth,  and  water,  from 
pollution.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson 


Pirvati 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


326 


PARVATI. — One  of  the  names  of  the  wife  of 
Shiva  (qv.)-  This  term  implies  a  connection  with 
the  mountains  and  maylindicate  a  cult  of  a  mountain- 
god  now  lost  in  Shiva. 

PASCAL,  BLAISE  (1623-1662).— A  brilhant 
French  literary  philosopher.  He  distinguished 
religion  from  reason  and  sought  a  mystical  rather 
than  a  rationaUstic  basis  for  faith.  God  is  known 
through  the  heart.  His  most  famous  work  is  his 
Thoughts  (Pe/isees). 

PASCHAL. — ^The  name  of  two  popes  ana  one 
antipope. 

Paschal  I.— Pope,  817-824. 

Paschal  II. — ^Pope,  1109-1118;  engaged  in  a 
prolonged  struggle  with  the  emperors  concerning 
investiture,  continuing  the  policy  of  Hildebrand. 

Posc/ta^ ///.—Antipope,  1164-1168. 

PASCHAL  CANDLE.— In  the  R.C.  church  a 
large  candle  blessed  and  put  in  the  church  on 
Holy  Saturday  where  it  remains  until  Ascension 
Day,  in  commemoration  of  the  resurrection. 

PASCHAL  CONTROVERSY.— See  Easter. 

PASCHAL  LAMB.— A  perfect  yearling  lamb 
or  kid,  selected,  one  for  each  Hebrew  family,  to 
be  slain  at  the  passover  (q.v.).  The  term  has  been 
applied  to  Christ  as  symbolizing*  his  sacrifice. 
The  word  Paschal  denotes  Easter,  and  the  Paschal 
Controversy  was  a  dispute  as  to  the  proper  time 
for  celebrating  Easter. 

PASCHAL  TIDE.— In  canon  law,  the  period 
from  Low  Sunday  to  Trinity  Sunday,  when  those 
who  have  attained  the  canonical  age  of  discretion 
are  expected  to  receive  the  Holy  Communion.  In 
the  Roman  liturgy,  the  period  has  prescribed 
services,  which  are  largely  times  of  joy. 

PASSION  MUSIC. — Music  written  in  oratorio 
or  other  style  in  commemoration  of  Jesus'  Passion, 
or  for  a  passion  play. 

PASSION  OF  CHRIST.— The  sufferings  of 
Jesus  during  the  last  week  of  his  life,  especially 
the  agony  in  Gethsemane  and  on  the  cross. 

PASSION  OFFICES.— Special  services  which 
are  recited  to  spread  the  devotion  to  the  passion 
of  Christ.  The  privilege  of  recitation  was  first 
granted  to  the  Passionist  Fathers  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  19th.  century. 

PASSION  PLAY.— See  Mystery  Plays. 

PASSION  SUNDAY.— The  second  Sunday 
before  Easter. 

PASSION  WEEK.— The  week  beginning  with 
Passion  Sunday  or  fifth  week  in  Lent,  so  called 
in  commemoration  of  the  passion  of  Jesus. 

PASSIONISTS.— A  R.C.  order,  especially  de- 
voted to  the  memory  of  the  Passion  of  Christ. 
It  originated  in  1720  in  Italy,  and  since  spread  to 
England  and  America. 

PASSIONS. — Intense  affections  of  the  mind, 
prompting  almost  irresistibly  to  action,  e.g., 
the  passions  of  love,  anger,  jealousy,  sexual  indul- 
gence, etc.  The  control  of  the  passions  is  a  primary 
task  of  personal  ethics. 

PASSIONTIDE.— The  last  fortnight  in  Lent, 
including  Passion  Week  and  Holy  Week. 


PASSOVER. — Jewish  festival  celebrated  for  a 
week,  beginning  on  the  fifteenth  of  Nisan  (the 
month  corresponding  approximately  to  April). 
The  holiday  unites  the  celebration  of  the  coming  of 
Spring  with  the  glorification  of  the  ideal  of  liberty. 
It  commemorates  _  the  redemption  of  Israel  from 
Egypt,  narrated  in  the  book  of  Exodus.  It  is 
celebrated  by  special  services  in  the  synagog,  by 
the  service  of  Seder,  a  family  gathering  on  the 
eve  of  Passover  around  the  festive  board,  at  which 
the  story  of  Israel's  redemption  and  the  praises  of 
God  are  rehearsed  with  appropriate  symbols, 
and  by  the  removal  of  all  leaven  from  the  house 
and  the  eating  of  mazzah  (q.v.). 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 

PASTOR. — The  ordained  minister  of  a  congre- 
gation. 

Many  names  have  been  given  to  the  spiritual 
leader  of  the  church — elder,  priest,  minister,  rector, 
preacher — but  perhaps  the  most  universal  is  pastor. 
It  refers  to  the  most  fundamental  function  of  the 
minister — spiritual  guidance  and  comfort  in  dis- 
tinction from  preaching  and  administering  the 
affairs  of  the  church.  The  pastor  is  one  who  makes 
personal  relationships  with  people,  who  consoles  in 
times  of  difficulty,  who  is  expert  in  leading  the 
children  into  religious  confession,  and  who  extends 
the  influence  of  the  church  in  the  community  by 
visitation  and  religious  conversation.  In  contrast 
to  the  more  brilliant  success  of  the  orator  and  of 
the  executive,  the  pastor  is  sometimes  less  esteemed. 
But  the  ablest  ministers  are  insisting  upon  the  con- 
tinued importance  of  this  great  religious  function. 
See  also  Minister,  Pastoral  Theology;  Parish. 
Theodore  G.  Scares 

PASTORAL  LETTERS.— A  name  given  to 
I  and  II  Timothy,  and  Titus  because  of  the  atten- 
tion given  in  them  to  the  qualifications  and  dirties 
of  Christian  ministers.  While  some  scholars  find 
genuine  Pauline  portions  in  these  letters  their  liter- 
ary style  and  the  interest  in  church  organization 
which  they  exhibit  are  quite  unlike  Paul  and  point 
to  a  date  about  the  end  of  the  1st.  century  when  it 
had  become  clear  that  the  church  must  settle  down 
to  a  long  task  for  which  the  primitive  want  of  organi- 
zation would  no  longer  suffice.  The  letters  served 
a  useful  purpose  in  securing  a  flexible  and  effective 
form  of  local  Christian  organization  and  insuring 
the  appointment  of  earnest  and  worthy  men  as 
Christian  leaders.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

PASTORAL  THEOLOGY.— The  science  that 
treats  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  church  adminis- 
tration and  of  the  function  of  the  minister  as  the 
religious  leader  of  a  parish.  The  term  theology  is 
here  used  in  its  ancient  sense  of  any  study  about 
religion.    See  Church  Government;  Pastor. 

PATEN. — A  shallow  dish  or  plate,  used  for  the 
bread  of  the  Mass  or  Lord's  Supper. 

PATERESSA.— A  curved  staff,  officially  used 
by  a  bishop  in  the  Greek  church. 

PATIENCE. — Ability  to  endure  pain,  persecu- 
tion, hardship,  or  any  evil  without  yielding  to  useless 
protest  or  defiance;  a  virtue  commended  in  most 
religious  ethics.  In  a  more  general  sense,  perse- 
verance in  any  task  or  purpose. 

PATIMOKKHA.— A  code  of  227  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  the  common  life  of  Buddhist  monks. 
It  was  recited  twice  a  month  in  a  general  meeting 
when  confession  of  breach  of  any  rule  was  made 
and  the  code  once  more  recognized  as  the  authorita- 
tive control  of  the  group. 


327 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Patron  Saints 


PATON,  JOHN  GIBSON  (1824-1907).— Scot- 
tish Presbj^terian  missionary  to  the  New  Hebrides; 
whose  autobiography  relates  a  remarkably  suc- 
cessful missionary  enterprise. 

PATRIARCH  and  PATRIARCHATE  (Ecclesi- 
astical).— 1.  Status  and  functions. — The  patriarchs 
are  bishops  standing  above  the  metropolitans  in  the 
hierarchy  and  superintending  the  government  of 
their  several  provinces,  as  the  metropoUtans  are 
over  the  ordinary  bishops.  It  is  their  duty  to  ordain 
one  another  and  also  the  metropolitans;  to  pre- 
side at  the  larger  synods  and  at  oecumenical  coim- 
cils;  to  communicate  with  one  another  so  as  to 
promote  the  unity  of  the  church,  although  in  the 
last  resort  each  acts  independently  in  his  own 
sphere;  and  to  serve  as  a  medium  of  communica- 
tion with  the  civil  government. 

2.  History  and  locality. — The  patriarchate  was 
a  development  of  the  influence  of  the  bishops  of  the 
great  cities  in  which  they  came  to  be  located,  so 
that,  like  the  oishops  generally,  the  patriarchs 
are  always  named  after  those  cities,  not  after  the 
regions  over  which  they  have  supervision.  The 
system  grew  up  during  the  3rd.  century.  There 
came  to  be  five  patriarchates,  only  one  of  them  in  the 
West — the  patriarch  of  Rome — the  others  in  the  East, 
at  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Constanti- 
nople. Of  these  only  three — those  at  Rome, 
Antioch,  and  Alexandria — existed  at  the  time  of 
the  council  of  Nicaea  (a.d.  325).  Constantinople 
was  not  then  built;  but  at  the  second  general 
council,  which  was  held  in  that  city  (a.d.  381),  its 
patriarchate  was  recognized  as  higher  than  the 
other  patriarchates  of  the  East,  with  "the  pre- 
rogative of  rank  next  after  the  bishop  of  Rome." 
The  patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  came  to  be  acknowl- 
edged-somewhat later  out  of  regard  for  the  vener- 
able history  of  the  city,  but  including  only  a  small 
area  round  it.  W.  F.  Adeney 

PATRIARCHAL  SYSTEM.— An  exaggerated 
form  of  the  paternal  family  (see  Family),  in  which 
in  addition  to  children  taking  the  father's  name 
with  property  and  titles  passing  along  the  male  hne, 
the  father  becomes  practically  an  absolute  ruler 
over  the  family  group  and  nominally  owner  of  all 
persons  and  property  in  the  group.  The  fa,niily 
becomes  a  minor  (sometimes  the  sole)  political 
unit,  of  which  the  eldest  living  male,  or  the  patriarch, 
is  ruler,  judge,  and  priest.  Patriarchal  family 
groups  often  comprised  several  hundred  individuals, 
numerous  slaves  and  retainers.  Cf.  the  opening 
chapters  of  the  Book  of  Genesis. 

The  patriarchal  family  was  for  a  long  time 
thought  to  be  the  primitive  form.  Fuller  informa- 
tion, however,  showed  that  the  patriarchal  system 
was  a  comparatively  late  development  in  human 
history.  All  of  the  great  historic  peoples  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  however,  have  passed  through  the 
patriarchal  stages,  and  many  of  them  (e.g.,  the 
Romans,  Greeks,  Hebrews,  Hindus,  and  Chinese) 
had  fully  developed  patriarchal  systems  when  they 
first  appear  in  history. 

The  causes  of  the  development  of  the  patriarchal 
system  are  not  difficult  to  understand.  Wife 
capture  and  wife  purchase,  through  establishing 
property  rights  in  wives  and  their  children,  would 
tend  in  that  direction.  However,  the  two  decisive 
factors  in  the  establishment  of  the  patriarchal 
system  were  undoubtedly  the  pastoral  stage  of 
industry  and  ancestor  worship  (q.v.).  The  keeping 
of  large  flocks  or  herds  of  domestic  animals  required 
extensive  grazing  territory,  and  hence  the  wide 
separation  of  famihes  from  one  another.  Thus 
the  old  clan  system  was  broken  up,  the  wife's 
kin  lost  their  control  over  the  children,  while  both 


wife  and  children  were  placed  in  the  power  of  the 
father.  Ancestor  worship  was  the  final  factor  in  the 
estabhshment  of  the  patriarchal  system.  Indeed, 
it  cannot  be  understood  unless  it  is  viewed  as  a  semi- 
reUgious  institution.  The  power  of  the  patriarch 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  he  was  regarded  as  the 
Uving  representative  of  the  departed  ancestors 
(the  gods)  upon  earth,  the  Unk  between  the  divine 
and  the  human.  Nowhere  does  the  patriarchal 
system  get  full  development  without  ancestor 
worship;  but  it  often  survived  with  considerable 
vigor  after  ancestor  worship  had  decayed,  as,  e.g., 
among  the  Hebrews,  among  whom,  however,  ances- 
tor worship  is  believed  to  have  existed  previous 
to  Old  Testament  times.     Charles  A.  Ellwood 

PATRICK,  SAINT  (ca.  389-461).  -Missionary 
to  and  patron  saint  of  Ireland.  It  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  facts  from  traditions  in  his  case.  His 
activity  was  largely  in  northern  Ireland,  although 
he  accomplished  some  organizing  work  in  the  south. 

PATRIMONY  OF  SAINT  PETER.— Tech- 
nically, that  portion  of  the  Papal  States  embracing 
the  city  of  Rome  and  some  adjacent  territory. 
In  general,  it  designates  the  entire  temporal  domin- 
ion of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

PATRIPASSIANISM.— The  doctrine  that  the 
Father  suffered  in  the  Son.  The  term  was  used  to 
discredit  any  form  of  Christology  which  seemed  to 
imphcate  absolute  Deity  in  an  experience  of  suffer- 
ing, since  by  hypothesis,  God  is  incapable  of  suffer- 
ing. Noetus  of  Smyrna  (180-230),  and  Praxeas 
(195-210)  were  accused  of  holding  the  doctrine. 

1>ATRISTICS.— The  study  of  the  works  of  those 
Christian  writers  of  the  ancient  church  called 
Fathers  {patres)  out  of  respect  and  affection. 
Patristics  takes  account  of  the  whole  range  of 
Greek  and  Latin  ecclesiastical  writers  from  Clement 
of  Rome  in  the  1st.  century  to  Photius  (died  891) 
and  John  of  Damascus  (8th.  cent.)  This  vast 
Uterature  is  conveniently  divided  by  the  Council 
of  Nicaea  (a.d.  325)  into  two  parts.  The  htera- 
ture  before  325  again  is  conveniently  broken 
(ca.  A.D.  185)  into  the  Catholic,  and  the  pre- 
CathoUc  or  primitive  periods.  To  the  latter 
belong  the  so-called  Apostolic  Fathers,  the  pre- 
Catholic  Apologists,  and  the  early  non-canonical 
gospels,  acts  and  apocalypses.  To  the  Catholic 
period  of  Ante-Nicene  literature  belong  Irenaeus, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Tertullian,  Hippoly- 
tus,  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  Novatian,  Arnobius, 
Lactantius  and  others  of  less  repute.  To  all  this 
must  be  added  the  original  works  or  translations  in 
Oriental  languages,  Syriac,  Coptic,  Arabic,  Ethiopic. 

Patristics  supplies  the  indispensable  materials 
for  the  study  of  the  rise  of  the  New  Testament 
canon,  the  history  of  dogma  and  ancient  Church 
history  in  general.  Its  earliest  documents  are 
contemporary  with  some  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  throw  much  light  upon  the  problems  with 
which  they  deal.  Indeed  the  distinction  between 
what  is  bibHcal  and  what  is  patristic  is  now  giving 
way  to  the  conception  of  Early  Christian  literature 
as  a  single  organic  expression  of  the  thought  of  the 
ancient  church.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

PATRON  and  PATRONAGE.— In EngUsh  canon 
law  the  patron  is  one  who  has  the  right  to  nominate 
the  holder  of  a  benefice.  A  patron  saint  or  deity 
is  regarded  as  having  the  guardianship  of  a  place 
or  group  of  people. 

PATRON  SAINTS.— Saints  believed  to  have  a 
special  interest  in  some  locality,  person  or  enter- 
prise.   They   have  been   chosen   for  individuals. 


Paul,  The  Apostle 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


328 


families,  churches,  corporations,  occupations,  locali- 
ties, and  nations.  The  choice  may  be  influenced 
by  the  geographical  distribution  of  relics,  by 
visions  or  marvels,  by  interest  in  a  particular 
dogma,  or  even  by  fashion.  The  most  popular 
mediaeval  dedication  of  churches  in  Great  Britain 
was  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  next  came  All  Saints, 
St.'Peter  and  St.  Michael.  Craft  gilds  and  merchant 
gilds  had  their  patrons;  thus  the  actors  had 
St.  Vitus.  Speciahzation  of  function  took  place; 
Apollonia  helped  in  toothache,  Anthony  protected 
swine.  The  Protestant  reformers  taught  that  the 
invocation  of  saints  was  contrary  to  Scripture. 

W.  W.  RoCKWELIi 

PAUL,  THE  APOSTLE.— The  foremost  Apostle 
and  teacher  of  the  early  church. 

He  was  born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  a  few  years 
after  Christ,  of  a  Jewish  family  which  held  the 
privilege  of  Roman  citizenship:  hence,  probably, 
his  double  name  of  Saul  and  Paul.  While  preparing 
himself  as  a  Rabbi,  under  Gamaliel  at  Jerusalem, 
he  came  in  contact  with  the  new  Christian  move- 
ment, which  awakened  his  violent  hostility.  After 
the  death  of  Stephen,  in  which  he  had  some  share, 
he  was  employed  by  the  Jewish  council  to  arrest 
Stephen's  followers;  but  while  executing  this  com- 
mission was  converted  near  Damascus  by  a  vision 
of  the  risen  Christ.  He  now  began  a  missionary 
career  which  extended  over  30  years,  and  may  be 
divided  into  four  main  periods:  (1)  3  years  in 
Damascus;  (2)  14  years  in  Syria  and  Cilicia, 
with  Antioch  as  a  center;  (3)  7  years  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece,  with  Corinth  and  Ephesus  as  the  chief 
centers;  (4)  5  or  6  years  of  captivity,  first  at 
Caesarea,  then  at  Rome.  He  was  put  to  death, 
perhaps  in  the  persecution  under  Nero  in  64  a.d., 
but  more  probably  a  year  or  two  earher,  after 
trial  before  the  Emperor's  court.  Although  not 
the  originator  of  the  Gentile  mission,  which  seems 
to  have  begun  spontaneously,  Paul  was  its  most 
zealous  and  successful  agent.  It  was  chiefly  through 
him  that  Christianity  shook  off  the  fetters  of  the 
Jewish  law,  and  that  it  became  a  world-wide, 
instead  of  a  mere  local  movement.  The  epistles 
which  he  wrote  in  the  course  of  his  missionary  labors 
took  their  place,  almost  from  the  beginning,  as  the 
classical  expositions  of  the  Christian  faith.  In  his 
character,  which  stands  out  clearly  in  his  writings, 
Paul  was  passionate  and  imperious,  but  full  of 
human  sympathy.  Practical  sagacity,  intellectual 
force  and  mystical  feeUng  were  all  blended  in  his 
rich  and  many-sided  nature.  As  a  theologian  he 
re-cast  the  primitive  Christian  tradition  in  terms 
of  rabbinical  and  Hellenistic  speculation.  But  his 
theology  is  above  all  the  transcript  of  a  profound 
and  intense  reUgious  experience,  and  this  has 
been  the  secret  of  its  enduring  influence  and  value. 

E.  F.  Scott 

PAUL. — ^The  name  of  five  popes. 

Paul  /.—Pope,  757-767. 

Paul  //.—Pope,  1464-1471. 

Paul  ///.—Pope,  1534-1549.  His  pontificate 
was  a  crucial  point  in  papal  history.  The  growth 
of  Protestantism,  and  the  complex  pohtical  situa- 
tion in  Europe  were  threatening  the  strength  of 
the  CathoUc  Church.  Paul  initiated  reform 
movements  within  the  church,  introduced  the 
Inquisition  into  Italy,  estabUshed  the  Index  and 
censorship,  approved  of  the  Jesuit  order,  and 
convened  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Paid  IV. — Pope,  1555-1559;  denounced  the 
Peace  of  Augsburg;  alienated  the  church  of  England 
still  more  by  his  uncompromising  pohcy;  gained 
hostiUty  in  Italy  by  his  tactless  reforming  endeavors. 

Paul  F.— Pope,  160.5-1621;  by  his  extreme 
emphasis  on  papal  absolutism,  alienated  many 
CathoUc  leaders  in  Italy,  France  and  England. 


PAUL  OF  SAMOSATA.— Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
260-272,  who  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Zenobia,  queen 
of  Palmyra.  Paul  held  that  Jesus  was  a  man  who 
by  special  endowment  of  the  Spirit  had  become 
the  Son  of  God.  He  was  deposed  by  four  synods 
268-272,  but  until  AureUan  conquered  Zenobia 
the  deposition  was  not  put  into  effect. 

PAULICIANS. — An  evangeUcal  Christian  sect 
found  in  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor  from  the  5th. 
century,  later  spreading  to  the  Balkan  region. 
They  were  duaUsts,  but  not  Manichaeans.  They 
allegorized  the  incarnation  and  the  Eucharist, 
rejected  orders  and  monasticism;  vigorously 
objected  to  image  worship  and  veneration  of  the 
cross  J  and  emphasized  the  possibihty  of  Uving 
"Chnsts"  in  the  persons  of  profoimdly  religious 
leaders. 

PAULIST.— A  member  of  the  Paulist  Fathers, 
a  R.C.  congregation  of  missionary  priests  founded 
by  Isaac  T.  Hecker  in  New  York  in  1858  for  mis- 
sionary and  Uterary  work. 

PAX. — An  ornamental  tablet  with  a  representa- 
tion of  some  sacred  object  or  idea  so  placed  as  to 
enable  worshipers  to  kiss  it.  Also  called  Oscula- 
torium. 

PEACE  MOVEMENTS  and  CONGRESSES.— 

I.  Chief  Promoters  of  Peace. — Grotius, 
Fox,  Penn,  Kant,  Dodge  (founder  of  the  first 
Peace  Society  in  the  world  in  New  York,  1815), 
Channing,  Worcester,  Ladd,  Sumner,  Burritt, 
Hugo,  Cobden,  Bright,  Passy,  de  Bloch,  Novicow, 
Nobel,  Suttner,  Bourgeois,  Wilson. 

II.  International  Peace  Congresses  (un- 
official).— These  were  held  in  London  in  1843; 
Brussels,  1848;  Paris,  1849;  Frankfort,  1850; 
London,  1851.  These  Congresses  were  revived  in 
1889  and  held  in  various  capitals.  In  1893,  one 
met  in  Chicago  and,  in  1904,  the  largest  ever  held, 
met  in  Boston. 

III.  iNTERNATIONAIi  CONFERENCES     (official).^ 

The  First  Peace  Conference  opened  May  18th,  1899, 
at  the  Hague.  Its  100  delegates  from  twenty 
European,  four  Asiatic  and  two  American  countries 
met  on  the  invitation  of  the  Tsar  issued  with  a  mani- 
festo in  August,  1898.  The  Conference,  among 
other  things,  provided  for  a  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration  and  recommended  the  use  of  Mediation 
and  Commissions  of  Inquiry.  The  Conference 
marked  the  first  step  toward  world  organization. 
Within  six  years  after  the  opening  of  the  Court  in 
1901,  one  war  had  been  ended  through  mediation, 
one  war  prevented  by  inquiry,  and  the  greatest 
powers  had  submitted  cases  to  the  Hague  Tribunal. 
The  Second  Peace  Conference  at  the  Hague 
opened  June  15,  1907;  forty-four  nations  were 
represented.  It  made  these  Conferences  a  perma- 
nent institution;  agreed  on  a  Court  of  Arbitral 
Justice,  but  not  upon  the  method  of  selecting 
judges;  provided  for  an  International  Prize  Court, 
and  forbade  forcible  collection  of  contractual 
debts.  The  Third  Conference  was  due  in  1915. 
Failure  of  some  nations  to  ratify  conventions 
rendered  non-obligatory  much  that  had  been 
achieved  in  1907  regulating  warfare. 

IV.  Conferences  (unofficial). — The  Arbitra- 
tion Conferences  at  Lake  Mohonk  met  yearly 
from  1895  to  1916  and  published  valuable  reports. 
The  First  International  Peace  Conference  of 
Churches  met  at  Constance,  Bavaria,  August  2, 
1914,  and  took  steps  to  organize  the  World  Alliance 
for  Promoting  International  Friendship  through  the 
Churches.  This  has  fourteen  national  councils; 
American  Headquarters,  70  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York 


329 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Penance 


City.     It  works  in  conjunction  with  the  Church 
Peace  Union  and  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches. 

V.  Important  Peach  ORGANizATiONS.^The 
Interparliamentary  Union,  organized  in  Paris  in 
1889,  to  promote  arbitration  and  to  extend  inter- 
national law.  Until  1914  it  met  regularly  in  differ- 
ent countries.  It  paved  the  way  for  the  Court  of 
Arbitration.  Its  business  is  directed  by  a  com- 
mittee of  two  from  each  country  and  by  a  permanent 
executive  bureau  at  Brussels;  The  International 
Peace  Bureau,  Berne,  Switzerland;  The  National 
Peace  Council^  London;  The  American  Peace 
Society,  Washmgton,  publishes  The  Advocate  of 
Peace;  The  American  School  Citizenship  League, 
Boston,  with  state  branches  of  teachers. 

VI.  Organizations  Founded  since  1914.-^ 
The  Central  Organization  for  a  Durable  Peace 
founded  at  the  Hague  by  experts  from  eleven 
neutral  and  belligerent  countries  who  published  a 
Minimum  Program  for  common  world  action.  It 
has  national  groups  in  various  countries.  Northern 
Peace  C/rw'on.,  Stockholm.  The  League  to  Enforce 
Peace,  New  York  City,  founded  in  Independence 
Hall,  Philadelphia,  has  state  branches.  Societies  in 
about  twenty  countries  to  support  the  League  of 
Nations.  The  League  of  Free  Nations  Association, 
New  York  City.  Unions  of  Democratic  Control, 
London,  Paris  and  Czecho-Slovakia.  Neves  Vater- 
land  Bund,  Germany.  Women's  International  League 
for  Peace  and  Freedom,  Headquarters,  Geneva. 
Organized  in  over  twenty  countries. 

Endowments  since  1910. — -The  World  Peace 
Foundation,  Boston,  endowed  by  Edwin  Ginn 
with  $1,000,000.  The  Carnegie  Endowment  for 
International  Peace,  Washington,  endowed  with 
$10,000,000,  and  the  Church  Peace  Union,  New 
York  City,  endowed  with  $2,000,000  by  Andrew 
Carnegie. 

The  United  States  has  always  led  in  the  move- 
ment to  substitute  law  for  war.  The  first  peace 
conference  was  planned  and  the  essential  features  of 
the  most  modern  methods  of  attaining  peace  were 
formulated  by  New  England  men  in  the  thirties  and 
forties.  This  was  known  abroad  as  "The  American 
Plan."    See  Miutakism.  L.  A.  Mead 

PEASANTS'  WAR. — ^A  name  commonly  given 
to  a  revolt  of  the  German  peasants  in  1525. 

There  had  been  peasant  uprisings  before  this 
in  Germany  (notably  in  1490  and  1502)  and  in 
France  as  well,  where  the  revolt  known  as  the 
Jacquerie  occurred  in  1356.  The  grievances  of  the 
peasants  were  many,  and  had  been  intensified  by 
the  rapid  progress  of  a  great  economic  and  social 
change  in  Europe:  the  rise  of  commerce  and  manu- 
factures, and  the  consequent  transformation  of  the 
feudalistic  system,  resting  on  land  tenure,  into  the 
modern  business  system,  resting  on  money  capital. 
.Though  the  ultimate  result  was  great  betterment 
of  the  peasantry,  the  immediate  effect  was  increase 
of  economic  pressure  on  them.  A  sharp  rise  in 
prices  coincided  with  an  increase  of  taxes  and 
other  exactions.  The  rights  of  the  peasants  had 
depended  on  custom,  rather  than  positive  law: 
now  the  introduction  of  Roman  codified  law  into 
the  courts  of  Germany  gave  landlords  an  oppor- 
tunity to  deprive  the  peasants  of  long-cherished 
claims  to  use  of  common  land  and  forest;  and  to 
commute  the  ancient  feudal  services  and  payment 
in  kind  into  an  onerous  rent-charge  in  money. 

Troubles  began  in  Swabia  in  August,  1524, 
and  the  following  spring  the  revolt  became  general 
throughout  Germany.  The  demands  of  the  peas- 
ants were  formulated  in  Twelve  Articles,  the  essen- 
tial justice  of  which  is  testified  by  the  fact  that  most 
of  them  long  since  were  incorporated  into  German 
law.    Thomas  Mttnzer,  a  fanatic,  became  the  leader 


of  the  peasants  and  established  himself  at  Miihl- 
hausen.  The  German  princes  had  pretended  to 
treat  with  them,  until  they  could  gather  their 
forces;  but  on  May  15  Munzer  and  his  followers 
were  defeated  at  Frankenhausen  by  a  force  com- 
manded by  Duke  George  of  Saxony  and  Philip 
of  Hesse.  Thousands  were  slaughtered,  Miinzer 
himself  was  captured,  tortiu-ed  and  executed.  The 
revolt  was  suppressed  with  ruthless  cruelty,  and  it 
was  estimated  at  the  time  that  a  hundred  thousand 
peasants  lost  their  hves.  So  far  from  improving 
their  condition  by  taking  up  arms,  they  had  made  it 
worse.  Henry  C.  Vedder 

PELAGIANISM.— The  system  named  after 
Pelagius  (q.v.),  who  opposed  the  Augustinian 
view  of  the  soUdarity  of ^  the  race  in  Adam,  and 
taught  that  men  do  not  inherit  Adam's  guilt  but 
are  born  characterless.  The  human  will  is  con- 
sequently the  determining  element  in  salvation,  and 
even  sinlessness  is  possible.  This  conception 
reduced  divine  grace  to  the  position  of  merely 
aiding  man's  will,  in  contrast  with  Augustine's 
view  that  salvation  is  due  exclusively  to  grace. 
Pelagianism  was  condemned  at  a  Carthaginian 
synod  in  412,  by  Popes  Innocent  I.  and  Zosimus, 
and  at  the  coimcil  of  Ephesus  in  431. 

PELAGIUS  (ca.  360-420).— Christian  monk  and 
theologian,  who,  according  to  tradition,  was  born  in 
Britain.  He  spent  most  of  his  life  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean world.  He  was  in  Rome  405-410,  then  a 
short  time  in  Africa,  whence  he  went  to  Palestine 
where  he  remained  some  years.  He  was  opposed 
to  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  total  depravity, 
his  maxim  being  "If  I  ought,  I  can." 

PELAGIUS. — The  name  of  two  popes. 

Pelagius  I. — Pope,  555-561;  participated  in 
the  Three  Chapter  Controversy,  defending  the 
Three  Chapters,  but  later  acquiescing  to  the 
decrees  of  the  2nd.  council  of  Constantinople. 

Pelagius  //.—Pope,  579-590. 

PENANCE. — ^An  ecclesiastical  punishment  in- 
flicted for  sin;  also  a  sacrament  of  the  Christian 
church. 

Despite  the  unlimited  power  vested  in  the  church 
to  forgive  sin  (Matt.  16:19  and  18 :  18) .  in  the  earhest 
Christian  times,  certain  crimes — idolatry,  homicide, 
adultery,  and  fornication — were  visited  by  per- 
petual excommunication  from  the  church.  Against 
this  rigorous  attitude  protests  soon  arose  from 
Hermas,  Callistus,  Cornelius,  and  others.  Conse- 
quently the  old  time  rigor  gradually  was  abandoned. 
For  readmission  of  the  offender  into  church  fellow- 
ship a  public  confession  was  required,  followed  by 
penitential  exercises  such  as  prayer,  fasting,  yrostra- 
tions,  and  harsh  bodily  treatment.  Hence  the 
system  of  discipline  by  grades — mourners,  hearers, 
fallers,  bj^tanders.  After  the  Decian  persecution 
this  ministry  of  penance,  hitherto  administered 
by  bishops,  was  entrusted  also  to  the  priests. 
To  secure  uniformity  manuals  called  penitential 
books  (John  the  Monk,  St.  Columbanus,  St. 
Patrick,  St.  Finian,  St.  Cumian,  Gildas,  Theodore) 
were  compiled  with  regulations  and  assessments 
of  punishment.  With  the  lapse  of  time  public 
confession  passed  out  of  vogue  (461  a.d.).  I*ublic 
penance  was  inflicted  only  for  public  sin,  and 
finally  under  Celtic  influence  was  entirely  suspended. 
According  to  scholastic  doctrine  reaffirmed  at  the 
Council  of  Trent,  the  sacrament  of  penance  con- 
sists of  contrition,  confession,  satisfaction,  and 
absolution. "  Indispensable  for  the  remission  of 
mortalT^ut  not  of  venial  sins,  it  must  be  adminis- 
tered only  by  the  priesthood  to  the  baptized.     It 


Penates 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


330 


procures  the  remission  of  the  guilt  and  eternal 
punishment  due  to  sin.  The  temporal  punish- 
ment of  sin  is  expiated  by  the  sacramental  penance 
imposed  by  the  priest.  See  Absolution;  Con- 
fessional; Indulgence.  I*eter  G.  Mode 

PENATES. — The  group  of  superhuman  powers 
which  presided  over  the  household  stores  and  pro- 
tected the  home  in  old  Roman  popular  rehgion. 

PENITENTIAL.— A  manual  for  the  use  of 
R.C.  priests  in  their  office  as  confessors  for  guidance 
in  prescribing  the  penance  required  for  sins.  See 
Penance;  Confessional. 

PENITENTIAL  ORDERS.— The  generic  name 
for  a  number  of  religious  orders,  aiming  to  attain 
blessedness  by^  a  life  of  asceticism  or  penance, 
and  engaging  in  religious  education,  care  of  the 
sick,  missionary  labor,  public  preaching,  controversy 
with  the  unbelieving,  and  redemption  of  captives. 
Among  the  Penitential  orders  are  the  Franciscans, 
Dominicans,  Lazarites  of  France,  Augustrnians, 
CarmeUte  nuns,  and  orders  of  St.  Magdalen. 

PENITENTIAL  PSALMS.— Psalms  6,  32,  38, 
51,  102,  130  and  143,  used  in  the  R.C.  Church  and 
AngUcan  hturgies. 

PENITENTS,  CONGREGATONS     OF.— R.C 

congregations  with  prescriptions  as  to  different 
penitential  works  such  as  wearing  hair  shirts, 
fasting,  etc.  The  various  orders  are  distinguished 
by  the  color  of  their  habit. 

PENN,  WILLIAM  (1644-1718).— English 
Quaker  leader^  and  founder  of  Pennsylvania. 
Reared  in  a  Puritan  family,  while  at  Oxford  ne  came 
under  Quaker  influence  with  which  he  made  com- 
mon cause,  becoming  a  minister  in  1667.  He 
wrote  extensively  and  spoke  in  defence  of  Quaker 
doctrines,  especially  advocating  religious  toleration 
and  personal  morality;  and  on  several  occasions 
was  imprisoned  for  his  intrepidity.  In  1700  he 
secured  the  charter  of  Pennsylvania  of  which  he 
was  governor,  and  in  the  constitution  of  which  were 
embodied  Quaker  principles  of  toleration  and 
democracy. 

PENOLOGY. — Primarily  this  word  signifies 
the  science  of  punishment,  but  it  has  come  to 
include  the  broader  aspects  of  prevention  of  crime 
and  the  reform  of  the  criminal. 

The  older  penal  theory  was  that  the  punishment 
must  fit  the  crime,  and  ingenious  methods  of  torture 
were  devised  to  deter  from  crime.  Such  methods 
did  not  succeed  in  lessening  crime,  and  by  the  18th. 
century  the  inhuman  treatment  of  criminals  led 
reformers  Uke  Beccaria  and  Howard  to  agitate  for 
prison  reform.  People  in  general  became  inter- 
ested in  the  fate  of  the  criminal,  and  by  degrees  it 
became  easier  to  provide  better  quarters  for  pris- 
oners and  to  insure  human  treatment.  Instead  of 
damp  dungeons  and  filthy  barracks,  sanitary 
buildings  were  provided,  and  officers  were  placed 
in  charge  who  could  be  trusted  to  refrain  from 
brutahty. 

Banishment  of  criminals,  as  to  Australia  and 
Siberia,  marked  a  stage  of  progress  beyond  the 
inhuman  cruelties  of  the  prisons.  The  removal 
of  the  death  penalty  for  minor  crimes  and  misde- 
meanors was  another  gain.  Experiments  were 
tried  as  to  the  best  method  of  confinement.  The 
Pennsylvania  system  required  living  and  working 
in  separate  cells.  The  Auburn  system  provided 
for  labor  in  common  and  separation  in  cells  at 
night.     But  the  greatest  progress  came  with  the 


introduction  of  the  reformatory  methods.  These 
were  due  to  a  conviction  that  the  true  principle 
was  that  the  criminal  should  be  cured  rather  than 
punished,  and  that  the  method  of  treatment  must 
keep  that  end  in  view.  It  was  plain  that  a  fixed 
term  of  confinement  was  impracticable  in  most 
cases,  and  the  indeterminate  sentence  came  into 
vogue.  On  this  basis  the  prisoner  can  shorten  his 
term  by  good  behavior.  In  minor  cases  he  may 
even  escape  imprisonment  altogether,  being  allowed 
his  liberty  on  probation,  with  the  obligation  of 
reporting  regularly  to  a  probation  officer,  or  he 
may  be  released  from  prison  on  parole  before  his 
term  is  expired.  The  practice  of  probation  is 
increasing  in  the  case  of  first  offenders. 

The  reformatory  principle  is  followed  in  the 
treatment  of  the  prisoner  during  confinement.  He 
is  kept  occupied  with  tasks  that  are  fitted  to  his 
capacity  or  experience.  His  mind  is  educated. 
Appeal  is  made  to  his  better  instincts,  and  his 
moral  and  religious  nature  is  stimulated.  In  these 
ways  his  manhood  asserts  itself.  So  great  has  been 
the  success  of  this  reformatory  method  that  eighty 
per  cent  of  the  cases  turn  out  well.  There  are,  of 
course,  some  who  do  not  respond,  and  who  on 
release  return  to  their  criminal  practices.  These 
recidivists  are  the  occupants  of  the  penitentiaries. 

The  new  theories  have  necessitated  more  careful 
differentiation  in  places  of  confinement  and  even 
of  trial.  Juvenile  offenders  are  brought  before 
juvenile  courts,  and  the  methods  of  procedure 
are  designed  to  reform  them  without  a  prison 
sentence.  If  they  prove  incorrigible,  they  are 
sent  to  reform  schools,  where  the  training  of  hand 
and  brain  may  give  them  new  interests  and  occupa- 
tion. In  this  way  they  are  carefully  segregated 
from  adult  offenders.  Women  are  no  longer  herded 
in  the  same  prisons  with  men,  but  they  have  their 
own  reformatories,  where  by  firm  but  kindly  disci- 
pline they_  are  taught  orderly  conduct.  Men's 
reformatories  are  no  longer  managed  after  the  old 
prison  discipline.  Penal  institutions  generally, 
through  the  influence  of  such  men  as  Brockway  and 
Osborne,  are  governed  on  the  principle  of  making 
life  pleasant  as  well  as  endurable,  throwing  a 
maximum  of  responsibility  on  the  prisoner  that  he 
naay  learn  self-control  and  self-reliance,  and  trusting 
him  to  respond  loyally  to  the  confidence  reposed  in 
him.  Workrooms  are  well  lighted,  cells  are  less 
places  of  terror,  recreation  in  the  prison  yard  and 
labor  out  of  doors  have  been  increased,  and  gather- 
ings of  the  men  for  social  and  religious  purposes 
have  become  more  frequent.  The  response  to 
this  milder  treatment  is  so  satisfactory  as  to  justify 
the  fullest  claims  of  its  sponsors. 

Prison  reform  has  enlisted  the  interest  of  philan- 
thropists and  scientists,  and  societies  and  congresses 
have  been  organized  for  discussion.  Investigators 
have  studied  the  criminal  with  the  help  of  anthro- 
pology and  psychology.  Certain  of  the  American 
states  have  abolished  the  death  penalty;  in  one  or 
two  cases  the  experiment  of  sterihzation  has  been 
tried.  Finally  various  agencies  are  helping  the 
discharged  prisoner.  Henry  K.  Rowe 

PENTATEUCH.— The  first  five  books  of  the 
Old  Testament.    See  Hexateuch. 

PENTECOST,  FEAST  OF.— Called  also  Feast 
of  Weeks.  Jewish  feast  which  falls  fifty  days  after 
the  Feast  of  Passover,  (called  also  Sh'vuos,  i.e. 
"weeks"  in  Hebrew).  It  celebrates  (a)  the  com- 
pletion of  the  grain  harvest,  and  is  hence  a  thanks- 
giving day;  and  (6)  the  traditional  anniversary  of 
the  giving  of  the  Law  on  Mount  Sinai.  In  modern 
times,  the  confirmation  of  children  in  the  Jewish 
faith  is  celebrated  on  this  festival.    The  outpour- 


331 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Persephone 


ing  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  Pentecost  is  commemorated 
in  Christendom  by  Whitsunday  (Acts  2). 

PENTECOSTAL  CHURCH  OF  THE  NAZA- 
RENES. — A  denomination  formed  in  1907-8  by 
uniting  various  existing  bodies  holding  to  a  belief 
in  entire  sanctification.  The  doctrinal  tenets 
include  the  Trinity,  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  the 
fall,  eternal  punishment  of  the  impenitent,  the  atone- 
ment, entire  sanctification  of  believers,  the  second 
coming  of  Jesus,  resurrection  and  final  judg- 
ment. The  poUty  and  discipline  is  Wesleyan, 
though  rather  more  rigorous.  There  were  230 
churches  when  the  union  was  consummated. 

PERFECTION,  PERFECTIONISM.— The  com- 
plete realization  of  moral  or  religious  possibilities 
in  personal  experience. 

In  ethics  perfectionism  conceives  the  supreme 
good  as  the  attainment  of  moral  self-realization. 
It  stands  for  a  moraUty  of  character  as  contrasted 
with  theories  which  make  happiness  or  utility 
the  supreme  end.  The  ethics  of  perfectionism 
lays  stress  on  virtues  rather  than  on  mere  satisfac- 
tion of  desires. 

In  religion,  perfectionism  denotes  the  elimina- 
tion of  sins  or  of  fleshly  limitations  so  that  the 
"perfect"  man  is  able  to  enjoy  complete  harmony 
with  the  divine.  It  may  be  conceived  in  terms  of 
ascetic  disciphne  (as  in  Buddhism  and  monasti- 
cism),  or  in  terms  of  an  ecstatic  experience  of  unity 
with  the  divine  (as  in  Neo-Platonism),  or  as  a 
supernaturally  produced  purification  (as  in  the 
case  of  "holiness"  sects  in  Christianity). 

Catholic  ethics  affirmed  a  species  of  perfection- 
ism in  its  doctrine  of  works  of  supererogation, 
according  to  which  it  was  within  the  bounds 
of  human  possibility  completely  to  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  God  (aided,  of  course,  by  grace). 
The  Protestant  reformers  repudiated  this  doctrine, 
insisting  that  no  one  could  lay  claim  to  merit  in 
God's  sight.  There  have,  however,  arisen  in 
Protestantism  many  advocates  of  possible  perfection 
through  a  special  experience  of  supernatural 
sanctification.  John  Wesley  advocated  Christian 
perfection  as  an  experience  of  divine  grace  so  com- 
plete as  to  create  an  inner  attitude  of  "pure  love 
reigning  alone  in  the  heart  and  life."  President 
Finney  of  Oberlin  declared  that  one  may  at  any 
given  moment  have  an  attitude  of  entire  benevo- 
lence, and  is  thus  at  the  time  inwardly  perfect, 
even  though  he  may  later  fail  to  live  up  to  this 
ideal.  The  Keswick  Movement  (q.v.)  aimed  to 
promote  a  complete  experience  of  mystical  consecra- 
tion which  suggested  perfectionism. 

Religious  perfectionism  has  suffered  from  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  its  advocates  to  depreciate 
less  ecstatic  or  emotional  types  of  reUgious  experi- 
ence, and  thus  to  induce  an  apparent  sense  of 
superiority.  Too  exclusive  attention  to  the  experi- 
ence of  "entire  sanctification"  sometimes  diverts 
interest  from  the  more  humble  social  virtues. 
Protestant  theologians  have  thus  generally  treated 
perfection  as  an  ideal  to  be  striven  for  rather  than  as 
something  which  one  may  boast  of  having  attained. 

The  Perfectionist  Community  of  Oneida,  founded 
near  the  middle  of  the  19th.  century  by  J.  H. 
Noyes,  attempted  to  promote  absolute  unselfishness 
in  its  members.  This  was  to  be  attained  by  com- 
plete communism,  in  which  every  member  of  the 
community  renounced  all  claims,  not  only  to 
property,  but  also  to  personal  and  family  relation- 
ships. No  man  could  lay  exclusive  claim  to  his 
wife  or  to  his  children.  The  movement  called 
forth  wide-spread  denunciation,  and  the  ideal 
was  eventually  transformed  from  a  religious  to  a 
purely  industrial  community.    Gerald  B.  Smith 


PERICOPE.— An  official  table  of  Scripture 
lessons  from  the  gospels  and  epistles,  appointed 
to  be  read  in  churches  on  Sundays  and  holy  days. 
In  the  Anglican  and  Lutheran  churches  public 
Scripture  reading  follows  the  pericope. 

PERJURY. — An  assertion  made  under  a  juridical 
oath  in  which  one  is  knowingly  telling  what  is  not 
true.  Since  perjury  defeats  the  administration 
of  justice,  it  is  in  most  countries  severely  punished. 

PERPETUAL  ADORATION.— The  unceasing 
adoration  of  the  sacrament  in  a  religious  community, 
secured  by  the  presence  before  the  altar  of  one 
or  more  worshipers  at  all  times. 

PERSECUTIONS.— In  general,  sufferings  in- 
flicted unjustly  because  of  non-conformity  with 
accepted  opinions  or  practices;  specially  sufferings 
inflicted  for  religious  non-conformity. 

Persecutions  have  not  been  confined  to  any 
age  or  people  or  religion,  but  have  specially  char- 
acterized the  progress  of  the  missionary  religions. 
They  have  usually  been  defensive,  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  heresy,  but  have  also  been  employed  in 
propaganda. 

Christians  were  persecuted  in  the  Roman  empire 
until  the  triumph  of  Constantine  who  accepted 
Christianity  and  established  toleration.  As  Chris- 
tianity spread  into  Gentile  circles  it  frequently 
met  determined  opposition,  usually  instigated  by 
local  Jewish  animosity,  as  seen  in  the  experiences 
of  Paul  in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  These  were 
cases  of  mob  violence  without  any  color  of  legaUty. 
Indeed  the  Roman  authorities  not  infrequently 
protected  the  missionaries  as  at  Ephesus,  Corinth, 
and  elsewhere. 

Early  in  the  2nd.  century  the  emperor  Trajan, 
in  a  letter  to  Pliny,  governor  of  Bithynia,  laid  down 
a  sort  of  legal  procedure  according  to  which  Chris- 
tians were  not  to  be  sought  out  as  criminals,  but  if 
reported  and  convicted  they  were  to  be  executed 
unless  they  renounced  Christianity.  It  was  against 
this  procedure  that  TertulUan  and  most  of  the 
Christian  apologists  protested,  demanding  that 
Christians  be  tried  on  criminal  charges  and  not 
condemned  because  of  the  Christian  name. 

The  effect  of  this  regulation  was  to  put  the 
Christians  into  the  power  of  provincial  gover  nors 
and  produce  frequent  local  sporadic  persecutions. 
Several  of  the  emperors  engaged  in  such  local 
persecutions,  and  twice  the  whole  might  of  the 
empire  was  thrown  into  the  effort  to  suppress 
Christianity  entirely.  Constantine  and  his  associ- 
ates ordered  the  cessation  of  persecution  in  311, 
and  two  years  later  the  principle  of  toleration  for 
all  religions  was  definitely  adopted  as  the  policy  of 
the  empire. 

Under  Constantine's  successors  Christianity 
began  to  persecute  the  old  religions,  eventually 
suppressing  them  altogether.  Established  Chris- 
tianity quite  regularly  persecuted  heretical  sects 
during  the  period  of  CathoUc  supremacy.  After 
the  Reformation,  persecution  of  Protestants  in 
CathoUc  States  was  common;  and  where  Protes- 
tantism was  supreme  attempts  were  frequently 
made  to  suppress  CathoUcism  by  force.  The 
radical  sects  in  Protestantism  were  subject  to 
oppressions  which  at  times  took  the  form  of  vigor- 
ous persecution. 

While  the  principle  of  religious  toleration  is 
gaining  ground,  persecution  is  still  known  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  W.  J.  McGlothlin 

PERSEPHONE.— The  daughter  of  the  earth- 
mother,  Demeter,  in  Greek  religion.  She  is  the 
symbol  of  the  vegetation  powers  of  nature  which 


Perseverance  of  the  Saints  A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHIQS 


332 


disappear  at  the  close  of  summer  going  to  the 
underworld  realm.  Hence  she  is  represented  as  the 
wife  of  Hades,  the  ruler  of  the  underworld. 

PERSEVERANCE  OF  THE  SAINTS.— The 
Calvinistic  doctrine  that  those  whom  God  has 
accepted  as  redeemed  "can  neither  totally  nor 
finally  fall  away  from  the  state  of  grace;  but 
shall  certainly  persevere  therein  to  the  end,  and 
be  eternally  saved.  This  perseverance  of  the 
saints  depends,  not  upon  their  own  free-will,  but 
upon  the  immutabiUty  of  the  decree  of  election" 
(Westminster  Confession). 

PERSIA,  MISSIONS  TO.— Persia,  covering 
628,000  square  miles,  with  an  estimated  population 
before  the  war  of  7|  to  12  millions,  two-thirds 
Aryan  (Persians,  Kurds,  Nomads,  Syrians,  Armeni- 
ans) and  about  one-third  Turkish,  and  divided 
religiously  between  Zoroastrians  (few),  Mohamme- 
dans (heterodox  Shi'ites),  Nestorians  (Syrians,  or 
Assyrians),  and  Gregorians  (Armenians)  offers  a 
complex  of  races  and  rehgions  challenging  to  Chris- 
tian propagandism.  Henry  Martyn  (q.v.)  blazed 
the  trail  for  Protestantism,  spending  eleven  months 
in  Persia  in  1811,  refuting  Mohammedanism,  and 
translating  the  N.T.  and  Psalms  into  Persian.  Basel 
missionaries  to  Traascaucasia  visited  Persia  about 
1830,  contributing  to  controversial  Uterature 
against  Mohammedanism.  The  A.B.C.F.M.  (Con- 
gregational) began  work  among  the  Nestorians 
(Urumia  region)  in  1834-1835.  Martyn's  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures  was  completed  by  a  Scottish 
missionary  to  Persia,  1838-1847.  Work  begun 
in  1869  at  Ispahan,  in  South  Persia,  was  taken 
over  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society  (AngUcan) 
in  1875.  Upon  the  reunion  of  the  Old  and  New 
School  Presbyterians  in  the  U.S.,  the  "Mission  to 
Persia"  of  the  A.B.C.F.M.  was  taken  over  by  the 
Presbyterian  Board  in  1871.  The  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury's  Mission  to  the  Nestorians  of 
Urumia  and  Kurdistan  began  1886,  its  aim  being 
through  education,  etc.,  to  purify  the  ancient 
Nestorian  church  without  interfering  with  its 
organization,  Roman  Catholicism  is  represented  by 
the  "Chaldeans,"  a  sect  arising  in  1551  by  a  schism 
among  the  Nestorians.  They  are  found  chiefly 
on  the  Mesopotamian  side  of  the  mountains. 
Bagdad  has  been  the  seat  of  the  Patriarchate  since 
1830. 

The  chief  missionary  agency  in  South  Persia 
is  the  Church  Missionary  Society  (Ispahan,  1875, 
Kirman,  1897,  Yesd,  1898,  and  Shiraz,  1900).  An 
AngUcan  bishop  for  Persia  was  appointed  in  1912. 
Medical  work  has  proved  particularly  effective 
in  the  conversion  or  Mohammedans.  In  North 
Persia  the  Presbyterians  have  been  the  chief 
evangelizing  agency.  At  first  efforts  were  con- 
centrated on  reforming  the  ancient  Nestorian 
church.  These  efforts  proving  ineffectual,  a  Re- 
formed Nestorian  Church  came  into  being.  The 
first  meeting  of  a  Presbytery  occurred  in  1862. 
The  Synod  is  now  composed  of  four  Presbyteries, 
three  in  Persia,  and  one  in  Turkey.  In  1883  this 
Mission  was  divided  into  Western  and  Eastern 
sections.  The  Western  Mission  includes  Urumia, 
1834  (Urumia  College,  American  School  for  Boys, 
Fideha  Fiske  Seminary  for  girls,  Westminster 
Hospital,  etc.),  and  Tabriz,  1873  (schools  training 
for  college;  hospital  and  dispensary).  The  Eastern 
Mission  includes  Teheran,  1872,  Hamadan,  1880, 
Resht  and  Kasvin,  1906,  Kirmanshah,  1911,  and 
Meshed,  1911.  All  of  these  stations  possess 
schools,  churches,  hospitals,  etc. 

Persian  Mohammedans,  themselves  unorthodox 
(Shi'ites),  are  more  responsive  to  Christianity  than 
anywhere  else  in  the  world.     Henry  H.  Walker 


PERSIA,  RELIGIONS  OF.— Persia  has  played 
an  important  role  in  the  reUgious  history  of  the 
world.  This  is  particularly  true  because  of  its 
ancient  historic  faith,  Zoroastrianism,  which  pre- 
sents striking  and  interesting  parallels  to  Judaism 
and  Christianity;  it  is  also  true  because  of  the 
significance  of  Mohammedanism,  which  has  been 
the  prevailing  religion  of  Persia  since  the  Moslem 
conquest  of  Iran  in  the  7th.  century  of  the  Christ- 
ian era. 

It  is  possible  to  trace  presumable  phases  of  a 
Proto-Iranian  religion,  long  antedating  the  appear- 
ance of  Zoroaster  as  the  Prophet  of  Ancient  Iran. 
These  antique  features  are  parallel,  in  part,  with 
Vedic  beliefs  and  practices  in  early  India  (therefore 
Indo-Iranian  in  essence),  and  are,  in  part,  survivals 
from  the  common  Indo-European  inheritance  of 
myths,  legends,  tenets,  and  religious  observances;  but 
they  appear  to  have  been  molded  in  Persia  into  a 
distinctly  Iranian  form.  As  beliefs  they  consist  chiefly 
in  elements  of  nature-worship,  a  characteristically 
Persian  veneration  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
earth,  water,  and  especially  fire;  and  they  may  go 
back  a  couple  of  thousand  years  or  more  before 
our  ordinary  era  of  reckoning. 

The  coming  of  Zoroaster  or  Zarathushtra,  (q.v.), 
centuries  before  the  time  of  Christ,  gave  to  Persia's 
old  time  faith  a  new  and  reformed  character, 
which  made  it  one  of  the  world's  great  creeds  in 
antiquity.  The  dominant  features  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism, as  portrayed  in  the  Avesta  (q.v.)  and  the 
Pahlavi  writings,  may  be  described  as  a  marked 
emphasis  laid  upon  the  dualistic  struggle  between 
the  kingdoms  of  light  and  darkness,  good  and  evil, 
personified  as  Ormazd  and  Ahriman;  a  clearly 
defined  system  of  angelology  and  demonology; 
a  code  of  ethics  noteworthy  for  its  high  ideals;  a 
strongly  marked  belief  in  man's  responsibility  to 
account;  and  a  profound  assurance  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  the  coming  of  a  savior,  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  regeneration  of 
the  world  in  a  form  eternal  when  good  shall  be  all  in 
all.  The  religion  of_  Zoroaster,  though  passing 
through  various  vicissitudes  and  some  changes  due 
to  external  and  internal  events,  continued  for 
thirteen  centuries  or  more  to  be  the  ruling  faith  of 
Iran  until  the  Arab  conquest  of  Persia,  in  the  7th. 
century  a.d.,  changed  the  whole  national  and 
reUgious  history  of  the  country. 

_  This  momentous  event,  the  Mohammedan 
triumph  in  the  7th.  century,  meant  the  overthrow 
of  the  ancient  creed  of  Zoroaster  by  that  of  the 
Arabian  prophet;  Ormazd  yielded  place  to  Allah  as 
supreme  god;  the  Avesta  was  supplanted  by  the 
Koran;  the  sacred  emblem  of  the  sun  sank  before 
the  crescent  of  Islam,  and  the  hallowed  flame  of  the 
fire  was  quenched  in  the  blood  of  the  Magian  priests 
martyred  at  the  altar.  Conversions  to  Islam,  how- 
ever, came  not  alone  by  the  sword;  there  were 
doubtless  many  that  accepted  the  new  faith  for 
Tarious  reasons;  the  process,  though  gradualj  was 
none  the  less  sure  and  complete,  so  that  Persia  for 
twelve  centuries  has  been  practically  Mohammedan 
in  creed.  Only  a  small  remnant  of  the  population, 
the  so-called  Gabars  (q.v.),  still  remain  devoted  to 
their  oldtime  creed  of  Zoroaster,  while  the  Parsis 
(q.v.)  of  India  represent  the  survivors  of  a  band 
of  reUgious  exiles,  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest, 
who  sought  refuge  in  Hindustan  and  freedom  to 
worship  Ormazd. 

The  great  religious  schism  in  Islam,  which  rent 
Mohammedanism  into  two  antagonistic  sects, 
namely  the  orthodox  Sunnis  and  the  factional 
Shi'ites,  is  closely  connected  with  Iran,  because 
Persia  became  and  remains  today  the  recognized 
exponent  of  the  Shi 'a  "Faction,"  its  adherents 
being  devoted  followers  of  'All  and  firm  beUevers  in 


333 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Personification 


the  line  of  the  Imams  (see  ShI'ites).  Certain 
religious  and  philosophical  developments  in  Persia 
while  under  the  Caliphate  of  Baghdad,  and  especially 
during  the  early  'Abbasid  Period,  which  was  the 
Golden  Age  of  Islam  (749-847  a.d.),  belong  rnore 
particularly  to  the  history  of  Mohammedanism. 
Noteworthy  during  the  'Abbasid  Period  was  the 
rise  of  certain  great  Persian  heresiarchs.  Among 
others  may  be  mentioned  Bih-afaridh,  Sinbadh, 
"the  Magian"  (both  about  the  middle  of  the  8th. 
century  a.d.)-  Muqanna',  "the  Veiled  Prophet  of 
Khurasan,"  in  the  latter  third  of  the  same  century, 
and  Babak,  who  sought  to  revive  some  of  the 
heretical  tenets  of  Mazdak  (q.v.)  and  was  ulti- 
mately put  to  death,  838  a.d.  While  certain 
Zoroastrian  elements  may  be  recognized  as  still 
Ungering  in  their  teachings,  their  doctrines  were 
strongly  tinged  by  foreign  tenets,  such  as  anthropo- 
morphism, incarnation,  re-incarnation  or  "return," 
and  metempsychosis  (cf.  E.  G.  Browne,  Literary 
History  of  Persia,  I,  279-336).  Besides  these, 
there  were  also  some  striking  sectarian  movements 
among  the  Persians,  like  that  of  the  Isma'Ilis,  or 
"sect  of  the  seven"  and  of  the  Carmathians,  both 
of  which  had  a  somewhat  political  character  as  well 
as  religious  aspect. 

Highly  significant  in  Persia,  from  the  9th. 
century  onward,  was  the  religio-metaphysical 
development  of  Sufi  mysticism,  which  culminated 
in  the  mystic  poetry  of  Jalal  ad-Din  Rumi,  in  the 
13th.  century,  and  of  Jami,  in  the  15th.  century, 
and  still  dominates  the  devotional  lyric  poetry  of 
Iran.  In  the  first  half  of  the  19th.  century,  more- 
over, a  new  and  distinctly  religious  movement, 
called  Babism,  after  the  title  of  its  founder,  or  more 
generally  now  termed  Bahaism,  arose  in  Persia. 
This  creed,  eclectic  and  progressive  in  its  tendencies, 
counts  among  its  adherents  today  a  growing  num- 
ber of  followers,  not  alone  in  Persia  and  other  parts 
of  Asia,  but  it  lays  claim  likewise  to  adherents  in 
Europe  and  America.  See  Babism;  BahAism.  _  The 
importance  of  the  influence  exercised  in  Persia  by 
Christian  missionaries,  for  nearly  a  century,  is  a 
factor  duly  recognized.  See  Persia,  Missions  to. 
A.  V.  Williams  Jackson 

PERSON. — A  term  used  in  theology  to  denote 
one  of  the  three  members  of  the  Trinity.  The 
word  is  an  AngUcized  form  of  the  Latin  persona 
which  the  western  theologians  introduced  as 
equivalent  to  the  Greek  hypostasis  (q.v.).  See 
Trinity.  The  word  was  first  used  in  the  drama  and 
subsequently  in  law  to  denote  the  personal  capacity 
in  which  one  acted,  e.  g.,  as  a  father,  creditor,  etc. 
It  is  therefore  not  identical  with  "individual,"  as 
the  same  individual  might  act  in  different  personae. 
From  this  usage  sprang,  through  Tertullian,  the 
theological.  The  god-substance  was  held  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  the  three  personae  (to  use  Tertullian's 
word)  of  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Spirit. 

PERSON ALISM. — A  type  of  thought  empha- 
sizing the  distinguishing  qualities  that  differentiate 
the  personal  from  the  impersonal  or  mechanical. 
Personalism  in  the  generic  sense  connotes  all  the 
data  of  self-conscious  life. 

In  the  history  of  philosophy,  Aristotle  among 
the  ancients,  Augustine  and  other  reUgious  phi- 
losophers, Descartes,  Kant,  and  Lotze,  may  be 
regarded  as  essentially  personalistic  in  their  phi- 
losophies. Lotze  was  pre-eminently  the  modern 
forerunner  of  speculative  personalism.  But  the 
technical  designation  of  "PersonaUsm"  to  describe 
the  phUosophic  type  first  appears  in  Le  Personnalisme 
by  C.  Renouvier  (Paris,  1902).  Personalism  by 
B.  p.  Bowne  (Boston,  1908),  is  an  outline  of  personal- 
istic philosophy,  amplified  in  the  author's  Psycho- 
logical Theory,  Metaphysics,  Theism,  etc. 


Critical  personalism  proceeds  from  the  assump- 
tion that  the  self  is  an  irreducible  Uving  unit  which 
can  be  divided  only  by  a  false  abstraction;  it 
makes  the  characteristic  personal  values  and 
experiences  the  final  tests  of  truth  and  reality; 
and  in  its  metaphysics  conscious  personality  (mind 
and  will)  is  the  ultimate  nature  of  all  reality. 
The  ultimate  fact  is  not  abstract  "thought"  but 
a  thinker  thinking  thoughts;  not  "thought  pro- 
cesses" but  a  thinker.  All  knowledge  has  the 
stamp  of  the  mental  forms  of  the  thinker  by  the 
time  it  becomes  a  conscious  possession. 

Personalistic  metaphysics  regards  conscious 
intelligence  as  the  ultimate  reality  in  all  phenomena. 
The  rationality  and  causality  which  are  the  marks 
of  the  reality  of  all  things,  are  conceived  as  the 
thoughts  and  acts  of  the  infinite  Thinker  and 
Doer.  Thus  the  ideals  of  personalism  are  carried 
through  the  extreme  hmits  of  philosophical  specula- 
tion resulting  in  theism. 

Religious  personalism  regards  the  real  frame- 
work of  reality  as  spiritual  (personal)  and  makes 
the  active,  Hving  God  both  the  immanent  reason 
and  the  power  of  the  world's  life.  All  ethical  and 
spiritual  values  receive  theoretical  reinforcement  in 
the  acceptance  of  ultimate  reality  as  the  Personal 
Creative  Spirit  "in  whom  we  live  and  move  and 
have  our  being."  Thus  religion  and  ethics  are 
grounded  in  the  center  of  Being  and  have  meta- 
physical significance.  Herbert  A.  Youtz 

'  PERSONALITY.— The  essential  character  of  a 
person  as  distinguished  from  a  thing,  or  of  one 
person  as  distinguished  from  another. 

Constituent  factors. — Free  association  of  ideas, 
purposive  control  of  ideas  in  thinking,  organization 
of  desires  in  the  light  of  ideas,  and  a  coherent 
consciousness  of  self  in  relations  with  other  selves 
are  distinguishing  marks  of  personality.  Variations 
in  personality  are  due  to  (1)  underlying  instinctive 
differences  of  tendency  and  temperament,  (2)  con- 
tact with  distinctive  *  persons  and  institutions, 
(3)  formation  of  a  mass  of  more  or  less  automatic 
habits  and  attitudes,  (4)  pursuit  of  distinctive 
ideals.  Complicated  and  subtle  differences  of 
personal  quality  result,  especially  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced grades  of  development. 

Worth  of  personality. — Each  person  has  inde- 
pendent ethical  worth,  and  is  to  be  treated  as  an 
end,  not  as  a  means  (Kant).  This  valuation  of 
persons  Ues  at  the  heart  of  Christianity,  in  its  con- 
ception of  God's  relation  to  all  men.  It  finds  social 
appUcation  in  modern  democratic  institutions,  but 
becomes  meaningless  when  interpreted  as  a  merely 
abstract  equalitarianism.  The  task  of  education 
is  to  secure  adequate  development  of  persons; 
that  of  social  reconstruction,  to  secure  proper 
interrelating  and  functioning  of  persons. 

Continuance  of  personality. — Does  personality 
persist  after  death?  This  may  be  conceived 
primarily  in  terms  of  an  underlying  metaphysical 
substance,  or  soul;  or  in  terms  of  the  concrete 
factors  of  personality  as  empirically  experienced,  a 
coherent  consciousness.  Persistence  of  personality 
is  usually  asserted  either  on  the  authority  of  a 
religious  revelation,  or  as  an  ethical  postulate,  or 
on  the  factual  ground  of  communication  with  the 
dead.    See  Future  Life,  Conceptions  op. 

Divine  personality. — How  far  can  the  attributes 
of  personality  as  known  in  men  be  asserted  of  a 
Supreme  Being?  Theism  (q.v.)  holds  that  while 
God  is  infinite  He  is  essentially  personal.  The 
doctrine  of  the  trinity  (q.v.)  introduces  specific 
problems  of  personality.  J.  F.  Crawford 

PERSONIFICATION.— The  attribution  of  con- 
scious personality  to  inanimate  objects  of  nature, 


Peshitto 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


334 


phenomena,  forces,  human  inventions,  and  abstrac- 
tions. The  personification  of  objects  of  nature  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  primitive  and  even  more 
sophisticated  reUgions,  such  as  earth-gods,  air- 
gods,  etc.  (q.v.).  The  personification  of  abstrac- 
tions such  as  virtues  and  vices  has  been  a  common 
religious  practise  also  especially  in  allegorical 
literature.     See  Animism. 

PESHITTO.— The  oldest  of  the  Syriac  versions 
of  the  Bible.     See  Versions  op  the  Bible. 

PESSIMISM.— The  hypothesis  that  the  world 
is  evil  so  that  a  satisfactory  human  experience  is 
impossible.  Schopenhauer  and  Von  Hartmann 
represent  modern  philosophical  pessimism.  The 
four  "noble  truths"  of  Buddhism  (q.v.)  rest  on  a 
pessimistic  world-view. 

PETER,  THE  APOSTLE.— The  foremost  of 
Jesus'  disciples.  He  was  a  fisherman,  in  partner- 
ship with  his  brother  Andrew,  when  Jesus  called 
him  as  a  disciple,  changing  his  name  "Simon"  into 
"Cephas"  or  "Peter"  (a  rock),  perhaps  to  denote 
him  as  the  first  member,  the  foundation  stone  of  the 
new  community.  He  was  married,  and  his  house 
at  Capernaum  was  the  abode  of  Jesus  during  the 
Galilaean  ministry.  Throughout  the  gospel  history 
he  appears  as  the  most  prominent  and  devoted  of 
the  disciples.  He  was  the  first  to  acknowledge 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  and  was  rewarded,  according 
to  Matt.  16: 17-19,  by  a  promise  of  supreme  authority 
in  the  church.  This  famous  passage,  however,  is 
beset  with  critical  difficulties.  In  spite  of  a  momen- 
tary wavering  on  the  eve  of  the  Crucifixion,  Peter 
was  the  first  to  believe  that  Jesus  had  risen  from 
the  dead  (I  Cor.  15:5),  and  it  was  his  faith  and 
enthusiasm  that  saved  the  new  movement  after  its 
seeming  ruin.  He  re-constituted  the  scattered 
company  of  believers  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  hence- 
forth the  recognized  leader  pf  the  church.  Though 
favorable  to  the  Gentile  mission  he  was  unwilling 
to  break  entirely  with  the  Jewish  law,  and  on  this 
point  came  into  conflict  with  Paul  at  Antioch.  Of 
Peter's  later  fife  nothing  is  certainly  known,  but 
the  tradition  that  he  was  martyred  at  Rome  in 
the  Neronian  persecution  (64),  is  supported  by  good 
evidence.  E.  F.  Scott 

PETER,  ACTS  OF.— Two  apocryphal  works 
attributed  to  Peter,  viz.,  the  Gnostic  Acts  and 
Catholic  Acts.    See  Apocrypha. 

PETER,  APOCALYPSE  OF.— An  apocryphal 
work  of  2nd.  century  origin,  accredited  to  Peter, 
approximating  in  style  and  content  to  II  Peter. 
See  Apocrypha;  Apocalyptic  Literature. 

PETER  DAMIAN,  SAINT  (ca.  IOO67IO72).— 
Italian  monk  and  reformer  of  monastic  Ufe,  a 
vigorous  opponent  of  Nicolaitanism  (q.v.)  and 
simony.  He  was  a  cardinal  and  contemporary  of 
Hildebrand. 

PETER  DE  BRUYS. — See  Pbtrobuslans. 

PETER,  GOSPEL  OF.— An  apocryphal  gospel 
dating  from  the  2nd.  century,  and  attributed  to 
Peter.  It  shows  anti-Judaistic,  gnostic  and  docetic 
tendencies. 

PETER  THE  HERMIT  (d.  1151).— A  priest  of 
Amiens,  France,  an  enthusiastic  preacher  of  the 
first  crusade  in  France  who  according  to  popular 
beUef  raised  an  army  of  pauperes  and  went  with 
them  to  the  Holy  Land.  For  his  actual  relation- 
ship to  the  Crusades,  see  Crusades. 


PETER  LOMBARD  (ca.  1100-1160).— Scholas- 
tic theologian  and  bishop  of  Paris,  who  wrote  a 
theological  textbook,  Sententiae  lihri  quatuor,  a  col- 
lection of  patristic  sayings  to  which  he  sought  to 
give  unity.  His  most  noteworthy  contribution  to 
theology  was  his  formulation  of  the  Cathohc  doc- 
trine of  the  seven  sacraments  and  of  sacramental 
grace. 

PETER,  PREACHING  OF.— A  spurious  work 
of  the  2nd.  century,  purporting  to  be  written  by 
Peter  in  defence  of  Christianity  against  Judaism  and 
paganism.    See  Apocrypha. 

PETER'S  PENCE.— A  tax  of  one  penny  on 
every  family  formerly  paid  annually  on  St.  Peter's 
day  to  the  popes.  At  present  it  represents  volun- 
tary contributions  of  devout  Catholics  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  pope. 

PETROBRUSIANS.— The  followers  of  Peter  de 
Bruys  (1104-1125),  a  radical  opponent  of  episcopal 
authority,  of  the  R.C.  mass  as  idolatrous,  image- 
worship,  infant  baptism,  celibacy  and  prayers 
for  the  dead.  Recognizing  solely  the  authority 
of  the  gospels,  they  advocated  a  purely  spiritual 
religion  free  from  ecclesiastical  forms. 

PFLEIDERER,  OTTO  (1839-1908)— German 
Protestant  theologian,  noted  for  his  interpretation 
of  Christianity  in  terms  of  idealistic  philosophy  and 
historical  development,  and  for  his  contributions  to 
Johannine  and  Pauline  theology  and  New  Testament 
criticism. 

PHALLICISM  or  PHALLISM.— That  type 
of  nature  worship  in  which  the  generative  powers 
are  worshiped,  as  symbolized  in  the  male  organ 
or  phallus,  whence  the  name.  The  custom  is 
common  not  only  among  primitive  races,  but  is  of 
frequent  appearance  among  sophisticated  peoples, 
as  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks  and  Indians.  PhaUicism 
occurs  often  as  a  form  of  sympathetic  magic,  sexual 
practises  symbolizing  the  fertilizing  effect  of  the 
sun  and  rain  whose  help  is  sought.  Sometimes 
the  ceremonies  are  wildly  orgiastic  as  in  the  Indian 
Sakti  puja  and  the  Canaanitish  Baal  worship.  In 
some  cases  the  symbol  of  the  phallus  is  worn  as  an 
amulet  or  charm  to  guard  against  sterility,  as  the 
linga  of  the  Hindus,  typical  of  Shiva's  procreative 
power. 

PHARISEES. — A  Jewish  party  name  in  Pales- 
tine from  the  2nd  century  B.C.  to  designate  the 
adherents  of  traditional,  nationalist  and  devout 
Judaism  against  growing  Hellenism.  A  party  of 
the  people  rather  than  of  the  priests,  and  most 
of  them  professionally  trained  as  Scribes  to  know 
and  teach  the  Old  Testament  to  the  people,  and  to 
administer  the  law.  The  Pharisees  were  the  recog- 
nized officials,  leaders  and  exemplars  of  Jewish 
religious  faith  and  practice.  A  minor  party  in  the 
Sanhedrin,  they  had  their  chief  opportunity  and 
influence  with  the  people  through  the  synagogue. 
They  were  the  makers  of  that  standard[  Judaism 
which  was  the  highest  religion  and  ethics  before 
Christianity,  and  out  of  which  Christianity  itself 
arose.  C.  W.  Votaw 

PHENOMENALISM.— The  philosophical  the- 
ory that  since  knowledge  is  limited  to  phenomena 
there  is  no  knowable  reality  beyond  phenomena. 
This  theory,  if  applied  in  the  realm  of  reUgion, 
restricts  discussion  to  the  realm  of  religious  experi- 
ence, refusing  to  make  affirmations  concerning  any 
object  of  faith. 


335 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Philippines,  ReUgions  of 


PHILADELPHIANS.— A  sect  of  religious  mys- 
tics, originating  among  the  followers  of  Jakob 
Boehme  (q.v.)  in  London,  Eng.,  in  1670,  the  chief 
of  whom  was  Mrs.  Jane  Leade  who  drew  up  the 
Laws  of  Paradise  for  the  society  in  which  morality 
and  brotherly  love  were  inculcated. 

PHILANTHROPINISM.— The  pedagogical  sys- 
tem tried  in  the  Philanthropin,  a  deistic  school  of 
short  duration  founded  in  Dessau,  Germany,  by 
J.  B.  Basedow.  Following  the  ideal  of  Rousseau's 
tlmile,  the  system  aimed  at  a  "natural"  education, 
free  from  ecclesiastical  or  other  prejudice. 


PHILATHEA  BIBLE  CLASSES.- 

Philathea  Bible  Classes. 


-See  Baraca- 


PHILIP  OF  HESSE  (1504-1567).— Landgrave 
of  Hesse,  who  assisted  in  crushing  the  Peasants' 
Revolt,  1525,  about  which  time  he  espoused  the 
Protestant  cause.  He  put  forth  great  efforts  to 
obtain  a  league  of  Protestant  forces,  being  largely 
responsible  for  the  formation  of  the  League  of 
Schmalkald.  He  received  unenviable  notoriety 
because  of  his  bigamy,  sanctioned  by  Luther. 


PHILIP  OF  NERI. 

(q.v.). 


-Founder  of  the  Oratorians 


PHILIPPINES,  MISSIONS  TO.— 

1.  Roman  Catholic  Missions. — 1.  Conquest. — 
Urdanata  and  his  five  friar  companions  accompanied 
Legaspi  in  1564,  and  helped  to  render  permanent 
the  estabhshed  settlements.  As  a  rule,  the  friars 
remained  for  life,  and  no  sacrifice  was  too  great  for 
them.  The  FiUpinos  were  baptized  by  thousands. 
The  transfer  of  spiritual  allegiance  to  Romanism 
was  easy  and  involved  no  radical  change  of  belief. 
The  mass  of  Filipinos  are  still  pagans,  even  when 
they  have  a  veneer  of  Christianity.  The  friar 
has  occasionally  become  a  landlord,  but  only  that  he 
might  control  the  situation.  The  first  friars  were 
medieval  and  reactionary.  The  Jesuits  were  more 
progressive. 

2.  Modem  times. — ^the  number  of  friars  is 
probably  greater  now  than  ever  before,  and  they 
are  attempting  to  perpetuate  their  power.  The 
Roman  Church  saved  the  inhabitants  from  Moham- 
medism.  It  laid  intellectual  foundations.  The 
theistic  faith  is  held,  even  if  crudely,  by  multitudes; 
and  an  increasing  number  are  making  the  words  of 
Jesus  Christ  the  ruUng  principles  of  their  lives. 

II.  Independent  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church. — Gregorio  Aglipay  of  the  Ilocano  Tribe 
was  ordained  as  a  Roman  priest  about  1890  and 
was  closely  associated  with  the  revolutions  of  1896 
and  1898.  He  was  unfrocked  by  the  Spanish 
bishop,  but  was  made  Chaplain  General  by  Aguin- 
aldo  in  1899.  After  the  pacification  of  the  Islands 
he  initiated  a  protest  against  friars,  calling  himself 
Maximus  or  Archbishop.  This  Aglipayano  Church 
is  a  revolt  against  friars  and  their  claims  to  property, 
and  is  a  democratic  movement  for  church  govern- 
ment. It  has  favored  the  distribution  of  the  Bible, 
pubUc  schools,  and  expository  preaching.  _  It  has 
received  many  dissatisfied  Romanists  in  its  fold. 
It  has  liberalized  religious  thought  and  helped  to 
prepare  the  people  for  the  evangelical  missionary. 

In  1902  Governor  Taft  called  on  the  Pope,  and 
as  a  result  the  friars'  lands  were  purchased  by  the 
United  States  Government  on  condition  that  the 
friars  should  leave  the  Islands.  This  action 
temporarily  weakened  this  independent  church,  but 
it  gained  immensely  soon  after.  Its  work  has  been 
great  and  it  is  contributing  much  to  the  Christianiza- 
tion  of  the  inhabitants  even  if  it  should  !;ea«e  to 
exist  as  a  separate  organization. 


III.  Evangelical  Missions. — 1.  Occupation. — 
The  first  evangeUcal  missionary  transferred  from 
Brazil  arrived  in  Manila  April  21st,  1899,  followed 
the  next  year  by  a  missionary  from  Spain.  The 
Islands  were  under  martial  law,  but  the  open  door 
was  entered  with  zeal  and  wisdom.  To  distribute 
responsibility,  Luzon  was  assigned  to  the  Metho- 
dists, Presbyterians,  United  Brethren,  Christians 
and  Episcopalians;  the  Visayas  to  the  Baptists 
and  Presbyterians;  Mindano  to  the  Congrega- 
tionalists.  These  assignments  have  secured  a 
wider  evangelism  and  have  unified  the  people 
through  the  subordination  of  denominational 
divisions  and  the  co-ordination  of  almost  all  work 
through  The  Evangelical  Church  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  the  common  name  used  by  every  com- 
munion to  meet  the  desire  for  a  united  evangehcal 
church. 

2.  Evangelistic  work. — The  primary  work  of  the 
missions  is  evangelistic;  and,  although  this  ideal 
pervades  all  mission  work,  it  is  necessary  to  lay 
special  stress  on  the  work  thus  specially  designated. 
Missionaries  and  trained  FiUpinos  have  carried 
on  evangehstic  meetings  and  have  done  personal 
work.  The  responses  have  been  great.  Evangel- 
ists have  gone  to  villages;  chapels  have  been  built; 
Sunday  schools  and  churches  have  been  organized; 
and  multitudes  brought  to  Christ. 

3.  Educational  work. — There  are  4,589  schools 
with  776,639  pupils  under  the  Minister  of  PubUc 
Instruction;  and  also  schools  under  mission 
auspices.  These  mission  schools  are  elementary, 
secondary,  and  for  BibUcal  training.  Most  of  the 
work  is  of  high  grade,  and  it  is  supplementing  the 
public  school  system  without  competition. 

4.  Literary  achievements. — The  Bible  societies 
and  the  missions  have  co-operated  in  the  translation 
and  circulation  of  the  Bible  and  other  Christian 
literature.  When  the  'Islands  were  opened  to  the 
circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  translations  had 
already  been  made  in  four  of  the  seventy-five 
dialects.  These  four  versions  can  be  read  by  one 
half  of  the  population.  Philippine  priests  have 
sometimes  distributed  the  Scriptures.  Creating 
Christian  literature  is  arduous;  but  progress  is 
being  made.  Harry  S.  Myers 

PHILIPPINES,  RELIGIONS  OF.— The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  PhiUppine  Islands  fall  into  a  variety  of 
cultural  groups,  partly  determined  by  race,  partly 
by  history.  The  oldest  stratum  is  generally  con- 
ceded to  be  that  of  the  Negritos,  a  dwarfish  Negroid 
race,  still  fairly  numerous  in  the  mountainous 
interior  of  Luzon,  once  doubtless  possessors  of  the 
whole  archipelago.  Indonesians,  today  most  purely 
represented  by  the  Igorot  and  Ifugao  tribes  of  north- 
ern Luzon,  represent  a  second  wave  of  population, 
in  its  turn  overlaid  by  the  third  and  greatest  immi- 
gration, that  of  the  Malay  races  from  whom  the  great 
mass  of  the  Filipino  population  is  descended. 
Chinese,  who  were  in  commercial  touch  with  the 
islands  before  their  discovery  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  strain  of  European  blood  introduced  by  the 
latter  and  other  whites  complete  the  main  stocks 
that  have  gone  to  the  peopling  of  the  islands. 
Culturally  and  religiously,  however,  the  influences 
of  Brahmanistic  India  and  Mohammedan  Arabia 
entered  the  islands  before  the  appearance  of  the 
Spaniards. 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  islands  by 
Magellan,  in  1521,  they  were  entirely  inhabited  by 
savage  and  barbarous  pagans  excepting  for  the 
rapidly  encroaching  Mohammedanism  which  had 
entered  the  archipelago  from  the  south  probably 
not  long  before;  and  with  the  Spanish  conquests 
and  settlements,  accompanied  by  Augustinian  and 
other  missionaries,  a  twofold  conflict  was  begun, 


Philippists 


A  DICTIONAKY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


336 


on  the  one  hand,  toward  the  Christianizing  of  the 
predominant  pagans,  on  the  other,  toward  the  sup- 
pression of  Islamism  a,3  represented  by  the  Moros 
(or  "Moors")  as  the  Spaniards  called  the  native 
Mohammedans.  The  first  of  these  enterprises  was 
largely  successful,  the  great  mass  of  the  pagan 
natives  being  Christianized  during  the  Spanish 
occupation.  The  second  conflict  was  less  decisive. 
The  Moros  were  only  brought  to  some  recognition 
of  responsibility  after  the  American  occupation. 
At  present,  with  reference  to  religion,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  islands  form  the  following  groups: 

1.  Christians. — All  the  civiUzed  peoples  of  the 
PhiUppines,  numbering  seven  to  eight  million, 
are  Christian.  Augustinian  friars  entered  the 
islands  in  1570;  they  were  followed  within  a  few 
years  by  Franciscans,  Jesuits  and  Dominicans, 
and  it  is  to  the  work  of  the  missionaries  of  these 
orders  that  the  Christianizing  of  the  Malay  tribes 
is  due.  The  religion  which  they  found  was  a  pagan- 
ism not  very  different  from  that  which  now  prevails 
among  the  wild  tribes,  although  Hindu  influences 
had  already  reached  the  islands;  its  records,  how- 
ever, were  virtually  aU  destroyed  (including  the 
native  books,  for  writing  was  known  to  the  more 
civiUzed)  by  the  missionaries,  in  their  anxiety  to 
extirpate  idolatry.  Today  the  reUgion  of  the  Chris- 
tian natives  is  naturally  Catholic,  although  in 
recent  years  Protestantism  has  gained  some  adher- 
ents and  has  estabhshed  a  number  of  churches. 

2.  Mohammedans. — Mohammedanism  almost 
certainly  entered  the  Philippines  from  Moham- 
medanized  Malays  of  Borneo.  It  had  established 
itself  even  about  Manila  Bay  when  the  Spaniards 
appeared,  but  was  driven  back  to  its  strongholds, 
Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  where  it  still 
prevails.  This  Mohammedanism  is,  however,  that 
of  a  barbarous  people,  mingled  with  superstitions 
and  savage  customs  (piracy,  head-hunting,  slavery, 
except  as  suppressed  by  force),  and  is  morally 
little,  if  any,  better  than  the  paganism  of  the 
other  barbarous  tribes. 

3.  Paganism. — The  pagans  of  the  islands,  vir- 
tually in  a  state  of  savagery,  form  many  groups, 
altogether  numbering  several  hundred  thousand 
people.  The  religion  of  the  Negritos  is  almost 
unlmown,  although  it  is  believed  to  include  worship 
of  the  Moon,  as  a  great  deity.  The  Indonesian  and 
Malayan  wild  tribes  preserve  beliefs  and  practices 
such  as  must  once  have  prevailed  through  the 
islands.  Two  or  three  principal  gods,  surrounded 
by  a  host  of  lesser  deities  or  animistic  powers,  were 
worshiped  with  sacrifice,  including,  even  within 
very  recent  years,  occasional  human  sacrifices. 
The  strongest  factor  in  the  native  reUgion  appears, 
however,  to  he  in  the  worship  of  anitos,  or  ancestral 
spirits  represented  by  idols,  found  among  all  the 

Eagans  including  Negritos.  The  practice  of  "head- 
unting,"  that  is,  decapitation  of  members  of 
enemy  tribes  in  order  to  secure  trophy  heads,  is 
religious  in  character,  associated  with  ancestor- 
worship. 

4.  Confucianism. — The  Chinese  have  been  in 
the  Islands  for  many  years,  brmging  with  them 
their  native  reUgion.  They  now  number  between 
forty  and  fifty  thousand,  of  whom  a  small  portion  are 
Christians.  H.  B.  Alexander 

PHILIPPISTS. — The  designation  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  PhiUpp  Melanchthon  (q.v.)  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th.  century.  Their  distinctive 
tenets  included  approximations  to  the  R.C.  doc- 
trines of  free  will  and  good  works,  and  to  the  Swiss 
Reformers'  position  in  regard  to  the  Lord's  Supper. 

PHILO  (ca.  20  B.C.-50  a.d.). — Foremost  Greek- 
writing  Jew  of  Alexandria  in   1st.  century  a.d. 


Had  only  sHght  contact  with  Jews  of  Palestine,  and 
did  not  know  his  contemporaries  Jesus  and  Paul. 
His  Ufe  work  was  to  promote  a  synthetic  Judaism; 
holding  that  the  Jews  had  the  true  reUgion  and 
Scripture,  Philo  aimed  to  enrich  and  universalize 
Judaism  by  annexing  the  Greek  ethics  and  phi- 
losophy. His  extensive  writing,  classified  as 
exegetical,  philosophical  and  poUtical,  were  chiefly 
aUegorical  interpretations  of  Pentateuchal  passages, 
and  theological  essays.  Philo's  Hellenistic  ideas, 
terms  and  methods  proved  useful  to  Greco-Roman 
philosophy  and  to  early  Christianity. 

C.  W.  VOTAW 

PHILOSOPHY  IN  RELATION  TO  RELIGION. 

— Both  reUgion  and  philosophy  represent  attempts 
of  man  to  realize  a  relationship  to  ultimate  forces  in 
the  universe.  ReUgion,  especially  in  its  beginnings, 
employs  dramatic,  pictorial,  rituaUstic  means  of 
arousing  a  sense  of  this  relationship.  ►-Philosophy 
arises  when  cultural  maturity  has  been  attained, 
and  seeks  to  represent  ultimate  reaUty  in  terms  of 
rational  conceptions. 

The  relation  of  philosophy  to  religion  is  two- 
fold. On  the  one  hand  it  criticizes  crude  and 
naive  ideas  in  current  religion.  This  criticism  may 
be  so  severe  as  virtually  to  destroy  traditional 
reUgious  faith  for  cultured  people.  Socrates 
was  condemned  on  these  grounds.  On  the  other 
hand,  wherever  religious  ideas  are  capable  of 
rational  interpretation,  philosophy  gives  them  a 
more  profound  critical  examination,  and  reinforces 
them,  although  often  in  altered  form.  Greek 
philosophy  thus  reinforced  Christian  theology  and 
made  it  the  basis  of  mediaeval  culture. 

Among  the  great  religions  those  of  India — 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism — (qq.v.)  represent 
the  attempt  to  exalt  a  completely  philosophical 
reUgious  attitude.  Salvation  is  by  philosophical 
knowledge.  Confucianism  (q.v.)  in  China  empha- 
sized ethical  philosophy  in  the  place  of  popular 
cults.  Judaism  and  Mohammedanism,  with  their 
strong  emphasis  on  special  revelation,  have  exalted 
obedience  to  divine  commands  rather  than  specula- 
tion. Yet  in  these  religions  there  have  been 
notable  philosophical  developments,  as  in  Alexan- 
drian Judaism  or  in  the  system  of  Maimonides 
(q.v.),  or  in  the  work  of  the  Arabic  AristoteUans 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  Christianity  made  large 
use  of  Hellenistic  philosophy  in  the  development  of 
theology,  and  has  generally  maintained  a  hospitable 
attitude  toward  philosophy,  while  at  the  same  time 
carefully  guarding  the  primary  authority  of  its 
revelation.  Most  types  of  modern  philosophy, 
from  the  time  of  Descartes  have  supported  a 
theistic  or  an  ideaUstic  monistic  view  of  ultimate 
reaUty  suited  to  reinforce  Christian  theology. 
Radical  empiricism,  however,  as  in  the  philosophy 
of  Hume,  or  in  the  tendencies  of  modern  pragmatism 
and  neo-realism  logically  reduces  theology  to  a 
creation  of  human  thinking,  rendering  doubtful 
the  ontological  existence  of  the  God  of  Christian 
beUef.  See  Monism;  Idealism;  Pragmatism;  On- 
tology. Gerald  Birney  Smith 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION,  THE.— The 
philosophy  of  religion  is  the  study  that  is  devoted 
to  finding  out  the  truth  about  religion  and  about 
its  relation  to  the  rest  of  life,  and  to  organizing  this 
truth  as  nearly  as  possible  into  a  coherent  whole, 
with  the  ultimate  object  of  securing  results  that 
shaU  serve  as  a  vaUd  guide  for  life.  It  begins  by 
recognizing  religion  as  one  of  the  great  departments 
of  human  experience,  and  it  centers  in  the  effort 
to  discover  the  laws  that  govern  religion  itself  and 
their  meaning.  This  procedure  naturally  leads  to 
the  working  hypothesis  that  religion  is  a  normal  and 
permanent  function  in  human  Ufe.    But  it  always 


337 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHlCS         Philosophy  of  keUgloit 


must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  working  hypothesis  is 
not  only  a  guide  for  investigation  but  something  to 
be  tested  and  not  simply  taken  for  granted.  By 
thus  beginning  with  reUgion  as  a  part  of  hunian 
experience  this  study  recognizes  that  religion 
contains  a  large  body  of  "knowledge  of  acquaint- 
ance." That  is,  religion  supplies  much  data  with- 
out which  no  general  philosophy  of  life  can  be 
thoroughly  worked  out.  This  knowledge  of 
acquaintance  the  philosophy  of  religion  seeks  to 
criticize,  organize,  and  interpret  by  combining  it 
with  all  the  "knowledge  about"  rehgion  that  it  can 
gain.  Hence  this  subject  will  have  to  extend 
itself  far  beyond  the  immediate  study  of  reUgion 
into  the  consideration  of  the  relations  of  religion  to 
other  sides  of  hfe — science,  ethics,  politics,  art, 
and  practical  affairs.  The  philosophy  of  religion 
thus  becomes  a  philosophy  of  life  centering  in  a 
reasoned  interpretation  of  religion. 

When  this  subject  is  understood  in  the  way  just 
described,  it  will  be  seen  to  differ  in  its  fimdamental 
principles  from  several  older  branches  of  learning, 
which  to  some  extent  covered  similar  ground.  It 
differs,  for  example,  from  apologetics.  For  apolo- 
getics presupposes  the  truth  of  a  particular  religion, 
for  instan  ce  Christianity,  together  with  its  main  body 
of  doctrine  and  defends  these  against  attack  or  doubt. 
It  is  the  defense  of  Christianity,  or  of  some  other  reli- 
gion. Whereas  the  philosophy  of  religion  takes  the 
truth  of  no  doctrine  for  granted  and  only  presupposes, 
as  a  working  hypothesis,  that  religion  is  a  normal  hu- 
man function.  So  it  approaches  the  truth  of  any 
particular  religion  on  the  basis  of  the  meaning  and 
value  of  religion  in  general  and  on  the  basis  of  the 
general  philosophic  search  for  truth.  This  subject 
differs,  on  the  other  hand,  from  reUgious  meta- 
physics. Such  metaphysics,  to  be  sure,  does  not 
take  its  stand  within  a  particular  religion.  On  the 
contrary  it  seeks  to  establish  certain  truths  about 
religion — especially  about  the  chief  objects  of  reli- 
gious faith — independently  of  all  religious  experi- 
ence. But  there  is  danger  that  such  an  attempt, 
while  avoiding  theological  dogmatism,  will  involve 
a  metaphysical  dogmatism  that  is  no  less  injurious. 
At  all  events  the  philosophy  of  religion  takes  its 
start  from  religious  experience,  personal,  social 
and  historical,  and  proceeds  by  seeking  to  organize 
this  into  coherent  relations  with  the  rest  of  experi- 
ence. As  for  the  relation  of  our  subject  to  theology, 
if  theology  is  dogmatic  it  is  opposed  to  the  phi- 
losophy of  religion  in  spirit  and  method,  but  if, 
in  an  undogmatic  spirit,  it  endeavors  to  determine 
the  principles  of  a  particular  religion  and  evaluate 
them,  it  comes  under  the  philosophy  of  religion  as 
one  of  its  sub-divisions.  Thus  Christian  theology 
becomes  the  philosophy  of  the  Christian  religion. 

The  philosophy  of  religion  is  naturally  closely 
related  to  the  sciences  which  study  directly  the 
facts  of  religion,  i.e.,  the  psychology  and  the  history 
of  religion.  These  sciences  do  not  take  for  granted 
the  truth  of  a  particular  religion,  and  they  do  take 
religion  as  a  normal  department  of  human  experience 
and  so  presumably  as  a  source^  of  truth.  The  phi- 
losophy of  religion,  therefore,  is  bound  to  examine 
critically  the  results  of  these  sciences  and  to  build 
upon  those  that  are  best  established  and  most 
important.  But  what,  it  may  be  asked,  is  the 
basis  for  its  critical  work,  and  how  can  it  build  a 
larger  structure  of  truth  than  these  sciences  already 
have  constructed?  The  philosophy  of  reUgion 
can  criticize  the  results  of  these  sciences  and  go 
beyond  them,  because  it  has  the  more  compre- 
hensive task  of  seeking  to  integrate  reUgious 
experience  with  experience  as  a  whole,  and  because, 
like  philosophy  in  general,  it  deals  with  its  material 
in  a  twofold  way — from  the  standpoint  of  fact  and 
from  that  of  values .  Sciences  are  interested  primarily 


in  facts  and  their  laws,  and  philosophy  shares  this  in- 
terest; but  no  philosophical  treatment  is  complete 
which  does  not  consider  facts  and  laws  in  relation  to 
values.  So  the  sciences  of  the  psychology  and  the 
history  of  reUgion  have  it  as  then*  chief  concern  to 
ascertain  all  the  facts  about  religion,  leaving  out  none, 
and  to  deal  justly  with  them  all  in  determining  the 
laws  and  principles  that  govern  them.  The  phi- 
losophy of  religion  should  build  upon  these  sciences 
and  so  has  a  like  concern  for  facts  and  laws,  but  it 
has  the  added  and  special  responsibiUty  of  esti- 
mating the  facts  and  laws  according  to  their  worth. 
If  the  functional  point  of  view  prevails  in  both 
fields,  the  distinction  stiU  holds.  The  science  of 
religion  inquires  how  religion  actually  functions,  the 
philosophy  of  reUgion  has  as  its  supreme  task  to 
determine  how  religion  ideally  should  function. 
From  this  point  of  view  the  central  work  of  the 
philosophy  of  reUgion  is  to  seek  to  discover  and  to 
justify  principles  for  the  further  development  of 
reUgion,  and  of  Ufe  through  religion. 

It  is  evident  that,  since  the  philosophy  of  reUgion 
is  so  much  concerned  with  questions  of  value  in 
reUgion,  it  must  recognize  a  pecuUarly  close  rela- 
tion between  itself  and  ethics — a  relation,  indeed, 
of  the  most  vital  interdependence.  Whereas  the 
older  procedure  was  to  lay  in  metaphysics  a  founda- 
tion for  reUgion,  and  in  turn  to  find  in  reUgion  the 
foundation  for  ethics,  the  philosophy  of  religion 
springs  largely  out  of  the  recognition  that  reUgion 
and  ethics  are  two  closely  related  centers  of  experi- 
ence, Uke  two  nuclei  in  a  Uving  cell.  This  relation 
is  such  that  it  is  equally  fatally  destroyed  when 
either  is  made  a  mere  by-product  of  the  other,  and 
when  the  two  are  completely  merged  in  each  other. 
Ethics  becomes  a  mere  by-product  of  reUgion  when 
it  is  held  that  there  can  be  no  valid  distinctions  in 
ethics  except  when  certain  religious  truths — such  as 
the  existence  of  God — have  first  been  independently 
established.  ReUgion  becomes  a  mere  appendix  to 
ethics  when  it  is  accorded  no  content  of  truth  of  its 
own,  but  is  made  solely  a  certain  emotional  way  of 
taking  ethics — one  that  "views  things  in  a  rosier 
Ught."  On  the  other  hand  the  two  are  completely 
merged  in  the  case  either  of  a  thorough-going 
mysticism  or  of  a  moralism  which  considers  that 
religion  has  only  the  historical  function  of  being  a 
school-master  to  bring  us  to  ethical  maturity.  It  is, 
then,  one  of  the  presuppositions  of  the  philosophy 
of  religion  that  religion  as  it  develops  becomes 
increasingly  interdependent  with  ethics  and  that 
the  two  may  interpenetrate  without  merging. 
Historically  considered  this  relationship  between 
reUgion  and  ethics  is  generally  recognized  to  have 
found  its  most  important  exemplification  within  the 
sphere  of  the  Christian  religion. 

But  if  the  philosophy  of  religion  is  to  do  justice 
to  the  mutually  fructifying  relation  between  reli- 
gion and  ethics  it  must  deal  with  the  matter  from 
the  standpoint  of  social  ethics  and  the  social  sig- 
nificance of  religion.  This,  to  be  sure,  is  a  task  that 
Ues  immediately  ahead,  instead  of  being  one  that 
already  is  being  vigorously  grappled  with.  Soci- 
ology of  course  has  recognized  the  large  and  impor- 
tant place  that  reUgion  has  occupied,  but  social 
ethics  has  done  the  problem  of  the  social  value  of 
religion  but  scant  justice.  And  on  the  other  hand 
those  thinkers  who  have  started  from  the  reUgious 
side  have  considered  the  social  significance  of 
reUgion  to  be  too  largely  a  matter  of  reUgious  insti- 
tutions only,  instead  of  a  matter  of  the  relation  of 
religion  to  all  social  institutions  and  functions. 
The  most  fruitful  work  in  exhibiting  the  significance 
of  religion  for  social  ethics  and  of  social  ethics  for 
religion  has  been  done  in  the  sphere  of  Christian 
theology  rather  than  in  the  more  general  sphere  of 
the  philosophy  of  reUgion — though  where  this  has 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


338 


occurred  the  spirit  and  method  of  the  philosophy 
of  religion  have  been  employed.  This  is  doubtless 
natural  enough  in  view  of  the  extent  to  which 
Christianity  has  proven  itself  a  reUgion  in  which 
rehgion  and  ethics  interpenetrate.  At  all  events 
it  is  in  the  relation  between  rehgion  and  social  ethics 
that  the  important  theses  which  affirm  the  signi- 
ficance of  religion  for  human  development  to  be  its 
"fertihty"  and  "creativity"  will  need  to  find  their 
testing  and  possible  vindication. 

The  fact  that  the  philosophy  of  religion  has  as  its 
primary  task  the  study  of  rehgion  in  its  empirical 
nature  and  in  its  relation  to  the  other  great  de- 
partments of  experience,  rather  than  the  study  of 
metaphysics,  does  not  mean  the  elimination  of 
metaphysics  from  the  philosophy  of  religion  or  the 
treatment  of  metaphysics  as  a  negligible  matter. 
It  means,  on  the  contrary,  that  metaphysics  gains 
in  importance  by  being  considered  in  relation  to  a 
body  of  religious  truth  that^  already  has  been 
empirically  grounded.  The  philosophy  of  religious 
experience  is  no  less  vitally  concerned  about  the 
problems  of  God,  freedom,  and  immortality  in  their 
metaphysical  aspects,  or  about  the  problems  of 
purposiveness  in  the  universe  and  the  ultimate 
nature  of  being  than  is  any  form  of  pure  meta- 
physics. It  is  no  less  in  earnest  about  the  question 
of  the  reality  of  God  than  about  the  question  of 
the  meaning  of  God.  But  it  bases  the  study  of 
God's  reaUty  upon  a  prior  study  of  his  meaning  in 
experience.  However,  after  having  identified  itself 
with  this  method  the  philosophy  of  rehgion  is 
bound  to  pursue  the  question  of  the  reality  of 
God  from  the  empirical  center  of  our  thought  to  its 
farthest  speculative  circumferences.  The  study 
of  the  reaUty  of  God — his  objective  reality  in 
personal  and  social  experience,  in  human  history,  in 
the  cosmos,  in  the  sphere  of  ultimate  metaphysical 
existence — thus  becomes  the  most  inclusive  task 
of  the  philosophy  of  religion  and  the  one  that 
opens  the  way  to  the  fullest  possible  synthesis  of 
religious  truth.  Eugene  W.  Ltman 

PHOTIUS  (ca.  820-891).— Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, 858-867  and  878-886;  a  man  of  great 
erudition  and  versatility.  His  jurisdiction  was 
stormy  because  of  rival  claimants  and  quarrels 
with  Rome,  he  and  pope  Nicholas  anathematizing 
and  excommunicating  each  other. 

PHYLACTERIES.— (Hebrew,  tefillin.)  Small 
boxes  worn  by  Jews  at  prayer.  They  are  square, 
made  of  leather,  and  contain  parchment  on  which 
are  written  the  Scripture  passages:  Exod.  13:1-16; 
and  Deut.  6:4-9;  and  11:13-21.  To  the  phylac- 
teries are  fastened  long  strips  of  leather,  by  means 
of  which  they  are  bound,  one  on  the  left  arm,  and 
the  other  on  the  forehead.  Phylacteries  are 
worn  by  orthodox  Jews  during  the  daily  morning 
service,  as  a  sign  that  God's  word  is  upon  them; 
but  they  are  not  worn  on  Sabbath  and  holy  days, 
as  these  days  are  in  themselves  "signs."  Reform 
Jews  have  generally  discontinued  their  use. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 

PIETISM. — A  term  used  of  various  movements 
in  modern  Christianity  emphasizing  the  personal, 
spiritual  and  practical  as  against  the  institutional, 
formal  and  intellectual  aspects  of  the  Christian 
reUgion.  It  is  used  specifically  of  a  movement 
within  German  Lutheranism,  late  17th.  and  18th. 
centuries,  to  revitalize  a  faith  deadened  by  ortho- 
doxy. 

1.  Spener. — The  real  founder  of  German  Pietism 
was  PhiUp  Spener  (1635-1705).  His  home  training 
was  deeply  religious.  His  years  of  study  (M.A. 
1653,  Dr.  Theol.  1664),  his  human  contacts 
(Schmidt;    de  Labadie)  and  his  reUgious  reading 


(Bayly;  Baxter;  Arndt;  Luther;  Scriptures) 
quickened  his  hfe  and  deepened  his  convictions. 
As  pastor  in  Frankfort  he  held  conventicles  in  his 
house  (Collegia  pietatis)  for  devotion,  bibHcal 
exposition  and  rehgious  conversation.  In  1675 
he  pubUshed  his  Pia  Desideria  ("Things  Religiously 
Desirable").  These  desires  for  reform  included 
conventicle  Bible  study,  the  revival  of  the  priest- 
hood 9f  beUevers,  the  practice  of  Christianity  in 
daily  hfe,  the  vitahzing  of  theological  education  and 
more  spiritual  preaching.  Prolonged  controversy 
ensued.  Spener's  leadership  ended  only  with  his 
death. 

2.  Francke. — Two  disciples,  Francke  (q.v.)  and 
Anton,  driven  from  Leipzig  for  lecturing  on  the 
Scriptures,  became  teachers  in  Halle,  henceforth 
the  citadel  of  Pietism  in  northern  Germany. 
Francke  established  an  orphanage  as  an  expression 
of  practical  Christianity.  The  movement  spread 
thence  to  Wurttembergj  Switzerland  and  Denmark. 
Thence  also  came  the  impulse  to  foreign  missions 
(Ziegenbalg),  1705,  eventuating  in  the  work  of 
Zinzendorf  (q.v.)  and  the  Moravians. 

3.  Contributions:  later  history. — Apart  from 
emphases  already  noted  Pietism  contributed  to 
rehgious  education,  preaching  and  pastoral  ministry. 
Its  only  scientific  contribution  was  in  the  field 
of  exegesis.  Its  disparagement  of  intellectualism 
led  to  its  overthrow  in  the  Enhghtenment  (q.v.). 
It  revived  again,  greatly  modified,  in  the  19th, 
century.  Henry  H.  Walker 

PILATE,  ACTS  OF.— An  apocryphal  work 
contained  in  the  so-called  Gospel  of  Nicodemus, 
purporting  to  record  the  official  acts  of  Pontius 
Pilate,  the  Judaean  governor  under  whom  Jesus 
Christ  was  crucified.  Its  probable  date  is  the 
4th.  century. 

PILGRIMAGE. — A  journey  made  to  a  shrine 
or  sacred  place  from  religious  motives.  The 
custom  is  one  practiced  for  many  centuries  by 
the  devotees  of  several  religions.  Among  the 
ancient  Greeks  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  was 
the  resort  of  many  pilgrims.  In  ancient  Egypt  the 
tomb  of  the  Kings,  regarded  as  Osiris'  tomb,  at 
Abydos  was  venerated  as  a  holy  sepulchre  and 
pilgrimage  resort.  From  pre-Christian  times  the 
peoples  of_  India  have  regarded  pilgrimages  as 
pious  practices,  and  Hindus  still  go  in  multitudes  to 
such  places  as  Benares  and  Puri.  Buddhists,  too, 
soon  had  their  sacred  resorts  to  which  pilgrimages 
were  made  such  as  the  birthplace  of  Gautama 
(Kapilavastu),  the  location  of  the  bo-tree  where 
he  attained  Buddhahood  (Benares),  and  the  place 
where  he  attained  Nirvana  (Kusinagara).  Early 
in  Christian  history  the  custom  arose  of  pilgrimages 
to  places  made  sacred  by  memories  of  Jesus  such 
as  Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  ascetic  tendencies  pilgrimages  increased  to 
places  in  Palestine.  Then  the  custom  of  pilgrimages 
to  the  tombs  of  martyrs  and  saints  began  in  the 
west  in  the  3rd.  century.  Relics  were  transported 
to  various  places  and  the  number  of  resorts  in- 
creased. In  the  Middle  Ages  Rome  began  to 
rival  Jerusalem  as  a  resort.  The  prescription  of 
pilgrimages  as  penance  for  sins  stimulated  the  prac- 
tice. The  attachment  of  indulgences  to  the  various 
resorts  was  a  further  stimulus.  The  Crusades 
(q.v.)  were  due  to  the  necessity  of  protecting  pil- 
grims when  the  Holy  Land  passed  into  non-Christian 
hands.  In  the  19th.  century  a  revival  of  pilgrimages 
was  seen  in  two  places  associated  with  devotion  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  Lourdes,  France,  and  Knock, 
Ireland.  In  Islam  the  hajj  pilgrimage  to  Moham- 
med's birthplace  at  Mecca  is  one  of  the  principal 
institutions  of  that  faith. 


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Piyyut 


PILGRIMS.— In  the  early  days  of  the  17th. 
century,  in  the  hamlets  of  Austerfield  and  Scrooby, 
Elngland,  and  in  the  surrounding  country,  >yere 
a  number  of  simple  folk  who  were  separatists, 
believing  in  the  right  to  found  their  own  church  and 
to  form  their  own  worship  by  the  light  of  the 
Scriptures.  One  of  the  leaders  was  William 
Brewster,  a  man  of  education,  and  when  the  Scrooby 
church  was  formed,  in  1606,  it  was  led  by  John 
Robinson,  an  able  and  high-minded  man.  But  the 
state  authorities  would  not  suffer  these  people  to 
live  in  peace;  they  were  hunted  and  persecuted  so 
that  their  former  afflictions,  to  use  the  words  of 
William  Bradford,  in  History  of  Plymouth  Planta- 
tion, "were  but  as  flea  bitings  in  comparison  of  these 
which  now  came  upon  them."  Thus  beset  and 
tormented  "by  a  joynte  consente  they  resolved  to 
goe  into  ye  Low-Countries,  where  they  heard  was 
freedome  of  Religion  for  all  men."  They  therefore 
escaped  to  Holland  (1608),  living  first  at  Amster- 
dam and  thence  moving  to  Leyden.  But  they 
could  not  be  quite  content  there,  though  they 
seem  to  have  prospered  in  religion  and  property, 
for  among  their  sorrows  "most  heavie  to  be  borne" 
was  the  fact  "that  many  of  their  children  .  .  .  . 
were  drawn  away  ....  into  dangerous  courses." 
They  planned  then  to  move  to  the  New  World, 
to  "some  of  those  vast  and  unpeopled  countries  of 
America,  which  are  frutful  and  fitt  for  habitation." 
"So,"  says  Bradford,  "they  lefte  that  goodly  and 
pleasante  citie,  which  had  been  their  resting  place 
near  12  years;  but  they  knew  they  were  pilgrimes 
and  looked  not  much  on  those  things,  but  fift  up 
their  eyes  to  the  heavens,  their  dearest  cuntrie 
and  quieted  their  spirits."  The  Virginia  Company 
of  London  granted  the  Pilgrims  right  to  settle 
within  the  limits  of  the  Company's  territory.  But, 
as  all  the  world  knows,  when  they  sighted  land 
on  their  voyage  from  Plymouth,  England,  in  the 
bleak  days  of  early  winter  (November  9,  1620), 
it  was  not  the  coast  south  of  the  Hudson  but  the 
region  of  Cape  Cod  that  lay  before  them. 

Because  they  were  outside  the  region  of  the 
Virginia  Company,  where  they  had  authority  to 
settle,  and  because  there  was  discontent  among 
"some  of  the  strangers  amongst  them,"  they 
entered  into  the  famous  Mayflower  Compact.  On 
the  basis  of  this  compact,  the  government  of  the 
httle  colony  developed.  The  Pilgrims  first  went 
ashore  at  Provincetown  harbor;  so  one  of  them 
landed  at  or  near  the  site  of  Plymouth,  December  11 
old  style,  or  December  21  new  style,  1620. 

A.  C.  McLaughlin 

PILPUL. — (Hebrew.)  Dialectical  study  of  the 
Law.  A  method,  popular  with  the  Rabbis,  for 
minutely  studying  a  text,  determining  all  the 
concepts  it  includes,  and  deducing  from  it  all 
possible    implications. 

PINDA. — The  cake  of  flour  or  rice  offered  as  food 
to  the  ancestral  spirits  in  the  religious  ceremonies  of 
the  home  in  India. 

PIR. — A  religious  guide  in  the  mystic  way  in 
Islam.  The  term  is  used  in  India  to  designate  a 
religious  director  of  Moslems  similar  to  the  guru 
of  Hinduism.    See  Shaikh;  Guru. 

PISA,  COUNCIL  OF.— A  council  held  in  1409 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  reforms  in  the  R.C. 
church  and  in  particular  to  settle  the  Great  Schism 
which  since  1378  had  resulted  in  succession  of  two 
rival  popes.  The  Council  without  deposing  the 
two  rival  popes  (Gregory  XII.  in  Rome  and  Bene- 
dict XIII.  in  Avignon)  proceeded  to  elect  a  third, 
Alexander  V.  The  schism  and  proposals  of  reform 
thus  comphcated  were  referred  to  another  general 
council.    See  Constance,  Council  of. 


PITAKAS.— This  term,  meaning  "baskets," 
is  given  to  the  divisions  of  the  Buddhist  Scriptures. 
See  Canon  (Buddhist). 

PITRIS.-;-The  spirits  of  ancestors  in  the  folk- 
cult  of  India.  They  receive  the  benefit  of  the 
shrdddha  ceremonies  of  the  home.  See  Shraodha; 
Pinda;  Preta. 

PIUS. — ^The  name  of  ten  popes. 

Pius  I. —Fope,  141-154. 

Pius  II. — Pope,  1458-1464;  otherwise  known 
as  Aeneas  Silvius.  Before  his  elevation  to  the 
papacy,  participated  in  diplomatic  service;  after- 
wards he  was  a  good  statesman,  his  primary  effort 
being  the  co-ordination  of  European  Christendom 
against  the  Turk.  He  was  a  humanist  and  author 
of  many  works, 

Pius  ///.—Pope,  Sept.  22-Oct.  18,  1503, 

Piu^  /F.— Pope,  1559-1565;  reassembled  the 
council  of  Trent,  1562  after  a  recess  of  ten  years, 
and  succeeded  in  securing  statements  which  con- 
served Catholic  traditions  and  papal  authority 
against  demands  for  greater  local  freedom.  He 
revived  the  Inquisition  and  published  a  new  edition 
of  the  Index. 

Pius  V. — Pope,  1566-1572;  a  monk  and  a 
vigorous  reformer;  a  promoter  of  the  Inquisition 
and  arch-enemy  of  heresy  and  infidelity;  organ- 
ized the  Congregation  of  the  Index  for  the  purpose 
of  eradicating  heresy. 

Pius    7/.— Pope,  1775-1799, 

Pius  F//.— Pope,  1800-1823,  during  the 
years  of  Napoleon's  ascendancy  in  Europe,  Signed 
the  Concordat  (q.v.)  but  was  later  humiUated 
by  Napoleon.  He  survived  to  see  the  Emperor's 
fall,  the  restoration  of  the  papal  States  and  of  the 
Jesuits,  the  resuscitation  of  the  Inquisition  and 
the  repeal  of  much  of  the  French  anti-Catholic 
legislation. 

Pius  F///.— Pope,  1829-1830. 

Pius  IX.— Pope,  1846-1877;  an  unusually 
long  and  extremely  important  period  for  the  papacy. 
In  1848  a  revolution  broke  out  in  Italy  and  Pius  was 
driven  from  Rome,  but  in  1850  he  returned  by  the 
aid  of  foreign  armies.  His  subsequent  pohcy 
estranged  the  Italians  and  convinced  the  European 
powers  of  his  incapacity  as  a  ruler.  Consequently 
in  the  revolution  of  1866-1870  he  received  no 
aid,  and  lost  the  papal  states  to  king  Victor  Em- 
manuel, thus  ending  the  temporal  power  of  the 
papacy.  Pius  was  an  ardent  ultramontanist, 
doing  much  to  Romanize  Catholicism,  In  1854 
he  promulgated  by  papal  authority  the  dogma  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
thus  exercising  supreme  authority  without  calling 
a  council.  In  1862  he  pubhshed  his  famous  Syllabus 
(q.v.),  describing  and  condemning  modern  erroneous 
doctrines,  and  in  1870  saw  his  policy  crowned  by 
the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  decreed  by  the 
Vatican  Council. 

Pius  Z.— Pope  1903-1915.  During  his  pontifi- 
cate occurred  the  separation  of  church  and  state  in 
France  (1905),  and  the  increased  power  of  the 
government  of  Spain  in  controHing  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  He  acted  officially  to  eliminate  liberal  ten- 
dencies, publishing  in  1907  the  famous  Encyclical 
letter  against  Modernism  (q.v.), 

PIXY. — A  fairy  or  elf-Uke  creature  of  English 
folklore, 

PIYYUT. — (Hebrew;  plural,  myyutim.)  A  Jew- 
ish liturgical  poem,  recited  in  adaition  to  the  regular 
liturgy  on  holy  days  and  certain  Sabbaths,  and 
special  occasions.  The  piyyutim  are  nearly  count- 
less in  number  and  vary  according  to  the  different 


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340 


rituals.  They  date  from  various  times  during  the 
talmudic  and  later  periods.  Their  authors  are 
called  payyetanim.  Among  the  most  famous 
of  these  were  Eleazar  ben  Kalir  and  Saadia  Gaon 
of  the  10th.  century. 

PLACAEUS  or  PLACEUS,  JOSHUA  (1596- 
1655). — Professor  of  theology  at  Saumur,  France. 
He  objected  to  the  theory  of  the  imputation  of 
Adam's  sin  to  the  human  race,  contending  that 
original  sin  consists  exclusively  in  the  depravity 
inherited  from  Adam.  His  doctrine  was  con- 
demned by  the  Reformed  church  of  France. 

PLACET.— (Latin:  "it  pleases.")  Formal  state 
sanction  to  the  promulgation  of  ecclesiastical  admin- 
istrative measures  where  the  church  is  subordinate 
to  the  state.  It  was  established  in  France  in  1475. 
Certain  German  states  stiU  retain  the  custom. 
The  R.C.  church  never  oflacially  acknowledged  its 
vaUdity. 

PLAIN  CHANT  or  PLAIN  SONG.— An  ancient 
type  of  ecclesiastical  music  composed  without 
rhythmic  regularity,  and  using  ancient  "modes" 
instead  of  modern  scales.  Great  freedom  of 
expression  is  thus  possible.  The  melody  is  in 
unison.    See  Music  and  Religion. 

PLATO  AND  PLATONISM.— Plato,  the  phi- 
losopher, the  greatest  of  Socrates'  pupils.  He  was 
bom  at  Athens  in  428-27  B.C.  of  an  ancient  family, 
attached  himself  to  Socrates  in  his  twentieth  year, 
and  was  closely  associated  with  the  master  until 
his  execution  in  399  b.c.  After  this  event,  Plato 
was  absent  from  Athens  for  about  twelve  years, 
first  in  Megara,  and  later  in  southern  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Returning  to  Athens,  Plato  opened  a  philo- 
sophic school  over  which  he  presided  for  about  forty 
years,  until  his  death  in  347  B.C. 

1.  Writing. -^Oi  Plato's  lectures  we  know  prac- 
tically nothing;  but  we  have  today  forty-two 
dialogues  and  twelve  letters  which  pass  under  his 
name;  of  the  dialogues  seven  were  recognized  in 
antiquity  as  spurious,  and  modern  scholars  have 
attacked  the  authenticity  of  many  others;  most 
of  the  letters  are  certainly  forgeries. 

2.  Ideas. — The  kernel  of  the  Platonic  philosophy 
is  the  doctrine  of  ideas  (forms)  which  Plato  devel- 
oped from  the  teaching  of  his  master,  under  the 
influence  of  the  Pythagorean  doctrine  of  numbers. 
The  matured  Platonic  doctrine  may  be  briefly  stated 
thus:  the  world  is  dual,  consisting  of  the  transient, 
phenomenal  world  known  to  us  through  our  senses, 
and  the  permanent,  invisible  world  which  can 
be  grasped  only  by  the  reason.  The  latter  is  the 
world  of  ideas.  The  relation  between  the  two 
worlds  is  illustrated  by  Plato  himself  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  book  of  his  Republic.  There 
Glaucon  assents  to  Socrates'  proposition  that 
although  there  are  many  beds  and  tables  in  the 
world,  there  is  only  one  idea  of  bed  and  one  of 
table.  Now  the  workman  makes  a  bed  or  a  table 
by  fashioning  from  his  material  a  copy  of  the 
proper  idea.  This  idea  is  not  the  invention  of  the 
cabmet-maker — it  is  in  the  mind  of  God;  it  belongs 
to  the  rational  and  eternal  world.  So  everywhere 
we  find  behind  the  things  of  sense,  and  behind 
qualities  and  relations  no  less  permanent  ideas, 
which  represent  reality.  To  know  them  is  to 
possess  real  knowledge.  Within  the  ideas  there 
are  various  grades,  the  higher  comprehending  the 
lower;  the  highest  of  all  is  the  idea  of  the  Good, 
which  is  also  the  Beautiful,  God. 

Psychology. — Since  man's  reason  can  appre- 
hend the  ideas,  Plato  argues  it  must  be  of  like 
nature   with   them,   partaking   of   the   Absolute, 


and  being  eternal  and  immortal.  Therefore  if  man 
would  fulfil  his  best  nature  and  attain  to  happiness, 
he  niust  live  in  the  world  of  ideas.  But  man's  soul 
consists  of  three  parts:  the  rational,  the  passionate, 
and  the  appetitious  elements.  When  reason  rules 
the  other  parts,  the  man  is  virtuous;  but  if  passion 
and  appetite  hold  sway  over  reason,  he  is  vicious. 
Man,  therefore,  must  five,  so  far  as  possible,  under 
the  guidance  of  reason,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  world 
of  ideas,  and  he  must  resist  the  body,  in  which 
passion  and  appetite  manifest  themselves.  The 
reasoning  part  of  the  soul  has  an  intuitive  longing  for 
the  world  of  ideas.  He  then  is  the  true  philosopher 
who  neglects  bodily  pleasure,  and  lives  in  the  realm 
of  ideas,  in  the  world  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Good. 
Thus  Plato  secured  a  rational  basis  for  morality; 
his  ethical  interest  was  paramount  and  permeated 
all  his  thought. 

Evil. — The  source  of  evil  in  the  world  Plato 
seems  to  have  sought  in  the  imperfection  of  the 
material  substratum  from  which  individual  objects 
are  brought  into  being  by  the  imposition  of  the 
perfect  ideas  upon  it,  but  he  never  formulated 
clearly  his  beUef  on  this  point. 

Transmigration  of  souls. — From  the  Orphics  and 
Pythagoreans  he  took  the  doctrine  of  the  trans- 
migration of  souls:  for  the  ordinary  soul  ten 
rebirths,  with  a  thousand  years  between  rebirths, 
were  needed  to  complete  the  round  before  the 
soul  could  re-enter  its  heavenly  home;  incurable 
sinners  might  not  return  to  earth  at  all,  but  were 
condemned  to  eternal  punishment;  the  souls  of 
philosophers,  if  they  always  chose  the  higher  Ufe, 
might  secure  release  after  three  rebirths,  and 
ttien  return  to  God. 

The  state. — Plato's  concept  of  the  ideal  state,  as 
set  forth  in  the  RepubUc,  is  that  of  an  institution 
for  the  education  of  society,  one  in  which  the 
scientifically  trained,  the  philosophers,  shall  rule; 
below  them  are  to  be  the  officials  and  warriors  who 
are  to  protect  the  state  and  execute  the  laws;  and 
the  mass  of  the  citizens  are  to  provide  for  the 
material  needs  of  all.  This  triple  organization, 
like  the  three  parts  of  the  human  soul,  works  per- 
fectly when  all  work  under  the  direction  of  reason, 
i.e.,  of  the  philosophers.  In  his  old  age  Plato,  in 
the  Laws,  somewhat  modified  this  aristocratic  and 
doctrinaire  concept. 

Later  history. — After  Plato's  death  the  Academy 
continued  as  a  philosophic  school  without  inter- 
ruption until  the  closing  of  the  Schools  by  the  edict 
of  Justinian  in  529.  In  the  course  of  the  centuries 
the  doctrine  was  modified  by  the  teaching  of  other 
schools,  and  itself  had  a  profound  influence.  In 
the  eclectic  philosophies  of  Alexandria,  Platonism 
was  usually  the  largest  element;  it  formed  the 
substratum  of  Neoplatonism  (q.v.),  and  through 
Origen  and  later  through  Augustine  it  passed  into 
Chnstian  theology.  Cliffokd  H.  Moore 

PLEASURE.— See  Happiness. 

PLENARY  COUNCIL.— An  ecclesiastical  coim- 
cil,  attended  by  all  the  bishops  of  a  country  or 
nation,  hence  "full"  in  every  requisite. 

PLOTINUS  (205-270).— Neo-Platonic  phi- 
losopher who  studied  in  Alexandria,  Egypt  and 
in  Persia  and  estabUshed  a  school  in  Rome.  His 
system  was  a  recrudescence  of  Platonic  philosophy 
coupled  with  religious  mysticism.  See  Neo- 
Platonism. 

PLURALISM.— The  theory  that  reality  cannot 
be  explained  in  terms  of  a  single  principle  or  sub- 
stance (Monism)  but  consists  in  a  number  of 
irreducible  factors. 


341 


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Politics,  fithics  of 


The  Atomists  in  ancient  Greece  conceived  the 
universe  as  a  complicated  system  of  relations  and 
movements  due  to  the  interference  of  an  infinite 
number  of  quantitatively  distinct  atoms.  In 
modern  times  Professor  William  James  has  advo- 
cated a  pluralistic  philosophy  in  opposition  to  the 
artificiahty  of  supposed  monistic  explanations. 
He  holds  that  thus  room  is  made  for  more  exact 
scientific  inquiry  as  well  as  for  real  human  freedom 
and  real  evils. 

ReUgiously  pluralism  means  either  polytheism 
or  else  the  conception  of  a  finite  God,  since  other 
beings  and  substances  are  affirmed  to  have  an 
independent  existence.      Gerald  Birney  Smith 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN.— A  popular  desig- 
nation of  independent  groups  of  Christians  in 
England  and  Ireland  in  the  early  19th.  century, 
calhng  themselves  "Brethren."  The  movement 
represented  a  protest  against  the  secularization 
of  reUgion  through  the  intimate  relation  of  church 
and  state,  together  with  a  spontaneous  effort 
for  a  "spiritual  communion  basted  on  New  Testa- 
ment principles." 

In  1827  "Brethren"  in  Dublin,  led  by  A.  N. 
Groves,  J.  G.  Bellett,  and  J.  N.  Darby,  "broke 
bread"  together.  Growing  skepticism  regarding 
the  doctrine,  disciphne,  and  raison  d'etre  of  the 
Establishment,  a  growing  conviction  of  the  spiritual 
nature  of  the  church,  repugnance  to  creeds,  together 
with  ultra  prophetic  and  premillenarian  ideas  ac- 
quired through  contact  with  the  Irvingites  (see 
Irving)  led  to  the  holding  of  the  firet  pubUc 
"assembly"  in  1830,  in  Dublin.  The  success  of 
John  Nelson  Darby  (1800-1882)  in  estabhshing  a 
congregation  in  Plymouth,  Eng.  (1831),  raised  him 
to  a  position  of  unquestioned  leadership  (hence 
Plymouth  Brethren:  Darbyites).  He  combined 
learning  and  personal  magnetism  with  unflagging 
zeal  and  rigorous  asceticism.  His  labors  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  congregations  on  the  Conti- 
nent, especially  in  French  Switzerland  (1838-1840). 

Intense  individualism  unchecked  by  ecclesiastical 
organization,  together  with  a  growing  egotism  and 
dogmatism  on  the  part  of  Darby  led,  m  1848,  to 
divisions.  Other  divisions  have  taken  place  from 
time  to  time,  the  absence  of  ecclesiastical  authority 
making  it  easy  for  protesting  groups  to  secede. 
The  doctrine  that  aU  religious  activity  must  be 
directly  guided  by  divine  influence  leads  to  a  depreci- 
ation of  education  and  of  carefully  planned  organiza- 
tion. Development  is  thus  left  to  God's  initiative 
rather  than  to  man's  planning.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  (1919)  13,717  adherents. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

PNEUMATOMACHI. — See  Macedonianism. 

POLAND,  CHRISTIANITY  IN.— 1.  Early  his- 
tory.— Duke  Mieczyslaw's  marriage  to  a  Bohemian 
princess  (966)  led  to  his  baptism  and  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  into  Poland.  The  close  connection 
of  Poland  with  Germany,  however,  resulted  in  the 
organization  of  the  church  after  the  Roman  model. 
The  first  bishopric,  Posen,  was  estabUshed  968,  and 
the  archbishopric  of  Gnesen,  embracing  seven  dio- 
ceses, 1025.  The  persistence  of  heathenism  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  Greek  traditions  involving  ecclesias- 
tical independence,  and  of  national  aspirations  as  op- 
posed to  German  and  papal  domination  on  the  other, 
resulted  in  turmoil  till  the  16th.  century.  Clerical 
immorality  producing  widespread  popular  dissatis- 
faction, combined  with  a  vigorous  Renaissance 
spirit  inspired  from  both  Italy  and  Germany  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  Reformation. 

2.  The  period  of  the  Reformation. — Calvinism 
entered  Little  Poland,  and  Lutheranism  Great 
Poland    through    the    education  of  sons   of  the 


nobility  at  Geneva,  Strasburg,  and  Wittenberg. 
Calvinistic  Protestantism  found  in  Johannes  k 
Lasco  an  indefatigable  organizer  ( 1 556- 1 1560). 
Not  till  1570  did  Polish  Protestants  (Lutherans; 
Reformed;  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren) 
form  what  proved  an  ineffectual  union  (Consensus 
of  Sendomir).  Servetus'  (q.v.)  death,  1553,  led  to 
an  exodus  of  Italian  Antitrinitarian  refugees  from 
Switzerland  to  Poland.  The  Pax  dissidentium,  a 
royal  guarantee  of  religious  toleration,  made  it  pos- 
sible for  Faustus  Socinus  to  bring  Anti-trinitarianism 
to  ascendancy,  1579-1604. 

3.  The  Counter^  Reformation. — Meantime  the 
Counter  Reformation,  under  aggressive  Jesuit 
leadership,  rapidly  developed.  Protestants  suffered 
severe  persecution  under  Sigismund  III  (1586-1632) . 
Socinianism  was  driven  out  by  1658.  EvangeUcal 
Christianity,  though  sorely  oppressed,  survived 
the  partitions  of  Poland  (1772-1795). 

4.  Present  situation. — Roman  Catholicism  is 
all  but  universal.  Of  some  thirteen  million  popula- 
tion in  Russian-Poland  in  1913,  5.3  per  cent  were 
Protestant,  mostly  Lutheran.  Of  the  three  and 
three-fourths  milUon  population  of  Prussian- 
Poland,  Posen  was  about  31  per  cent,  and  West 
Prussia  46  per  cent,  Protestant.  In  Austrian-Poland 
(Gahcia),  out  of  about  eight  million  population, 
some  37,000  were  Protestant.  United  Poland  which 
has  emerged  out  of  the  War  includes,  all  told,  some 
30,000,000,  of  whom  79.4  per  cent  are  Catholic 
(Roman,  Greek,  Uniate),  12  per  cent  Jewish,  6.6 
per  cent  Protestant,  and  2  per  cent  Russian  Dissi- 
dents, Armenians  and  Mohammedans. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

POLEMIC  THEOLOGY.— An  exposition  of 
Christian  doctrine  especially  intended  to  refute  the 
alleged  errors  of  other  systems. 

Polemic  Theology  differs  from  apologetics 
(q.v.)  in  that  it  is  concerned  with  erroneous  forms 
of  belief  rather  than  with  skeptical  or  irreUgious 
philosophies.  It  attempts  to  vindicate  one  type 
of  theolo^  as  the  true  interpretation  of  Christianity 
and  to  discredit  all  diverging  types.  It  is  most 
prominent  when  it  is  assumed  that  there  is  only 
one  authorized  form  of  Christianity  but  where 
no  legal  means  exist  for  suppressing  rival  sects. 
Thus  during  the  first  three  centuries  of  Christianity 
polemic  treatises  abounded.  With  the  full  organiza- 
tion of  the  Catholic  church,  erroneous  beliefs  were 
suppressed  as  heresies.  In  Protestantism,  polemical 
theology  again  came  to  the  front  in  post-reformation 
rivalries,  and  continues  to  the  present  in  those 
bodies  which  claim  exclusive  possession  of  author- 
ized Christian  doctrine.  Dunng  the  17th.  century 
polemic  theology  was  defined  as  a  distinct  branch 
of  theological  study.  Its  importance  has  waned 
as  the  ideals  of  toleration  and  co-operation  have 
gained  the  sympathy  of  Christian  people. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

POLITICS,  ETHICS  OF.-^The  term  is  used 
in  a  variety  of  connections  to  indicate  the  relation 
to  ethical  standards  (1)  of  individuals  engaged  in 
politics;  or  (2)  of  groups,  such  as  political  parties 
or  (3)  finally  of  the  state  itself. 

1.  In  the  first  connection,  the  questions  involved 
are  properly  those  of  individual  ethics.  _  The^ 
comprise  such  problems  as,  how  far  a  citizen  is 
responsible  for  good  government,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  questions  as  to  the  conduct  of  officials  in 
handling  pubUc  funds  or  in  filling  positions  in  the 
public  service.  The  ultimate  issue  is  usually  that 
of  how  far  the  individual  acts  with  a  disinterested 
view  to  public  welfare.  Undoubtedly  the  general 
tone  of  morality  has  been  lower  with  reference  to 
public  property  than  with  reference  to  private 
property,  due,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  that  the  public 
seems  less   personal   and   one  does   not   consider 


Politics,  Ethics  of 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


342 


himself  as  inflicting  a  direct  personal  injury  upon 
anyone  by  being  careless  or  even  dishonest.  It  is 
probable  that  there  has  been  on  the  whole  a  gain 
in  standards  of  pubhc  morality  in  this  first  sense. 

2.  Party  politics  has  the  stamp  of  group  moral- 
ity. Acts  done  for  the  group  are  felt  to  be  excusable, 
and  even  praiseworthy,  which  would  be  condemned 
if  done  for  purely  private  gain.  Party  strife  is 
felt  to  warrant  abuse  of  candidates  from  the  oppo- 
site party,  the  expenditure  of  huge  sums  of  money 
to  influence  public  opinion  (although  the  grosser 
form  of  money  bribery  is  less  frequent),  and  the 
manipulation  of  public  issues  and  filling  of  pubhc 
offices  with  a  view  to  partisan  advantage  rather 
than  to  the  public  welfare.  The  thoroughly 
devoted  partisan,  of  course,  would  not  admit  any 
distinction  between  public  welfare  and  the  victory 
of  his  party.  In  this  second  use  of  the  term,  there 
has  been,  if  not  an  improvement  in  the  spirit,  a 
considerable  refinement  in  the  methods.  Perhajjs 
the  most  difficult  question  at  the  present  time  is 
that  of  the  morality  of  influencing  pubhc  opinion 
through  the  press  and  byother  means  employed  in 
party  strategy.  Discussion  and  argument  is  of 
course  the  proper  method  of  reaching  a  pubhc 
decision,  but  the  most  effective  means  for  influencing 
pubhc  opinion  seems  to  be,  not  argvunent  or  dis- 
cussion, but  what  appears  under  the  form  of  news 
or  other  material  which  is  intended  to  shape  opinion 
without  encountering  the  opposition  which  a  pro- 
fessed argument  would  meet. 

3.  The  most  significant  use  of  the  term  is  with 
reference  to  the  standards  and  conduct  of  states 
as  such.  The  question  is:  How  far  are  states 
subject  to  the  standards  of  individual  ethics? 
War  obviously  violates  many  of  these  standards. 
Treaties  afford  another  vexed  issue.  Ought  a 
government  to  continue  to  respect  a  treaty  when 
conditions  have  changed  since  it^  was  entered 
into?  Individuals  are  expected  at  times  to  prefer 
the  interests  of  others  to  their  own  private  advan- 
tage. Can  this  be  expected  of  states?  Macchia- 
velh  opened  this  discussion  for  the  modern  world 
in  his  essay,  "The  Prince"  which  examined  the 
means  by  which  a  government  might  maintain 
itself  irrespective  of  moral  scruples.  Hobbes  con- 
sidered the  state  to  be  the  authority  rather  than  the 
subject  in  the  sphere  of  right.  In  recent  times 
the  relation  of  the  so-called  civilized  states  to  the 
"backward"  peoples  has  been  a  difficult  ethical 
problem.  Imperialism  was  no  doubt  entered  upon 
with  no  ethical  purpose,  but  the  question  whether 
the  ruling  power  might  morally  exploit  the  subject 
people,  or  whether  it  was  bound  to  govern  them 
for  their  advantage,  was  bound  to  become  acute. 
Treitschke  makes  a  vigorous  argument  that  since 
the  state  is  an  organization  for  the  purpose  of  power, 
just  as  the  family  is  an  organization  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  love,  so  the  ethics  of  the  state  must  be 
determined  by  the  fundamental  question  as  to 
whether  a  given  hue  of  conduct  will  strengthen  or 
diminish  power.  The  genetic  point  of  view  would 
point  out  that  the  state  has  both  the  merits  and 
difficulties  of  all  group  morality,  but  in  a  very 
intense  degree.  Patriotism  enlists  the  finest  devo- 
tion, but  it  has  more  often  been  enlisted  for  pur- 

Eoses  of  slaughter  and  crime  than  for  purposes  of 
eneficence.  Moreover,  like  other  corporate  bodies, 
the  actual  state  seeks  certain  abstract  ends  and 
not  a  completely  human  end — although  Aristotle 
considered  the  state  as  the  medium  for  the  reahza- 
tion  of  men's  complete  hfe,  and  Hegel  similarlv 
spoke  of  it  as  the  "march  of  God  in  the  world." 
It  has  emphasized  power  at  the  expense  of  service, 
and  has  been  conspicuous  in  the  military  sphere  or 
in  the  negative  work  of  preventing  crime.  At  the 
present  time  the  problem  is  whether  the  manifold 


needs  of  modem  society  can  be  better  met  through 
humanizing  the  state  or  through  recognizing  other 
agencies  of  community  organization,  even  as  the 
Church  has  for  some  time  had  recognition  as  a 
separate  and  largely  independent  body. 

James  H.  Tufts 
POLYANDRY. — A  system  of  marriage  by  which 
one  woman  has  a  plurahty  of  husbands;  prac- 
tised among  certain  primitive  peoples  as  the  Todas, 
Koorgs  and  Nairs  of  India,  and  in  parts  of  Africa  and 
Australasia. 

POLYCARP.— Bishop  of  Smyrna,  about  107-17, 
wrote  to  the  church  at  Phihppi  a  letter  of  Chris- 
tian admonition,  sending  with  it  such  letters 
of  Ignatius  as  he  could  procure.  On  his  return 
from  a  visit  to  Anicetus  at  Rome,  he  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Smyrna  probably  in  a.d.  155,  at  the 
age  of  86,  as  related  in  the  Martyrdom  of  Polycarp, 
the  earliest  acts  of  martyrdom  extant.  Irenaeus 
describes  Polycarp  as  acquainted,  probably  as  a 
pupil,  with  John  the  disciple  of  the  Lord. 

POLYGAMY  or  POLYGYNY.— The  social 
order  under  which  one  man  has  a  plurahty  of 
wives.  Various  religions  are  specific  in  the  matter. 
Islam  permits  four  wives.  ^  Hinduism  allows  any 
number.  Judaism  and  Christianity  are  opposed  to 
the  custom.  Mormonism  (q.v.)  permitted  a  modem 
resuscitation  of  a  custom  which  is  discredited  in  the 
best  moral  thinking  of  today. 

POLYGLOT  BIBLES.— Books  giving  versions 
of  the  Bible  in  different  languages  in  parallel 
columns.  The  first  known  example  is  Origen's 
Hexapla,  giving  the  Hebrew  O.T.,  and  five  Greek 
parallels.  In  modern  missionary  work,  polyglot 
editions  are  frequent. 

POLYTHEISM.— The  hypothesis  of  a  plurahty 
of  gods,  usually  conceived  anthropomorplucally. 

PONTIANUS.— Pope,  230-258. 

PONTIFICAL  COLLEGE.— In  ancient  Rome 

the  priestly  college  to  which  was  entrusted  the 
adnunistration  of  the  law  with  reference  to  religion 
as  a  public  matter.  The  authority  of  the  college 
centered  in  the  pontifex  maximus,  the  other  priests 
forming  an  advisory  board.    See  Roman  Religion. 

PONTIFICAL  MASS.— In  the  R.C.  church, 
mass  in  which  the  celebrant  is  a  bishop  in  his 
pontifical  robes. 

PONTIFICALIA.— The  msignia  and  official 
robes  of  a  pontiff  or  bishop. 

POOR  LAWS. — ^Legislation  providing  pubhc 
rehef  for  poverty. 

The  basis  of  public  care  of  the  poor  in  the 
United  States  is  the  English  poor  law.  The 
statute  of  1601  codified  forty  years  of  legislation 
which  made  the  state  rather  than  the  church  the 
agency  for  public  charity.  Its  provisions  were 
well  adapted  to  rural  conditions.  Overseers  in 
each  parish  were  charged  with  the  care  of  the  poor 
and  with  the  raising  of  the  poor  rate.  Able- 
bodied  men  unwilling  to  work  were  to  be  punished; 
those  unable  to  work  were  to  receive  relief,  prefer- 
ably in  almshouses,  dependent  children  were  to  be 
apprenticed. 

The  social  and  economic  changes  of  the  industrial 
revolution  were  too  complex  for  this  simple  system 
of  parish  charity.  The  custom  of  supplementing 
the  low  wages  of  able-bodied  workers  with  an 
allowance  from  the  poor  fund  made  for  grave 


343 


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Positivism 


abuses  and  a  tremendous  increase  in  pauperism. 
An  investigation  by  a  royal  commission  in  1834 
resulted  in  legislation  which  provided  for  (a)  a 
central  board  of  administration  and  (b)  the  forma- 
tion of  unions  of  parishes  to  maintain  almshouses 
and  administer  relief.  These  reforms  brought 
about  the  virtual  aboUtion  of  outdoor  relief  and  a 
steady  decline  in  pauperism. 

In  the  United  States  each  state  has  its  separate 
statute  with  the  township  or  the  country  as  the 
unit  of  administration.  The  almshouse,  the 
characteristic  American  institution  for  indoor  poor 
reUef,  once  housed  aU  types  of  dependents,  orphan 
children,  the  physically  defective,  the  feeble- 
minded, the  insane,  and  mothers  with  illegitimate 
children.  During  the  19th.  century  specialized 
institutions  have  been  established  by  the  state, 
as  children's  homes,  schools  for  the  blind  and  the 
deaf,  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded,  and 
hospitals  for  the  insane.  Outdoor  relief  by  the 
state  has  always  fallen  below  the  standards  of 
private  charitable  organizations. 

Recent  tendencies  in  state  control  of  poverty  are 
significant.  Social  legislation  aims  at  the  preven- 
tion of  pauperism  rather  than  its  reUef .  Compensa- 
tion for  industrial  accidents,  old  age  pensions, 
social  insiurance,  employment  bureaus,  minimum 
wages  are  illustrations  of  the  present  mode  of 
attack  by  the  state  upon  the  causes  of  poverty. 

E  .W.  Burgess 

POPE. — Pappas,  an  Oriental  title  of  dignity, 
given  to  Christian  bishops  and  priests,  reserved 
in  the  Western  Church  since  the  5th.  century  for 
the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

In  the  Christian  literature  of  Donutian's  reign 
there  is  already  discernible  the  Roman  Church's 
presumption  of  authority,  concerning  itself  with 
other  churches.  Pope  Victor  (189-198)  exercises 
this  authority,  and  St.  Irenaeus  asserts  it.  Nor  is 
it  sarcasm  only  when  Tertulhan  (De  picdicitia, 
ca.  217  A.D.)  alludes  to  "The  Most  Blessed  Pope, 
Bishop  of  Bishops,  Pontifex  Maximus";  especially 
basing  that  claim  on  Matt.  16: 18  ff.,  "Thou  art 
Peter,"  etc.  Ecclesiastical  appeals  to  Rome  during 
the  3rd.  century — even  Aurelian  in  the  Antiochene 
schism  sided  with  the  party  "in  communion  with 
the  Bishop  of  Rome";  Constantinople's  attempt 
to  usurp  the  primacy  of  "Old  Rome,"  and  the 
attitude  of  the  Popes  in  the  struggle  between 
Constantinople  and  Alexandria,  manifest  that  the 
Popes  were  attaining  a  position  second  only  to  the 
Emperor's.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  (476) 
they  assumed  the  lead  in  political  as  well  as  reUgious 
affairs,  and  saved  Roman  civiUzation  from  utter 
destruction  by  the  "wandering  nations."  Leo  I. 
(d.  461)  and  Gregory  I.  (d.  604)  extended  their 
power  as  well  as  their  dominion,  the  "Patrimonium 
Petri,"  which  was  fast  growing  by  pious  legacies  of 
landed  property  into  the  "States  of  the  Church." 
Supporting  the  Carlovingians,  the  Popes  of  the 
Middle  Ages  clasped  hands  with  the  Emperors 
in  uplifting  Europe  intellectually,  morally,  materi- 
ally, socially,  religiously,  while  they  mutually 
advanced  their  own  interests.  "Investitures, 
"nepotism"  and  other  clashes  could  not  prevent 
the  papacy  attaining  supremacy  in  Innocent  III. 
(1216-1237).  Checked  by  rising  evangehcalism, 
culminating  in  the  German  Reformation,  and 
repubUcanism,  culminating  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, the  papal  power  was  inwardly  rehabilitated 
by  the  absolutism  of  Pius  IX.  (184&-78),  and 
outwardly  by  the  diplomacy  of  Leo  XIII.  (1878- 
1903).  The  present  Pope,  Benedict  XV.,  is  uni- 
versally acknowledged  as  a  world  power  politically 
as  well  as  religiously  and  morally. 

From  the  start  the  R.C.  Church  has  based  its 
claim  to  supremacy  on  the  prerogative  of  Peter 


(Matt.  16:  IS  ff.,  Luke  22: 31  ff.,  John  21 :  21  ff.)  who, 
it  claims,  affixed  his  apostoUc  authority  to  the  see 
of  Rome,  where  he  died.  To  be  elected  bishop  of 
Rome  is  to  become  Peter's  successor  or  Pope.  In 
the  early  centuries  the  clergy  and  people  of  the 
city  elected  their  bishop.  In  the  early  Middle 
Ages  the  "cardinal  priests,"  "cardinal  deacons," 
and  "cardinal  bishops"  of  the  vicinity  of  Rome 
formed  the  "sacred  college"  and  reserved  the  elec- 
tion of  the  Pope  to  themselves.  Since  1179  the 
Cardinals  are  required,  on  the  death  of  the  Pope, 
to  enter  "conclave,"  shut  out  all  external  influence, 
and  stay  there  till  they  elect  another  Pope.  The 
Cardinal  present — an  Italian  of  course — who 
receives  a  two-thirds  vote  of  those  present  and 
accepts,  is  Pope.  His  power  is  direct  from  God  and 
absolute — "to  feed,  rule,  and  teach"  as  "Vicar  of 
Christ" — personal,  and  direct  over  the  whole  church, 
though  not  impairing  the  authority  of  the  local 
bishop  or  pastor.  The  Vatican  Council  (1870, 
ses.  IV,  cap.  4)  declared:  "The  Roman  Pontiff, 
when  speaking  ex  cathedra  (that  is  when  functioning 
as  pastor  and  teacher  of  all  Christians  he  declares 
with  his  supreme  authority  a  doctrine  of  faith  or 
morals  must  be  believed  by  the  universal  church) 
has  by  divine  assistance  promised  him  in  blessed 
Peter  the  infallibility  which  the  divine  Redeemer 
wished  His  church  to  have  in  defining  doctrine 
of  faith  and  morals."  Practically,  there  is  con- 
siderable disagreement  as  to  just  when  the  Pope 
is  speaking  ex  cathedra,  among  Catholic  theologians 
who  have  discussed  the  authority  of  papal  "syllabi" 
since  1870.  J.  N.  Reagan 

POSEIDON. — A  fertility  power  of  an  Aryan 
tribe  which  entered  Greece  who  became  trans- 
formed into  a  sea-god  and  symbol  of  sea  power  when 
his  worshippers  were  established  on  the  coast.  In 
Roman  religion  he  was  blended  with  the  numen 
of  springs  and  rivers,  Neptunus. 

POSITIVE  THEOLOGY.— A  term  indicating 
doctrines  which  rest  on  "positive"  revelation  in 
contrast  to  the  supposedly  "negative"  conclusions 
of  rational  or  liberal  religious  speculation. 

1.  In  controversy  with  deistic  or  rationaUstic 
writers,  certain  theologians  characterized  the 
definite,  authoritative  doctrines  drawn  from  Scrip- 
ture as  "positive."  The  term  has  continued  to  be 
generally  used  in  opposition  to  "destructive" 
criticism. 

2.  In  the  early  years  of  the  20th.  century,  a 
group  of  German  theologians,  of  whom  Rudolf 
Seeberg  was  the  most  prominent,  advocated  a 
"modern-positive"  theology  as  the  great  need  of  the 
age.  This  theology  was  to  be  thoroughly  scientific 
in  its  spirit  and  methods,  but  was  to  set  forth  Chris- 
tianity as  a  "positive"  religion  of  supernatural 
redemption,  not  indeed  in  crude  conceptions,  but  as 
a  cultured  faith  implying  and  confessing  that  reUgion 
is  something  given  by  God  rather  than  a  mere 
human  development.  Principal  P.  T.  Forsyth,  in 
his  book  Positive  Preaching  and  the  Modem  Mind 
is  an  English  exponent  of  the  position. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
POSITIVISM. — Generally,  the  tendency  to 
base  knowledge  and  action  on  the  facts  of  objective 
experience,  and  to  discard  metaphysical  specula- 
tions; specifically,  the  system  of  Auguste  Comte 
(1798-1857). 

Knowledge  is  of  value  for  Comte  only  because  it 
enables  us  to  modify  conditions  in  the  material 
world  and  in  society.  For  this  we  need  to  know,  and 
can  know,  only  phenomena  and  their  laws.  Each 
science,  as  it  comes  to  maturity,  discards  first 
theological  then  metaphysical  explanations,  and 
attains  a  positive  study  of  the  facts  and  their  laws. 


Possession,  Demoniacal      A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


344 


The  sciences  have  passed  through  these  stages  in  an 
order  of  succession,  beginning  with  mathematics, 
the  most  abstract,  and  passing  up  to  sociology, 
which  was  named  by  Comte  himself  and  took 
form  in  his  hands.  As  each  science  contributes 
to  the  next  higher  science,  the  system  culminates 
in  sociology,  the  whole  existing  for  the  service  of 
society.  If  the  system  lacks  metaphysical  imity, 
it  centers  in  the  practical  and  almost  mystical  con- 
ception of  humanity  and  human  progress.  Comte's 
views  of  the  coming  social  order,  while  in  part 
fantastic,  were  significant.  Having  discarded  a 
supernatural  basis  of  religion,  he  would  retain  its 
spiritual  force  in  a  new  cult,  the  ReUgion  of  Human- 
ity, which  he  elaborated  in  detail.  This  was  main- 
tained by  a  few  followers,  and  several  organizations 
today  remain  faithful  to  the  cult.  But  his  chief 
influence  has  been  more  general,  in  the  development 
of  sociology  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  in 
the  spread  of  positivistic  tendencies  both  intel- 
lectually and  religiously.  The  agnostic  attitude 
toward  any  reality  beyond  the  experienced  order, 
and  the  attempt  to  find  rehgious  satisfaction  in 
the  service  of  society,  are  essentially  positivistic. 

J.  F.  Crawford 
POSSESSION,  DEMONIACAL.— See  Demoni- 
acal. Possession. 

POSTMILLENARIANISM.— The  beUef  that 
the  visible  return  of  Christ  to  the  earth  will  come  at 
the  end  of  the  Millennium.     See  Millenarianism. 

POSTULANT. — In  ecclesiastical  terminology, 
a  candidate  for  admission  into  holy  orders  or  into  a 
monastery. 

POVERTY.— Total  or  partial  lack  of  means 
wherewith  to  secure  the  necessities  of  Ufe.  Poverty 
has  been  regarded  in  two  very  different  ways.  On 
the  one  hand,  it  deprives  persons  of  the  possibility 
of  securing  an  enrichment  of  Ufe.  Thus  it  is 
viewed  as  an  evil  by  modern  social  science;  and 
one  of  the  distinct  social  aims  today  is  the  eUmina- 
tion  of  poverty.  On  the  other  hand,  the  self- 
indulgence  to  which  persons  of  means  are  tempted 
is  seen  to  be  evil;  and  poverty  is  exalted  as  indis- 
pensable to  complete  consecration  to  God.  It 
has  thus  been  included  in  monastic  vows.  See 
Poor  Laws;  Monasticism. 

PRAEMUNIRE.— In  England  various  legal 
provisions  to  prevent  the  exaltation  of  papal 
authority  over  that  of  the  king,  so  named  from  the 
first  word  of  the  legal  summons  served  on  one 
charged  with  loyalty  to  an  aUen  power. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.— Originally  a 
Roman  juridicial  term  for  a  state  decision  in  some 
matter  of  general  public  concern.  Later  it  came 
to  denote  a  royal  or  imperial  decree  establishing  the 
conditions  of  government  in  a  country.  E.g.,  by 
the  pragmatic  sanction  of  Bourges,  1438,  Charles  VII. 
of  France  restricted  the  papal  jurisdiction  in  French 
domains.  Other  monarchs  determined  the  line 
of  royal  succession  by  various  pragmatic  sanctions. 

PRAGMATISM.— The  tendency  to  subordinate 
the  intellectual  to  the  practical. 

1.  A  recent  movement  in  philosophy,  in  reaction 
against  the  absolutist  character  of  the  ideahsm, 
generally  HegeUan  in  type,  which  was  prevalent  a 
generation  ago  (see  Hegel,  Hegelianism).  Its 
best  known  representatives  are  WiUiam  James, 
F.  C.  S.  Schiller,  and  John  Dewey.  As  a  theory  of 
knowledge,  it  identifies  the  truth  of  a  proposition 
with  its  verification;  to  call  a  proposition  "true" 
except  so  far  as  its  assertion  is  known  to  be  justiied 


is  to  use  the  term  without  meaning.  As  a  meta- 
physic,  it  considers  anything  to  be  what  it  is  known 
to  be,  either  actually  or  potentially.  As  a  method, 
it  confines  the  use  of  any  distinction  to  the  field 
within  which  the  distinction  is  "relevant,"  or 
makes  a  real  difference;  it  derives  the  meaning  of  a 
concept  from  the  function  which  that  concept  per- 
forms in  thinking,  and  regards  aU  thinking  as  an 
instrument  in  understanding  and  controlling  situa- 
tions. The  pragmatist  movement  has  aroused 
vigorous  controversy,  in  large  degree  technical, 
with  much  alleged  misunderstanding  on  both 
sides. 

2.  There  are  several  more  or  less  prevalent 
characteristics  of  recent  thinking,  often  quite 
beyond  the  limits  of  avowed  pragmatism,  which 
mgLj  broadly  be  considered  phases  of  the  pragmatist 
tendency.  They  are  in  large  measure  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 

(1)  Moral  standards  and  rehgious  doctrines  are 
increasingly  regarded  as  growing  up  under  specific 
conditions,  in  intimate  relation  to  human  experi- 
ence. Thus  they  cease  to  be  absolute,  and  are 
relative  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  develop. 
They  are  regarded  as  adjustments,  to  be  adopted  as 
true  or  false  so  far  as  they  prove  successful  or  un- 
successful in  furthering  insight,  character,  and  rich- 
ness of  experience. 

(2)  There  is  also  an  increasing  willingness  to 
claim  for  any  given  behef  or  system  only  provisional 
validity.  Systems  are  regarded  not  as  ultimate  or 
final,  but  as  tentative  approximations,  open  to 
endless  possible  revision.  The  moral  and  religious 
ideas  of  today  are  seen  to  be  in  the  same  genetic 
series  as  those  of  earlier  times;  the  way  is  accord- 
ingly held  open  for  their  further  growth  in  the 
future.  This  also  opens  the  way  to  a  comparative 
study  of  other  present-day  religions  and  moral 
codes  as  belonging  within  the  same  general  system 
as  our  own. 

(3)  Modern  emphasis  upon  the  "p)ractical," 
while  sometimes  a  merely  superficial  impatience  with 
theory,  is  in  its  more  reflective  forms  a  manifestation 
of  the  pragmatist  tendency.  It  appears  in  various 
current  modes  of  expression:  thinking  is  for  the 
sake  of  action;  knowledge  is  in  the  service  of  life; 
ideas  that  cannot  be  used  may  be  disregarded; 
not  logic,  but  outcome,  is  the  test  of  truth;  _we 
beUeve  that  which  in  the  long  run  gives  satisfaction. 
Under  the  operation  of  this  motive,  not  only  has 
much  of  the  content  of  older  theology  been  cut 
away  or  modified,  but  the  place  of  theology  as  a 
whole  has  been  re-located  in  relation  to  experience. 
Experience  is  taken  as  authoritative  in  constituting 
theology,  rather  than  theology  in  dictating  to 
experience. 

(4)  The  pragmatist  tendency  has  also  a  social 
phase.  Ideas  are  seen  to  be  social  products. 
They  are  rooted  and  grow  in  the  "give  and  take," 
both  co-operative  and  competitive,  between  per- 
sons; they  are  adaptations  to  a  social  environment. 
Progress  in  ideas  is  therefore  to  be  secured  by  inter- 
course and  mutual  persuasion.  Standards  and 
beliefs  are  determined  in  the  long  run  by  whether 
they  "make  good"  socially.  Accordingly  intel- 
lectual tolerance,  so  far  as  based  on  faith  in  this 
democratic  play  of  ideas,  is  distinctly  pragmatist 
in  character.  J.  F.  Crawford 

PRAJAPATI. — "Lord  of  Creatures."  A  name 
applied  in  early  Hindu  speculation  to  the  creator  of 
the  world  who  arose  from  the  chaos  of  waters  in  a 
golden  embryo.    See  Hiranyagarbha. 

PRAKRITI. — The  root  and  substance  of  all 
material  things  according  to  the  Sankhya  philosophy 
of  India.    This  original  matter  evolves  according 


345 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Prayer  Books 


to  its  owTi  nature  into  the  phenomenal  universe  for 
the  sake  of  the  individual  spirits  who  are  passive 
spectators  of  the  cosmic  drama.  To  give  each 
spirit  the  knowledge  that  it  is  not  really  part  of  the 
phenomenal  world  but  an  isolated,  free  soul  the 
whole  evolution  of  prakriti  takes  place.  See 
Sankhta. 

PRAPATTI-MARGA.— The  Hindu  way  of  sal- 
vation by  a  completely  passive  surrender  to  the 
irresistible  grace  of  God.  It  is  a  special  phase  of 
the  Bhakti-mdrga  (q.v.)  and  is  popularly  described 
as  the  "cat- way"  in  contrast  with  the  "monkey- 
way"  since  the  baby  monkey  helps  its  mother  to 
carry  it  by  clinging  to  her. 

PRATYEKKA-BUDDHA.— An  emancipated 
saint  who  has  attained  nirvana  by  centuries  of 
soUtary  effort  through  many  lives  in  an  age  of  the 
world  when  the  law  is  not  taught  by  a  perfect 
Buddha.  He  ranks  midway  between  the  hodhisattva 
(q.v.)  and  the  arhat  (q.v.).  He  does  not  become  a 
perfect  Buddha  for  he  has  not  the  omniscience  and 
universal  compassion  of  the  hodhisattva  nor  does  he 
preach  the  law  as  do  the  arhats  yet  he  excels  them  in 
knowledge  and  merit. 

PRAYER. — ^The  effort  to  establish  intercourse 
with  the  divine.  Any  expression  of  religious  need 
or  mood.  Prayer  ranges  from  primal  impulsive 
movements  to  developed  liturgies  and  moral  com- 
munion with  deity.  Sacrifice,  fasting,  laceration, 
penance,  tribal  rites;  petition,  praise,  thanksgiving, 
consecration  are  aspects  of  religious  self-expression, 
or  prayer. 

The  elemental  religious  moods  find  expression  in 
two  typical  forms :  1.  Prayers  of  petition  or  request. 
2.  Prayers  of  worship  or  self-expression.  Com- 
monly these  motives  are  mingled.  In  primitive 
races  religious  feasts,  dances,  crude  rites  or  savage 
orgies  express  unreflective  impulses  after  a  prayer- 
life  in  which  superstition  dominates  reason.  In 
the  higher  ethnic  developments  the  moral  ideals 
become  prominent  and  find  expression  in  beautiful 
or  elaborate  rites,  revealing  the  deliberate  aim  to 
establish  a  fitting  ethical  relation  with  the  deity. 
Prayer  thus  has  a  very  wide  scope  of  meaning  and 
of  form. 

The  history  of  prayer  shows  an  evolution  from  the 
superstitious,  un-moral  demand  of  the  savage, 
through  the  ascending  stages  of  civilization,  to 
the  highest  spiritual  effort  to  identify  oneself  with 
the  deity  in  moral  acts  and  service.  From  sjiecific 
petitions  to  harmony  with  the  divine  purpose  is  the 
direction  of  the  growth  of  the  prayer-consciousness; 
from  external  request  to  inner  adjustment  is  the 
law  of  moral  growth.  Union  with  God  is  the  idea 
of  all  great  developed  religions.  Prayer  is  involved 
in  all  worship,  but  the  conceptions  of  prayer  reflect 
the  stage  of  culture  achieved  by  the  one  who  prays. 
Particularly  is  the  conception  of  prayer  sensitively 
responsive  to  the  conception  of  God  held  by  the 
worshipper.  Rituals,  postures,  prayer-formulas, 
have  aU  been  regarded  as  matters  of  prime  impor- 
tance. Spiritual  worship  tends  at  its  best  to 
exalt  the  "spirit  of  prayer"  over  all  form.  The 
ideal  is  that  all  life  should  become  prayer  by  reason 
of  its  religious  quality.  Prayer  is  the  complete 
functioning  of  life.  "Pray  without  ceasing." 
(St.  Paul.)  Prayer  becomes  an  inner  moral  act  of 
fellowship  with  the  divine,  in  which  the  worshipper 
has  the  sense  of  so  identifying  himself  with  his 
environment  that  its  energy  co-operates  with  him  in 
supplementing  and  renewing  his  personal  ener^. 
The  Christian  ideal  of  prayer  is  of  such  union  with 
the  Father,  God,  that  life  is  lilted  to  new  levels  of 
power,  peace  or  happiness. 


With  the  growing  sense  of  the  social  nature  of  all 
true  worship,  prayer  tends  to  emphasize  service  and 
social  fellowship  as  central  aspects  of  the  prayer- 
life. 

"He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things,  both  great  and  small." 

— Coleridge 
Perhaps  no  other  modern  emphasis  is  so  marked 
as  this  movement  out  of  the  individualistic  to  the 
social  consciousness  in  prayer.  The  goal  is  still 
identification  with  the  will  of  God;  but  this  tie  is 
effected  through  human  worth  and  fellowship  and 
service.  _  Instead  of  the  crude  pagan  notion  of 
persuading  and  changing  the  will  of  God,  in  order 
to  get  its  petitions  fulfilled,  the  socialized  conception 
of  prayer  seeks  to  lift  the  common  life  up  into 
harmony  with  the  divine  will,  as  in  the  great  ethical 
Christian  prayer,  "Thy  will  be  done  on  earth  as  in 
heaven." 

The  conception  of  law  and  of  a  fixed  natural 
order  which  characterizes  the  scientific  conscious- 
ness of  modern  civilization  has  contributed  a  dis- 
tinct shaping  influence  upon  religious  conceptions, 
and  has  rendered  untenable  the  earlier  ideals  of 
prayer  as  lawless  demands  upon  deity.  Answer  to 
prayer  as  a  disturbance  or  suspension  of  natural 
law  gives  way  to  the  conception  of  the  scientific 
control  of  life  by  a  deeper  understanding  of  law.  See 
Immanence.  And  the  same  sense  of  law  is 
leading  to  a  profounder  study  of  the  psychology  or 
mental  laws  of  prayer,  with  a  view  to  determining 
just  what  the  mind  does  in  the  experience  of  union 
with  God  which  is  the  essence  of  the  prayer  life. 
Herbert  A.  Youtz 

PRAYER  BOOKS.— Compilations  setting  forth 
the  order  of  the  various  religious  services,  each  of 
the  elements  being  given  in  its  entirety. 

Liturgy  is  a  gradual  growth,  and  is  at  first  oral 
and  fluctuating.  It  tends  to  become  fixed  and  its 
standardization  is  regarded  as  important.  Thus 
written  hturgies  have  arisen.  As  a  matter  of  con- 
venience for  worshipers  books  have  been  prepared 
giving  in  full  the  liturgies  for  the  various  services  of 
the  church  and  of  the  synagogue. 

1.  The  Roman  Missal  contains  the  liturgy  of  the 
Mass.  During  the  Middle  Ages  many  variations 
of  ritual  developed,  but  after  the  Council  of  Trent 
a  standardized  form  was  established.  The  mass  is 
always  celebrated  in  Latin,  but  translations  are 
provided  for  the  benefit  of  the  laity.  The  ordinary 
Missal  in  use  today  furnishes  the  layman  with  all 
the  direction  which  he  needs  to  follow  inteUigently 
the  services  of  the  church  and  to  understand  the 
somewhat  complicated  practices  of  the  church  year. 

2.  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  the  service 
book  of  the  AngUcan  Church.  There  were  before 
the  Reformation  several  manuals  of  worship  in 
English.  The  most  important  was  "The  Primer  of 
the  Salisbury  Use,"  so  called  because  it  set  forth 
the  liturgy  as  it  had  been  developed  at  SaUsbury. 
After  several  service  books  had  been  prepared  in  the 
attempt  to  suit  the  liturgy  to  the  reformed  practice, 
the  prayer  book  of  Edward  VI.  appeared  in  1549, 
later  revised  in  1552.  Several  changes  were  made 
in  the  next  hundred  years  until  the  final  revision  in 
1662.  The  prayer  book  includes,  together  with 
many  details,  the  order  for  daily  morning  and  even- 
ing prayer,  the  litany,  prayers  and  thanksgivings 
for  various  occasions;  collects,  epistles,  and  gospels 
to  be  used  throughout  the  year;  the  orders  for  the 
communion,  baptism,  confirmation,  marriage,  burial 
of  the  dead,  ordination  and  consecration;  the 
catechism;  the  psalter  (in  Coverdale's  translation); 
and  many  special  forms  of  prayer. 

3.  Variations  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
have  been  made  in  certain  sections  of  the  Episcopal 
Church.    In  Ireland  after  the  disestablishment  of 


Prayer  Books 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


346 


the  church  in  1870  some  revisions  of  an  anti- 
sacramental  character  were  made.  In  the  United 
States  the  General  Convention  of  1789  adopted  the 
EngUsh  prayer  book  with  a  number  of  modifications. 
It  omitted  the  Athanasian  Creed,  about  which  there 
has  been  so  much  controversy;  the  use  of  the  cross 
in  baptism  was  made  optional,  as  was  also  the 
use  of  the  words  "He  descended  into  hell"  in 
the  Creed;  the  marriage  ceremony  was  revised  in  the 
interest  of  modern  taste;  and  a  number  of  verbal 
changes  were  introduced. 

4.  The  Presbyterian  Book  of  Common  Prayer. — 
The  Scottish  reformers  at  first  used  the  prayer  book 
of  Edward  VI.  until  the  liturgy  to  which  the  name 
of  John  Knox  is  attached,  was  introduced  in  1562. 
This  was  an  adaptation  of  the  form  used  by  the 
Enghsh  church  at  Geneva.  It  includes  the  forms  of 
morning  and  evening  prayer,  of  baptism,  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  of  marriage  and  of  the  visitation  of 
the  sick,  together  with  numerous  ecclesiastical 
directions. 

In  the  endeavor  after  the  Restoration  to  secure 
uniformity  in  Great  Britain,  the  Presbyterian 
clergy  in  1661  made  certain  emendations  to  the 
prayer  book  on  the  basis  of  the  Directory  for  Pubhc 
Worship  of  the  Westminster  Assembly.  _  This 
amended  prayer  book  has  been  pubUshed  in  the 
United  States  under  the  name  of  the  Presbyterian 
Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

The  Book  of  Common  Worship  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  pubUshed  in  1905  is  an  admirable 
service  book.  Prepared  by  a  committee  of  which 
Dr.  Van  Dyke  was  chairman,  it  makes  generous 
use  of  older  hturgies  and  contains  new  elements 
consonant  alike  with  the  devotion  of  the  past  and 
with  the  demands  of  the  present.  It  is  in  no  sense 
obUgatory  upon  the  minister,  complete  freedom 
of  direction  being  left  to  him. 

5.  The  Sunday  service  of  the  Methodists  was 
prepared  by  John  Wesley  on  the  basis  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  In  general  the  liturgy  is 
shortened,  all  creeds  but  the  Apostles'  are  omitted, 
the  ordination  offices  are  modified,  the  thirty-nine 
articles  of  the  Creed  are  reduced  to  twenty-five. 
The  American  form  of  this  book  was  for  some  time 
used,  but  was  gradually  discontinued.  The  Metho- 
dists have  a  modern  service  book  with  the  customary 
orders  of  worship  and  special  offices;  its  use,  how- 
ever, is  not  compulsory. 

6.  Jeivish  Prayer  Books. — The  Jewish  synagogue 
service  has  always  been  strictly  Hturgical.  The 
Old  Testament  is  rich  in  prayers,  doxologies,  bene- 
dictions, and  the  post-bibUcal  development  was  very 
elaborate.  The  first  collection  of  the  prayers  for  the 
various  holy  days  was  made  in  the  middle  of  the  9th. 
century.  This  "Sidur"  has  been  the  basis  of  the 
later  editions.  It  includes  morning  prayer,  prayers 
for  Sabbath,  and  close  of  Sabbath,  for  the  new 
moon,  for  Passover  and  the  other  festivals,  the  orders 
for  circumcision  and  marriage,  prayers  for  mariners, 
and  for  special  occasions. 

There  are  many  divisions  of  Judaism,  each  of 
which  has  its  own  prayer  book.  There  have  also 
been  a  larger  number  of  revisions  and  translations 
of  the  various  books.  The  conservatives  opposed 
translation  into  the  vernacular  at  first,  but  gradually 
the  practice  has  become  estabUshed,  although 
the  sacred  language  is  used  in  the  service. 

Reform  Judaism  began  about  a  century  ago  to 
modify  the  ritual  in  the  direction  of  simplification, 
in  the  use  of  modern  languages  for  at  least  a  part 
of  the  service  and  in  the  removal  of  messianic 
references.  There  are  many  reformed  prayer 
books,  but  the  Union  Prayer  Book  for  Jewish 
Worship,  edited  by  the  Central  Conference  of 
American  Rabbis,  is  rapidly  becoming  standard- 
ized.   It  is  ia  two  volumes,  the  first  containing  the 


prayers  for  the  Sabbath,  the  three  festivals,  and 
the  week  days ;  the  second  containing  the  prayers  for 
New  Year's  Day  and  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

Theodore  G.  Scares 
PRAYER  FOR  THE  DEAD.— The  practice  of 
praying  for  the  dead  is  a  natural  expression  of  the 
desire  to  help  the  departed.  The  earliest  expression 
of  this  desire  is  the  offering  of  food  and  drink  at  the 
grave.  When  the  ideas  of  gods  and  an  Abode 
of  the  Dead  have  once  emerged  in  a  religion,  how- 
ever, the  early  practice  falls  into  disuse  and  the 
living  make  direct  appeal  to  God  for  the  dead  as  for 
themselves.  It  is  especially  developed  in  religions 
where  the  concept  of  an  intermediary  state  or 
purgatory  suggests  the  possibility  of  helping  the 
dead  to  a  higher  state  of  existence  (Judaism,  Chris- 
tianity, Tibet).  In  ancient  Egypt  the  prayer  has 
the  quality  of  a  magical  spell.  Zoroastrian  religion 
has  a  set  ritual  for  funeral  services  and  festivals  in 
which  the  living  make  confession  on  behalf  of  the 
dead  and  pray  to  Sroasha,  the  Angel  of  Death  and 
Judgment  for  the  future  bliss  of  the  deceased.  At 
Moslem  funerals  the  Fdtiha  is  recited  for  the  dead 
and  in  some  groups  a  special  Sabha  or  "Rosary" 
ceremony  is  performed  to  transfer  merit  to  the  soul. 
Modern  Japanese  funeral  services  embody  prayers 
for  the  illumination  and  happiness  of  the  departed 
soul — especially  those  of  the  Jpdo  and  Shinshu 
sects.  In  Tibetan  belief  the  soul  of  the  dead  remains 
during  forty-nine  days  in  an  intermediary  state 
from  which  it  is  released  into  full  regenerated  hfe 
by  the  prayers  of  the  priests.  Jewish  prayer  for  the 
dead  dates  from  the  2nd.  century  B.C.  The  Kaddish 
ceremony  is  interpreted  by  some  writers  as  a  service 
of  the  living  to  those  who  are  passing  through  the 
Purgatorial  stage.  Jewish  funeral  prayers  make 
direct  appeal  in  behalf  of  the  dead.  Christian 
practice  varies.  There  are  no  early  prayers  for  the 
dead  but  from  the  later  2nd.  century  the  custom 
grows  increasingly  in  favor  until  by  the  4th.  century 
it  is  an  established  practice. _  There  was  some 
uncertainty  as  to  whether  sinners  and  saintly 
martyrs  should  be  prayed  for,  but  the  ordinary 
baptized  believers  thus  secured  deliverance  from 
purgatory.  The  custom  persisted  in  medieval 
Christianity  and  is  cautiously  commended  in  the 
decisions  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Luther  approved 
the  practice.  The  Greek  Church  denies  purgatory 
but  teaches  that  the  dead  may  be  helped  by  prayers 
and  Eucharists.  The  Anglican  Church  embodied 
prayer  for  the  dead  in  its  Earliest  Book  of  Prayer 
but  later  refined  it  away.  The  Westminster  Con- 
fession repudiated  it.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

PfeAYERS,  LITURGICAL.— The  formulated 
prayers  which  have  been  prescribed  for  the  order  of 
worship.     See  also  Prayer  Books;  Worship. 

The  gift  of  original  religious  utterance  is  rare. 
The  religious  person  in  his  attempt  to  find  adequate 
expression  for  his  thoughts  and  feelings  inevitably 
lays  hold  upon  the  significant  words  which  have 
been  used  by  gifted  souls  before  him.  Moreover, 
religious  expression  gains  in  impressiveness  and 
sanctity  by  age.  It  even  seems  to  have  a  unique 
quality  which  no  extemporaneous  words  could 
possibly  possess. 

Almost  all  religions  have  developed  forms  of 
prayer  which  have  come  to  have  prescriptive  value. 
Primitive  peoples  use  certain  magical  utterances 
which  are  considered  particularly  efficacious  in 
affecting  the  gods.  These  are  sometimes  highly  ■ 
elaborated  as  in  the  funeral  prayers  of  the  Egyptians. 
Sentiments  of  penitence,  faith,  aspiration  tend  to 
express  themselves  in  liturgical  prayers.  Such  are 
found  in  the  religions  of  Egypt,  Babylon,  Greece, 
Rome,  and  especially  in  the  mystery  religions. 
The  later  great  Asiatic  religions  have  all  developed 


347 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Pre-Existence 


liturgical  prayers.  The  Hebrew  religion  was 
peculiarly  prayerful.  There  is  a  considerable  body 
of  noble  prayers  in  the  Old  Testament.  As  the 
synagogue  service  took  form  these  biblical  prayers 
became  the  basis  of  a  great  prayer  book. 

The  Christian  church  and  its  worship  were 
developed  from  the  Hebrew  synagogue  and  from 
contemporaneous  religious  practices,  in  both  of 
which  liturgical  prayers  were  almost  universally 
used.  The  Psalms  are  quite  as  much  prayers  as 
praise.  While  a  large  spontaneous  element  appeared 
in  the  meetings  of  the  early  Christians,  the  tendency 
was  toward  uniformity  in  the  practices  of  worship. 
Even  the  Lord's  Prayer  became  hturgical  and  has 
so  continued  ever  since.  Many  of  the  Church 
Fathers  composed  prayers  which  were  used  in  the 
churches.  The  Catholic  churches  developed  the 
elaborate  ceremonial  of  the  mass,  in  which  large 
place  was  given  to  prayers.  After  the  Reformation 
the  Protestant  churches  varied  in  their  attitude 
toward _  liturgy.  The  Anglican  desired  only  the 
theological  purification  of  the  old  forms,  while  the 
Puritan  would  have  no  forms  at  all.  The  Scotch 
made  a  modified  use  of  liturgy.  The  Wesleyans, 
while  giving  large  opportunity  for  extempore 
prayer,  preserved  much  of  the  English  Prayer 
Book.  Many  denominations  in  the  United  States 
have  books  of  worship  in  which  are  prayers  for 
regular  services  and  for  special  occasions,  e.g.,  the 
revised  Presbyterian  Book  of  Common  Worship. 

The  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  slightly 
modified  by  the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States,  contains  the  great  prayers  of  Christendom 
rendered  into  the  noble  English  of  the  Elizabethan 
times.  It  is  the  common  property  of  all  Christians, 
and  its  use  is  increasing  in  churches  which  do  not 
regard  themselves  as  ritualistic. 

Theodore  G.  Scares 

PREADAMITE.— One  who  holds  to  the  theory 
that  men  existed  on  the  earth  before  Adam;  in 
particular  an  advocate  of  the  theory  that  the 
Genesis  account  refers  to  the  origin  of  the  Caucasian 
peoples,  but  other  races  existed  previously.  Also 
used  to  indicate  anything  which  existed  prior  to 
Adam  or  man. 

PREBEND.— Originally  the  food  given  clergy 
or  monks  at  their  common  table,  but  later  including 
the  benefice  (q.v.).  In  Anglican  usage  any  endow- 
ment given  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church  for  the 
support  of  a  clergyman. 

PRECENTOR.— The  leader  of  the  musical 
service  in  a  church,  especially  where  congregational 
singing  is  in  vogue.  In  the  Anglican  church  usage 
the  precentor  is  an  official  in  the  clerical  staff 
of  a  cathedral. 

PRECIOUS  BLOOD.— A  devotional  phrase 
referring  to  the  saving  blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  to 
the  wine  of  the  Eucharist,  as  symboUzing  Jesus' 
blood.  In  the  R.C.  church  the  first  Sunday  in 
July  is  a  Feast  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood.  A 
number  of  congregations  and  confraternities  are 
organized  in  devotion  to  the  "Precious  Blood,"  taking 
their  name  therefrom. 

PREDESTINARIAN.— One  who  believes  in 

Predestination  (q.v.). 

PREDESTINATION.— The  doctrine  that  aU 
events  are  predetermined  by  the  will  of  God.  More 
specifically  the  doctrine  that  each  individual's 
eternal  destiny  is  fixed  by  divine  decree. 

The  inevitable  course  of  events  suggests  a 
mysterious  superhuman  control,  which  may  be 
explained  in  terms  of  Fate  or  Chance  (qq.v.)  or. 


as  in  Indian  thought,  may  be  conceived  as  a  cos- 
mically  fixed  routine  of  many  cycles.  In  Hebrew, 
Christian,  and  Mohammedan  religious  thought,  the 
sovereign  will  of  God  is  declared  to  be  the  ultimate 
cause  of  events.  See  Providence.  Predestination 
is  the  consistent  application  of  this  idea  in  the 
realm  of  human  destiny. 

The  doctrine  as  contained  in  the  theologies  of 
Christianity  is  affirmed  by  the  apostle  Paul,  but 
received  its  full  exposition  by  Augustine.  He 
taught  that  all  men  are  by  nature  religiously  impo- 
tent as  a  result  of  Adam's  fall.  The  salvation  of 
any  individual  is  possible  only  as  divine  grace 
(q.v.)  shall  be  bestowed.  Logically,  then,  Gpd 
must  deUberately  select  those  individuals  to  whom 
grace  is  to  be  given.  These  are  elected  or  pre- 
destined to  be  saved.  Extreme  Calvinism  insisted 
that  predestination  is  unconditional,  i.e.,  not 
dependent  upon  anything  man  can  do  prior  to  the 
gift  of  grace.  This  involved  the  doctrine  of  repro- 
bation, according  to  which  God  willed  and  decreed 
that  certain  individuals  should  resist  grace  and 
suffer  eternal  damnation.  In  the  interests  of 
moral  responsibility  on  man's  part,  Arminianism 
conditioned  predestination  on  God's  foreknowledge 
of  each  individual's  faith  and  good-wiU. 

The  religious  value  of  the  doctrine  lies  in  the 
confidence  which  it  gives  to  the  believer.  Since  his 
salvation  rests  exclusively  in  God's  hands,  he  is 
freed  from  anxious  care  and  from  any  solicitude 
concerning  human  merit  as  a  condition  of  salvation. 

The  apparent  harshness  of  the  idea  of  uncondi- 
tional Predestination  has  always  aroused  protests. 
Pelagianism,  Semipelagianism,  Socinianism,  and 
Arminianism  (qq.v.)  have  given  to  human  initiative 
a  real  place.  In  particular  the  doctrine  of  repro- 
bation has  received  severe  criticism  on  moral 
grounds.  In  modern  times  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination has  fallen  into  the  background,  largely 
because  of  a  changed  conception  of  God  which  no 
longer  makes  use  of  the  idea  of  arbitrary  sovereignty. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

PRE-EXISTENCE.— The  belief  that  the  soul 
existed  in  the  past  before  its  union  with  the  present 
body. 

The  conception  of  dtman  "soul"  (earlier  prdna 
in  the  plural  as  the  sum  total  of  the  breaths,  of  the 
vital  forces  in  the  body)  is  animistic  in  origin. 
The  soul  may  leave  the  body  temporarily  or  perma- 
nently; for  one  visits  distant  places  in  dreams,  and 
sees  friends  after  death  (ghosts) .  The  soul  continues 
to  exist  after  death,  and  may  even  enter  into  another 
body.  This  future  existence  is  eternal;  the  soul 
migrates  endlessly  from  one  body  to  another  unless 
in  some  way  it  can  be  released  from  transmigra- 
tion (q.v.).  Then  the  Hindu  mind  concludes  that 
a  thing  which  is  to  be  eternal  in  the  future  must 
have  been  eternal  in  the  past.  It  is  impossible  for 
the  Hindu  to  believe  that  a  thing  can  be  created 
out  of  nothing  and  then  continue  to  exist  forever. 
If  the  soul  were  created  as  a  compound  thing  out 
of  different  elements  it  must  inevitably  be  resolved 
back  again  into  those  elements.  If  it  is  simple  it 
must  be  uncreated.     A  future  eternity  demands  a 

East  eternity.  This  convention  of  Hindu  thought 
as  much  influence  on  ethics.  The  soul  does  not 
have  to  work  out  its  salvation  during  the  period 
between  the  cradle  and  the  grave;  a  thought  which 
leads  to  the  conception  of  the  tremendous  impor- 
tance of  the  present  life,  on  the  basis  of  which  the 
soul  is  eternally  saved  or  eternally  damned.  Life 
becomes  a  moment  between  two  eternities,  not  of 
vital  importance  in  the  destiny  of  the  soul.  The 
soul  has  an  infinite  number  of  lives  in  which  to 
work  out  its  salvation.  The  doctrine  of  pre- 
existence  has  been  repudiated  by  orthodox  Chris- 
tian theology.    It  appears  in  the  Apocrypha  and 


Prefect 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


348 


among  the  early  Fathers,  notably  in  Justin  Martyr 
and  Origen.  It  is  possibly  intended  in  John  9:2, 
and  seems  to  have  been  held  by  the  Essenes.  In 
Greece  it  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  specu- 
lations of  Pjdihagoras,  Plato  and  their  followers. 
See  Transmigration.  W.  E.  Clark 

PREFECT. — A  frequent  designation  in  the 
R.C.  church  for  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  with 
supervision  of  some  church  enterprise  or  some 
specific  field  of  activities. 

PRELATE. — In  mediaeval  times,  a  person  in 
high  authority  whether  secular  or  ecclesiastical. 
In  modern  times,  a  R.C.  dignitary  with  episcopal 
or  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  who  is  distinguished 
by  a  violet  robe.  There  are  four  classes:  great 
exempt  (heads  of  monastic  order  themselves), 
exempt  (from  ordinary  jurisdiction),  active  Roman, 
and  honorary  Roman, 

PREMILLENARIANISM.— The  beUef  that  the 
personal  visible  return  of  Christ  will  precede  his 
reign  for  a  thousand  years  on  earth.  See  Mil- 
lenarianism. 

PREMONSTRATENCIAN  CANONS.— A  R.C. 

order  of  regular  canons  founded  by  St.  Norbert 
(ca.  1080-1134)  in  the  diocese  of  Laon,  organized 
on  the  Cistercian  plan  and  following  the  rule  of 
Augustine.  Also  called  Norbertines  and  white 
Canons. 

PREPARATION,  DAY  OF.— In  Judaism,  the 
day  preceding  a  holy  day  as  the  Sabbath  or 
Passover;  in  some  Christian  churches  the  day 
preceding  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

PRESBYTER.— Literally,  an  "older"  person, 
used  as  a  substantive,  in  heathen  and  Jewish  circles 
aUke,  of  both  a  municipal  and  a  religious  functionary, 
and  in  the  New  Testament,  of  a  member  of  the 
board  of  officials  by  which  each  settled  Christian 
congregation  was  governed,  an  "elder."  An 
officer  in  the  Christian  church,  holding,  in  non- 
prelatical  churches,  the  highest  place,  in  prelatical 
churches  the  second  highest,  above  a  deacon  and 
below  a  bishop.    See  Order,  Holy. 

As  reflected  in  the  N.T.  each  primitive  local 
church  (Acts  14:23;  Titus  1:5)  was  governed  by  a 
board  of  officials  called  indifferently  "presbyters"  or 
"bishops"  (Acts  20:17,  28;  I  Pet.  5:1,  2;  I  Tim. 
3:1-7;  5:17-19;  Tit.  1:5-7);  the  former  designa- 
tion was  the  name  of  dignity,  the  latter  of  func- 
tion. All  shared  in  the  oversight  of  the  church, 
and  some  of  them  labored  also  in  word  and  doctrine 
(I  Tim.  5:1).  The  differentiation  thus  already 
begun  issued  later  (seen  complete  e.g.,  in  Ignatius, 
early  2nd.  century)  in  one  of  the  presbyters  drawing 
to  himself  the  higher  functions  of  the  board, 
together  with  the  distinctive  title  of  bishop;  leaving 
to  the  presbyters,  now  their  distinctive  name,  a 
lowered  rank  and  diminished  function.  By  a  still 
further  development  (late  2nd.  century)  the  pres-' 
byter  regained  some  of  his  lost  dignity  and  fimction 
by  becoming  the  head,  ordinarily  the  single  head, 
of  the  local  church.  Meanwhile,  he  had  also 
become  a  "priest"  (etymologicaUy  only  a  shortened 
form  of  "presbyter"  but  actually  absorbing  into 
itself  the  sense  of  sacerdos) .  In  this  final  develop- 
ment, the  presbyteriate  is  defined  as  the  highest  of 
the  seven  orders,  that  is  to  say,  the  office  and 
dignity  of  those  clerics  who  possess  the  priesthood 
(sacerdotium)  in  the  literal  sense.  In  this  definition, 
it  is  observable,  the  presbyterate  still  embraces 
both  bishops  and  presbyters. 


In  non-prelatical  churches,  presbyter,  when 
used  instead  of  the  more  common  "elder,"  continues 
to  bear  its  New  Testament  sense  of  the  highest 
permanent  official  in  the  local  church. 

Benjamin  B.  Warfield 

PRESBYTERIANISM.— One  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal systems  of  ecclesiastical  polity,  occupying  an 
intermediate  position  between  episcopacy  and 
congregationahsm,  or  independency.  With  the 
one  it  shares  the  unifying  principle  that  the  entire 
church  is  a  single  entity  and  should  fimction  as  a 
whole;  with  the  other  the  democratic  principle  that 
what  should  function  in  the  church  as  a  whole  is  the 
entire  membership  of  the  churches.  Its  character- 
istic feature  whence  it  derives  its  name,  is  that  in  it 
the  government  of  the  church  is  exercised  exclusively 
by  "presbyters"  or  '^elders."  These  officers  of  the 
local  churches,  combined  in  conciUar  courts,  admin- 
ister the  affairs  of  the  whole  body  of  churches  thus 
compacted  into  one. 

1.  Presbyterian  Polity. — 1.  The  New  Testa- 
ment basis. — Presbyterians  look  upon  their  pohty 
as  imposed  by  the  Apostles,  the  agents  of  Christ 
in  establishing  his  Church  in  the  world,  on  the 
churches  which  they  founded,  as  part  of  their 
equipment  as  the  pillar  and  ground  of  the  truth. 
Its  chief  feature  was  the  installation  in  each 
church  of  a  college  of  "elders"  or  "bishops" — the 
equivalence  of  the  titles  is  clear — to  whom  were 
committed  its  teaching  and  government;  by 
the  side  of  whom,  however,  a  similar  college 
of  "deacons"  was  placed,  whose  duty  it  was 
"to  serve  tables."  Following  this  pattern, 
the  local  Presbyterian  church  is  organized  with 
a  pluraUty  of  "presbyters,"  or  "elders"  elected 
by  the  congregation  to  rule,  and  a  plurality  of 
"deacons,"  similarly  elected  by  the  congregation  to 
serve. 

2.  The  pastor  of  the  local  church. — In  the 
Presbyterian  polity,  the  pastor  is  one  of  the  elders, 
who  while  he  does  not  differ  from  the  others  in  office, 
differs  greatly  from  them  in  function.  To  him  is 
committed  the  ministration  of  the  Word  and  the 
Sacraments;  he  presides  by  right  over  aU  the 
meetings  of  the  "Session,"  as  the  college  of  elders  is 
called;  and  he  is  by  right  one  of  the  two  representa- 
tives of  the  session  in  the  higher  court,  or  Presbytery. 
He  differs  from  his  fellow  elders  also  in  not  being 
a  member  of  the  local  congregation  which  he  serves, 
or  responsible  to  it  for  his  efficiency  in  his  service  or 
amenable  to  its  disciphne.  He  is  not  responsible 
even  to  the  session  of  which  he  is  a  member  and 
whose  presiding  officer  he  is,  for  either  his  personal 
or  official  deportment.  His  membership  is  in  the 
higher  body,  the  Presbytery;  and  to  it  he  is  directly 
responsible.  _  He  comes  into  the  local  congrega- 
tion from  without;  by  its  free  "call,"  that  is  to 
say  by  election  of  the  congregation;  but  not 
without  the  explicit  consent  of  the  Presbytery  to 
which  he  belongs;  and  by  formal  installation  by  it 
alone  can  he  enter  upon  the  pastorship  of  the 
church  which  calls  him.  Here  we  see  an  aristo- 
cratic element  entering  into  the  Presbyterian 
system  and  modifying  its  democracy. 

3.  The  higher  courts. — In  the  higher  courts  the 
local  churches  are  united  into  one  general  body.  In 
the  Presbyterian  system,  delegates  from  the  local 
churches  within  a  prescribed  area — these  delegates 
consisting  of  the  "teaching  elder"  of  each  church  as 
a  matter  of  right,  and  one  "ruling  elder"  selected 
from  their  own  number  by  each  session — unite  to 
form  a  "Presbytery"  which  has  jurisdiction  over 
all  the  churches  within  its  area.  Delegates  similarly 
selected  from  a  larger  area,  including  several  Presby- 
teries— the  number  of  "teaching  elders"  and 
"ruling  elders"  being  kept  always  as  nearly  as 
possible    equal — ^a    "Synod,"    having   jurisdiction 


349 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Priest,  Priesthood 


over  the  Presbyteries  within  its  bounds.  Finally 
delegates  of  "teaching  elders"  and  "ruling  elders, 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  equal  numbers,  from  all 
the  Presbyteries,  form  the  "General  Assembly" 
which  has  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Church.  The 
aristocratic  element  which  exists  in  the  Pres- 
byterian system,  is  maintained,  through  the 
whole  series  of  its  graded  "courts";  an  equal 
representation  of  "teaching"  and  "ruling"  elders 
is  sought  through  them  all  above  the  session, 
despite  the  great  numerical  preponderance  of 
"ruling  elders    in  the  Church. 

II,  History  op  Presbyterianism. — 1.  Early 
and  Mediaeval  Church. — -The  development  of 
church  organization  along  monarchical  lines  in  the 
sub-apostolical  age,  deprived  the  Presbyterian 
principle,  impressed  on  the  Apostolic  churches,  of 
all  history  for  a  millennium  and  a  half,  although 
there  were  revivals  here  and  there  of  practices 
reminiscent  of  the  Presbyterian  past. 

2.  The  Reformation. — In  their  reversion  to  the 
Scriptures  as  the  sole  authoritative  guide  it  was 
inevitable  that  the  monarchical  organization  of 
the  Church  should  be  rejected  by  the  Reformers. 
But  the  earher  Reformers  showed  no  great  zeal  in 
reorganizing  the  infant  evangeUcal  churches  on 
more  bibUcal  lines.  The  result  was  that  the  govern- 
ment and  discipline  of  these  churches  fell  largely, 
in  the  several  countries  in  which  they  were  planted, 
into  the  hands  of  the  local  secular  authorities; 
all  cohesion  among  them  was  lacking;  and  accord- 
ingly the  greatest  confusion  and  weakness  reigned 
among  them. 

3.  John  Calvin. — A  Presbyterian  polity  was 
introduced  by  Calvin  into  Geneva  on  a  biblical 
basis,  an  achievement  accomplished  only  by  a  hard 
conflict  which  endured  through  his  whole  life 
(1536-1564).  From  Geneva,  this  polity  spread 
to  the  other  Reformed  Churches  and  thus  became 
characteristic  of  Reformed  as  distinguished  from 
Lutheran  Protestantism.  With  local  variations  it 
became  the  polity  of  the  Reformed  Churches  not 
only  in  Switzerland  and  Reformed  Germany, 
but  (to  name  only  the  main  branches)  of  Bohemia, 
and  Hungary,  and  France,  and  the  Netherlands  and 
Scotland. 

4.  England. — Only  in  England  did  a  national 
church  which  had  adopted  a  Reformed  creed  (the 
Thirty-Nine  Articles)  retain  a  hierarchical  consti- 
tution. This  was  the  source  of  constant  irritation, 
and  kept  alive  a  conflict  in  the  Church  between  the 
more  and  the  less  advanced  Protestantism  which 
culminated  in  the  middle  of  the  17th.  century  in 
what  is  known  as  "the  second  Reformation."  In 
this  great  national  movement  the  hierarchical 
constitution  of  the  Church  of  England  was  for  a 
moment  overturned,  and,  with  help  obtained  from 
Scotland,  the  Presbyterian  poUty  set  up  in  its  stead. 
The  instrument  by  which  the  revolution  was  accom- 
plished was  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines, 
from  the  labors  of  which  dates  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  Presbyterianism  in  Britain  and  its 
daughter-lands. 

5.  The  Westminster  Assembly. — The  West- 
minster Assembly  undertook  to  prepare  formu- 
laries for  the  unification  of  the  national  churches  of 
England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  along  the  Unes  of 
the  best  Reformed  tradition — and  this  alike  in 
doctrine,  government,  discipline  and  worship. 
It  failed  in  this  purpose.  The  restoration  of  the 
monarchy  in  the  person  of  Charles  II.  threw  the 
Church  of  England  back  into  its  old  hierarchical 
constitution  and  this  carried  with  it  the  restoration 
of  the  hierarchical  form  in  Ireland  also.  Even  in 
Scotland,  it  was  precisely  the  Assembly's  work  in 
church  government  which  met  with  least  accept- 
ance.    Nevertheless    the    debates   on    the   proper 


organization   of    the    church,    carried   on    in    the 
Assembly,  bore  good  fruit. 

6.  American  Presbyterianism. — The  name  Pres- 
byterian in  America  is  borne  only  by  those  presby- 
terian  churches  which  derive  their  origin  from  Great 
Britain,  where  alone  this  feature  of  the  Reformed 
tradition  has  given  both  churches  of  this  order 
their  distinctive  name;  American  presbyterian 
churches  deriving  their  origin  from  the  continent 
of  Europe  designate  themselves  as"Reformed 
Churches"  (q.v.).  The  largest  of  American  presbv- 
terian  churches  is  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America  which  enrols  now  more 
than  a  million  and  a  half  of  communicant  mem- 
bers, or,  in  connection  with  the  sister  church  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  (South- 
ern), which  was  separated  from  it  only  on  issues 
connected  with  the  war  between  the  States,  about 
2,000,000.  The  total  number  of  communicant 
members  in  the  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the 
United  States  is  about  3,000,000.  The  most 
important  bodies  in  addition  to  the  above  named, 
with  membership  (1919),  are:  the  United  Presby- 
terian Church  (155,994);  the  Associate  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Synod  (16,564);  the  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian Church,  Old  School  (8,750) ;  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  General  Synod  (2,400); 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  (64,452); 
and  the  Colored  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 
(13,077). 

In  1875  the  AUiance  of  Reformed  Churches 
throughout  the  World  Holding  the  Presbyterian 
System  was  organized.  It  embraces  about 
7,000,000  church  members.  b  " 

Benjamin  B.  Warfield 

PRESBYTERY.— In  Presbyterian  churches,  a 
body  composed  of  the  ministers  and  pastors  and 
one  ruling  elder  appointed  from  each  church  in  a 
district.  It  has  the  ecclesiastical  and  spiritual 
oversight  of  such  a  district.  See  Presbyteri- 
anism. 

PRETA. — ^A  disembodied  helpless  ghost  which 
has  not  yet  acquired  a  new  other-worldly  body. 
The  vinda  (q.v.)  offering  made  in  the  home  for 
ten  days  after  death  is  supposed  by  the  Hindu 
people  to  give  the  ghost  the  new  body  and  so  make 
it  one  of  the  jntris  (q.v.).  If  the  food  is  not  given 
the  ghost  remains  a  wandering,  dangerous  preta. 

PRIDE. — A  conscious  high  valuation  of  one's 
own  abiUty,  accomplishments,  social  status,  or 
possessions.  Pride  may  express  a  noble  sense  of 
personal  independence,  as  when  one  resents  the 
idea  of  accepting  favors.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
may  lead  to  an  anti-social  attitude.  Christian 
ethics,  especially  in  the  R.C.  church,  has  contrasted 
pride  with  that  humility  (q.v.)  which  is  essential  to 
true  virtue.  Pride  is  regarded  as  the  root  of  a 
refusal  of  a  person  to  subject  himself  to  divine 
authority.  As  such  it  is  "the  most  grievous  of 
sins"  (Thomas  Aquinas). 

PRIEST,  PRIESTHOOD.— A  religious  func- 
tionary and  order,  mediating  between  deity  and 
man. 

I.  In  General. — The  basis  is  worship  of 
superhuman  power,  springing  from  necessity  to 
secure  that  power's  favor  and  avoid  his  displeasure. 
Since  religion  always  reflects  social  environment, 
representatives — the  head  of  a  family,  the  chi«f ,  and 
the  king — came  to  conduct  worship  in  behalf  of  their 
respective  circles.  At  this  stage  priesthood  is  a 
function,  not  an  office  or  order.  This  condition 
persists  or  reappears  in  advanced  civiUzation. 
Usually  ujider  such  circumstances,  however,  the 
function  is  Umited  to  restricted  aspects.    In  China 


Priest,  Priesthood 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


350 


under  the  Empire  the  head  of  the  family  directed 
ancestral  worsliip,  the  Emperor  offered  sacrifices  to 
Heaven,  and  priests  performed  rites  in  other 
worships.  Nearly  similar  conditions  long  pre- 
vailed in  Israel.  In  Egypt  the  Pharaoh  could 
act  as  priest  before  any  of  the  gods. 

From  early  times  the  priestly  function  was  not 
confined  to  the  "godward"  aspect.  The  priest 
represented  man  to  deity,  also  deity  to  man.  This 
combination  reappears  or  persists  in  advanced 
religions — compare  the  "absolution"  (manward) 
after  the  "confession"  (godward)  in  ritualistic 
Christianity. 

II.  The  Order. — The  roots  of  priesthood  as  an 
order  are  complex.  An  important  one  is  ritual. 
By  this  is  meant  a  certain  uniformity  in  the  com- 
plex of  rites  which  constitute  worship.  A  second 
root  is  fear  lest  deviation  from  a  set  form  offend  the 
object  of  worship;  solicitude  arises  for  correct 
performance  in  order  to  secure  the  continuance  of 
God's  favor.  A  third  root  bifurcates — ^individuals 
claim  superior  knowledge  of  the  means  and  ways 
of  propitiating  deity;  then  convenience — ^with  the 
tendency  to  specialization  of  vocation,  which 
appeared  early  in  human  society — ^tends  to  delegate 
the  functions  of  worship  to  men  presumed  to 
be  specially  quaUfied. 

The  priesthood  might  develop  from  the  medicine 
man,  witch  doctor,  or  shaman.  A  shrine  requires 
a  guardian,  who  may  develop  into  a  priest. 
The  line  of  division  between  shaman  and  priest  is 
tenuous,  but  may  be  drawn  roughly  where  the 
speU  (power  over  the  gods)  passes  into  prayer  (peti- 
tion for  their  favor).  Egyptian  religion,  however, 
remained  long  on  the  borderland.  Priest  and 
magic  existed  contemporaneously  there  till  the 
Greek  period. 

III.  Conditions  of  Priesthood. — It  is  thus 
evident  (1)  that  priesthood  as  an  order  impUes  a 
forward  stage  of  culture  with  a  cult  or  cults  more 
or  less  organized  in  definite  centers,  excepting  when 
the  family,  tribe,  or  people  is  migrating  (Exodus 
28  ff.;  Judg.  18).  (2)  In  its  earlier  forms  it  carried 
a  large  range  of  functions.  In  Babylonia  priests 
acted  as  judges,  theologians,  sacrificers,  psalmists, 
historians  or  legendists,  diviners  and  astrologers, 
astronomers,  purifiers  and  physicians,  leaders  of 
worship  and  guardians  of  sacred  things,  teachers, 
and  keepers  of  the  archives.  Where  priests 
were  few,  these  functions  centered  in  one  indi- 
vidual. In  great  temples  duties  were  partitioned 
among  the  members  of  great  colleges  of  priests, 
each  class  taking  care  of  its  own  branch.  The 
order  may  develop  into  a  hierarchy  (q.v.),  and 
the  priesthood  of  a  single  deity  take  pre-eminence 
over  all  others  (priesthood  of  Amon  in  Egypt); 
or  the  development  may  become  sacerdotal.  See 
Sacerdotalism.  (3)  In  polytheistic  religions, 
for  each  deity  was  developed  a  special  ritual 
or  service,  which  only  his  own  priests  could 
perform.  (4)  The  tendency  was  to  exalt  the  office, 
develop  close  organizations,  which  might  become 
hereditary  (Israel,  Syria,  India),  and  attain  control 
over  the  life  of  the  entire  people,  even  over  the 
state  (medieval  Catholicism;  see  also  Theocracy). 
Moreover  the  priests'  work  became  thaumaturgic, 
and  their  utterances  fateful.  Exclusive  privileges 
were  theirs.  Succession  to  the  order  was  often 
through  self-perpetuating  appointment,  heredity,  or 
membership  in  a  caste. 

Succession  may  therefore  be  by  inheritance,  a 
family  (e.g.,  Aaron's,  Aztecan  king's)  or  a  tribe 
(e.g.,  the  Levites)  being  recognized  as  by  birth 
succeeding  to  the  privileges  of  the  order.  Priest- 
hood may  develop  into  a  caste,  with  claims  even 
of  godship  (Brahmins),  possessing  alone  the  key  to 
salvation.     Yet  the  pre-eminence  of  the  state  or 


local  conditions  may  operate  against  undue  pre- 
dominance of  priests  (Greece  and  Rome),  duties 
being  restricted  to  ritual.  Consecration  or  investi- 
ture is  necessary  before  entrance  upon  duties  and 
privileges.  Strict  codes  of  conduct,  theoretically  at 
least,  control;  regard  is  had  to  responsibility  for 
the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  human  clients.  Not  only 
conduct  of  public  (temple)  worship  falls  to  priests, 
even  private  (household)  worship  may  call  for 
expert  direction  (India,  Persia). 

In  personally  founded  religions  the  attitude 
toward  a  priesthood  is  divergent.  In  some  the 
order  remains  rudimentary  or  confined  to  degenerate 
or  vestigial  forms  (Mohammedanism,  Confucian- 
ism). In  others  each  individual  works  out  his 
own  salvation,  though  an  ascetic  hierarchy  (q.v.) 
may  develop  (Tibet,  q.v.).  Others  may  hold  to 
a  real  or  a  relative  priesthood  of  all  believers,  and 
develop  sacerdotally,  unfolding  into  a  hierarchy. 
The  Hebrews  were  "a  holy  priesthood"  as  regards 
other  nations,  but  had  their  own  priestly  inter- 
cessors, at  first  serving  at  the  several  holy  places, 
finally  concentrated  at  Jerusalem  under  a  high- 
priest. 

In  Christianity  two  theories  conflict:  (1)  Every 
Christian  is  his  own  priest  with  direct  access  to 
God  (the  primitive  status,  reinstated  with  the 
Reformation).  (2)  The  developed  priestly  system 
which  holds  that  Christ  estabhshed  an  apostolate, 
from  which  apostolate  by  Apostolic  Succession 
(q.v.)  the  priestly  order  was  transmitted.  The 
sacerdotal  theory  was  reinforced  by  the  view  of 
the  Eucharist  as  a  repeated  propitiatory  sacrifice,  the 
offering  of  which  required  regularly  transmitted 
power  and  authority.  This  theory  is  maintained  by 
the  prelatical  churches.  In  the  Roman  church  it 
developed  monarchically  with  the  pope  at  the 
head  as  vice-regent  of  Christ;  also  sacramentally, 
access  to  God  and  absolution  from  penalty  for 
sin  being  through  the  priest  alone.  Protestant 
churches  (the  Anglican  refuses  the  title  "Protes- 
tant") accept  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers. 
In  the  Christian  church  priestly  development  was 
due  (1)  to  imitation  of  Judaism;  (2)  to  Roman 
administrative  measures;  (3)  to  environmental 
example;  (4)  to  the  growing  complexity  of  a  great 
organization. 

IV.  Support. — The  maintenance  of  priests  as 
an  order  is  variously  provided  for.  Voluntary 
gifts  to  the  temples  or  churches  (endowmental  or 
occasional)  or  to  the  officiant;  systems  of  tithes; 
portions  of  the  offerings  or  sacrifices;  and  support 
by  the  state  have  been  and  are  in  vogue  under 
different  systems.  George  W.  Gilmore 

PRIMATE. — The  ecclesiastical  dignitary  of 
highest  rank  in  a  nation  or  a  district.  E.g.,  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  primate  of  all  Eng- 
land; the  archbishop  of  Armogh  is  primate  of  all 
Ireland:  and  various  archbishops  in  France  are 
primates  in  their  districts. 

PRIME. — In  the  R.C.  liturgy  the  first  canonical 
hour  after  lauds;  or,  the  office  of  the  breviary  for 
use  at  that  hour  which  is  about  6  a.m. 

PRIMITIVE  BAPTISTS.— A  sect  of  Baptists 
(q.v.)  originating  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
1835,  with  ultra-Calvinistic  beliefs.  They  oppose 
Sunday-schools,  Bible,  tract,  and  mission  societies, 
and  theological  education  for  ministers,  and 
practise  feet- washing  as  an  ordinance  in  addition 
to  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Membership 
(1919),  80,311. 

PRIMITIVE  METHODISTS.— A  branch  of  the 
Methodists  which  came  into  existence  in  England 


351 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Primitive  Religions 


in  1812  and  came  to  America  in  1843.  Emphasis 
is  laid  on  the  use  of  camp-meeting  evangehsm, 
enthusiasm  in  reUgious  services,  and  a  larger 
activity  of  the  laity  than  in  the  other  Methodist 
bodies.  There  are  about  215,000  members  in 
England.     In  the  United  States  (1919)  9,190. 

PRIMITIVE   PEOPLES,   RELIGIONS   OF.— 

I.  Characteristics  of  Primitive  Peoples. — 
It  is  not  altogether  easy  to  define  satisfactorily  what 
constitutes  a  primitive  people,  although  no  one 
would  hesitate  to  place  American  Indians,  Oceani- 
ans, and  Africans  in  this  category.  Nevertheless, 
certain  broad  generalizations  may  be  made.  The 
primitive  peoples  use  only  implements  of  wood, 
stone,  or  bone,  and  have  at  most  merely  a  rudi- 
mentary knowledge  of  metals;  their  pottery, 
weaving,  and  other  arts  are  in  the  initial  stages; 
they  are  nomadic  rather  than  sedentary;  their 
sustenance  is  drawn  primarily  from  the  chase  and 
from  wild  plants,  roots,  etc.,  rather  than  from 
agriculture.  Psychologically  these  peoples  hold 
that  animals,  stones,  trees,  etc.,  have  indwelhng 
spirits  not  essentially  unlike  those  inhabitiiig  human 
beings;  that  natural  phenomena,  the  heavenly 
bodies,  the  earth,  the  mountains,  the  rivers,  etc., 
have  similar  spirits  and  are  influenced  by  human 
motives  and  passions;  and  that  human  beings  may 
be  transformed  into  any  of  these  phenomena,  ani- 
mals, etc.,  or  vice  versa.  In  religion  they  maintain 
that  worship  is  due  the  divine  spirits  of  natural 
phenomena,  such  as  sun  and  stars,  storm  and  wind, 
springs  and  rocks,  winter  and  summer,  vegetation 
and  harvest;  that  they  are  closely  akin  to  certain 
animals,  either  collectively  or  individually,  so  that 
special  worship  must  be  rendered  to  such  creatures; 
that  man  lives  after  death,  whence  there  must  be 
a  cult  of  ancestors. 

The  savage  is  very  like  a  child.  In  him  the 
image  predominates  over  the  concept;  he  is  con- 
crete, not  abstract,  in  thought;  he  works  largely 
by  analogies,  often  of  an  extremely  superficial 
kmd;  he  desires  a  reason  for  everything,  but  a 
very  simple  explanation  contents  him;  rigidly 
logical  according  to  his  lights,  he  often  draws 
very  strange  conclusions  from  his  faulty  prem- 
ises. The  purpose  of  his  religion  is  to  win  the 
favor  of  his  gods  that  they  may  shower  benefits  on 
him,  or  that  he  may  avert  their  displeasure;  he 
frequently  seeks  to  compel  the  divine  powers  to  do 
his  will;  his  cult  is,  in  many  instances,  magic  in 
type. 

II.  General.  Type  op  Primitive  Religion. — 
The  religion  of  primitive  man  may  practically 
be  reduced  to  two  elements:  animism  and  ancestor- 
worship  (qq.v.),  totemism  (q.v.)  being  based  ulti- 
mately upon  animism.  Generally  speaking,  the 
more  primitive  a  people  is,  the  more  its  worship 
tends  to  be  propitiatory  in  character.  In  other 
words,  the  superhuman  powers,  whether  spirits  or 
ghosts,  are  felt  to  be  ill-disposed  toward  mankind, 
and  the  reverence  which  they  inspire  is  based  on 
fear  rather  than  on  love.  It  is  only  with  the 
advance  in  ethical  conceptions  that  the  sentiment 
of  gratitude  for  benefits  or  of  abstract  love  for  the 
gods  can  arise.  For  this  reason  good  deities  or 
those  held  to  reside  at  a  great  distance — such  as  an 
all-god — are  apt  to  receive  little  worship;  the 
far-off  king  of  the  gods  may  safely  be  neglected,  but 
his  servants,  who  are  close  at  hand,  must  be  feared. 

III.  Religion  and  Environment. — While  it 
would  seem  that  all  religions,  whether  primitive  or 
advanced,  are  reducible  to  a  few  elements,  and 
while,  in  a  sense,  the  chief  interest  in  the  study  of 
religions  centers  about  the  developments  and  the 
interplay  of  these  elements,  it  nevertheless  remains 
true  that  one  of  the  main  factors  in  the  evolution  of 


a  religion  is  environment.  A  people  in  Melanesia, 
for  example,  may  be  as  profoundly  convinced  of 
animism  and  ghosts  as  the  Eskimo ;  yet  the  different 
conditions  of  life  will  inevitably  lead  to  a  different 
manifestation  of  the  religious  instincts  J  a  settled 
agricultural  people  like  the  Hopi  wiU  differ  widely 
from  such  nomads  as  the  AustraUans;  the  warlike 
Ashanti  wiU  be  quite  unhke  some  timid  Amazon 
tribes._  As  a  people  rises  in  the  scale  of  civiUzation, 
its  religion  changes;  yet  often  there  remain  sur- 
vivals ("superstitions,"  in  the  Kteral  sense  of  the 
term),  as  we  see  them  in  the  reUgions  of  Greece  and 
India. 

IV.  Animism. — The  doctrine  of  animism  holds 
that  all  objects — sun,  moon,  stars,  mountains, 
rivers,  lakes,  trees,  stones,  animals,  birds,  fish, 
insects,  reptiles,  etc. — have  spirits  like  those  which 
dwell  in  men.  These  spirits  may  even  be  more 
mighty  than  those  of  men;  they  often  speak  (as  in 
the  roaring  of  the  wind)  or  are  angry  (as  in  the 
ravage  of  the  flood),  or  have  human  passions  (as 
in  the  conjunction  of  sun  and  moon).  Thus  all 
these  things  are  personified  in  a  very  real  sense. 
Animism  is  the  basis  of  nature-worship.  It  also 
explains  many  of  the  phenomena  of  animal-worship. 
See  Animism. 

V.  Metempsychosis. — Not  only  do  all  things 
have  indwelling  spirits,  but  these  may  pass  from 
one  habitation  to  another,  not  merely  as  man's  spirit 
leaves  him  permanently  at  death,  but  even  during 
life.  There  is  little  real  distinction  between  spirits 
as  to  kind,  in  primitive  thought;  the  only  true 
difference  is  one  of  degree.  Accordingly  the  spirits 
of  men  and  of  animals  may  interchange;  and, 
since  the  spirit  is  the  real  being,  we  may  thus  have  a 
transformation  of  a  man  into  some  object,  as  a  tree 
or  a  rock;  or  an  animal  may  appear  in  human 
guise.  Later  such  a  belief  may  be  philosophized, 
notably  in  India  and  in  Pythagorean  philosophy. 
See  Metempsychosis. 

VI.  Fetishism  and  Shamanism. — Some  spirits, 
as  we  have  seen,  are  more  mighty  than  others; 
and  some  men  are  more  mighty  than  others.  This 
superiority  may  come  either  from  themselves  or 
from  some  contact  with  a  still  higher  potency; 
and  in  their  turn  they  may  transmit  it  to  those  who 
are  less  favored  in  this  regard.  Such  power  is 
known  by  various  names,  but  jjreferably  by  the 
Polynesian  term  mana.  Now,  it  often  becomes 
desirable  to  gain  additional  mana  for  some  purpose, 
e.g.,  to  be  able  by  superior  spiritual  power  to 
expel  a  spirit  of  illness  from  an  invalid,  or  to  detect 
a  thief  or  a  wizard,  or  merely  to  gain  general  pre- 
eminence over  one's  fellows.  _  An  excellent  means  of 
attaining  this  end  is  to  acquire  an  additional  spirit. 
Accordingly  we  find  the  development  oi  fetishism 
and  shamanism.  The  fetish  is  an  object  (e.g.,  a 
pebble)  whose  unusual  shape,  color,  etc.,  suggests 
that  it  is  the  abode  of  an  uncommon  spirit;  pos- 
session of  the  habitation  ensures  possession  of  the 
indwelling  spirit.  On  the  other  hand,  this  additional 
spirit-aid  may  be  needed  only  temporarily.  In 
such  case  a  man  especially  trained  and  taught 
is  believed  to  be  able  to  cause  another  ^  spirit 
to  make  its  transient  abode  within .  himself. 
Such  a  person  is  termed  a  shaman,  and  the  presence 
of  the  spirit  usually  throws  him  into  a  state  of 
ecstasy  in  which  his  normal  powers  are  greatly 
enhanced.    See  Fetishism;  Shamanism. 

VII.  Ancestor- Worship. — In  a  sense  ancestor- 
worship  also  is  a  part  of  animism,  since  it  is  a 
cult  of  a  human  spirit  which  has  departed  from  its 
earthly  body.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  is 
questionable  whether  it  is  properly  to  be  classed  with 
animism .  The  two  seldom  blend,  though  they  often 
exist  side  by  side;  sometimes  one  even  excludes 
the   other.     This    is   shown    by    the    contrasting 


Primitive  Religions 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


352 


systems  in  Melanesia  and  Polynesia;  in  the  former 
we  find  ghost-worship  rather  than  animism,  in  the 
latter  we  have  animism  rather  than  ghost- worship. 
The  view  that  all  reUgion  is  derived  from  ancestor- 
worship  is  false;  and  the  idea  that  everything 
can  be  explained  by  animism  is  equally  erroneous. 
The  two  run  parallel,  and  it  is  possible  that  even 
they  do  not  account  for  all  the  phenomena  of 
religion.  See  An cestoe- Worship;  Death  and 
Funeral  Practices. 

VIII.  Magic. — Magic  may  be  defined  epi- 
grammatically  as  the  science  of  primitive  man.  In 
itself  magic  is  un-moral;  its  morality  depends  on 
the  use  to  which  it  is  put.  If  its  aims  are  for  the 
welfare  of  the  community  or  for  one's  self  (without 
injury  to  another),  it  is  good  magic  ("white  magic") ; 
if  its  purpose  is  to  harm  the  community  or  one's 
fellows,  it  is  evil  magic  ("black  magic"),  or  sorcery, 
as  it  is  when  its  application  marks  a  reversion  to  a 
stage  which  the  community  has  outgrown.  In 
its  good  sense  magic  is  an  essential  component  of 
primitive  reUgion,  just  as  early  law  and  religion  are 
inseparable. 

Magic  falls,  further,  into  two  classes:  "imita- 
tive" and  "sympathetic."  The  principle  of  the 
former  is  "like  causes  Uke,"  of  the  latter  "the  part 
affects  the  whole."  The  sticking  of  pins  into  an 
effigy  of  one's  enemy  to  cause  him  pain  or  death  is  an 
example  of  the  one;  the  torture  of  a  foe  by  burning 
a  stolen  lock  of  his  hair  illustrates  the  other.  Natu- 
rally magic  is  often  closely  connected  with  animism, 
and  it  also  blends  frequently  with  religion.  Never- 
theless, religion  and  magic  should  be  distinguished, 
since  the  former  is  precatory  and  the  latter  manda- 
tory; one  says,  "may  the  god  do  thus";  the  other, 
"the  god  must  do  thus."  In  similar  fashion,  though 
the  priest  and  the  shaman  often  are  combined  in 
one  person,  there  is  a  fundamental  distinction: 
the  priest  stands  in  a  regular  and  quasi-continuous 
relation  to  the  divinity,  and  is  not  possessed  by 
him;  the  shaman  is  temporarily  possessed  by  the 
god;  the  one  works  by  entreaty,  the  other  by 
compulsion.    See  Magic. 

IX.  Ritual. — If  human  beings  must  be  ap- 
proached by  their  fellows  according  to  certain 
rules,  much  more  so  must  the  gods,  who  are  superior 
to  mankind.  No  worship  is  conceivable  without 
some  forms,  and  this  holds  true  even  of  systems  and 
sects  which  deny  the  vahdity  of  all  ritual,  as  well 
as  of  magic  itself.  Ritual  denotes  reverence,  and 
some  degree  of  reverence,  whether  of  fear  or  love, 
inherent  in  mankind.  Ritual  varies,  of  course, 
according  to  the  status  of  the  religion  professed. 
In  primitive  peoples  it  is  usually  very  simple 
though  the  Hopi  form  a  marked  exception;  it  tends 
to  develop  not  merely  in  elaborateness  but  in 
spiritual  content  pari  passu  with  the  evolution  of 
a  religious  system;  and  occasionally,  as  in  the 
post-Vedic  Brahmanism  of  India,  it  may  become  so 
excessive  as  to  cause  a  revolt,  which  by  no  means 
inevitably  denotes  a  true  spiritual  progress. 

Ritual  is  naturally  a  part  of  cult,  the  form  of 
worship.  Cult  comprises  sacrifice,  prayer,  religious 
ceremonies  of  all  other  kinds,  and  the  priesthood. 
The  sacrifice  has  various  purposes.  It  may  be  to 
feed  the  deities  or  otherwise  to  please  or  concihate 
them,  or  to  set  the  victim  free  in  the  spirit  world 
to  tend  the  departed;  or  it  may  be  a  communal 
meal  shared  by  divinity  and  worshipers,  this 
sometimes  leading  to  rehgious  cannibalism  and 
being  found  especially  in  totemism.  See  Totemism. 
Prayer  is  a  means  of  placing  the  individual  en 
rapport  with  the  deity  and  is  distinguished  from 
the  speU  (q.v.)  by  being  precatory,  not  mandatory. 
Among  other  ceremonies  processions  and  dances 
may  be  noticed.  The  procession  may  either  be  a 
solemn  escorting  of  the  deity  from  place  to  place, 


or  a  communal  visit  to  his  place  of  abode  (see 
Procession);  and  the  dance  may  be  either  to 
give  pleasure  to  the  divinity,  or  one  or  more  of  the 
dancers  may  personate  (i.e.,  become  identified 
with  or  possessed  by)  him.  See  Dance.  Finally 
the  priesthood  forms  the  necessary  intermediary 
between  the  deity  and  his  worshipers.  It  is  obvi- 
ously needful  that  the  god  be  approached  in  the 
proper  manner  and  by  those  who,  by  special  initia- 
tion or  learning,  possess  peculiar  quaUfications. 
In  the  most  primitive  peoples  the  priesthood  is 
seldom  a  separate  caste,  but  with  the  development 
of  the  rehgious  instinct  the  priest  tends  to  become 
a  distinct  (often  hereditary)  class,  properly  enjoying 
special  privileges  and  having  special  responsibilities 
both  toward  the  god  and  toward  his  fellow  men. 
See  Priest. 

X.  Myth. — If  magic  is  the  science  of  primitive 
man,  and  ritual  is  the  outward  expression  of  worship 
and  the  right  manner  in  which  the  divine  being 
should  be  approached,  myth  is  the  explanation  of 
how  things  come  to  be  as  they  are;  it  is  a  form  of 
history.  The  sun  is  eclipsed  (a  fact);  drums  are 
beaten  to  make  him  shine  again  (magic),  or  prayer 
is  made  that  his  light  may  again  be  seen  (ritual  and 
reUgion);  he  has  been  swallowed  by  a  dragon's 
head,  but  when  he  passes  through  the  monster's 
gullet,  he  will  once  more  be  visible  (myth).  A 
religion  without  any  attempt  at  explanation  is  as 
unthinkable  as  one  with  no  forms  of  propriety,  and 
hence  we  may  safely  affirm  that  ritual  and  myth 
are  essential  to  religion,  and  that  some  form  of  them, 
however  rude,  has  existed  in  reUgion  (and  in  magic) 
from  the  very  first. 

As  a  religion  develops,  its  older  myths  may  be 
found  inadequate  and  better  explanations  may  be 
advanced.  In  such  case  the  discarded  myth  often 
survives  in  folk-lore  (e.g.,  "the  Wild  Huntsman" 
as  an  attenuated  form  of  the  god  Thor),  just  as  an 
outworn  ritual  is  occasionaUy  found  in  folk-customs 
(e.g.,  the  children's  game  of  "London  Bridge,"  with 
its  obvious  hint  at  the  offering  of  a  human  victim  as  a 
foundation-sacrifice).    See  Myth. 

XI.  Deities. — Religion  (including  myth  and 
ritual)  is  the  relation  which,  man  holds,  exists 
between  the  human  and  the  superhuman.  This 
superhuman  element,  the  divine,  is  envisaged  by 
primitive  man  as  a  multipUcity  of  gods  of  varying 
rank.  At  their  head  we  sometimes  find  an  all-god, 
though  in  actual  worship  he  plays  a  rather  minor 
r61e.  Our  evidence  scarcely  permits  us  to  say 
definitely  that  pol3^heism  is  the  most  primitive 
stage;  it  may  be  that  it  was  monotheism.  At  all 
events,  primitive  peoples,  so  far  as  our  records 
extend,  are  invariably  polytheistic.  These  gods 
are  either  deities  of  natural  phenomena,  or  are  in  the 
forms  of  animals,  birds,  plants,  etc.,  or  are  spirits  of 
the  departed.  The  basis  is  animistic.  The  deities 
are  conceived  as  possessed  of  very  human  passions, 
often  quite  immoral  according  to  our  ideals.  Where 
the  character  attributed  to  a  deity  is  contrary  to  the 
moral  standard  of  his  worshipers,  this  may  some- 
times be  explained  by  a  moral  advance  of  the 
worshipers  beyond  the  stage  in  which  they  were 
when  the  concept  of  the  deity  in  question  was 
formed.  We  must  also  note  that  primitive  deities 
are  often  very  vague  in  nature.  This  is  in  keeping 
with  the  inabiUty  of  the  primitive  mind  to  analyze 
and  classify.  On  the  other  hand,  we  occasionally 
find  quite  speciaUzed  divinities,  particularly  where 
the  economic  status  of  the  worshiper  warrants  it, 
the  most  striking  example  being  the  "departmental 
gods"  of  the  ItaUc  and  Lithuanian  systems.  See 
also  Totemism;  Taboo. 

XII.  Taboo  and  Purification. — Man's  life  is 
hedged  about  by  prohibitions,  both  religious  and 
social,  arising  from  a  multipUcity  of  causes.    Such 


353 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Probabilism^ 


prohibitions  may  be  either  permanent  or  temporary 
(e.g.,  a  permanent  taboo  of  certain  foods  or  a 
temporary  taboo  of  mourners);  they  may  extend 
to  an  entire  people  or  may  be  restricted  to  particular 
individuals  (especially  kings)  or  classes  (e.g.,  priests 
and  warriors)  or  to  one  of  the  sexes  (e.g.,  women 
in  child-bed);  they  may  be  not  only  persons  (e.g., 
corpses)  and  harvests,  but  iron,  blood,  hair,  nails, 
words,  names,  etc. 

To  free  one's  self  from  taboo  certain  purificatory 
rites  are  necessary.  The  person  or  thing  under 
taboo  possesses  a  mana  which  may  be  perilous  to 
others,  and  a  formal  removal  of  this  influence  is 
requisite.  Only  after  the  proper  purification  has 
been  performed  may  such  an  uncanny  individual  be 
restored  to  regular  standing  in  the  community. 
See  Taboo.  L.  H.  Gray 

PRIOR,  PRIORESS.— A  monk  or  nun  next  in 
rank  below  an  abbot  or  abbess.  A  priory  is  a 
monastic  house  over  which  a  prior  or  prioress 
presides. 

PRISCILLIANISM. — A  heresy  originating  with 
PriscilUan,  bishop  of  Avila,  Spain,  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  4th.  century,  which  contained  a  fusion  of 
Gnostic  and  Manichaean  elements.  It  had  con- 
siderable currency  in  Spain  for  a  time. 

PRISON  REFORM.— The  movement  to  make 
the  confinement  of  criminals  conduce  to  their 
reformation  and  social  rehabiUtation. 

I.  History.— Pope  Clement  XI.  (1704)  is 
usually  considered  the  pioneer  in  a  modern  prison 
reform,  although  the  movement  made  no  head- 
way until  Beccaria  published  his  "Crimes  and 
Punishments"  in  1764  and  John  Howard  his  "State 
of  the  Prisons"  in  1784.  Thereafter  torture, 
excessive  punishments,  and  the  frequent  use  of  the 
death  penalty  were  abandoned.  Howard  attacked 
the  prisons  themselves  as  unsanitary,  immoral, 
and  in  every  way  unfit  for  human  habitation.  The 
Quakers  took  up  prison  reform  and  in  the  Walnut 
Street  Jail,  Philadelphia  (1790)  and  later  in  the 
Eastern  Penitentiarjr  (1817)  at  the  same  place 
put  into  practise  their  idea  of  continuous  separate 
cellular  confinement  for  each  prisoner.  In  1816 
a  somewhat  similar  system  started  at  Auburn,  N.Y., 
known  as  "the  silent  system,"  in  which  the  prisoners 
worked  together  by  day  under  the  rule  of  silence, 
but  had  each  a  separate  cell  at  night.  Both  of 
these  systems  are  now^  condemned  by  penologists, 
and  no  longer  are  used  in  America,  though  they  still 
exist  in  some  European  countries. 

After  the  exposure  by  Howard  of  the  frightful 
conditions  in  Enghsh  prisons  England  resorted  to 
deportation,  transporting  her  criminals  largely  to 
Australia  and  Tasmania  during  the  first  half  of  the 
19th.  century.  This  system  gave  the  occasion  for 
Capt.  Alexander  Maconochie  to  try  his  famous 
"mark  system"  (essentially  a  qualified  indetermi- 
nate sentence)  in  the  reformation  of  the  prisoners 
under  his  charge  on  Norfolk  Island  in  1840-44. 
Maconochie's  "mark  system"  became  later  the 
basis  of  the  "Irish  System,"  and  eventually  of  the 
present  English  Prison  System,  which  was  initiated 
in  1878,  and  which  must  now  on  the  whole  be 
considered  the  best  national  prison  system  in  the 
world. 

In  the  United  States,  prison  reform  has  made 
very  imequal  progress.  Some  states  have  better 
prison  systems  than  any  European  country,  but 
others  still  retain  very  primitive  conditions.  The 
local  jails  in  the  United  States  especially  have  quite 
generally  been  in  bad  condition.  To  deal  with  these 
evils,  the  National  (now  American)  Prison  Associa- 
tion was  formed  in  1870  by  Dr.  E.  C.  Wines,  who 


the  same  year,  in  order  to  secure  international 
co-operation  in  prison  reform,  helped  to  organize 
the  International  Prison  Congress. 

II.  The  Rbformatory  System. — One  of  the 
earUest  results  of  these  movements  was  the  opening 
in  1876  at  Elmira,  N.Y.,  of  the  New  York  Reforma- 
tory for  youthful  first  offenders  between  16  and  30 
years  of  age.  This  institution  was  practically  a 
great  industrial  school  for  the  reformation  of  young 
offenders.  The  essential  feature  of  the  Elmira 
system  is  the  indeterminate  sentence  (law  passed 
1877)  under  which  the  prisoner's  confinement  may 
be  terminated  conditionally  upon  evidence  of  his 
reformation  at  any  time  before  the  maximum  sen- 
tence imposed  by  the  law  for  his  crimes.  Under 
the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Z.  R.  Brockway  the 
Elmira  Reformatory  was  so  successful  that  its 
essential  features  have  now  been  copied  by  institu- 
tions in  seventeen  other  American  States  and  in 
several  foreign  coimtries. 

Probation  and  parole. — More  and  more  it  has 
come  to  be  recognized  that  the  prison  is  a  relatively 
unnatural  environment  even  at  its  best,  and  that 
certain  classes  of  offenders  can  be  better  reformed 
while  left  at  liberty  in  society.  Under  the  proba- 
tion system,  which  was  initiated  in  Massachusetts  in 
1878,  the  offender's  sentence  is  suspended,  and  he 
is  given  conditional  hberty,  usually  under  the 
watch-care  of  a  special  probation  officer.  Under 
the  parole  system,  a  prisoner  who  has  already  served 
a  part  of  his  sentence  is  conditionally  liberated. 
Both  of  these  systems  have  been  widely  adopted  with 
good  results. 

Prison  farms  and  public  works. — The  most 
recent  movement  is  to  provide  work  in  the  open 
air  for  the  older  adult  prisoners,  either  on  farms 
or  on  pubhc  works,  such  as  road-making.  Most  of 
the  Southern  States  have  now  replaced  the  lease 
system  of  convict  labor  by  the  prison  farm  system 
with  good  results.  Other  states  have  set  convicts 
at  work  making  roads  with  good  success.  Both  of 
these  systems,  if  surrounded  by  proper  safeguards, 
promise  much  for  the  future  solution  of  the  prison 
problem.  CharIiES  A.  Ellwood 

PRITHIVI.— The  divine  earth,  wife  of  Dyaus, 
Heaven,  in  early  Vedic  religion. 

PRIVILEGES,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  —  CathoUc 
canon  law  secured  various  clerical  privileges  which 
are  no  longer  necessary  or  recognized.  Such  were 
(1)  the  privilege  of  the  canon  (canon  15  of  the 
Lateran  synod  1139)  excommunicating  any  who 
laid  violent  hands  on  cleric  or  monk,  (2)  the  privi- 
lege of  tribunal,  exempting  the  clergy  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  state  courts,  (3)  the  privilege  of 
competency,  exempting  _  from  legal  seizure  of 
goods  beyond  the  minimum  required  for  sub- 
sistence. In  most  countries  today  a  clergyman  is 
exempt  from  army  and  jury  duty  and  his  repute  as 
a  public  character  upholding  morality  is  specially 
protected  against  unjust  attacks  that  would  destroy 
his  claim  to  pubUc  confidence.        F.  A.  Christie 

PROBABILIORISM.— In  R.C.  ethical  theory, 
the  doctrine  in  opposition  to  probabilism  (q.v.), 
that  in  case  of  doubt  as  to  the  existence,  interpre- 
tation or  appHcation  of  a  law,  one  ought  not  to 
decide  in  favor  of  the  most  agreeable  alternative 
unless  the  balance  of  probability  favors  the  legality 
of  such  action. 

PROBABILISM.— In  the  casuistic  ethics  of  the 
R.C.  church,  the  theory  that  in  case  of  doubt  as  to 
the  existence,  interpretation  or  application  of  a 
specific  moral  precept,  one  is  free  to  follow  any 
opinion  which  has  been  expressed  by  a  recognized 


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354 


doctor  of  the  church.  While  the  intent  of  the 
theory  was  to  extend  moral  control  over  cases 
where  no  clear  moral  precept  can  be  quoted,  in 
practice  the  possible  choice  of  the  most  agreeable 
permissible  alternative  led  sometimes  to  moral  laxity. 

PROCESSIONAL.— A    hymn    sung    during    a 
religious  procession,  as  when  the  choir  enters  the 
h    c  h ;   or  a  book  of  services  for  a  religious  pro- 
cession. 

PROCESSIONS.— The  orderly  and  formal 
movement  of  a  body  of  people  in  procession  was  a 
feature  of  festal  celebrations  in  the  ancient  religions, 
as  those  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Processions  likewise 
appear  at  an  early  date  among  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Christian  Church,  especially  the  penitential 
litanies  (see  Litany),  which  were  accompanied  by 
hymns  and  prayers.  Funeral  processions  and 
those  connected  with  the  translation  of  martyrs' 
relics  were  also  very  early  customary.  The  Roman 
Church  seems  to  have  adopted  some  of  the  stately 
processions  of  paganism  to  its  own  ritual,  giving 
them  a  new  meaning.  A  clear  case  is  the  solemn 
processional  rites  for  the  purification  of  the  growing 
crops  (Itistratio),  which  survived  in  the  Ascension- 
tide rogations  and  in  other  ceremonies. 

HuTTON  Webster 

PROFANATION. — The  act  of  dishonoring  or 
desecrating  things  devoted  to  religious  purposes, 
as  the  'fyrofanalion  of  a  church.  Profane  language 
is  a  vulgar  misuse  of  divine  or  sacred  names. 

PROFESSION. — The  public  acknowledgment 
of  one's  faith,  a  condition  of  membership  in  most 
Christian  churches.  In  the  R.C.  church,  the  solemn 
pledging  of  oneself  to  a  religious  order. 

PROPAGANDA,  CONGREGATION  AND 
COLLEGE  OF. — An  assembly  of  the  cardinals  and 
a  college  at  Rome  whose  task  is  the  implanting 
and  spread  of  Roman  CathoUc  Christianity  among 
non-Christians  and  heretics.  The  institution  dates 
from  1622  when  Gregory  XV.  created  the  congre- 
gation. 

PROPHECY,  PROPHETS.— The  inspirational 
element  in  reUgion. 

I.  General.  Character  of  Prophecy. — The 
distinguishing  mark  of  prophecy  in  its  primitive 
form  is  ecstasy.  The  prophet  is  a  man  "possessed" 
by  a  god,  and  thus  conceived  to  speak  and  act  for 
him.  This  description  appUes  even  to  the  higher 
manifestations  of  prophecy  in  Israel.  The  prophets 
declared  their  oracles  like  men  in  whose  bones  a 
fire  was  shut  up,  burning  till  it  found  expression 
(Jer.  20:9).  They  acted,  too,  as  if  grasped  by  a 
"strong  hand,"  from  which  they  could  not  shake 
themselves  free  (Isa.  8:11;  Ezek,  3:14),  often 
doing  deeds  which  seemed  unnatural  and  even 
fantastic,  but  which  to  their  minds  were  the  direct 
command  of  Yahweh  (Isa.  20: Iff.;  Hos.  l:lfi.; 
Ezek.  4:  Iff.). 

The  prophets  are  thus  nearly  related  to  the 
seers,  who  apprehended  the  divine  will  through 
visions,  dreams,  or  acts  of  divination.  While 
originally  independent,  the  two  orders  tend  to 
coalesce  in  the  more  spiritual  developments  of 
prophecy.  The  true  prophet  of  Yahweh  is  one 
whose  eyes  are  opened  to  see  visions  of  His  glory  and 
working,  and  whose  words  are  the  direct  outcome 
of  what  he  has  seen.  The  vision  of  the  prophets 
corresponds,  indeed,  to  the  Torah  of  the  priests  and 
the  wisdom  of  the  wise.  The  collection  of  their 
written  oracles  may  even  be  described  as  a  vision. 

II.  Ethnic  Prophecy. — The  phenomenon  of 
prophecy   is   wide-spread   iu    the   ancient    East. 


The  Old  Testament  has  familiarized  us  with  the 
figure  of  Balaam,  whom  Yahweh  inspired  to  speak 
against  his  will,  as  well  as  the  frenzied  "prophets  of 
Baal,"  who  limped  around  the  altar,  and  slashed 
their  jflesh  with  knives  and  lancets,  in  their  vain 
efforts  to  compel  Baal  to  Usten  to  them.  The 
latter  account  is  closely  paralleled  by  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  prophets  of  Adonis  and  the  mother- 
goddess  of  Syria  on  the  classical  pages  of  Lucian 
{De  Syria  dea,  ca.  50),  and  Apuleius  (Metamorphoses, 
VIII.  24-30).  We  have,  however,  a  much  earlier 
allusion  to  Phoenician  prophecy  in  the  record  of  the 
Egyptian  envoy,  Wen-amon  (ca.  1100  B.C.),  who 
tells  how,  during  his  visit  to  Byblos,  "the  god 
seized  one  of  his  noble  youths,  throwing  him  into  a 
frenzy,"  under  which  he  communicated  his  will 
to  him.  _  A  saner  type  of  prophecy  appears  in 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  notably  in  the  Admonitions 
of  an  Egyptian  Sage  (published  by  A.  H.  Gardiner, 
Leipzig,  1909),  with  its  striking  anticipation  of  the 
social  outlook  of  Amos  and  Isaiah.  From  Asia 
Minor  prophecy  in  its  extreme  ecstatic  form  passed 
through  Thrace  to  Greece  and  Southern  Italy 
(cf.  the  Dionysiac  orgies  dramatised  in  Euripides' 
Bacchae;  and  the  "inspiration"  of  the  Cumaean 
Sibyl  so  vividly  depicted  in  VergU,  Aeneid,  VI. 
45  ff.).  _  Under  the  impulse  of  the  Mohammedan 
awakening  it  likewise  invaded  Arabia,  and  still 
actively  survives  in  the  ecstatic  dances  of  the 
dervishes  of  Islam. 

III.  Prophecy  in  Israel. — 1.  Origins. — The 
first  recorded  instance  of  prophetic  inspiration  in 
Israel  is  found  in  Deborah,  who  roused  her  people 
to  the  great  battle  for  independence  at  Megiddo. 
Kut  the  typical  prophets  of  the  earUer  period  are 
seen  in  those  bands  of  religious  ecstatics  who  cross 
ihe  stage  during  the  stress  of  the  Phihstine  peril 
md  in  later  crises  sweep  through  the  land  on 
pTahweh's  errands,  clothed  in  the  hairy  mantle  and 
leathern  girdle  of  their  caste,  appearing  to  the 
sober  spectator  no  better  than  madmen.  On  the 
surface  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  these  ecstatic 
bands  from  the  prophets  of  Baal  and  Islam;  but 
the  religion  of  Israel  contained  the  promise  of  rich 
moral  advancement,  and  the  prophets  soon  led  the 
van  of  progress.  We  have  an  earnest  of  the  future 
in  Nathan's  condemnation  of  David.  The  decisive 
impulse,  however,  was  given  by  EUjah  the  Tishbite, 
when  he  insisted  not  merely  on  the  exclusive  claims 
of  Yahweh  to  the  allegiance  of  His  people,  but  on 
the  equal  bearing  of  moral  principles  on  king  and 
commoner.  By  so  doing  he  guided  the  reUgion  of 
Israel  along  the  high  road  to  ethical  monotheism. 

2.  Prophets  of  the  Assyrian  era.— The  century 
that  followed  Elijah  saw  vast  material  progress. 
Under  the  auspices  of  Jeroboam  II.  and  his  con- 
temporary Uzziah  the  Great,  victory  had  crowned 
the  arms  of  both  Israel  and  Judah;  and  with  this 
came  wealth  and  luxury.  But  behind  the  outward 
splendor  rose  the  dark  shadow  of  poverty,  made 
ever  deeper  by  the  greed,  injustice  and  tyranny  of 
the  rich.  To  dispel  the  shadow  no  help  appeared 
from  priest  or  judge.  In  this  emergency  Amos  of 
Tekoa  (ca.  750  B.C.)  stood  forth  as  the  champion 
oi  justice.  What  Yahweh  required  was  not  worship 
and  sacrifice,  but  straight  dealing  in  market  and 
law-courts  (Amos  5:21ff.).  The  other  side  is 
emphasized  by  his  Northern  contemporary  Hosea, 
the  tender,  suffering  prophet  of  love  (Hos.  6:6); 
while  Isaiah  blends  the  two  ideas  in  his  prophetic 
conception  of  holiness,  which  he  identfees  with 
justice,  humanity  and  mercy  (Isa.  l:16f.).  His 
democratic  compatriot  Micah  pleads  especially 
the  cause  of  the  dispossessed  peasantry  of  Judah, 
inveighing  against  the  cruelty  of  the  land-grabbers, 
and  calling  down  swift  doom  on  Samaria  and  Jerusa- 
lem as  the  incarnate  sin  of  their  people  (Mic.  1 : 5  ff .). 


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Protestant  Episcopal 


3.  Prophets  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  Judah. — 
For  almost  another  century  the  voice  of  prophecy 
is  silent,  but  the  breaking  of  the  Scythian  storm 
(ca.  626  B.C.)  rouses  it  to  new  Ufe,  and  the  austere 
Zephaniah  hurls  forth  his  bolts  of  judgment. 
P?5BaGIy  in  the  same  year  Jejjemiah  heard  the 
call  to  prophesy.  Till  the  destruction  oT  Jerusalem 
in  586  B.C.  he  upheld  the  banner  of  purity,  truth, 
justice,  and  love,  meeting  persistent  opposition  and 
persecution,  but  standing  bravely  at  his  post,  and 
finding  in  his  despised  prophecy  "the  bridge  to 
an  intimate  relation  with  God"  (Wellhausen), 
which  made  him  pre-eminently  the  prophet  of 
personal  religion.  Meantime  the  Jewish  patriot 
Nahma  (ca.  610  b.c.)  had  hailed  the  approaching 
dowmall  of  Nineveh  with  a  paean  of  exultant  song, 
and  the  author  of  the  earUer  section  of  Habakkuk 
(1:1-11)  greeted  the  terrible  Chaldeans  as  the  in- 
strument of  Yahweh's  vengeance  on  His  perverse 
and  rebellious  people. 

4.  Prophets  of  the  exile.  —  While  Judah  was 
thus  facing  her  doom,  the  captive  prophet  Ezekiel 
had  been  preparing  his  fellow-exiles  in  Babylonia 
for  the  inevitable  end.  When  the  news  at  last' 
came,  he  changed  the  accent  of  his  prophecy,  andl 
labored  as  preacher  and  pastor  to  bring  back  his/ 
people  to  their  God,  and  so  to  lay  the  foundations  of 
the  New  Jerusalem  of  his  dreams  (Ezek.  40: 1  ff.).' 
As  the  days  lengthened,  men  asked  impatiently 
how  long  the  wicked  were  to  swallow  up  the  right- 
eous. For  some  time  the  only  counsel  was  faith, 
then  like  a  meteor  Cyrus  shot  across  the  poUtical 
heavens,  and  the  great  Prophet  of  Comfort  (ca. 
546-40  B.C.)  proclaimed  aloud  that  the  day  of  deUver- 
ance  was  come,  and  that  Israel's  sufferings  were  for 
the  salvation  of  the  world  (Isa.  40-55). 

5.  Prophets  of  the  New  Jerusalem.— The  Restora- 
tion in  538  B.C.  was  succeeded  by  a  period  of  dis- 
illusionment and  despondency,  when  once  more 
prophecy  sounded  the  call  to  faith  and  duty.  The 
words  of  Haggai  (520  B.C.)  and  Zechariah  (520- 
18  B.C.)  are  concerned  primarily  with  the  building 
of  the  Temple;  but  even  so  the  end  of  worship 
in  their  eyes  is  truth  and  righteousness  (Zech.  8: 
16  f.).  This  ethical  note  is  still  more  evident  in 
Malachi  and  Isaiah  56-66  (ca.  460  B.C.),  while  the 
Gospel  of  God's  free,  universal  love  rings  through  the 
book  of  Jonah  (ca.  250  B.C.). 

6.  Transition  to  Apocalypse. — In  several  of  the 
later  prophets  we  can  trace  an  approach  to  Apocar 
lypse,  that  peculiar  literary  form  under  whicn^ 
spiritual  truths  are  enforced,  not  by  direct  appeal 
to  heart  and  conscience,  but  oy  a  series  of  elaborate 
visions  converging  on  a  final  judgment-scene. 
The  transition  to  Apocalypse  is  definitely  made  m 
the  books  of  Obadiah  (ca.  400  B.C.),  Joel  (somewhat 
later  than  Obadiah),  Zechariah  9-14  and  Isaiah 
24-27  (during  the  3rd.  or  2nd.  century  b.c), 
but  especially  in  the  classic  Old  Testament  Apoca- 
lypse of  Daniel,  written  to  comfort  and  strengthen 
the  faithful  sons  of  Zion  in  the  dark  days  of  persecu- 
tion under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (167-65  B.C.). 

IV.  Christian  Prophecy. — With  the  domi- 
nance of  Apocalypse  prophecy  died  out  of  Judaism; 
but  it  experienced  a  temporary  revival  in  Chris- 
tianity. Both  John  the  Baptist  and  Jesus  were 
recognized  as  prophets,  for  they  spoke  with  the 
authority  of  inward  conviction,  "and  not  as  the 
scribes.  There  is  frequent  reference  to  prophets 
also  in  the  New  Testament  Acts  and  Epistles.  In 
part  Christian  prophecy  is  identified  with  pre- 
diction (Acts  11:28;  21:10f.);  in  part  it  is  a 
recrudescence  of  the  older  ecstasy  (cf .  especially  the 
"speaking  with  tongues");  but  the  highest  order 
of  prophets  are  those  who  hold  their  spirits  in 
check,  and  minister  to  the  edification  and  comfort 
of  believers  (I  Cor.  14: 3,  24  ff.).    As  such,  prophets 


assume  a  position  in  the  Church  second  only  to  that 
of  the  Apostles  and  even  alongside  of  them.  In  the 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  they  hold  supreme 
authority  over  the  local  Christian  communities, 
their  utterances  being  regarded  as  the  very  word 
of  God,  which  it  is  unpardonable  sin  to  challenge 
or  criticize,  and  they  themselves  being  entitled  to 
the  first-fruits  of  every  kind  of  produce,  "for  they 
are  your  chief-priests."  Abuses,  however,  crept 
in,  and  the  authority  of  the  prophets  gradually 
yielded  to  that  of  the  regular  ministry,  Montanist 
and  other  attempts  to  resuscitate  their  influence 
being  crushed  by  the  sheer  weight  of  ecclesiasticism. 
In  the  modern  church,  prophecy  may  be  held  to 
survive  in  the  impassioned  preaching  or  religious 
insight  which  comes  from  an  intense  spiritual 
experience.  Alex  R.  Gordon 

PROPITIATION.— The  act  of  gaining  the  favor 
of  a  god  through  the  performance  of  some  act 
calculated  to  remove  guilt  or  divine  displeasure. 
In  primitive  religions  this  act  is  one  of  the  tribal 
customs  and  may  be  of  various  sorts.  Since  mis- 
fortunes are  generally  regarded  as  due  to  an  offense 
done  either  consciously  or  unconsciously  to  the  god, 
primitive  customs  prescribed  sacrifices,  feasts, 
self-abasement,  suffering,  or  the  performance  of  some 
ritual  act  of  the  nature  of  penance.  Cultural 
views  of  the  god's  nature  or  attitudes  have  deter- 
nained  the  belief  as  to  the  nature  and  cause  of  the 
divine  displeasure  and  the  proper  means  by  which 
it  could  be  removed.  The  conception  of  propitia- 
tion accordingly  has  varied  with  the  development 
of  social  ideals  and  penal  methods.  In  the  higher 
religions  the  thought  of  propitiation  has  been 
reduced  to  hardly  more  than  a  formahty  or  trans- 
formed into  some  moral  adjustment  with  the  deity. 
In  Christian  theology  the  thought  of  actual  propitia- 
tion of  the  angry  Father  has  persisted  in  those 
doctrines  of  the  atonement  which  represent  the 
Father's  punitive  justice  and  anger  at  sin  as  having 
been  removed  or  satisfied  by  the  death  of  the  Son 
on  the  cross.  Such  views  arise  from  the  literaliz- 
ing  of  certain  N.T.  expressions  and  the  emphasizing 
of  social  and  political  customs  of  the  feudal  and 
early  nationalistic  periods.  They  have  disappeared 
in  most  modern  attempts  to  interpret  the  Christian 
salvation.    See  Atonement;  Sacrifice. 

Shailer  Mathews 

PROPRIUM. — In  the  philosophical  system  of 
Swedenborg,  the  distinguishing  quality  of  any 
individual  personality. 

PROSELYTE. — ^Etymologically,  a  sojourner  or 
stranger;  in  customary  usage,  a  convert  from  one 
reUgion  to  another,  the  original  sense  referring  to 
a  convert  to  Judaism. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  THE. 

— ^This  is  an  autonomous  branch  of  the  Anglican 
Communion,  organized  in  America  after  the 
Revolutionary  War,  by  those  who  had  belonged  to 
the  Church  of  England  (q.v.). 

The  EngUsh  Church  was  planted  in  Virginia  in 
1607,  and  before  the  Revolution  congregations 
had  been  organized  in  all  the  colonies.  Parlia- 
mentary laws,  however,  and  other  causes  pre- 
vented the  consecration  of  Bishops  for  America, 
and  many  of  the  clergy  who  were  sent  there  were 
unworthy.  Moreover,  when  the  Revolution  came, 
many  of  the  Church's  ministers  showed  Tory 
leanings,  and  this  threw  all  earnest  Churchmen 
under  poUtical  suspicion. 

1.  Organization. — 'Accordingly,  it  was  under  dis- 
couraging circumstances  that  the  organization  of  this 
Church  was  undertaken.  Certain  EngUsh  laws 
had  to  be  repealed  before  American  Bishops  could 


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356 


be  consecrated  in  England.  However,  Samuel 
Seabury  of  Connecticut  secured  consecration  by 
Bishops  of  the  Scotch  Episcopal  Church  in  1784. 
EngUsh  consecrations  were  obtained  for  William 
White  (Pennsylvania)  and  Samuel  Provoost  (New 
York)  in  1787,  and  James  Madison  (Virginia)  in 
1790.  In  1792  these  two  lines  of  succession  were 
united  by  all  the  Bishops  above  named  participating 
in  the  consecration  of  Thomas  Claggett  (Maryland) . 

The  organization  of  the  Church  was  achieved  by 
several  General  Conventions  between  1785  and  1789 
on  Unes  somewhat  analogous  to  those  of  the.national 
constitution,  a  number  of  framers  of  that  document 
being  active  in  these  Conventions.  The  Church's 
legislative  body  is  a  General  Convention,  consisting 
of  a  House  of  Bishops  and  a  House  of  Deputies,  the 
latter  made  up  of  clerical  and  lay  deputies  from 
each  diocese.  All  canonical  legislation  must  be 
adopted  by  both  Houses,  voting  separately.  Regu- 
lar sessions  take  place  triennially. 

Each  local  diocese  and  missionary  jurisdiction 
has  its  own  Convention  of  clergy  and  lay  deputies, 
with  limited  legislative  powers.  The  diocesan 
Bishop  presides.  In  1913  the  dioceses  were  grouped 
in  eight  provinces,  each  having  a  Council  with 
certain  legislative  functions. 

2.  Doctrines  and  worship. — These  are  embodied 
in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  (q.v.).  This 
book,  except  for  adaptations  to  American  poUtical 
conditions,  conforms  closely  to  the  EngUsh  Prayer 
Book.  The  Athanasian  Creed  has  been  dropped 
for  prudential  reasons;  and,  although  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  (q.v.)  are  retained,  no  subscription 
to  them  is  required.  But  the  preface  declares 
"that  this  Church  is  far  from  intending  to  depart 
from  the  Church  of  England  in  any  essential 
point  of  doctrine,  discipline  or  worship;  or  further 
than  local  circumstances  require."  The  Apostles' 
and  Nicene  Creeds  are  emphasized,  and  no  dis- 
tinctive or  denominational  doctrine  or  principle  is 
imposed.  A  CathoUc  Uturgy  and  traditional 
sacramental  institutions  are  retained. 

3.  Development. — After  a  period  of  discourage- 
ment, the  consecration  in  1811  of  Bishops  Hobart 
(New  York)  and  Griswold  (Eastern  Diocese — i.e., 
New  England,  except  Connecticut)  brought  quick- 
ening leadership.  The  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary was  founded  in  1817.  Missionaries  crossed  the 
Allegheny  Mountains.  Bishop  Chase  was  conse- 
crated for  Ohio  in  1819,  and  Bishop  Smith  for 
Kentucky  in  1832.  In  1835,  the  Diocese  of  Illinois 
was  recognized,  the  Board  of  Missions  was  organ- 
ized, and  Bishop  Kemper  was  sent  to  labor  with 
much  success  in  the  North-West.  In  1853  Bishop 
Kip  was  consecrated  for  CaUfornia,  and  the  inter- 
vening territory  has  long  been  covered  by  missionary 
districts  and  dioceses.  The  first  foreign  missionary 
Bishop  was  consecrated  for  China  in  1844.  Today, 
episcopal  jurisdictions  cover  all  American  terri- 
tories and  possessions,  and  missions  in  China, 
Japan,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Brazil,  Mexico  and  Liberia,  as 
well  as  American  congregations  in  Europe. 

In  1830,  the  number  of  communicants  was 
30,939,  which  in  1920  had  become  1,096,895. 
These  figures  have  to  be  more  than  doubled  in 
computing  baptized  membership.  In  1920,  there 
were  133  Bishops  and  5,987  clergy.  For  these  a 
retiring  pension  fund  of  $7,500,000  was  raised  by 
popular  subscription,  during  the  year  ending 
March  1,  1917.  In  1920  the  fund  amounted  to 
$8,500,000.  ,  .  . 

4.  Work  for  unity. — Conscious  of  retaining 
the  faith,  the  ministry  and  the  sacraments  of  the 
ancient  undivided  Church,  unencumbered  with 
either  papal  supremacy,  state  control  or  sectarian 
doctrines  peculiar  to  itself,  this  Church  has  been 
impelled  to  labor  for  unity.     In  a  didactic  Declara- 


tion on  Unity  in  1886,  the  House  of  Bishops  affirmed 
that  the  way  to  unity  lies  in  "the  return  of  all 
Christian  Communions  to  the  principles  of  unity 
exemplified  by  the  undivided  Catholic  Church 
during  the  first  ages  of  its  existence." 

In  1910  a  Commission  was  appointed  to  bring 
about  a  World  Conference  on  questions  of  Faith 
and  Order — a  Conference  only,  without  power  to 
commit  its  participants  to  any  particular  scheme 
of  reunion,  this  being  deemed  premature.  Its 
purpose  is  simply  to  promote  mutual  understanding 
concerning  the  differences  which  now  divide  Chris- 
tendom. A  large  part  of  the  Christian  world  has 
accepted  the  invitation  to  take  part  in  the  proposed 
Conference.  The  war  delayed  the  undertaking, 
but  a  preliminary  Conference,  at  which  the  bulk  of 
Christendom,  outside  the  Roman  Communion  was 
represented,  was  held  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in 
August,  1920.  Francis  J.  Hall 

PROTESTANTISM.— A  term  used  to  express 
the  doctrines  and  practices  of  bodies  of  Christians 
distinct  from  the  R.C.  church. 

Its  origin  is  in  the  Protest  issued  by  5  princes 
and  14  free  cities  of  Germany  against  the  action  of 
the  Diet  of  Spires  in  1529  revoking  the  decision  of  a 
Diet  of  Spires  in  1526  according  to  which  each  Ger- 
man prince  should  determine  the  religion  of  his 
subjects.  The  Protest  was  not  theological  but  the 
assertion  of  the  powerlessness  of  one  Diet  to  revoke 
by  a  majority  vote  the  unanimous  decision  of  a 
predecessor,  and  of  the  liberty  of  the  princes  to 
determine  religious  practices  and  views  within  their 
own  territory.  Thereafter  the  term  Protestant 
came  into  general  use  as  a  synonym  for  Luther- 
ans. In  English  usage  the  term  came  to  stand 
for  (1)  those  who  supported  the  Anglican  church 
as  opposed  to  Roman  Catholics,  Puritans,  and 
members  of  various  sects,  and  (2)  later  for  all 
those  who  were  opposed  to  the  R.C.  church.  It 
appears  in  such  designations  as  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church,  and  the  Methodist  Protestant 
church.  Certain  non-Catholic  groups,  especially 
the  Baptists,  have  sometimes  refused  to  be  called 
Protestants  on  the  ground  that  they  originated  in 
the  N.T.  period  rather  than  in  that  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Similarly  there  is  a  growing  opposition  to  the 
use  of  the  term  by  Anglicans  and  American  Episco- 
palians and  a  corresponding  preference  of  the  term 
Cathohc  (q.v.).  The  general  usage,  however,  is 
that  contained  in  the  definition  given  above.  See 
Confession  op  Faith.  Shailer  Mathews 

PROTHONOTARY.— In  the  Eastern  church 
the  title  of  the  chief  secretary  to  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  In  the  R.C.  church,  a  name 
given  to  several  registrars  of  noteworthy  pontifical 
business. 

PROTOPAPAS  or  PROTOPOPE.— In  the 

Greek  Orthodox  church  a  priest  of  high  dignity, 
equivalent  to  the  dean  or  archdeacon  in  the  Western 
church. 

PROVIDENCE.— The  doctrine  that  the  uni- 
verse as  a  whole  and  in  its  details  is  divinely  admin- 
istered so  as  to  promote  the  good. 

The  conception  of  a  benevolent  order  in  the 
universe  is  wide-spread.  In  the  Stoic  doctrine  of 
providence  and  in  the  "Heaven"  of  Taoism  the 
cosmic  order  is  praised  and  trusted  as  good. 

In  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan  the- 
ology. Providence  is  always  traced  to  the  wisdom 
and  will  of  the  personal  God.  The  reUgious  man 
may  know  that  "all  things  work  together  for  good 
to  them  that  love  God." 


357 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Psychical  Research 


The  details  of  an  explicit  doctrine  of  Providence 
vary  greatly,  ranging  from  strict  predestination 
(q.v.)  according  to  wliich  God  prescribes  every 
event,  to  the  conception  of  a  world  in  which  moral 
values  may  be  achieved,  but  man's  free  endeavor  is 
essential.  The  most  serious  difficulty  encountered 
by  the  doctrine  is  the  fact  of  evil  (q.v.) .  Theologians 
have  distinguished  between  general  'providence, 
which  is  expressed  in  a  rational  and  benevo- 
lent world-order,  and  special  providence  in  which 
God  performs  specific  acts  for  specific  individuals. 
Miracles  (qv.)  are  examples  of  special  providence. 
The  modern  conception  of  evolution  (q.v.)  has 
considerably  modified  the  idea  of  providence. 
Long  processes  rather  than  specific  events  lie  at 
the  oasis  of  values.  Accordingly  the  conception 
of  special  providence  is  receding,  and  general 
providence  is  seen  in  the  opportunities  open  for 
human  spiritual  development  rather  than  in  exter- 
nally fixed  conditions.       Gerald  Birney  Smith 

PROVINCIAL. — In  certain  religious  orders, 
a  superior  responsible  to  the  general  for  the  oversight 
of  the  houses  of  that  order  in  a  province  or  district. 

PROVOST. — A  prior  (q.v.),  abbot,  or  other 
person  with  supreme  religious  authority  in  a 
church  or  religious  community.  In  Germany 
the  pastor  of  the  leading  church  in  a  district. 

PRUDENCE. — The  wise  and  careful  scrutiny 
of  the  probable  outcome  of  any  action,  so  as  to 
avoid  conduct  leading  to  undesirable  consequences. 
By  Greek,  Roman,  and  mediaeval  Christian 
Moralists,  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  four  cardinal 
virtues,  furnishing  that  wisdom  without  which 
there  could  be  no  rational  or  virtuous  action.  In 
modern  times  the  word  ordinarily  means  cautious 
discretion  and  sometimes  refers  to  a  selfish  regard 
for  one's  own  interests.  It  is  thus  often  disparaged 
as  an  influence  leading  to  the  avoidance  of  the  risk 
involved  in  courageously  facing  moral  opportunity 
when  success  is  not  assured.  See  Virtues  and 
Vices. 

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA.— (Literally,  "with  false 
superscription.")  Writings  put  forth  under  a 
fake  claim  as  to  their  authorship. 

This  term  is  especially  applied  to  certain  late 
Jewish  works,  whose  writers  put  them  forth  under 
the  names  of  venerated  patriarchs,  sages  or  prophets, 
perhaps  because  the  Canon  of  Jewish  prophets  was 
closed  and  no  one  might  any  longer  claim  such 
inspiration;  perhaps  out  of  a  pious  disposition  to 
efface  one's  self  and  exalt  the  ancients,  and  to  secure 
for  one's  views  something  of  their  prestige.  This 
well  recognized  literary  custom  was  especially 
characteristic  of  Jewish  apocalyptic  literature  which 
was  regularly  put  into  the  mouth  of  some  ancient 
worthy  like  Enoch,  or  Daniel.  The  late  Wisdom 
Literature  also  was  put  forth  under  the  name  of 
Solomon.  The  Jewish  examples,  mostly  apoca- 
lypses, are  Enoch,  Daniel,  Baruch,  Tobit,  etc. 
In  early  Christian  literature  the  pseudepigraphic 
element  is  abundant;  The  Gospel  of  Nicodemus, 
II  Peter,  the  Revelation  of  Peter,  the  Gospel  of 
Peter,  the  Preaching  of  Peter,  and,  according  to 
some  scholars,  Ephesians,  are  among  the  earliest 
examples.  The  interpolation  of  the  seven  Ignatian 
letters  and  their  expansion  to  more  than  twice  that 
number  exemplify  a  different  pseudepigraphical  type. 
Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

PSEUDO-DIONYSIUS.— A  name  used  to  desig- 
nate the  unknown  author  of  certain  Christian 
writings  probably  originating  in  the  5th.  century 
and  alleged  to  have  been  the  work  of  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite  mentioned  in  Acts  17:34. 


PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN  DECRETALS.— A  9th. 
century  collection  of  alleged  decrees  derived  from 
earUer  luaterials  genuine  and  spurious,  prepared 
with  unlimited  fabrication  of  documents  (decretals 
of  early  bishops  of  Rome,  etc.)  containing  whatever 
was  needful  to  estabhsh  the  absolute  authority  of 
the  pope  over  metropoUtans  and  civil  rulers,  and 
the  right  of  unlimited  appeal  to  Rome  from  decisions 
of  local  prelates  and  tribunals.  As  the  forgeries 
were  perfectly  accordant  with  papal  poUcy  they 
readily  gained  acceptance  at  Rome  and  were  incor- 
porated in  all  later  compilations  of  Canon  Law 
(Decretiim  of  Gratian,  etc.).  The  forgeries  were 
not  discovered  (or  exploited)  until  the  Renaissance 
(Laurentius  Valla)  and  were  not  admitted  by 
Romanists  till  some  time  later.        A.  H .  Newman 

PSEUDO-MESSIAHS.— Persons  who  have 
claimed  to  be>Messiah3  but  have  failed  to  do  mes- 
sianic work.  There  have  been  numerous  men  who 
have  made  claims  to  messianic  dignity,  some  of 
whom  have  attracted  a  considerable  number  of  fol- 
lowers. Josephus  mentions  several  such  pretenders, 
but  the  most  important  was  Bar  Cochbar  (q.v.), 
who  headed  a  great  revolt  of  the  Jews  during  the 
reign  of  Hadrian.    See  Messiah. 

PSYCHICAL  RESEARCH.— ;The  name  com- 
monly used  to  denote  scientific  investigation  into 
alleged  physical  and  psychical  phenomena  not 
recognized  by  physics  and  psychology. 

Of  late  years  the  term  has  been  more  specifically 
applied  to  the  work  of  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  founded  in  London  in  1882,  and  of  similar 
organizations  in  America  and  elsewhere. 

The  matters  investigated  by  these  societies  may 
be  grouped  under  the  following  heads:  physical 
phenomena,  the  subliminal  self,  telepathy  (includ- 
ing phantasms  and  clairvoyance),  communication 
from  the  dead.  No  general  agreement  has  been 
reached  as  to  physical  phenomena  uncaused  by 
known  physical  forces.  On  the  other  hand  vari- 
ous phenomena  of  the  subliminal  self  have  been 
so  well  established  that  many  of  them  are  at 
present  being  handed  over  (as  "mesmerism"  was, 
under_  the  name  hypnotism)  to  psychology  and 
psychiatry.  The  facts  of  telepathy  and  clairvoy- 
ance have  also  been  very  nearly  demonstrated, 
though  nothing  whatever  is  known  of  the  method 
by  which  they  work.  The  success  of  psychical 
research  in  estabhshing  the  reality  of  telepathy  may 
prevent  the  demonstration  of  human  survival  of 
death.  For  though  survival  might  be  made  prob- 
able by  production  of  facts  unknown  to  the  medium 
and  to  all  but  the  departed,  a  telepathic  explanation 
is  always  conceivable  if  the  knowledge  of  these 
facts  be  shared  by  a  single  Hving  person.  Thus 
the  possibiUty  of  telepathy  seems  to  vitiate  all 
attempts  at  proving  communication  from  discarnate 
spirits.  Two  types  of  experiment  have  been  tried 
which  seek  to  avoid  this  difficulty.  (1)  Mediums 
have  attempted  to  read  notes  left  sealed  by  departed 
experimenters,  whose  contents  were  known  to  no 
one  living.  The  result  has  invariably  been  failure. 
(2)  Different  mediums,  separated  by  great  dis- 
tances, and  with  no  (conscious)  collusion,  have 
given  out  more  or  less  uninterpretable  messages, 
which  when  pieced  together  have  formed  a  fairly 
intelHgible  whole,  and  one  characteristic  of  the 
alleged  communicator  on  the  "other  side."  (See 
Vols.  XVII-XXIV  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research.)  "Cross  Correspondence" 
of  this  sort  would  be  difficult  to  explain  by  telepathy; 
but  the  correspondences  thus  far  recorded  can 
hardly  be  considered  decisive  evidence, 

James  Bissett  Pratt 


Psychology  of  ReUgion       A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


358 


PSYCHOLOGY  OF  RELIGION.— A  scientific 
description  of  tiie  religious  consciousness  and  of  the 
laws  underlying  its  action. 

Thie  psychology  of  religion  is  a  branch  of  general 
psychology.  It  seeks  to  collect  the  facts  of  the 
religious  consciousness,  systematize  them  into  a 
scientific  description,  establish  laws  of  sequence 
between  them,  and  if  possible  explain  them  by  the 
appUcation  of  various  general  psychological  prin- 
ciples. 

1.  The  Methods  op  the  PsYCHOLoaY  op 
Reugion. — 1.  The  collection  of  data. — The  first 
task  of  the  psychological  student  of  rehgion  is  the 
collection  of  trustworthy  data.  Three  principal 
methods  have  been  used  for  this  purpose.  The  first 
is  a  study  of  individual  experiences  as  portrayed  in 
autobiographies,  letters,  and  other  spontaneous 
expressions  of  religious  persons.  The  second 
method  is  the  collection  of  answers  to  definite 
questions  from  a  number  of  persons  through  the 
use  of  a  questionnaire.  The  third  method  investi- 
gates the  relatively  objective  expressions  of  social 
rehgion  furnished  by  the  cults,  behefs,  institutions, 
and  sacred  hteratures  of  various  peoples. 

2.  Advantages  and  dangers  of  these  methods. — 
The  first  two  of  these  methods  have  the  advantage 
of  studying  rehgious  experience  at  its  source. 
On  the  other  hand,  their  automatically  selective 
tendency  emphasizes  an  unusual  type  of  character. 
The  third  method  has  the  merit  of  objectivity  but 
the  great  disadvantage  of  giving  us  either  anthro- 
pology or  sociology  rather  than  psychology.  All 
three  methods  have  their  value  if  used  critically. 

3.  Systematization  of  data. — The  psychologist, 
having  collected  and  critically  examined  the  facts 
of  the  rehgious  consciousness,  arranges  them  so  that 
they  may  throw  fight  upon  each  other,  and  interprets 
them  on  the  principles  of  general  psychology. 

II.  Rise  and  Development  op  the  Science. — 
Writers  on  the  philosophy  of  religion,  from  the  time 
of  Augustine  and  even  of  St.  Paul,  have  dealt  with 
certain  psychological  factors  of  religion,  but  the 
application  of  modem  critical  and  empirical  methods 
to  the  study  of  rehgion  hardly  antedates  the 
last  decade  of  the  19th.  century.  The  first 
technical  work  of  this  sort  was  probably  that  of 
a  group  of  investigators  connected  with  Clark 
University,  the  impetus  coming  from  President  G. 
Stanley  Hall,  important  results  being  obtained  by 
Leuba  ("The  Psychology  of  Rehgious  Phenomena," 
Am.  Jour,  of  Psy.,  1896,  and  other  articles)  and 
Starbuck  (The  Psychology  of  Religion,  1899).  The 
principal  subjects  investigated  by  this  group  of 
psychologists  were  connected  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  rehgious  Ufe  of  the  individual,  in 
childhood  and  particularly  during  adolescence,  the 
chief  emphasis  being  put  upon  the  phenomena  of 
conversion.  Further  work  was  done  upon  the 
latter  problem  by  Coe  (The  Spiritual  Life,  1900) 
and  James  {The  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience, 
1903).  James's  data  were  drawn  chiefly  from  the 
study  of  unusual  individuals — a  disadvantage 
largely  counterbalanced  by  the  insight  and  sug- 
gestiveness  of  the  treatment.  In  connection  with 
the  study  of  conversion  some  work  has  also  been 
done  on  the  psychology  of  revivals  (notably  by 
Davenport,  Fryer,  and  Fursac). 

The  first  psychological  studies  of  mysticism 
appeared  in  France,  at  the  end  of  the  19th.  century. 
The  most  important  of  these  were  from  the  pens  of 
Murisier  ( Les  maladies  du  sentiment  religieux) ,  Leuba 
("Tendences  fondamentales  des  mystiques  Chreti- 
ens," Revue.  Phil,  1902),  and  Delacroix  (Etudes 
d'histoire  et  de  psychologic  du  mysticisme,  1908). 
James's  Varieties  was  also  chiefly  a  study  of  mysti- 
cism, and  differed  from  the  three  other  works  named 
in  giving  a  less  naturalistic  interpretation  to  the 


phenomena  concerned.  Recent  writers  on  the 
subject  are  still  divided  on  this  question  of  inter- 
pretation, Boutroux,  Miss  Underbill,  and  Mrs. 
Hermann  refusing  the  naturahstic  view,  which 
is  supported  by  Floumoy  and  various  psychia- 
trists. 

A  large  part  of  the  more  recent  work  on  the 
psychology  of  rehgion  has  been  devoted  to  the 
question  of  the  origin  of  various  rehgious  phe- 
nomena, and  to  the  nature  and  scope  of  rehgious 
custom,  or  social  habit,  in  early  society.  These 
investigations  have  been  based  in  part  upon  the 
results  of  historical  and  anthropological  research, 
in  part  upon  child  psychology,  and  their  aim  has 
been  to  interpret  the  various  sociological  and 
objective  phenomena  involved  in  such  a  way  as  to 
throw  new  light  upon  the  nature  and  workings  of  the 
religious  consciousness.  In  Germany  the  leader  of 
this  branch  of  researches  Wundt  (  Volkerpsychologie, 
1909),  who  maintains  that  religion  can  be  under- 
stood only  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  origin. 
Much  suggestive  work  upon  the  nature  of  religion 
has  been  done  in  France  by  Durkheim  and  his 
school,  which  would  derive  rehgion  from  the 
conscious  relation  of  the  individual  to  the  group. 
The  leading  American  investigators  of  the  social 
and  genetic  problems  of  rehgion  are  King  (The 
Development  of  Religion,  1910),  Ames  (The  Psy- 
chology of  Religious  Experience,  1910),  and  Leuba 
(A  Psychological  Study  of  Religion,  1912). 

Other  problems  of  religion  that  have  been 
investigated  by  psychologists  are  belief  (Pratt, 
Leuba,  and  others),  the  subconscious  and  religion 
(James,  Coe,  and  others.)  rehgion  and  value 
(Hoffding,  King,  Ames,  Coe),  prayer,  religious 
sects,  religious  leaders,  and  alhed  subjects.  Fairly 
complete  surveys  of  the  whole  field  are  Coe's  The 
Psychology  of  Religion  (1916)  and  Pratt's  The 
Religious  Consciousness  (1920). 

III.  Significance  in  the  Interpretation  op 
Religion. — The  psychology  of  refigion  has  thrown 
new  light  upon  the  nature  of  religion  and  upon  the 
principles  that  govern  the  religious  consciousness. 
It  has  shown  rehgion  to  be  deeply  human,  and  no 
mere  extraneous  phenomenon  which  might  well 
be  outgrown.  At  the  same  time  it  has  mad©  it 
plain  that  religion  cannot  be  identified  with  any 
creed  or  practice  but  is  rather  an  attitude  of  the 
entire  human  mind,  reacting  toward  the  Cosmos 
and  toward  society.  The  essentially  social  (as  well 
as  individual)  nature  of  rehgion  .has  also  been 
emphasized.  That  religious  mental  states  obey 
the  laws  of  general  psychology  was  of  course  the 
expectation  of  the  psychologist,  and  this  expecta- 
tion has  been  to  a  considerable  extent  verified. 
New  laws,  moreover,  of  fairly  regular  sequence 
among  rehgious  phenomena  or  between  them  and 
certain  verifiable  conditions  have  been  worked 
out.  Finally,  the  new  science  has  reached  a  point 
where  it  is  able  to  apply  some  of  its  results  to  reli- 
gious pedagogy  and  other  practical  undertakings. 

With  the  ultimate  problems  of  theology  the 
psychology  of  religion  does  not  concern  itself.  It 
aims  to  be  a  science,  and  when  properly  pursued  it 
does  not  seek  to  go  beyond  the  hmits  of  scientific 
description  and  phenomenal  explanation.  Like 
other  sciences,  it  presupposes  regularity  of  sequence 
and  the  possibility  of  complete  explanation  without 
appeal  to  anything  supernatural,  but  it  is  not  in 
a  position  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  its  presupposi- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  at  least  equally 
incapable  of  furnishing  arguments  in  favor  of  the 
supernatural.  But  though  the  psychology  of 
religion  cannot  be  a  partisan  in  theological  con- 
troversy, theology  may  well  make  use  of  many 
of  the  facts  which  its  researches  bring  to  light. 

James  Bissett  Pratt 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Purgation 


PSYCHOTHERAPY.— A  method  of  restoring 
health  by  the  use  of  psychological  principles,  a 
form  of  heahng  which  functions  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  mental  life. 

Psychotherapy  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  Psychiatry  which  treats  mental  diseases  only. 
The  former  is  a  general  method  of  treating  mental 
and  physical  iUness  principally  through  the  means 
of  suggestion. 

I.  Methods  and  Results  op  Mental  Heal- 
ing.— Psychotherapy  is  effective  in  the  correction 
of  all  those  human  maladies  involving  an  unbalan- 
cing of  the  psychophysical  organism.  Such  a 
disturbance  may  be  accompanied  by  paralyses  of 
various  sorts,  a  variety  of  faulty  sensory  reactions, 
pains  of  all  sorts  or  any  kind  of  deficient  functioning 
of  the  physiological  processes  such  as  digestion, 
respiration,  etc.  _  Again  there  may  be  present 
various  forms  of  insomnia,  nervousness,  spasms  of 
different  types  or  various  forms  of  psychoses  such 
as  obsessions  and  fears.  The  fundamental  method 
of  mental  heahng  is  naturally  to  restore  equihbrium 
between  the  individual  and  his  surroundings  in 
order  to  insure  proper  reactions  of  the  person. 
The  general  psychotherapeutic  methods  which  are 
primarily  prophylactic  in  nature,  resolve  them- 
selves into  a  complete  regulation  of  the  patient's 
work  and  recreation,  both  of  which  must  be  dis- 
tributed so  as  to  yield  the  most  efficient  results. 
The  patient  must  above  all  become  disciplined  so 
that  a  proper  emotional  balance  is  maintained  at 
all  times.  In  cases  of  specific  disturbance  special 
techniques  of  various  sorts  are  employed  such  as 
hypnotic  control  in  its  many  forms. 

II.  History  op  Psychotherapy.  —  Psycho- 
therapy has  had  a  long  and  tortuous  development 
which  originated  among  the  vagaries  of  mesmerism. 
The  application  of  hypnotism  to  the  needs  of 
medical  practice  such  as  the  English  physicians 
Elhotson,  Esdaile  and  Braid  made  in  the  period 
from  1837  on,  inaugurates  the  scientific  employment 
of  technical  psychological  methods  in  therapeutics. 
In  the  "School  of  Nancy"  inspired  by  Lieb6ault 
about  1860,  Bernheim  developed  what  turned  out 
to  be  the  valuable  attitude  that  hypnotism  is  the 
process  of  suggestion  and  thereby  gave  a  powerful 
impetus  to  the  use  of  hypnotism  in  medical  work. 

Coincident  with  the  growth  of  the  Nancy  school 
what  became  known  as  the  "School  of  the  Salpe- 
tridre"  developed  in  Paris.  Charcot  who  worked  at 
the  La  Salpetriere  hospital  must  be  credited  with  the 
active  propagation  of  the  psychological  basis 
of  functional  disorders.  Janet,  a  pupil  of  Charcot, 
developed  a  very  comprehensive  theory  of  the 
mental  causes  of  the  neuroses.  Dating  from  the 
work  of  the  latter,  psychotherapeutics  became 
established  upon  a  definite  scientific  basis  and 
took  its  place  as  a  legitimate  branch  of  the  medical 
sciences,  as  is  well  illustrated  by  the  surprising 
effectiveness  attained  by  psychotherapeutic  methods 
in  the  treatment  of  war  shock  cases  in  the  recent 
war,  and  in  the  remarkable  development  of  the 
mental  hygiene  movement. 

The  Freudian  movement  had  its  inception  in 
1895  when  Freud  developed  the  psychological 
conception  of  nervous  diseases,  acquired  from  the 
French,  into  a  very  elaborate  technique  for  the 
treatment  of  such  disorders.  The  primary  depar- 
ture of  Freud  was  the  substitution  of  psychoanalysis 
for  hypnotism,  which  he  had  employed  as  a  medium 
of  catharsis  (elimination  of  mental  conflicts) .  Later 
Freud  developed  the  theory  of  "repression"  which 
traced  back  the  neurotic  symptoms  to  some  sexual 
conflict  brought  to  hght  through  the  method  of 
free-association,  which  consisted  in  connecting 
experience  with  experience  until  the  one  which 
caused   the   trouble   was   reached   and   exposed. 


The  success  of  the  Freudian  development  of 
psychotherapy  lies  in  the  impUcit  recognition  on 
the  part  of  the  Freudians  that  mental  phenomena 
consist  of  specific  types  of  responses  to  various 
stimuU.  Jung  and  Adler  have  attempted  to  cor- 
rect the  overstressed  sexual  basis  of  Freud's  theory; 
the  latter  has  worked  out  the  etiological  signifi- 
cance of  non-sexual  conflicts,  and  general  failures  of 
adaptation  in  the  development  of  neuroses. 

III.  The  Psychological  Basis  op  Psycho- 
therapy.— 'Every  functional  disorder  whether  nerv- 
ous or  physiological  is  the  failure  of  an  organism 
to  make  an  adequate  response  to  some  definite 
condition  of  stimulation;  that  is,  the  organism  as  a 
whole  is  improperly  functioning,  as  contrasted  with 
a  disturbance  involving  a  structural  defect.  _  Thus 
for  example,  the  failure  to  see  may  be  owing  to 
the  injury  of  the  specific  visual  organ,  or  to  a 
general  defensive  reaction  originally  developed 
to  avoid  some  unpleasant  sight,  such  as  occurs  in 
hysteria.  In  the  latter  case  the  value  of  psycho- 
therapy to  effect  relief  may  be  completely  demon- 
strated because  it  does  not  confine  itself  as  does 
the  therapeutics  of  drugs  to  the  possible  effects 
upon  an  isolated  phase  of  the  organism,  but  aims 
to  improve  the  individual  mentally  as  well  as 
physically.  As  an  illustration  we  might  consider 
the  cure  of  digestive  disturbance  by  psychotherapy. 
An  investigation  of  such  an  illness  may  yield  the 
information  that  the  trouble  is  owing  to  a  inal- 
adaptation  to  the  surroundings.  The  person 
may  have  some  difficulty  with  frifends  or  business 
relations;  he  becomes  irritable,  worries  about 
trifles,  exaggerates  his  troubles,  and  finally  finds 
himself  in  a  state  of  impaired  health  with  dyspeptic 
symptoms.  The  correction  of  this  illness  obviously 
depends  upon  a  restoration  of  a  proper  interaction 
between  the  person  and  his  surroundings. 

Jacob  Kantor 

PTAH. — God  of  Memphis  in  Egypt  who  created 
the  gods,  the  world,  and  all  things  by  his  word. 
He  "made  that  which  is  loved  and  that  which  is 
hated.  It  was  he  who  gave  life  to  the  peaceful  and 
death  to  the  guilty." 

PUBLICAN. — One  of  a  body  of  men  in  ancient 
Rome  to  whom  the  collection  of  taxes  was  farmed 
out  by  the  state  for  a  certain  period  and  amount. 
PubUcans  were  frequently  unscrupulous  extor- 
tioners, and  the  contempt  in  which  they  were  held 
is  reflected  in  the  New  Testament,  e.g..  Matt.  11 :  19, 
18: 17. 

PUJA. — A  Hindu  word  for  rehgious  devotion 
which  may  vary  in  degree  from  sincere  respect  to 
devout  worship. 

PULPIT. — A  raised  platform  with  a  desk  or 
stand  to  hold  the  books  and  manuscripts  used  in 
the  deUvery  of  sermons;  or  the  desk  only.  For- 
merly the  pulpit  was  an  enclosure,  frequently  having 
a  canopy  and  sounding  board.  A  similar  piece 
of  furniture,  the  "mimbar,"  is  the  pulpit  of  a 
Mohammedan  mosque. 

PUNISHMENT.— See  Rewards  and  Puotsh- 
ments;  Penology. 

PURANAS. — A  collection  of  eighteen  books  of 
the  popular  rehgious  literature  of  India.  They  are 
in  Sanskrit  and  in  their  original  form  are  older  than 
the  3rd .  century  B.C.  Cosmogony,  theology,  history, 
legends  of  heroes,  theories  of  salvation  and  social 
practice  are  treated  in  the  works  in  popular  form. 

PURGATION. — Proving  oneself  innocent  when 
accused  of  crime.    This   proof  might  be  either 


Purgatorial  Societies 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


360 


unimpeachable   evidence  in   support   of   an   oath 
of  innocence,  or  might  be  furnished  by  ordeal  (q.v.). 

PURGATORIAL    SOCIETIES.— In    the    R.C. 

church  societies  or  congregations  devoted  to  the 
task  of  helping  the  poor  souls  in  purgatory  (q.v.). 

PURGATORY.— (Latin:  "a  process  of  cleans- 
ing.") _  It  usually  refers  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
belief  in  a  period  of  discipline  after  death  to  remove 
reUgious  disabilities  incurred  during  life. 

1.  Entrance. — All  the  unbaptized  are  barred; 
but  not  all  the  baptized  can  be  admitted,  because 
of  mortal  sins  not  absolved. 

2.  Duration. — Souls  remain  in  purgatory  for 
periods  varying  as  the  arrears  of  penance  not  per- 
formed before  death.  By  securing  indulgences 
(q.v.)  for  oneself  or  for  others  one  may  shorten  the 
stay.  In  any  case  purgatory  closes  on  the  day  of 
judgment. 

3.  Purpose. — Absolution  (q.v.)  frees  from  guilt 
but  not  from  the  temporal  penalty  due  to  sin. 
Just  as  a  murderer,  though  absolved,  must  still 
suffer  punishment,  one  must  go  to  purgatory,  there 
to  complete  the  satisfaction  of  the  justice  of  God  and 
to  cleanse  oneself  entirely. 

4.  Suffering. — After  death  one  cannot  make 
satisfaction  or  acquire  merit;  one  must  atone  by 
suffering  (satispassio  instead  of  satisf actio) .  The 
sufferings  are  graded.  Nearly  all  the  Greek 
Fathers  and  many  of  the  Latins  held  that  the  fire, 
though  agonizing,  is  figurative. 

6.  Psychological  appeal. — ^Purgatory  suggests 
a  way  in  which  the  living  can  continue  to  serve  their 
dead,  and  that  in  the  hour  of  their  direst  need.  It 
is  also  a  presupposition  of  the  system  of  indulgences, 
and  therefore  stimulates  prayer,  almsgiving,  and 
other  good  works,  and  the  more  frequent  offering 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 

6.  History. — Biblical  texts  adduced  include 
II  Mace.  12:43-44  and  I  Cor.  3:11-15.  Under 
the  influence  of  Plato,  the  Alexandrians  Clement 
and  Origen  allegorized  the  traditional  flame  and 
made  future  punishment  purificatory.  Purgatory 
was  not  defined  as  dogma  till  the  Council  of  Florence 
(1439). 

7.  Protestant  attitude. — The  Reformers  thought 
purgatory  repugnant  to  Scripture.  Some  liberal 
theologians  teach  that  all  future  punishment  should 
be  reformatory.  Most  Protestants  expect  immedi- 
ate stability  of  status  after  death. 

W.  W.  Rockwell 
PURIFICATION.— See  Defilement  and  Puri- 


PURIM.— (Hebrew:  "lots.")  A  Jewish  feast 
celebrated  annually  on  the  fourteenth  of  Adar, 
the  month  corresponding  approximately  to  March, 
in  commemoration  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Persian 
Jews,  as  recorded  in  the  book  of  Esther.  It  is 
celebrated    by    feasting,    masquerading,    sending 

E resents,  and  general  jollification;   and  especially, 
y  reading  in  the  synagog  the  Megillah  (i.e.,  the 
scroll  of  the  book  of  Esther). 

PURITANISM.— The  word  Puritanism,  as  it  is 
used  today,  suggests  a  body  of  principles  or  behefs 
concerning  the  propriety  of  individual  conduct. 
The  Puritan  adheres  to  a  strict  code  of  moraUty,  and 
if  the  term  is  used  invidiously,  as  it  often  is,  it 
signifies  one  who  with  unbecoming  rigor  clings  to 
an  out-Worn  austerity  and  refuses  to  recognize  the 
rightfulness  of  enjoyments  that  others  find  inno- 
cent. When,  however,  Puritanism  took  its  rise 
and  when  the  word  was  first  used,  it  had  no  special 
reference  to   the  morality  or  immorality  of  the 


individual.  The  term  was  first  apphed  in  the 
ear'y  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  and  then  described, 
perhaps  rather  contemptuously,  one  who  desired  a 
purification  of  the  forms  of  church  worship. 

Puritanism  in  essence  was  a  product  of  the 
Reformation  ferment.  There  was  in  England 
httle  desire  to  break  away  from  an  established 
system  in  the  early  days  after  the  separation  from 
Rome  (1533).  But  there  was  then,  among  the 
more  earnest  Protestants,  a  turning  away  from 
the  authoritative  leadership  of  a  constituted 
hierarchy,  and  there  was  a  tendency  to  find  guid- 
ance in  the  Scriptures  rather  than  rely  simply  on 
tradition  and  estabUshed  authority.  This  tendency 
to  rely  or  largely  rely  on  the  "Word"  explains  much 
in  Puritanism  as  it  does  much  of  the  whole  Reforma- 
tion. We  may,  however,  properly  pass  over  the 
first  thirty  years  after  the  break  with  Rome  and 
pass  on  to  the  time  of  EUzabeth,  when  what  was 
called  Puritanism  began.  Throughout  her  reign 
(1558-1603)  there  was  much  discussion  of  ecclesi- 
astical matters,  and  the  Queen  was  determined  to 
have  uniformity  and  regularity.  There  was,  on 
the  other  hand,  strong  opposition  to  the  preservation 
of  practices  and  formalities  in  the  Church  that  were 
considered  rehcs  of  popery  and  mere  "popish 
superstitions" — objection,  in  other  words,  to 
stopping  the  Reformation  by  merely  casting  aside 
the  relations  with  Rome.  An  astonishing  amount 
of  earnestness  and  learning  was  devoted  to  attack 
on  such  things  as  the  use  of  the  cross  in  baptism 
and  of  the  ring  in  marriage,  the  celebration^  of 
saints'  days,  the  wearing  of  the  cap  and  surplice. 
At  the  beginning  of  James'  reign  (1603-1625)  the 
Millenary  Petition  was  in  part  directed  against  such 
practices;  and  this  aspect  of  Puritanism  at  no 
time  disappeared. 

Objection  to  the  form  of  church  organization 
marks  the  second  period,  which  began  about  1570; 
though  of  course  this  objection  was  organically 
connected  with  opposition  to  ceremonials  and  with 
a  desire  to  approach  the  primitive  forms  and  prac- 
tices of  the  church.  Even  this  movement  did  not 
generally  aim  at  breaking  down  the  established 
church;  many  desired  the  Presbyterian  organiza- 
tion; archbishops  and  arch-deacons  and  chancellors 
were  names,  said  the  reformers,  "drawn  out  of 
the  pope's  snop,"  and  the  government  which  they 
used  was  denounced  as  "anti-Christian  and 
devilish."  A  few  there  were  who  were  set  upon 
building  "up  churches  separate  from  any  state 
establishment;  they  were  the  "separatists"  or 
"Brownists"  who  contended  that  any  number, 
however  smaU,  could  of  their  own  motion  form  a 
church.  EUzabeth  turned  upon  the  Presbyterians 
and  Separatists  with  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  severe 
rigor  as  against  the  Catholics;  Separatism  nearly 
altogether  disappeared  from  view,  to  reappear 
in  the  next  century  as  a  great  force  in  the  Puritan 
RebeUion.  Presbyterianism  likewise,  though 
vigorously  attacked,  was  not  altogether  wiped 
out,  but  arose  in  force  in  the  time  of  Charles  (1625- 
1649)  and  of  the  Commonwealth. 

The  aspect  of  Puritanism,  asceticism  and 
austerity,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  did 
not  become  prominent  till  toward  the  end  of  the 
16th.  century.  It  had  its  connection  with  the  whole 
hostility  toward  "  idolatry "  and  with  the  zeal 
for  adherence  to  the  scriptural  injunctions,  a 
zeal  shown  most  clearly  in  insistence  upon  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath.  Under  such  influences, 
severe  attacks  were  made  upon  various  immorali- 
ties as  well  as  upon  practices  that  might  now  be 
thought  innocent.  The  quaUties  and  characteristics 
of  Puritanism  in  its  various  aspects  are  most  clearly 
seen  in  tlie  New  England  colonies  of  the  17th. 
century,  among  those  men  and  their  immediate 


361 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Qutb 


descendants    who    came    to    America    to    build    a 
bulwark  "against  the  kingdom  of  antichrist." 

Andrew  C.  McLaughlin 
PUROHITA.— The  general  term  for  the  family 
priest  in  Hinduism. 

PURUSHA. — In  an  early  Vedic  hymn  Purusha 
is  spoken  of  as  a  gigantic  being  from  whom  all 
the  universe  was  formed.  The  word  is  used  in 
the  Upanishads  as  synonymous  with  Brahman,  the 
Supreme  Soul.  In  the  Sdnkhya  system  it  means 
the  individual  soul,  of  which  there  are  an  infinite 
number.  Commonly  it  designates  soul,  whether 
the  soul  of  the  universe  or  of  the  individual,  though  the 
general  term  for  the  human  soul  is  atman  or  jlvdtman. 

PUSEY,  EDWARD  BOUVERIE  (1800-1882).— 
English  church  theologian,  the  leader  of  the  High 
Church  party  whose  influence  in  the  Oxford  Move- 
ment (q.v.)  was  very  extensive.  He  sought  to 
revive  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  eucharist  and  the  practise  of  the  confessional. 


PUSHAN. — A  sun-god  of  Vedic  religion  who 
became  specialized  as  the  guide  of  travellers, 
warder  of  flocks,  finder  of  lost  articles,  a  god  of  the 
roads. 

PYRRHONISM.— The  philosophical  doctrines 
taught  by  the  Greek  philosopher,  Pyrrho  of  Elis 
(ca.  360-270),  the  main  tenet  of  which  was  a 
thorough-going  skepticism.  The  impossibility  of 
knowledge  led  to  an  emphasis  on  imperturbability 
as  the  ethical  norm. 

PYTHAGOREANISM.— The  philosophical  sys- 
tem of  Pythagoras,  the  Ionian  Greek  philoso- 
pher (6th.  century  B.C.)  and  his  followers,  the 
main  tenets  of  which  were  the  immortality  and 
transmigration  of  the  soul  and  the  mystical 
use  of  number  as  the  rational  principle  of  the 
cosmos. 

PYX. — See  Tabernacle  (5). 


Q. — An  abbreviation  for  the  German  word 
Quelle,  meaning  source.  It  is  used  to  designate 
the  lost  document  or  documents  from  which  the 
writers  of  Matthew  and  Luke  are  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  their  non-Markan  materials. 

QADARITES. — The  name  applied  in  Islam 
to  those  who  beKeved  that  man  has  power  (qadar) 
over  his  own  actions  and  is  not  in  all  things  subject 
to  the  absolute  predestination  of  God.  This  was 
also  one  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Mu^tazilites  (q.v.). 

QADI. — A  Moslem  oflicial  appointed  by  the 
government  whose  duty  it  was  to  decide  cases 
involving  religious  duties  in  such  matters  as  laws  of 
inheritance  and  marriage. 

QARMATIANS.— See  Isma'IlIs. 

QUADRAGESIMA.— The  Latin  name  for  Lent 
(q.v.). 

QUADRATUS. — The  earUest  Christian  apolo- 
gist who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (117-138) 
to  whom  he  addressed  a  defence  of  Christianity. 

QUAKER. — See  Friends,  Society  op. 

QUARTO  DECIMANS.— Those  Christians  in  the 
early  church  who  commemorated  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ  in  a  period  beginning  on  the 
14th  {quartus  decimus)  of  the  month  Nisan  (the  date 
of  the  Jewish  Passover).  This  brought  the  celebra- 
tion on  different  days  of  the  week  in  different  years, 
hence  introduced  confusion.  At  the  Council  of 
Nicaea  in  325  the  quartodeciman  practice  was  con- 
demned, and  it  was  made  obligatory  to  commemo- 
rate the  death  of  Christ  on  Good  Friday,  and  to 
celebrate  the  Resurrection  on  the  following  Sunday. 
See  Easter. 

QUESNEL,  PASQNIER  (1634-1719).— French 
theologian,  for  a  time  regarded  as  the  leader  of 
the  Jansenist  party.  His  Moral  Reflections  on  the 
New  Testament  was  one  of  the  most  important 
Jansenist  books,  its  propositions  being  condemned 
m  the  bull,  Unigenitus  (q.v.). 

QUETZALCOATL. — A  pre-Astec  god  of  Mexico 
whose    name    means    "Feathered    Serpent."     His 


symbols  would  indicate  that  he  combined  the 
fertility  powers  of  sun,  wind,  and  waters.  He  is 
the  teacher  of  arts  and  patron  of  agriculture.  With 
the  coming  of  the  Mexicans  he  departed  to  the 
east.  The  Spaniards  were  welcomed  as  the  return 
of  the  god. 

QUIETISM. — ^A  type  of  mysticism  which  devel- 
oped in  the  17th.  century,  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Holland,  out  of  the  Counter-Reformation. 

Quietism  is  the  most  acute  stage  of  European 
mysticism.  It  sprang  out  of  an  absolute  despair 
of  human  nature,  an  extrep>?  fprm  of  tb^  Hnntrinp  of 
the  utter  ruin  of  faneiTman.  IL^figaxLJvith  the 
fundamental  assumption  that  nothing  of  spiritual 
value  or  significance  can  originate  in  man.  The 
only  hope  of  salvation  or  of  a  true  religious  hfe 
lies  in  a  divine  movement,  a  supernatural  action 
wil:hin  the  soul.  The  Quietist  endeavors  to  secure 
a  silence  of  all  flesh,  an  absolute  calm,  the  annihila- 
tion of  self-will,  in  order  that  God  may  act  within 
the  soul  and  bring  forth  the  spiritual  results  which 
he  wills.  The  highest  spiritual  states  are  beUeved 
by  the  Quietist  to  be  "pure"  states,  unmixed  with 
anything  of  self.  "Pure"  prayer  is  prayer  without 
words  or  even  thoughts — a  state  of  complete 
absorption  in  God.  "Pure"  love  is  a  love  which 
loves  nothing  finite  or  particular.  It  loves  for  love's 
sake  alone.  "Pure"  faith  is  intense  consciousness 
of  God,  but  without  definite  ideas  or  beliefs  or 
expectations. 

The  great  Quietists  were:  Miguel  de  MoUnos 
(1627-1696);  Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier  de  la  Mothe 
Guyon  (1648-1717);  Frangois  de  la  Mothe  Fenelon 
(1651-1715);  and  Antoinette  Bourignon  (1616- 
1680).  Rtjpus  M.  Jones 

QUINQUAGESIMA.  — (Latin:  "fifty.")  For- 
merly the  period  from  the  Sunday  preceding  Lent 
to  Easter  Sunday.  Quinquagesima  Sunday  is  the 
Sunday  immediately  preceding  Lent,  being  the 
fiftieth  day  before  Easter. 

QURAN.— See  Koran. 

QUTB. — The  "Axis,"  the  most  perfect  saint 
of  the  age  who,  according  to  dervish  belief,  is  at  the 
head  of  the  hierarchy  of  saints  directing  human 
affairs,  though  he  may  be  unknown  and  unseen. 
The  term  is  used  generally  to  describe  a  saint  of 
very  superior  holiness  of  life. 


Rs 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


362 


RA.— See  Re. 

RABBI. — (Hebrew:  "my  master"  or  "teacher." 
Sometimes  also  RAB  or  RABBAN).  A  recognized 
master  of  Jewish  learning.  The  title  applied  in 
ancient  and  modem  times  to  the  Jewish  spiritual 
leader. 

RABBINISM.— Theneo-Hebraic  word  "Rabbi" 
(my  master)  is  the  title  given  since  the  2nd.  century 
to  the  authorized  teachers  in  Israel,  whose  opinions 
are  laid  down  in  Talmud  and  Midrash.  The  word 
Rabbinism  includes  also  the  views  of  all  the  later 
authorities  based  on  the  Talmudic  Uterattire.  See 
Judaism;  Mishnah;  Talmud;  Midrash,  etc. 

RACOVUN,  or  RAEAUER    CATECHISM.— 

See  SociNiANisM. 

RAGNAROK.— The  time  of  doom  of  the  gods 
in  Norse  mythology.  In  a  great  battle  with  the 
powers  of  evil  the  old  Aesir  gods,  doomed  because 
of  broken  faith,  are  destroyed  and  with  them  the 
earth  and  heaven.  After  the  fire  has  passed, 
however,  the  earth  rises  purified  from  the  deep,  a 
new  firmament  appears,  the  pure  ones  of  the  old 
gods  come  back  and  a  new  race  of  men  begins.  The 
world  enters  upon  a  new  era  of  peace  and  purity. 

RAINY,  ROBERT  (1826-1906).— Scottish  Pres- 
byterian minister,  professor  of  church  history  and 
principal  of  New  College,  Edinburgh.  He  was 
very  influential  during  a  period  of  controversy  in 
Scotland  over  questions  of  biblical  and  historical 
scholarship,  helping  to  estabhsh  confidence  in 
critical  method.  He  also  was  instrumental  in 
securing  the  union  of  the  Free  Church  with  the 
United  Presbyterians. 

RAESHASAS. — A  class  of  dangerous  demons  in 
Hindu  folk-beUef,  ugly  in  appearance  and  of  great 

Eower,  who  constantly  trouble  and  terrify  human 
eings,  causing  storms,  carrying  men  away,  devour- 
ing them  or  changing  shape  to  lead  them  to  destruc- 
tion. They  have  a  long  history  in  India  from 
Vedic  to  modem  times.  The  RamSyana  deals 
with  the  struggle  of  Rama  with  one  of  these  demons. 

RAM  MOHAN  ROY  (1772  or  1774-1833).— 
Founder  of  the  Brahma  SamaJ  (q.v.).  He  was 
reared  a  Vaishnavite,  and  abandoned  his  home  when 
his  parents  proved  unsympathetic  toward  his 
monotheistic  ideas.  He  led  a  movement  of  reform 
against  degraded  forms  of  Hinduism,  and  was 
active  as  a  translator.  He  was  the  first  modern 
Brahman  to  break  the  rule  against  crossing  the  ocean. 

RAMA. — ^The  hero  of  an  epic  poem  in  Sanskrit 
whose  noble  character  and  exploits  in  defeating  the 
demon,  Rabana,  made  him  a  popular  heroic  figure. 
He  was  later  deified  and  then  recognized  as  an 
avatar  of  Vishnu.  _  About  the  8th.  century  the  Rama 
sect  of  Vaishnavism  took  form  parallel  to  the 
Krishna  sect.  The  ^eat  popularization  of  the 
rehgion  was  accomphshed  by  Tulsi  ^  Das  in  his 
Hindi  adaptation  of  the  Rdmdyana  in  the  16th. 
century.  The  sect  claims  some  90  milUons  of  the 
Hindu  people  today.  SeeRAMAYANAj  Ramananda; 
Ramanuja. 

RAMADAN. — A  month  observed  as  a  time  of 
fasting  by  Moslems.  Each  day,  from  the  time  when 
a  white  thread  may  be  distinguished  from  a  black 
one  at  sunrise  to  the  coming  of  night  there  must  be 
complete  abstinence  from  eating  and  drinking.    The 


night  is  free  but  must  not  be  spent  in  frivohty. 
Moreover,  the  fast  is  worthless  to  a  man  who  does 
not  perform  it  willingly,  desiring  to  receive  reward 
from  God  for  his  deed. 

RAMAKRISHNA  (1834-1886).— An  influential 
ascetic  mystic  of  modem  Hinduism,  He  had  Uttle 
knowledge  but  an  intense  rehgious  emotion  which 
in  his  youth  found  expression  in  devotion  to  the 
goddess  Kali.  Later  he  was  trained  in  Yoga  and 
initiated  as  a  rehgious  devotee.  Instructed  in  the 
Veddnta  he  henceforth  thought  of  ultimate  reahty 
as  impersonal  and  knowable  only  in  phenomenal 
manifestations.  Coming  under  the  influence  of  the 
sectarian  rehgions  of  Krishna,  of  Islam  and  of 
Christianity  he  found  it  possible  to  enjoy  the  mystic 
union  with  God  under  any  of  these  forms.  As  a 
consequence  he  taught  that  the  form  of  rehgion  and 
the  manner  of  worship  are  indifferent;  all  rehgions 
are  true  since  in  any  one  of  them  men  come  into 
relation  with  the  one  God.  He  urged  that  Hinduism 
was  the  Aryan  way  and  should  be  maintained  for 
India.    Vivekananda  (q.v.)  was  his  greatest  disciple. 

RAmANANDA. — An  important  leader  of  the 
Ramaite  movement  in  India  during  the  15th. 
century.  He  threw  his  influence  on  the  side  of 
tendencies  at  work  to  bring  a  theistic  rehgion  of 
salvation  to  the  common  people,  emphasizing  the 
personal  god,  Ram  (Vishnu),  rather  than  monism, 
using  the  vernacular  Hindi  rather  than  the  Sanskrit, 
relaxing  the  rigid  rules  regarding  food,  extending  the 
free  fellowship  of  the  sect  to  all  classes  of  people 
who  sought  salvation  regardless  of  caste.  Through 
his  great  disciples  and  their  followers  he  has  exerted 
a  vast  influence  in  India.  Kabir,  Nanak,  Tulsi  Das 
are  his  spiritual  heirs. 

RAmANUJA. — A  learned  teacher  of  Vaishnav- 
ism (q.v.)  who  flourished  in  S.  India  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  11th.  century.  He  was  a  Vedantist 
philosophically  and  made  his  hfe  work  the  trans- 
formation of  the  Vedanta  into  a  philosophical 
rehgion  capable  of  coming  to  terms  with  the  needs 
of  popular  worship.  While  maintaining  that 
Vishnu  is  alone  real  he  made  a  place  within  this 
Absolute  for  the  supreme  personal  spirit,  eternal 
souls  and  the  material  world  all  evolving  in  an 
apparently  real  sense  yet  all  part  of  and  one  with 
the  Absolute,  Entirely  within  the  impersonal 
divine  unity  he  set  the  cosmic  drama  with  its  many 
grades  of  souls,  the  various  modes  of  manifestation 
of  the  Supreme,  the  round  of  transmigration  and 
the  heaven  of  eternal  bhss  in  the  presence  of  Vishnu. 
Yet  God  is  the  only  reahty.  AH  this  apparently 
real  universal  evolution  takes  place  within  the 
bounds  of  his  being. 

RAmAYANA. — One  of  the  two  great  epics  of 
Hindu  sectarian  rehgion.  Originally  written  (6th.- 
4th,  century  B.C.)  as  a  popidar  epic  by  Valmiki 
setting  forth  the  heroic  deeds  of  the  noble  human 
prince  Rama  it  was  transformed,  about  the  2nd. 
century  B.C.,  by  interpolation,  into  a  sectarian 
poem  exalting  Rama  as  an  avatar  of  Vishnu,  From 
the  10th.  to  the  18th,  century  many  versions  have 
been  produced  in  the  vernacular  languages  of 
India.  The  work  teUs  the  story  of  the  victory  of 
Rama  over  his  enemies,  human  and  demonic,  in 
protection  of  his  chaste  wife,  a  model  of  womanhood. 
The  modem  versions  emphasize  the  divine  love 
of  Rama- Vishnu  toward  men  who  trust  his  saving 
power.     See  Rama. 

RAMMON,  RIMMON.— See  Adad.  , 


363 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Reason 


RANTERS. — A  17th.  century  sect  in  England 
who  professed  immediate  contact  with  God,  and 
rejected  the  authoritative  control  of  Bible,  church, 
or  ordained  ministers.  They  developed  eccentric  and 
fanatical  traits.  The  Primitive  Methodists  (q.v.) 
were  sometimes  called  ranters  because  of  their 
noisy  and  passionate  preaching. 

RASm  (1040-1105).— Solomon  bar  Isaac,  a 
French  Jewish  commentator  on  the  Bible  and 
Talmud.  Based  upon  a  thorough  and  comprehen- 
sive knowledge,  and  clearly  and  concisely  expressed, 
his  talmudic  commentaries  are  of  inestimable  value 
to  all  students  of  the  Talmud,  which  indeed  is 
now  invariably  printed  with  Rashi's  commentaries. 
Other  Jewish  writers  have  made  more  original  con- 
tributions to  the  sum  of  knowledge;  but  none  has 
had  so  widespread  an  influence  among  the  Jews  as 
Rashi. 

RASHNU. — One  of  the  Yazatas  (q.v.)  in 
Zoroastrian  rehgion.  He  is  the  spirit  of  truth  who 
holds  the  balance  to  weigh  the  good  and  evil  deeds 
at  the  judgment  of  souls. 

RASKOLNIKI.— See  Russian  Sects. 

RATIO  STUDIORUM.— The  designation  in 
brief  for  the  pedagogical  system  of  the  Jesuits  (q.v.). 
The  designation  in  full  (translated)  is  Method  arid 
System  of  the  Studies  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

RATIONALISM. — A  method  of  philosophizing 
which  makes  reason  the  ultimate  source  and  criterion 
of  truth. 

As  opposed  to  empiricism  (q.  v.),  rationaUsm 
insists  on  certain  innate  ideas  or  a  priori  philo- 
sophical principles  as  fundamental  in  knowledge. 
The  great  systems  of  Descartes,  Spinoza,  and 
Leibnitz  are  rationalistic  in  this  sense. 

The  term  Rationalism  is  employed  in  theology 
to  indicate  the  exclusive  use  of  reason  in  construct- 
ing rehgious  beUefs.  The  positive  aim  of  rational- 
ism is  to  maintain  religious  doctrines  on  grounds 
acceptable  to  all  men.  See  Natural  Religion; 
Deism.  The  negative  aspect  of  rationalism  is 
seen  in  its  uncompromising  hostility  to  mysticism 
and  to  supernatural  revelation.  If  reason  alone  is 
to  determine  truth,  there  can  be  no  authority 
"above  reason."  Rationalism  thus  ehminates 
many  elements  which  Christianity  has  declared 
fundamental,  such  as  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity, 
the  Incarnation,  original  sin,  the  vicarious  atonement 
of  Christ,  and  the  miraculous.  During  the  18th. 
century  rationalism  came  to  be  so  absorbed  in 
negative  criticism  of  Christianity,  that  it  lost  all 
capacity  for  appreciating  the  mystical  rehgious 
values  which  are  preserved  in  the  doctrines  criti- 
cized. It  grew  shallow  and  flippant;  and  during 
the  19th.  century  ceased  to  be  influential.  Thomas 
Paine's  Age  of  Reason  is  the  best  known  example  of 
the  "smart"  character  of  later  rationalism. 

The  fundamental  defect  of  rationalism  lies  in 
its  exclusively  intellectualistic  conception  of  reli- 
gion. It  assumes  that  men  will  be  content  with 
mere  logical  consistency.  But  emotional  and 
mystical  experiences  constitute  the  very  hfe  of 
religion.  Doctrines  are  admittedly  imperfect  means 
of  enabling  men  to  reaUze  emotional  and  mystical 
satisfaction.  Modern  psychology  has  undermined 
the  epistemology  of  rationalism.  Thus  it  is  both 
philosophically  and  religiously  discredited. 

Gerald   Birney   Smith 

RAUSCHENBUSCH,  WALTER  (1861-1919).— 
Baptist  minister  and  professor  of  church  history 
in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  N.Y.  He  was 
one  of  the  foremost  advocates  of  a  social  interpre- 


tation of  Christianity,  incisively  and  vigorously 
assailing  current  social  injustice.  His  most  impor- 
tant books  are  Christianity  and  the  Social  Crisis 
and  Christianizing  the  Social  Order. 

RE. — The  sun-god  of  ancient  Egypt.  The 
greatest  figure  of  the  cult,  rising  under  Ikhnaton  to 
the  grandeur  of  an  only  God. 

REAL  PRESENCE.— The  doctrine  that  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  actually  present  in 
the  bread  and  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
belief  is  held  in  the  Greek  Orthodox,  R.C., 
AngUcan,  and  Lutheran  churches,  though  with 
differences  of  theological  interpretation.  See 
Eucharist;  Transubstantiation;  Consubstan- 
tiation. 

REALISM  AND  NOMINALISM.— ReaUsm  is 

the  doctrine  of  Plato  that  universals — general 
notions  and  class  concepts — ^have  an  independent 
existence,  and  are  more  real  than  are  particular 
objects.  Its  formula  is,  universalia  sunt  realia 
ante  res.  NominaUsm  makes  universals  mere 
names,  and  denies  them  other  existence  than  they 
have  in  our  minds. 

ReaUsm  was  dominant  in  the  early  period  of 
scholasticism.  Anselm  (1033-1109)  held  reaUsm 
to  be  essential  to  orthodoxy.  Nominahsm  seemed 
destructive  of  certain  important  dogmas.  Adam's 
sin,  for  example,  was  his  individual  deed  according 
to  nominahsm,  whereas  reahsm  made  it  an  act  of  the 
race,  of  humanitas  iota  present  in  Adam.  The 
unity  of  the  God-head  could  be  maintained  by 
realism^  but  tri-theism  was  the  logical  consequence 
of  nominahsm.  Abelard  (1079-1142)  gave  a  modi- 
fied form  to  realism,  which  was  also  accepted  by  the 
great  schoolmen  of  the  13th.  century.  The  inde- 
pendent existence  of  universals  was  no  longer  held. 
The  formula  now  became  universalia  in  rebu^. 
But  criticism  of  reahsm  was  carried  farther,  espe- 
cially by  William  of  Occam  in  the  14th.  century. 
He  asserted  that  universals  are  only  terms  which 
arise  in  the  mind  post  res.  The  dechne  of  realism 
meant  the  growing  extension  of  the  scientific  temper 
which  gave  new  value  to  the  study  of  individual 
things.  Walter  Goodnow  Everett 

REASON. — The  capacity  to  form  clear  ideas, 
to  compare  ideas,  and  to  form  conclusions  on  the 
basis  of  such  comparison.  It  represents  the 
deliberative  and  critical  aspect  of  consciousness  in 
contrast  to  the  more  direct  emotional  and  instinctive 
reactions  of  men. 

Reason  translates  the  deliverances  of  the  senses 
into  definite  ideas  which  may  be  held  in  conscious- 
ness and  subjected  to  careful  examination.  It 
is  thus  the  primary  means  of  organizing  our  experi- 
ence so  as  to  make  possible  a  critical  education,  and 
it  makes  possible  the  science  and  the  philosophy 
which  lie  at  the  foundations  of  culture.  It  is 
therefore  highly  prized.  In  the  realm  of  behavior, 
to  "be  reasonable"  means  that  the  impulses^  are 
subjected  to  a  control  in  the  interests  of  principles 
which  may  be  objectively  set  forth.  Reason  thus 
furnishes  an  objective  standard  by  means  of  which 
men  may  come  to  a  common  understanding  and  a 
common  program  of  action. 

But  since  reason  necessarily  makes  use  of  ideas, 
which  are  secondary  products  of  experience,  it  is 
always  working  at  one  remove  from  the  primary 
data  of  life.  It  is  possible  for  ideas  to  be  taken  as 
objects  of  thought  apart  from  the  sensory  experi- 
ences from  which  they  sprang.  In  such  a  case,  reason 
builds  up  a  speculative  world,  in  which  logical  con- 
sistency of  ideas  is  the  sole  test  employed.  Ration- 
aUsm (q.v.)  represents  such  a  supremacy  of  abstract 


Recapitulation 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


364 


concepts  that  the  concrete  aspects  of  experience  are 
not  allowed  to  come  to  their  rights. 

Christian  theology  has,  as  a  rule,  regarded 
reason  as  a  divinely  given  endowment  through 
which  men  could  discover  the  truth.  On  the  basis 
of  reason  a  "natural  theology"  (q.v.)  was  con- 
structed which  was  supplemented  by  the  doctrines 
furnished  by  revelation.  Where  reason  and  revela- 
tion did  not  seem,  at  first  sight,  to  agree,  the  attempt 
was  made  to  discover  an  interpretation  in  which 
both  should  concur.  In  rare  instances,  when  a 
discrepancy  has  been  discovered,  theologians  have 
defied  reason,  asserting  the  authority  of  revelation 
even  if  its  deliverances  seemed  to  be  irrational. 
But  generally  speaking  the  desire  to  find  rational 
as  well  as  authoritative  support  for  doctrines  has 
prevailed.  See  Natural  Theology;  Rational- 
ism;  Philosophy  in  Relation  to  Religion. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

RECAPITULATION.— 1.  The  theory  advanced 
by  Irenaeus  that  the  Logos  passed  through  all 
phases  of  human  experience  so  as  to  confer  complete 
salvation  on  every  aspect  of  human  life,  by  revers- 
ing the  evil  processes  due  to  man's  sinfulness. 

2.  The  pedagogical  theory  that  the  growth  of 
the  individual  human  organism  up  through  child- 
hood passes  through  the  biological  and  social 
development  of  the  human  race. 

RECLUSE. — One  who  Uves  in  seclusion  from  the 
world,  particularly  for  religious  purposes.  See 
Asceticism;  Monasticism;  Anchorites. 

RECONCILIATION.— (1)  The  act  or  process  of 
bringing  into  harmonious  relationship  those  who 
were  alienated.  When  used  of  the  relation  between 
God  and  man  it  expresses  the  purpose  of  the 
Atonement  (q.v.).  (2)  In  R.C.  terminology,  the 
cancelling  of  an  interdict,  or  of  a  decree  of  excom- 
munication; or  the  rededication  of  anything  which 
has  been  profaned. 

RECTOR. — In  the  AngUcan  church,  the  clergy- 
man who  receives  the  income  of  the  parish,  and 
is  nominally  responsible  for  maintaining  the  church 
services.  Laymen,  designated  as  lay  rectors  are 
sometimes  granted  the  freehold  and  unappropriated 
income  of  a  parish  without  pastoral  obligations. 
In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  the  U.  S.  A., 
a  clergyman  who  is  officially  in  charge  of  a  parish. 
In  the  R.C.  church,  the  clergyman  presiding  over 
a  congregation,  college  or  community;  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  U.S.A.,  a  priest  in  charge  of  an 
important  mission,  as  a  missionary  rector. 

RECUSANT. — The  designation  in  the  16th.  and 
17th.  centuries  in  England  for  those  who  refused 
to  attend  the  services  of  the  established  (Anghcan) 
church.  Roman  CathoUcs  were  usually  designated 
by  the  name. 

RED  CROSS.— The  Red  Cross,  spiritual 
descendant  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  the 
Crusades,  the  nursing  sisters  of  Saint  Vincent  de 
Paul  in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  Florence  Nightin- 
gale and  her  heroic  band  of  nurses  in  the  Crimea, 
was  founded  at  Geneva,  in  1863,  through  the  efforts 
of  Henri  Dunant,  a  Swiss  physician.  It  was  after 
ministering  to  the  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Solf  erino, 
Italy,  in  1859,  that  he  conceived  the  idea  of  an 
international  understanding  whereby  the  sick  and 
wounded  and  enemy  prisoners  of  war  would  receive 
humane  care  under  a  common  mercy  flag,  and 
sought  assistance  of  the  Geneva  Society  of  PubUc 
Utilities. 

An  international  conference  of  fourteen  nations 
adopted  the  treaty  of  Geneva,  or  Red  Cross  treaty. 


in  1864,  which  has  been  ratified  subsequently  by  all 
civiUzed  nations.  This  instrument  provides  that 
in  war,  hospital  formations  and  their  personnel  shall 
be  treated  as  neutrals  and  that  every  nation  signing 
the  treaty  shall  have  an  association  of  volunteers  to 
assist  and  supplement  the  medical  services  of  the 
fighting  forces.  Accordingly,  the  chief  duties  of  the 
International  Committee  of  the  Red  Cross  are  to 
promote  the  formation  of  relief  societies  in  countries 
where  they  do  not  exist,  to  serve  as  an  intermediary 
for  the  national  societies,  to  foster  development  of 
the  principles  of  the  Geneva  Convention,  and,  within 
the  hmits  of  its  authority,  perfect  and  carry  out  the 
terms  of  the  treaty.  The  Red  Cross  emblem,  which 
is  the  Swiss  flag  reversed,  was  adopted  as  an  enduring 
tribute  to  Henri  Dunant. 

The  organization  has  amply  proved  the  value  of 
its  work  in  every  war,  disaster  and  pestilence  all 
over  the  world  from  the  time  of  the  convention. 
When  the  World  War  broke  out  in  1914,  every 
European  nation,  those  of  the  Americas  and  some 
of  those  in  the  Orient  were  supporting  Red  Cross 
societies  which  responded  at  once  to  the  call  to 
service.  During  five  years  of  horror  they  proved 
for  all  time  that  the  Red  Cross  is  the  practical 
expression  of  the  universal  ideal  of  mercy,  knowing 
neither  race  nor  creed.  The  plight  of  the  inhabi- 
tants in  the  vast  theater  of  conflict  made  evident  the 
necessity  of  a  program  of  immediate  post-war  peace- 
time reconstruction  and  succor,  taxing  the  utmost 
energies  and  resources  of  helpful  agencies.  To 
prepare  and  put  into  effect  such  a  program,  there 
was  formed  at  Cannes,  France,  in  May,  1919, 
the  League  of  Red  Cross  Societies,  whose  peacetime 
duties  would  be  equivalent  to  the  wartime  duties 
of  the  International  Committee. 

The  American  Red  Cross,  of  which  the  United 
States  Sanitary  Commission  of  the  Civil  War  was 
the  forerunner,  was  incorporated  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  in  July,  1881,  under  the  name  "The 
American  Association  of  the  Red  Cross."  The 
Treaty  of  Geneva  was  confirmed  by  the  Senate  in 
March,  1882,  and  in  June,  1900,  the  American 
Red  Cross  was  incorporated  by  Congress.  It  was 
re-incorporated  in  January,  1905,  and  given  the 
charter  now  in  force. 

Not  a  government  department  but  a  reUef 
organization  having  a  governmental  status,  the 
American  Red  Cross,  under  its  Congressional 
charter,  has  the  following  functions:  (1)  The 
furnishing  of  volunteer  aid  to  the  sick  and  wounded 
in  time  of  war  in  accordance  with  the  Geneva 
Convention.  (2)  Acting  as  a  medium  of  communi- 
cation between  the  people  of  the  United  States  of 
America  and  their  army  and  navy  in  matters  of 
voluntary  relief,  and  between  similar  national 
societies  of  other  governments  and  this  country. 
(3)  Carrying  on  a  system  of  national  and  inter- 
national relief  in  time  of  peace,  applying  the  same 
in  public  disasters,  and  devising  and  carrying  on 
measures  for  their  prevention.  Representatives 
of  the  State,  Treasury,  War,  Justice  and  Navy 
departments  are  members  of  the  Central  Com- 
mittee of  the  American  Red  Cross,  all  Red  Cross 
accounts  are  audited  by  the  War  Department,  and 
the  Secretary  of  War  makes  an  annual  report  of  its 
activities  to  Congress. 

On  May  1,  1917,  the  American  Red  Cross  had 
an  enrolment  of  486,000  members  in  562  chapters, 
and  on  February  28,  1919,  the  enrolment  stood 
at  20,000,000  adult  members  in  3,724  chapters 
with  17,186  branches,  and  11,000,000  junior  members 
among  school  children.  During  the  twenty  months 
ending  on  the  latter  date  the  total  revenues  were  in 
round  numbers  $400,000,000;  while  the  expendi- 
tures were  $273,000,000— for  relief  abroad 
$164,000,000,  and  for  relief  in  the  United  States 


365 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Redemptoristines 


$119,000,000.  The  remaining  $127,000,000  was 
expended  during  the  succeeding  months  in  both 
foreign  and  domestic  reUef. 

The  peace  program  of  the  organization  includes 
continuation  of  aid  to  needy  and  disabled  veterans 
of  the  World  War,  service  for  the  peace  time  Army 
and  Navy,  development  of  stouter  national  resistance 
to  disease  through  health  centers,  increase  of  the 
nation's  nursing  resources  and  co-operation  with 
official  health  agencies;  continued  preparedness 
for  reUef  in  disasters;  Home  Service  and  community 
work,  and  completion  of  relief  work  among  war- 
exhausted  and  disease-ridden  peoples  abroad. 

As  formally  described,  the  League  of  Red 
Cross  Societies,  founded  by  the  national  organiza- 
tions of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Italy,  and  Japan,  will  "encourage  and  promote  in 
every  country  in  the  world  the  establishment  and 
development  of  a  duly_  authorized  voluntary 
national  Red  Cross  organization,  having  as  pur- 
poses the  improvement  of  health,  the  prevention  of 
disease  and  the  mitigation  of  suffering,  and  to 
secure  the  co-operation  of  such  organizations  for 
these  purposes;  will  promote  the  welfare  of  man- 
kind by  furnishing  a  medium  for  bringing  within 
the  reach  of  all  peoples  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  present  known  facts  and  new  contributions 
to  science  and  medical  knowledge  and  their  applica- 
tion; and  will  furnish  a  medium  for  co-ordinating 
relief  work  in  case  of  great  national  or  international 
calamities."  Besides  the  founder  members,  the 
League  now  includes  the  Red  Cross  organizations 
of  Argentina,  Australia,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Canada, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  ChiU,  China,  Cuba,  Denmark, 
Greece,  Holland,  India,  New  Zealand,  Norway, 
Peru,  Poland,  Portugal,  Roumania,  Serbia,  South 
Africa,  Spain,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Uruguay  and 
Venezuela.  Control  of  the  League  reposes  in  a 
General  Council  composed  of  representatives  oi  all 
member  societies,  a  governing  board  of  fifteen 
members,  and  two  ex-officio  members. 

W.  S.  Odlin 

REDEMPTION. — (Latin:  redemptio,  a  buying 
back,  or  repurchase.)  The  term  expresses  in 
religious  thought  the  act  of  placating  an  offended 
deity  and  averting  the  consequences  of  error  or 
sin.  Among  primitive  men  sacrifices  did  not 
ordinarily  have  a  redemptive  significance  (see 
Sacrifice),  but  in  many  parts  of  the  world  piacular 
sacrifices  were  offered  on  occasions  of  great  peril 
or  distress,  to  placate  the  deity  that  was  supposed 
to  be  offended.  If  the  peril  or  distress  was  averted, 
the  sacrifices  were  supposed  to  have  had  a  redemp- 
tive efficacy.  Among  the  Hebrews  gaall,  "to  buy 
back,"  was  employed  of  redeeming  estates,  but 
its  participle  had  a  wider  meaning;  thus  goel  h&ddam 
designated  the  avenger  of  blood  (Num.  35:19ff.). 
As  the  lex  talionis  was  regarded  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  justice,  we  find  goel  in  Job  19:25  applied 
to  God  as  the  being  who  will  secure  final  justice  for 
Job.  In  Isaiah  40-66  much  is  said  about  the 
redemption  of  Judah  from  her  exile.  The  redeemer 
is  in  all  cases  Yahweh  himself.  As  Judah  was 
believed  to  have  incurred  her  exile  by  her  sins,  her 
redemption  was  to  be  accomplished  by  Yahweh's 
gracious  love. 

Israel's  national  misfortunes — the  exile  and  loss 
of  independence — led  to  the  development  of  an 
intense  realization  of  the  need  for  redemption  from 
the  ills  of  the  present  world-age.  The  result  of 
this  was  the  development  after  about  200  B.C.  of  the 
apocalyptic  literature,  which  is  devoted  mainly  to 
the  redemption  of  the  chosen  people  from  their  pres- 
ent ills  and  the  destruction  that  awaits  the  wicked. 
This  redemption  was  expected  to  be  accomplished 
through  divine  intervention  in  a  cataclysmic 
upheaval.     The  agent  of  the  redemption  v/as  some- 


times God  and  sometimes  an  expected  Messiah. 
See  Apocalyptic  Literature. 

The  fullest  development  of  the  idea  of  redemp- 
tion is  in  Christian  theology,  but  the  Christian  ideas 
are  fully  treated  under  Atonement  (q.v.). 

Next  to  Judaism  and  Christianity  the  most 
complete  development  of  redemption  is  found  in 
the  mystery  religions  of  Greece  and  the  Roman 
empire.  The  cult  of  the  Thracian  god  Dionysos, 
introduced  into  Greece  in  the  7th.  and  6th.  centuries 
B.C.,  became  a  cult  for  individuals  in  contrast  to 
the  native  reUgions  of  the  country,  which  were  clan 
religions.  Before  this  time  the  dead  were  beheved 
to  pass  a  wretched  existence  in  Hades,  such  as  is 
portrayed  in  the  11th.  book  of  the  Odyssey.  The 
mysteries  of  Dionysos  were  beheved  to  secure 
certain  benefits,  one  of  which  was  redemption 
from  the  wretchedness  of  Hades  to  a  happier  life. 
Similar  cults  of  a  more  refined  nature  were  that  of 
Demeter  at  Eleusis  and  the  cult  of  Orpheus. 

Similarly  into  the  Roman  empire  during  the 
first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  three  foreign 
rehgions,  detached  from  their  home  lands,  were 
introduced  as  mystery  religions,  and  became  very 
popular.  These  were  the  cults  of  the  Phrygian 
Cybele,  the  Egyptian  Isis,  and  the  Persian  Mithra. 
Each  possessed  mystic  rites,  and  each  promised 
personal  regeneration  and  salvation.  Among  the 
mystic  rites  of  Cybele  was  the  taurobolium,  which 
required  the  devotee  to  stand  in  a  pit  above  which  a 
bull  was  killed.  The  blood  trickled  through  crevices 
in  the  covering  of  the  pit  and  drenched  the  wor- 
shiper. When  he  emerged  he  was  beheved  to  have  put 
away  his  old  nature  and  to  be  united  to  the  goddess. 

Among  backward  peoples  it  is  often  believed 
that  it  is  necessary  for  deities  to  be  propitiated 
by  beholding  suffering  to  keep  them  from  inflicting 
suffering  on  the  community.  For  example  among 
the  Dravidians  nine  victims  are  each  year  impaled 
on  as  many  sticks  which  rise  from  a  rude  cart, 
which  the  priest  then  drives  for  a  mile  or  more  to 
the  sanctuary.  The  writhing  of  the  victims  is 
supposed  to  redeem  the  community  from  visita- 
tions of  the  divine  anger. 

If  the  etymological  meaning  of  redemption  be 
disregarded,  and  it  be  interpreted  as  the  freeing 
of  human  life  by  religious  practices  from  ills  that 
would  otherwise  overtake  it,  then  all  religions  are 
redemptive.  In  India  it  has  been  believed  since 
about  the  8th.  century  B.C.  that  redemption  from 
reincarnation  is  the  great  desideratum.  Jainism 
and  many  other  sects  believe  that  this  can  be 
accomplished  by  asceticism;  Hinayana  Buddhism, 
by  following  the  Noble  Eightfold  Path  of  ethics; 
the  followers  of  Krishna,  by  sacrificing  one's  lower 
to  one's  higher  nature;  the  ^ivaites  oy  imitating 
the  not-too-moral  Civa.  Mahayana  Buddhists  in 
Tibet  believe  that  redemption  is  accomplished  by 
the  up-bearing  of  prayers  many  times,  even  if  the 
up-bearing  is  done  by  a  wheel;  sections  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  Buddhists  hold  that  it  is  accompUshed 
by  faith  in  Amida  Buddha,  the  Savior.  Con- 
fucianism and  Zoroastrianism  look  for  dehverance 
from  the  ills  of  humanity  through  ethical  endeavor; 
early  Taoism,  through  a  quiescent  sympathy  with 
nature  by  which  one  regains  the  condition  of  primi- 
tive man.  The  Mohammedan  beheves  that  Allah 
predestines  some  men  to  hell  and  others  to  heaven, 
but  even  he  holds  that  the  saying  of  the  appointed 
prayers,  fasting,  and  alms-giving  result  in  a  store 
of  merit  that  a  merciful  God  will  respect.  Inter- 
preted in  this  broad  way  all  religion  is  redemptive. 

George  A.  Barton 

REDEMPTORISTINES.— A  R.C.  congregation 
of  women,  founded  by  Thomas  Falcoja  of  Castella- 
mare  for  contemplation  and  education.  The  rule 
was  approved  by  Benedict  XIV.  in  1750. 


Redemptorists 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


366 


REDEMPTORISTS.— A  R.C.  religious  order 
founded  1732,  by  St.  Alfonso  Maria  de  Liguori, 
with  the  object  of  prosecuting  missionary  work, 
particularly  among  the  poor. 

REFORMATION. — The  name  which  came 
very  early  to  be  applied  by  historians,  in  a  particular 
or  technical  sense,  to  that  important  16th.  century 
movement  which  began  with  attacks  upon  a  few 
doctrines  and  practices  of  the  medieval,  hierarchi- 
cally organized,  Christian  church  and  which  cul- 
minated in  the  separation  from  this  organization 
of  multitudes  of  individuals,  either  as  a  result  of 
deliberate,  personal  choice  or  as  a  result  of  more  or 
less  involuntary  obedience  to  royal,  princely  or 
municipal  governments.  At  present  there  is  a 
growing  tendency  to  apply  the  term  Protestant 
Revolt  to  this  movement,  retaining  the  word 
Reformation  also  in  the  phrase  Catholic  Reforma- 
tion used  to  designate  the  more  conservative  and 
reactionary  movement  for  reform  which  found 
definite  expression  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  (1545-63).  See  Counter-Refokmation; 
Trent,  Council  op. 

I.  Beginnings  op  the  Reformation. — The 
event  usually  selected  by  historians  to  mark  the 
commencement  of  the  Reformation  is  the  posting  by 
Martin  Luther  of  his  Ninety-five  Theses  on  Indul- 
gences on  the  door  of  the  castle  church  in  Witten- 
berg, in  October  1517.  See  Luther;  Indulgences. 
The  Reformation  was  the  direct  or  indirect  result  of 
several  co-operating  forces  long  at  work  in  western 
European  Christendom  prior  to  Luther. 

II.  The  Causes  op  the  Reformation. — During 
the  two  or  more  centuries  just  preceding  the 
Reformation,  there  had  been  considerable  opposition 
on  the  part  of  individual  ecclesiastics  to  the  con- 
centration of  ecclesiastical  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  or  Pope.  Such  opposition  found 
excellent  opportunities  for  expression  and  for  growth 
in  consequence  of  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the 
papacy  at  Avignon  (1305-77),  of  the  ensuing 
Great  Schism  (1378-1417)  and  of  the  15th.  century 
oecumenical  councils  summoned  not  only  to  heal 
the  Great  Schism  but  also  to  reform  the  church  in 
head  and  members.  ^  The  rise  of  strong  royal, 
princely,  and  municipal  governments  and  the 
frequent  clashes  between  their  interests  and  those 
of  the  popes  and  clergy  led  to  the  striking  of  many 
a  hard  blow  at  the  papal,  universal  monarchy 
or  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Particularly  the  con- 
flicts over  appointments  to  ecclesiastical  benefices, 
over  the  jurisdiction  of  ecclesiastical  courts  and 
over  the  right  of  governments  _  to  tax  clerical 
property,  tended  to  restrict  the  privileges  of  popes, 
priests,  and  monastic  organizations  and  to  kindle 
bitter  enmity  against  them.  The  growth  of  na- 
tional sentiment  further  strengthened  the  govern- 
ments and  tended  to  make  anti-clericalism  a  popular 
as  weU  as  a  governmental  attitude.  _  Economic 
self-interest  contributed  also  to  the  disruption  of 
the  medieval  ecclesiastical  system,  not  only  because 
rulers  quarreled  with  the  church  over  money  matters 
but  because  the  financial  policies  of  popes,  clergy, 
and  orders  bore  heavily  upon  the  people. 

Another  factor  which  aided  in  producing  the 
Reformation  is  found  in  the  intellectual  development 
of  western  Europe.  The  Renaissance  or  rebirth 
of  Graeco-Roman  culture  contributed  somewhat  to 
the  rise  of  Protestantism  because  of  its  anti-ascetic 
tendencies  or  opposition  to  otherworldUness;  its 
scorn  for  scholasticism — the  characteristic  clerical 
learning  of  the  day;  its  destructively  critical  atti- 
tude toward  many  church  beliefs  and  practices; 
its  revelation  of  man  to  himself,  and  its  strong 
emphasis  on  an  enlarged  scope  for  individual 
aciuevement.    Still  another  cause  is  to  be  found  in 


the  rather  revolutionary  type  of  scholastic  theology 
taught  by  WilHam  of  Occam  and  his  Nominahst 
followers,  which,  while  not  then  considered  heretical, 
tended  nevertheless  to  discredit  the  reahst  and  more 
rationalistic  older  Schoolmen.  See  Scholasticism; 
Realism  and  Nominalism;  Occam.  Also,  in 
certain  phases  of  later  medieval  Mysticism,  his- 
torians discover  influences  contributory  to  the 
Protestant  schism.  The  emphasis  which  Mystics 
hke  St.  Bernhard,  Tauler,  Thomas  h  Kempis  and 
others  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  put  upon 
a  non-intellectual  faith  or  trust,  upon  immediate 
personal  communion  with  God,  upon  the  priest- 
hood of  all  believers,  upon  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures by  all  and  in  the  vernacular,  and  upon  the 
loving  and  forgiving  character  of  God,  tended  to 
depreciate  the  mediatory  function  of  the  church 
and  clergy  and  to  undermine  belief  in  the  efficacy 
of  sacramental  ceremonies.  Such  late  medieval 
anti-papal  or  anti-hierarchical  religious  sects  as  the 
Waldenses,  the  Lollards  and  Hussites  gave  expres- 
sion to  the  same  dissatisfaction  with  the  external, 
mechanical  conception  of  Christianity  which  had 
become  dominant  in  the  papal  church  as  well  as  to 
their  dissatisfaction  with  the  lack  of  religious  fervor 
and  moral  earnestness  among  the  secular  clergy 
and  conventuals.  See  Waldenses;  Wycliffe; 
Lollards;  Hus. 

The  scandalous  living  of  many  of  the  popes,  the 
notorious  corruption  of  the  papal  court,  and  the 
worldliness,  all  too  common  if  not  universal,  among 
all  kinds  and  classes  of  ecclesiastical  persons  fur- 
nished another  potent  cause  for  the  Reformation, 
as  did  also  the  ignorance  of  many  conventuals  and 
secular  clergy  of  lower  rank.  The  improvement  of 
the  printing-press  and  the  increased  dissemination 
of  printed  matter  supplied  conditions  eminently 
favgrable  for  the  success  of  a  propaganda  such  as 
the  Reformation.  To  these  factors  must  be  added 
the  personality,  zeal  and  persuasiveness  of  the 
Reformers.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  Refor- 
mation was  not  the  work  of  a  few  men  but  the 
product  of  a  very  complex  and  long-continued 
historical  process. 

III.  Essential  Characteristics  of  the  Refor- 
mation.— The  Reformation  was  essentially  a  reli- 
gious movement.  It  was  interested  primarily  and 
almost  exclusively  in  the  relations  of  God  to  man 
and  of  man  to  God;  in  doctrinal  or  theological 
formulas;  in  ecclesiastical  organization  and  func- 
tions^ and,  because  Christianity  in  preceding  ages 
and  in  all  its  varied  forms  had  maintained  some 
connection  between  religion  and  ethics,  in  good 
morals  or  upright  living.  Wherever  the  Reforma- 
tion manifested  itself,  there  one  finds  these  elements 
particularly  emphasized,  notwithstanding  the  efforts 
of  humanists  to  direct  this  religious  movement  in 
behalf  of  intellectual  emancipation;  notwithstand- 
ing the  readiness  of  kings  and  princes  to  increase 
thereby  their  poUtical  power  and  incomes,  or 
attempts  of  social  classes  like  the  German  knights 
or  the  German  peasants  and  proletariat  to  gain 
through  it  material  advantages,  and  however  much 
its  successes  may  have  involved  other  changes  than 
those  sought  by  the  religious  leaders  of  16th. 
century  Protestantism. 

At  the  basis  of  Martin  Luther's  labors  as  a 
Reformer  lay  his  peculiar  religious  development  and 
the  convictions  gained  therein.  Vitally  important 
for  him  personally  and  for  the  Reformation  as  a 
whole  was  his  rediscovery  of  the  largely,  if  not 
wholly,  obscured  conception  of  the  loving,  forgiving 
character  of  God  as  well  as  his  slowly  developed 
conviction  that  sinful  man  is  made  just  or  righteous 
before  God  simply  and  solely  by  trust  in  the  Father's 
love  as  manifested  in  Christ  s  sacrificial  life  and 
death.    These  ideas,  together  with  insistence  on 


367 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Reformed  Churches 


the  Bible  as  the  sole  authority  for  the  Christian  in 
religious  teaching  and  practice,  furnished  the 
fundamental  principles  of  Luther's  religious  propa- 
ganda. They  form  the  essence  of  all  his  Reforma- 
tion writings,  although  these  contained  also  much 
vituperation  of  popes,  clergy,  and  monasticism  as  a 
result  of  their  opposition  to  him.  Huldreich 
Zwingli,  the  foremost  leader  of  the  Swiss  Reforma- 
tion, was  not  a  httle  influenced  by  these  Lutheran 
ideas,  although  he  was  first  brought  into  conflict 
with  the  papal  church  in  consequence  of  his  critical, 
humanistic  (i.e.,  intellectual  rather  than  religious) 
and  local  political  environment.  See  Zwingli; 
Erasmus;  Humanism.  These  fundamental  Refor- 
mation doctrines  struck  at  the  roots  of  Roman 
Catholic  theology  and  practice.  Their  acceptance 
involved  a  rejection  of  the  entire  Catholic  conception 
of  the  sacraments.  Grace,  according  to  the 
Reformers,  was  not  something  infused  into  man 
by  the  church  or  its  sacraments,  but  was  merely 
God's  attitude  of  forgiving  love.  Justification 
by  faith  alone  involved  a  rejection  of  penances, 
of  purgatory  and  of  all  works  of  satisfaction. 
According  to  the  Reformers,  good  works  followed 
necessarily  wherever  there  was  true  faith,  but 
these  good  works  had  no  influence  in  securing 
man's  salvation.  They  were  effects,  not  causes, 
of  salvation.  The  priesthood  of  all  believers  was 
another  much  emphasized  tenet  of  the  Reformers, 
involving  rejection  of  a  professional  priestly 
class,  of  the  monastic  ideal  and  practices,  and  of  all 
mediators  between  God  and  man — ^the  church,  the 
saints  or  the  Virgin  Mary. 

The  Reformation  was  also  an  attempt  to  re- 
establish primitive.  New  Testament  Christianity 
in  the  place  of  an  existing,  so-called  Christianity 
which  had  departed  far  from  the  teachings  of  the 
early  Apostles.  Yet,  in  the  nature  of  the  case 
(i.e.,  the  16th.  century  being  what  it  was),  such 
an  attempt  could  be  at  most  only  approximately 
successful.  It  may  be  said  also  that  the  Reforma- 
tion was  in  its  essence  the  assertion  of  the  principle 
of  individuality  in  the  sphere  of  religion.  For  a 
Uttle  while,  at  least,  it  did  seem  as  if  the  Reformers 
stood  for  complete  religious  liberty  for  all  indi- 
viduals. But,  alas,  none  of  the  leading  Reformers — 
certainly  neither  Luther,  nor  Zwingli,  nor  Calvin — 
could  rise  sufficiently  above  the  environment  in 
which  they  had  been  reared  to  grasp  fully  their  own 
fundamental  principles  or  reach  the  very  modern 
and  not  yet  universal  conception  of  complete, 
individual  religious  liberty.  Each  Reformer  stood 
for  hberty  to  accept  his  particular  interpretation 
of  Christianity  and  sought  to  crush  all  who  failed 
to  agree  therewith.  However,  since  the  successful 
leaders  of  the  Reformation — those  who  secured 
governmental  and  large  popular  support— did 
not  agree  among  themselves,  a  door  was  left  open 
for  the  later  gradual  growth  of  a  spirit  of  religious 
tolerance  and  of  individual  liberty.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  emancipating  elements  in  early  Protestant- 
ism the  Reformation  was  in  reality  a  conserva- 
tive and  more  or  less  reactionary  movement.  It 
reacted  against  the  liberalizing  tendencies  of  human- 
ism or  the  intellectual  trend  of  the  times.  It 
retained  most  of  the  dogmas  which  had  been 
fastened  upon  Christianity  by  speculative  Greek 
and  legalistic  Roman  theologians  of  the  3rd.  and  4th. 
centuries.  It  resulted  in  a  revival  of  dogmatism 
and  the  rise  of  a  new  scholasticism.  It  reaffirmed 
the  principle  of  authority  in  religion.  While  it 
rejected  monastic  asceticism,  it  retained  a  funda- 
mentally ascetic  attitude  toward  life  in  this  world, 
merely  introducing  a  new  type  of  other-worldliness. 

IV.  The  Progress  op  the  Reformation  and 
Its  Results. — With  the  help  of  royal,  princely, 
or  municipal  governments,   and  especially  favor- 


able political  and  economic  conditions,  the  Protes- 
tant Revolt  spread  and  established  itself  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  German  Roman  Empire,  in 
Switzerland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Ice- 
land, in  England  and  Scotland,  in  the  Dutch 
Netherlands,  and,  with  less  success,  in  parts  of 
France.  It  had  to  wage  at  times  fierce  struggles 
for  existence  and  lost  some  of  its  earlier  conquests  as 
a  result  of  the  Counter-Reformation  and  successful 
Jesuit  propaganda.  But,  in  consequence  of  the 
Protestant  Revolt,  the  one  visible,  indivisible,  holy, 
Roman,  universal  church  was  rent  asunder,  it 
seems,  for  all  time.  While  the  medieval  church 
persisted,  essentially  unchanged,  if  morally  and 
administratively  renovated,  at  its  side  arose  numer- 
ous state  churches  non-papal  and  more  or  less 
fundamentally  Protestant  in  character. 

It  has  been  common  for  Protestant  historians 
to  exalt  and  exaggerate  the  beneficent  results  of 
the  Reformation.  And  it  did  revivify  religion  for 
many.  But  it  set  up  new  barriers  in  the  path  of 
intellectual  progress.  It  strengthened  absolutism 
or  royal  and  princely  power.  It  aided  the  landed 
aristocracy  and  the  rising  bourgeoisie  to  maintain 
social  and  economic  supremacy.  Although  modern 
democratic  trend  toward  greater  social  equality 
and  economic  justice  and  even  modern  intellectual 
liberty  may  have  some  roots  in  the  Reformation, 
yet  it  is  much  more  the  outcome  of  other  movements 
than  of  the  Protestant  Revolt.  Faint  indications 
of  the  modern  trend  away  from  intellectual  dog- 
matism and  external  authority  in  religion  may,  it  is 
true,  be  found  in  the  16th.  century  schism,  but 
these  tendencies  of  today  have  made  headway 
in  spite  of  rather  than  because  of  the  Reformation, 
regarded  as  a  specific  movement  and  in  its  entirety. 

A.  E.  Harvey 

REFORMED  C H U R C H E S .—Protestant 
Churches,  organized  in  the  16th.  century,  in 
distinction  from  Lutheran  churches;  particularly 
churches  following  Zwingli  and  Calvin  in  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland  and  Holland,  and  subse- 
quently in  Great  Britain,  the  U.S.A.  and  other 
countries. 

I.  The  Reformed  Church  in  America  is  a 
hneal  descendant  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Hol- 
land. The  first  congregation  was  organized  in 
1628  by  Dominie  Jonas  Michaelius  in  New  Amster- 
dam (New  York).  Other  congregations,  composed 
mainly  of  Holland  settlers,  were  established  in  the 
surrounding  regions  and  all  of  them  came  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  until 
the  colonies  became  independent  of  foreign  control. 
Under  English  rule  the  Reformed  congregations 
asserted  their  independence  because  of  an  attempt 
to  incorporate  them  with  the  English  Church.  In 
self-defense  they  organized  a  classis  in  1679,  and 
obtained  a  charter  to  manage  their  own  affairs. 
In  1696  the  mother  church  secured  full  posession  of 
her  constantly  growing  property  and  complete 
ecclesiastical  freedom.  Friction  between  the  Re- 
formed congregations  and  the  civil  authorities, 
however,  led  many  Dutch  families  to  cross  the 
Hudson  into  New  Jersey  and  to  settle  in  the  region 
drained  by  the  Raritan  River,  which  is  still  a 
center  of  Dutch  Reformed  institutions  and  congre- 
gations. 

After  the  capture  of  New  Amsterdam,  by  the 
Enghsh,  Dutch  immigration  ceased,  but  the 
Reformed  churches  gained  accessions  from  two 
sources.  The  Huguenots  flocked  to  America 
(ca.  1680)  and  readily  amalgamated  with  the 
Dutch  Church.  A  quarter  of  a  centuiy  later  the 
German  Reformed  group  from  the  Palatmate  found 
an  asylum  in  New  York,  Settling  mainly  beyond 
the  Dutch  parishes,  in  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk 
and  the  upper  Hudson,  their  congregations  came 


Reformed  Churches 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


368 


under  the  supervision  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam. 
The  difference  in  language  was  not  much  of  a 
hindrance.  Many  ministers  could  officiate  in 
both  languages,  while  in  doctrine  and  polity  the 
churches  were  essentially  the  same.  In  1755  the 
first  step  to  educate  a  native  ministry  was  taken 
by  the  estabhshment  of  a  professorship  of  divinity 
in  connection  with  King's  (Columbia)  College,  an 
Episcopal  institution,  but  the  arrangement  caused 
a  split  in  the  Church.  Then  the  American  classis 
in  1766  secured  a  charter  from  the  governor  of 
New  Jersey  and  founded  Rutgers  College  in  New 
Brunswick. 

In  1747  a  coetus  was  organized  for  the  churches  of 
New  York  and  one  for  those  in  New  Jersey,  and  in 
1771  an  organization  was  effected  which  in  a  few  years 
became  a  synod  and  five  classes.  The  fornaer  had 
the  right  to  license  and  ordain  men  to  the  ministry. 
This  preparation  for  progress  was  made  ineffective 
by  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary  war. 
The  Dutch  Church  occupied  much  of  the  territory 
that  now  became  the  scene  of  strife  and  suffered 
its  full  share  of  desolation.  With  the  return  of 
peace  and  the  separation  from  foreign  political 
subjection,  ecclesiastical  bodies  severed  their  ties 
with  Europe  and  obtained  full  liberty  to  develop 
their  institutions  and  carry  forward  their  benevolent 
enterprises.  At  a  general  convention  of  the  Dutch 
Church  in  1788  provision  was  made  to  translate 
into  English  its  standards  and  church  order, 
omitting  everything  that  characterized  a  state 
church.  To  express  the  fact  of  its  complete 
Americanization  its  name  was  changed  in  1867  from 
"The  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church  in  North 
America"  to  "The  Reformed  Church  in  America." 

In  1846  a  new  immigration  from  Holland  began. 
The  principal  settlement  was  made  in  Michigan 
where  Hope  College  and  the  Western  Theological 
Seminary  were  founded  and  located  at  Holland. 
Smaller  colonies  went  into  adjoining  states  and 
since  then  to  more  distant  parts  of  the  country,  so 
that  now  its  congregations  are  scattered  from  the 
middle  west  to  the  Pacific  and  southward  to  Texas. 

The  standards  of  doctrine  are  the  Belgic  Con- 
fession, the  Heidelberg  Catechism  with  the  Com- 
pendium of  the  same,  and  the  Canons  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort.  The  government  of  the  Church  is  based 
on  the  Articles  of  Church  Government  adopted  at 
Dort  in  1619,  and  the  Explanatory  Articles  adopted 
in  1792.  The  last  revision  of  the  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1874.  In  1919  there  were  727  churches 
with  133,783  members  . 

II.  The  Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States. — The  founders  of  this  Church  came  to  the 
American  colonies  from  the  Rhine  provinces  of 
Germany  and  from  the  German  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land. Among  them  were  also  influential  French 
and  Dutch  families  of  the  Reformed  faith.  They 
'  arrived  in  considerable  numbers  from  1710  to  1770. 
Reformed  congregations  were  established  by  the 
Palatines  or  the  Swiss  in  the  colonies  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  Carolina,  and 
Georgia.  The  Reformed  congregations  in  the 
colonies,  barring  those  in  Pennsylvania,  were  not 
organized  into  a  denomination;  but,  in  the  second 
or  third  generations  following  the  pioneers,  they 
were  gradually  absorbed  by  neighboring  Presby- 
terian, Episcopahan,  or  Lutheran  churches.  The 
Church  became  a  denominational  organization  in 
the  German  and  Swiss  settlements  of  Pennsylvania 
in  the  region  of  Montgomery,  Bucks,  Lancaster, 
and  Lebanon  counties. 

The  congregations  were  united  into  a  coetus 
(synod)  1747,  imder  the  leadership  of  the  Rev. 
Michael  Schlatter  (1716-1790),  who  was  sent  to  this 
country  by  the  synods  of  North  and  South  Holland 
to  look  after  the  German  Reformed  people  of  Penn- 


sylvania. During  the  coetal  period  the  Church  was 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holland  synods.  The 
coetus  became  independent  of  Holland  in  1793  by 
turning  into  a  synodj  adopting  a  constitution  of 
its  own,  and  assuming  the  name,  "The  Synod  of 
the  Reformed  (High-)  German  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America."  In  the  absence  of 
definite  statistics  historians  have  computed  the 
number  of  congregations  at  that  time  to  have  been 
about  178,  and  of  communicants  about  15,000. 
The  great  majority  were  located  in  Pennsylvania. 
Yet  more  or  less  prosperous  congregations  were  also 
found  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  and  Ohio. 

The  prospects  of  the  Church  brightened  with 
the  awakening  of  a  missionary  and  educational 
spirit  in  the  second  and  third  decades  of  the  19th. 
century.  The  first  missionary  committee  was 
appointed  by  the  synod  in  1819  and  the  first  mis- 
sionary society  was  organized  in  1826.  In  1824 
the  Synod  of  Ohio  was  organized.  The  first  theo- 
logical seminary  was  opened  in  1825  at  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  now  located  at  Lancaster,  Pa.;  and  Marshall 
College  at  Mercersburg  was  chartered  in  1836,  now 
FrankUn  and  Marshall  College  at  Lancaster,  Pa. 
The  General  Synod  was  organized  in  1863,  includ- 
ing, at  the  present  time,  eight  district  synods  and 
sixty-two  classes.  Since  the  organization  of  this 
judicatory  the  Church  has  made  remarkable 
progress,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

The  Heidelberg  Catechism  serves  both  as  a 
confession  of  faith  and  as  a  book  of  instruction. 
The  polity  of  the  Church  is  presbyterial.  In  its 
mode  of  worship  it  is  bound  neither  to  a  ritual  nor 
to  a  free  service.  It  has  liturgical  forms  for  morn- 
ing and  evening  worship  and  for  the  special  services 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Baptism,  etc.,  but  it  allows 
congregations  the  use  of  a  free  service.  In  1920, 
there  were  1,751  churches,  and  329,937  members. 
George  W.  Richards 

REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.— A  body 
which  separated  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  protest  against  sacramentalism.  The 
church  was  organized  Dec.  3,  1873,  in  the  city  of 
New  York  by  prominent  clergymen  and  laymen  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  with  the  Rt.  Rev. 
George  David  Cummins,  D.D.,  of  the  Diocese 
of  Kentucky  as  its  first  bishop. 

This  formal  separation  from  the  mother  church 
occurred  as  claimed  because  of  the  rapid  growth  of 
extreme  ritualistic  or  sacramentarian  doctrines  and 
practices  in  the  parent  body  which  were  contrary  to 
the  constitution  of  the  true  Reformed  Church  of 
England,  and  which  formed  a  barrier  to  full  ecclesi- 
astical and  Christian  fellowship  with  other  Evan- 
gelical organizations. 

The  name  Reformed  Episcopal  was  chosen  to 
conform  to  the  legal  title  of  the  Anglican  Com- 
munion which  is  "the  Reformed  Church  of  England." 

It  claims  the  great  English  Reformers  of  all 
communions  and  the  Protestant  martyrs,  as  pre- 
eminently its  spiritual  progenitors.  It  also  asserts 
it  is  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  Evangelical 
as  a  distinct  body. 

It  repudiates  the  doctrine  of  the  so-called 
"ApostoUcal  Succession"  (q.v.).  But  it  has 
carefully  preserved  through  its  Bishops  whatever 
Historical  Succession  there  may  be  in  the  Anglican 
Communion. 

It  holds  that  the  Episcopate  is  not  a  separate 
order  in  the  ministry,  and  that  the  Bishop  is  first 
among  the  Presbyters  in  office.  It  recognizes  the 
validity  of  the  Presbyterial  orders  of  other  Chris- 
tian churches.  It  freely  exchanges  pulpits  with 
them.  It  receives  members  by  letters  dismissory 
and  dismisses  them  to  these  churches.  It  receives 
communicants    from    these    bodies    without    re- 


369 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Reform  Judaism 


confirmation  and  dismisses  them  as  to  parishes 
within  its  own  jurisdictions.  It  admits  by  the 
rite  of  confirmation  by  its  Bishops  tho^  who  for 
the  first  time  profess  their  faith  in  Christ.  It 
uses  the  term  Presbyter  in  place  of  Priest.  It 
denies  the  dogma  that  Regeneration  is  inseparably 
connected  with  Baptism,  termed  "baptismal 
regeneration."  It  has  ehminated  everything  savor- 
ing of  transubstantiation  from  its  Communion 
Service. 

Its  Prayer  Book  is  modeled  on  the  first  American 
Prayer  Book  of  1785,  known  as  "The  Bishop 
White  Prayer  Book."  Its  Uturgy  can  be  used  by  a 
layman  in  conducting  the  devotions  of  the  people. 

By  an  overwhelming  vote  the  General  Coimcil  of 
1918  removed  all  distinctions  of  sex  in  the  lay 
administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  church,  so  that 
women  can  be  wardens  and  vestrymen,  also  deputies 
to  Synodical  and  General  Councils.  The  needed 
affirmative  action  of  the  General  Council  of  1921 
wiU  undoubtedly  be  given  to  this  just  measure. 

Steps  are  now  being  taken  in  Great  Britain 
to  form  a  union  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church 
with  the  Free  Church  of  England  which  will  add  a 
large  force  of  clergymen  and  laymen  to  its  numbers. 

There  are  now  four  Bishops  in  America  and 
two  in  England.  One  of  the  American  Bishops  has 
charge  of  a  large  number  of  colored  communicants 
in  the  South. 

In  India  an  important  mission  work  is  carried 
on  at  Lahtpur  including  orphanages  and  schools. 
And  at  Lucknow  is  a  widely  known  hospital  and 
dispensary. 

Its  chief  organ  is  The  Episcopal  Recorder  pub- 
lished weekly  in  Philadelphia.  Its  well  endowed 
Theological  Seminary  at  Philadelphia  is  open  to 
all  evangelical  students. 

It  has  a  total  clergy  list  of  124,  and  of  communi- 
cants and  adherents  about  fifty  thousand. 

Samuel  Fallows 

REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA.— Organized  in  Scotland  (1743) 
as  a  protest  against  the  compromised  character  of 
the  State  church,  reestabhshed  in  the  reign  of 
WilUam  and  Mary,  it  appeared  in  America  in  1752, 
where  it  has  undergone  reorganization  in  1798 
and  1833.  Distinctive  features  are  its  refusal 
to  accept  slave  holders  as  church  communicants, 
its  recognition  of  "Jesus  Christ  as  the  ruler  of 
nations,"  and  its  disinchnation  toward  the  use  of 
the  franchise  and  the  holding  of  pubUc  office.  It 
has  133  churches  and  16,564  members. 

REFORM  JUDAISM.— A  type  of  Jewish  faith 
and  practice  freed  from  vigorous  subjection  to 
external  authority,  and  aiming  at  a  reUgious  inter- 
pretation of  Uberal  culture. 

Like  ail  other  rehgiohs  Judaism  is  capable  of 
different  interpretations,  ranging  from  blind  sub- 
mission to  ecclesiastic  authority  to  the  recognition 
of  individual  conscience  as' the  sole  arbiter  between 
God  and  man.  The  unquestioning  acceptance  of 
both  Scriptural  and  ecclesiastic  authority  may  be 
called  the  rule  in  Judaism  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Pharisaic  movement  in  the  2nd.  century  b.c. 
to  the  end  of  the  18th.  century,  although  the 
feehng  was  never  lacking  that  reUgion  is  a  matter 
of  the  individual  conscience  and  its  practices  are 
bound  to  change  with  time  and  environment.  As 
typical  may  be  quoted  the  Talmudic  statement: 
"The  Torah  is  given  to  iadividual  conscience" 
{Mishnah,  Shebi'it,  II,  1). 

The  Uberal  interpretation  of  Judaism  is  more 
clearly  expressed  in  the  works  of  the  mediaeval 
philosophers,  among  whom  Maimonides  (1135- 
1204)  stands  foremost.  He  says  that  he  accepts 
the  dogma  of  creatio  ex  nihilo,  not  because  the 


Bible  teaches  it,  but  because  he  is  convinced  of  its 
truth.  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (1092-1167)  is  more 
radical.  He  recognizes  that  Ecclesiastes  shows 
traces  of  Mishnaic  vocabulary  (Comm.  Eccles.  2:25), 
admits  the  exihc  origin  of  some  Psahns  (Comm. 
Ps.  42)  and  in  veiled  language  states  that  some 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch  were  written  after  Moses' 
death.     (Comm.  Deut.  1:2.) 

Renaissance  and  Reformation  stimulated  criti- 
cism in  individual  scholars.  Azariah  dei  Rossi  of 
Ferrara  (1511-1578)  boldly  declared  that  rabbinic 
authority  is  confined  to  rehgious  practice,  but 
cannot  be  decisive  in  scientific  questions.  Leon 
Modena  of  Venice  (1571-1648)  went  still  farther, 
attacking  the  practices  of  Judaism  as  petty,  super- 
stitious, and  often  conflicting  with  the  Bible. 

The  Jewish  masses  were  not  imbued  with  the 
necessity  of  revising  their  religious  ideas,  until 
the  French  Revolution,  by  a  law  passed  Sept.  27, 
1791,  gave  them  full  civic  and  political  rights.  Some 
progressive  minds  had  paved  the  way  by  literary 
activity.  Moses  Mendelssohn  (1729-1786),  a  popu- 
lar expounder  of  the  Leibnitz-Wolff  school  of 
philosophy,  successfully  advocated  secular  educa- 
tion, though  he  remained  an  observant  Jew. 

The  leading  problem  in  this  new  religious  move- 
ment was  the  eschatology  of  Judaism  which  taught 
that  the  Messiah  woiild  re-estabUsh  the  Jewish 
kingdom  in  Palestine.  This  dogma  was  the  main 
argument  used  by  those  who  opposed  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  Jews,  declaring  that  the  liturgy,  expressing 
this  Messianic  belief,  makes  the  Jew  a  self-confessed 
alien.  In  addition  the  separate  day  of  rest,  the 
dietary  laws,  and  the  use  of  the  Hebrew  in  the 
synagog  drew  a  dividing  line  between  the  Jews  and 
their  neighbors.  The  first  to  draw  practical  conse- 
quences from  this  theory  was  Israel  Jacobson,  a 
wealthy  philanthropist  of  Cassel  (1768-1828)  who 
introduced  the  vernacular  in  the  synagog  which  he 
established  in  connection  with  a  school,  founded 
by  him  in  Seesen  (1810).  The  first  synagog  to 
carry  this  principle  into  practice  was  established  in 
Hamburgj  1818.  It  introduced  besides  services  in 
German,  instrumental  music  and  omitted  from  the 
ritual  all  expressions  of  the  hope  of  a  renationaUza- 
tion  in  Palestine. 

For  twenty  years  this  example  remained  isolated, 
but  afterwards  found  rapid  imitation  in  connection 
with  the  political  movement  for  the  abrogation  of 
the  Jewish  disabilities  then  existing  all  over  Europe 
with  the  exception  of  France.  In  the  United. 
States  the  principles  of  the  Hamburg  "Temple" 
were  first  introduced  in  Charleston,  S.C,  1841, 
and  in  time  were  accepted  in  practically  all  syna- 
gogs  formed  by  natives  or  Americanized  immigrants. 
The  departure  from  tradition  differs  in  degrees.  The 
most  decisive  radicalism  is  the  abandonment  of  the 
Seventh  Day  Sabbath  as  the  day  of  pubhc  wor- 
ship, first  introduced  by  the  BerUn  Reforrrkiemeinde 
in  1845.  ^     "^ 

Attempts  to  lay  down  theoretical  principles  for 
liberal  Judaism  have  not  been  successful  probably 
because  Judaism  lacked  an  ecclesiastic  organization, 
and  its  theologians  were  always  more  concerned 
with  religious  practice  than  with  the  definition  of 
dogma.  In  general  we  may  divide  liberal  Judaism 
into  three  classes:  the  radical  element,  headed  by 
Samuel  Holdheim  (1806-1860)  which  abandons  the 
traditional  Sabba.th  firifi  ^irciimf^iaiQinj  the  pro- 
gressive party'whose  most  scholarly  expounder 
was  Abraham  Geiger  (1808-1874)  which,  while 
showing  greater  respect  for  tradition,  denies  the 
dogma  of  a  personal  Messiah  and  of  the  restoration 
to  Palestine;  and  the  conservative  party,  whose 
leader  was  Zechariah  Frankel  (1801-1875),  demand- 
ing merely  freedom  in  theoretical  questions,  but 
conforming   with   tradition   in    practice.     In   the 


Regeneration 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


370 


United  States  the  school  of  Geiger  won  the  greatest 
success.  Its  most  popular  leader  was  Isaac  M. 
Wise  (1819-1900)  and  its  representatives  are 
organized  in  the  Central  Conference  of  American 
Rabbis,  established  in  1889. 

GOTTHARD  DeTTTSCH 

REGENERATION.— A  New  Birth,  re-creation, 
a  radical  renewal  of  life,  conversion.  The  creation 
of  a  new  life,  whereby  one  becomes  reUgiously  a 
"new  creature." 

The  conception  of  a  radical  conversion  of  nature 
by  religious  discipline  or  through  the  efficacy  of  a 
ritual  is  wide-spread.  In  the  mystery  reUgions  in 
the  Hellenistic  world,  mortals  could  be  initiated 
into  a  new  type  of  life  which  lifted  them  above  the 
vicissitudes  of  mortahty.  TertuUian  (De.  Bapt.  5) 
says  that  baptism  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  is 
believed ,  by  the  devotees  to  effect  regeneration. 
Liturgical  fragments  which  are  accessible  emphasize 
distinctly  the  privilege  of  a  reUgious  rebirth,  in 
which  one  receives  divine  power  and  is  assured  of 
inunortaUty.  In  India,  the  conception  of  a  rebirth 
is  very  common,  ranging  from  mystical  initiation 
in  the  experience  of  a  Uving  person  to  the  elaborate 
theories  of  transmigration  (q.v.). 

The  conception  appears  in  Christianity  almost 
from  the  beginning.  The  apostle  Paul  portrays  the 
process  by  which  one  becomes  a  Christian  as  a 
radical  transformation  wrought  by  the  indwelling 
spirit  of  God  or  by  the  indwelling  Christ.  It  is 
this  regenerate  experience  which  makes  Christianity 
inherently  different  from  legalistic  Judaism.  The 
apostoUc  tradition  carries  out  this  conception  of  a 
radical  renewal  of  life  as  the  condition  of  salvation, 
Jesus'  death  and  resurrection  are  regarded  as 
redemptive  acts,  prefiguring  and  providing  for  the 
death  of  men  to  the  natural  order  and  their  regenera- 
tion into  a  spiritual  order.  In  the  Catholic  church, 
the  sacraments,  especially  baptism,  as  supernatural 
"means  of  grace"  give  men  access  to  a  "new  Ufe"  not 
continuous  with  the  old. 

In  the  history  of  Christian  doctrine,  this  vital 
insistence  upon  a  regenerated  life  takes  the  form  of 
a  technical  doctrine  of  a  literal  or  metaphysical 
change  divinely  wrought.  See  Salvation.  The 
Reformation  marks  a  renewed  insistence  upon  a 
supernaturalistic  change,  but  transfers  emphasis 
from  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments  to  the  sole 
sufficiency  of  faith  in  Christ. 

Modern  interpretation  inclines  to  return  to  the 
symbolical  use  of  the  conception  of  Regeneration. 
Our  ethical  realities  deal  with  transformed  char- 
acters. Regeneration  expresses  thus  a  radical,  vital, 
ethical  change,  rather  than  an  absolutely  new  meta- 
physical beginning.  Regeneration  is  a  vital  step 
in  the  natural  development  of  the  spiritual  life,  a 
radical  adjustment  to  the  moral  processes  of  fife. 
More  commonly  a  series  of  ethical  renewals  is 
taught.  Psychologically,  this  does  not  express  a 
miraculous  "new  birth,"  but  new  stages  of  contact 
with  spiritual  reahty,  new  realizations  of  spiritual 
power.    See  Conversion.      Herbert  A.  Youtz 

REGENSBURG,  CONFERENCE  OF.— A  con- 
ference held  at  Regensburg  (Ratisbon)  in  1545, 
aiming  to  restore  religious  unity  to  Germany. 
There  were  few  articles  on  which  the  R.C.  leaders 
and  the  Reformers  could  reach  unanimity,  so 
the  Conference  ended  in  failure. 

REGISTERS,    PAROCHIAL    OR    PARISH,— 

A  book  in  which  the  births,  marriages  and  deaths 
of  a  parish  are  recorded;  the  custom  in  England 
dating  from  Cromwell,  1538. 

REGULA  FIDEL— See  Rule  of  Faith. 


REGULAR.— In  the  R.C.  church,  one  bound  by 
the  vows  regular  of  a  religious  order. 

REIMARUS,  HERMANN  SAMUEL  (1694- 
1768). — German  philosopher,  best  known  by  his 
WolfenbiiUel  Fragments,  pubUshed  posthumously 
by  Lessing  in  which  religion  was  explained  rational- 
isticaUy,  miracles  denied,  and  current  conceptions 
of  historical  facts  challenged. 

REINCARNATION.— See  Transmigration. 

RELATIONSHIP,  SPIRITUAL.— In  the  R.C. 
church  the  priest  administering  baptism  and  the 
sponsors  are  conceived  as  standing  in  such  a  close 
relationship  to  the  baptized  child  and  its  parents 
that  the  marriage  of  an  individual  in  one  group 
to  an  individual  in  the  other  is  fo!rbidden. 

RELATIVISM  or  RELATIVITY.— The  philo- 
sophical doctrine  that  reality  exists  only  in  relation 
to  or  as  an  object  of  the  thinking  subject;  synony- 
mous with  phenomenalism  (q.v.). 

RELICS. — In  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches, 
an  object  sacred  because  of  its  close  association  with 
saints  or  martyrs.  A  corpse,  or  a  bone,  or  articles  of 
clothing  are  the  most  common  objects  of  reverence. 
Relics  are  commonly  regarded  as  possessing  miracu- 
lous potency. 

RELIEF  ACT.— An  act  passed  by  the  English 
ParUament  in  1791  whereby  Roman  Cathohcs  were 
reUeved  of  certain  disabilities  pertaining  to  civil, 
educational  and  economic  interests. 

RELIEF  CHURCH.— A  group  which,  under  the 
leadership  of  Thomas  Gillespie,  separated  from 
the  established  church  of  Scotland  in  1761,  form- 
ing the  Presbytery  of  Relief.  In  1847  it  united  with 
the  United  Secession  Church  to  form  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church.    See  Presbyterianism, 

RELIGION. — A  function  of  human  life  express- 
ing itself  in  an  attitude  to  environing  reaUties 
which  involves  (a)  a  sense  of  dependence  upon 
the  same;  (6)  attempts  to  gain  help  therefrom 
through  the  establishment  of  personal  relations; 
and  (c)  the  utilization  of  social  experience,  culture, 
organization  and  customs  in  such  attempts. 

This  definition  embodies  the  essential  elements 
emphasized  by  opposing  groups  of  investigators. 
On  the  one  hand  are  those  who  like  Durkheim  see  in 
religion  only  "a  unified  system  of  beliefs  and  prac- 
tices relative  to  sacred  things,  i.e.,  things  set  apart 
and  forbidden;  beliefs  and  practices  which  unite 
into  one  single  moral  community  called  a  church 
all  those  who  adhere  to  them."  On  the  other  hand 
are  those  who  like  Tylor  limit  rehgion  to  "a  beUef 
in  spiritual  beings"  or  even  one  Supreme  Being. 
The  general  tendency  of  opinion,  however,  seems 
to  be  toward  conceiving  religion  as  the  extension 
of  the  process  of  biological  adaptation  into  man's 
personal  relation  with  the  cosmos.  Social  experi- 
ence furnishes  the  materials  for  making  such  adapta- 
tion. In  the  case  of  several  authorities  (e.g., 
Hoffding)  philosophical  interests  lead  to  a  descrip- 
tion rather  than  a  definition  of  religion  as  the 
preservation  of  permanent,  especially  social  values. 

The  student  of  reUgion  must  guard  against 
limiting  his  induction  to  primitive  religions  exclu- 
sively. Developed  rehgion  is  as  truly  a,  matter 
for  observation  as  is  primitive.  It  is  as  misleading 
to  neglect  developed  reUgious  systems  like  Hindu- 
ism, Buddhism,  Judaism,  Mohammedanism,  and 
Christianity,  fis  it  would  be  to  omit  constitutional 


371 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS  ReUgious  Corporations 


governments  from  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of 
the  state. 

For  the  sake  of  clarity  it  may  be  added  that 
religion  as  a  psychological  attitude  can  be  under- 
stood only  through  a  study  of  social  data  found  in 
different  reUgions.  Even  mysticism  cannot  be 
properly  understood  apart  from  the  group  hfe  from 
which  its  thought  forms  are  derived.  In  the 
present  general  article  no  attempt  is  made  ^  to 
describe  separate  religions.  For  such  information 
reference  can  be  made  to  articles  on  various  religions, 
e.g.,  Israel,  Religion  of;  Judaism;  Christianitt; 
Mohammedanism;  China,  Religions  of;  Bbah- 
manism;  Buddhism;  Hinduism;  India,  Reli- 
gions and  Philosophies  of;  Japan,  Religions 
op;  Zoroastbianism,  etc. 

I.  Origin  op  Religion. — ^Various  theories  have 
been  suggested  to  account  for  the  origin  of  the 
beliefs  and  practices  to  which  the  term  religion  is 
applied.  Perhaps  the  oldest  is  that  "fear  made  the 
gods."  Less  naive  are  those  modem  explanations 
which  regard  reUgion  as  an  organization  of  social 
customs  around  hfe  interests  accompanied  with  the 
personifications  of  social  beliefs.  Other  origins  are 
found  in  fetishism  (q.v.),  totemism  (q.v.),  naturism 
(see  Nature  Worship),  tabu  (q.v.),  sex,  dreams 
(q.v.),  animism  (q.v.),  ghosts  (see  Ancestor  Wor- 
ship), mana  (q.v.)  (see  Magic)  or  mysterious  power. 
Each  of  these  theories  recognizes  some  element 
in  the  religious  life,  but  none  accounts  for  the 
attitude  which  each  implies.  That  can  be  found 
only  in  hfe  itself.  Of  the  two  ultimate  forces 
assuring  the  continuance  of  life,  viz.,  self-preservation 
and  race-propagation,  rehgion  may  he  said  to 
be  a  development  of  the  former.  It  is  as  indis- 
tinguishable from  human  hfe  as  is  any  other 
expression  of  the  same  impulse,  e.g.,  the  search  for 
and  preparation  of  food,  which  in  its  developed 
form  is  seen  in  agriculture,  meals,  and  scientific 
investigations  of  various  sorts.  _  That  is  to  say, 
religion  is  a  function  of  human  Ufe,  and  its  expres- 
sion is  as  varied  as  the  human  interests  expressed  in 
various  social  environments.  As  distinct  from  magic 
it  is  always  social  and  is  the  product  of  and  ministers 
to  group  Ufe.  In  this  particular,  also,  it  differs  from 
philosophy  except  in  certain  cases  when  a  philosophy 
becomes  a  religious  activity  of  a  group. 

II.  Primitive  Religions. — ^Rehgions  reflect  the 
general  status  of  a  civilization.  In  the  most  primi- 
tive they  consist  of  httle  more  than  simple  customs 
by  which  the  tribe  seeks  to  gain  help  from  aspects  of 
its  physical  environment.  Thus  religious  activity 
includes  and  provides  for  all  elemental  needs  such  as 
hunting,  fishing,  grain-raising.  Each  of  these 
activities  prescrioes  certain  rites  which  constitute 
no  small  part  of  the  rehgion  of  primitive  peoples. 
Generally  such  rites  involve  dancing,  music, 
social  practices  of  a  sort  appropriate  to  the  social 
hfe  of  a  tribe.  When  the  idea  of  gods  exists,  either 
animistic  or  otherwise,  super-human  beings  are 
treated  as  members  of  the  tribe,  share  in  feasts,  and 
are  served  by  special  persons.  Thus  cults,  par- 
ticularly sacrifices,  developed,  subject  to  the  limi- 
tations set  by  the  social  life  of  the  worshiping 
group.  Speaking  generally,  the  cult  inhibits 
change  and  so  tends  to  keep  social  hfe  at  about  the 
level  in  which  the  religion  became  standardized. 
Rehgions  have  developed  markedly  only  during 
periods  of  decided  social  changes.  For  instance, 
the  passage  of  a  tribe  from  nomadic  to  settled 
habits  has  often  led  to  the  development  of  poly- 
theism, and  an  agricultural  cultus.  See  Primitive 
Peoples,  Religion  op;  Agriculture,  Rites  op; 
Festivals  and  Feasts;  Fetishism. 

III.  Developed  Religions. — ^The  development 
of  the  social  and  particularly  the  political  hfe  of  a 
group  has  affected  its  reUgion  in  still  more  impor- 


tant ways.  Chief  among  the  new  elements  of  the 
rehgious  hfe  of  the  group  are: 

1.  Ritual. — ^This  is  normally  composed  of  cus- 
tomary acts  of  earher  times  which  have  become 
hallowed  customs.  _  Thus  sacrifices,  feasts  and 
fasts,  tabv^,  domestic  ceremonies,  sowing  and  har- 
vest customs  are  gradually  systematized  and  or- 
ganized into  a  definite  cult  which  is  increasingly 
separated  from  the  ordinary  social  activities  of  the 
group.  Frequently  an  inner  group  (e.g.,  the 
church,  q.v.)  is  formed  for  rituahstic  and  other 
distinctively  religious  purposes. 

2.  Priests. — Such  a  cult  demands  professional 
attention,  and  in  consequence  rehgions  have  all 
but  invariably  given  rise  to  classes  of  men  who  are 
regarded  as  haying  particular  power  and  knowledge 
to  win  the  divine  favor.  The  priest  as  repre- 
sentative of  socially  approved  rites  is  thus  distin- 
guished from  the  magician.  (Perhaps  the  word 
religio  itself  may  preserve  this  power  of  the  priest 
through  rites  to  bind  or  compel  the  gods  to  do  the 
will  of  the  worshiper.)  Generally  these  priests 
belong  to  an  hereditary  class  which  has  for  genera- 
tions been  the  repository  of  the  sacred  and  secret 
behefs  of  the  group.  Only  in  a  few  rehgions 
(notably  in  R.C.  Christianity)  have  priests  oeen 
compelled  to  be  cehbate,  the  priesthood  thus  being 
kept  from  becoming  a  caste  (q.v.).  See  Priest; 
Priesthood;  Shamanism. 

3.  Myths. — Most  rehgions  embody  interpreta- 
tions of  natural  phenomena  (thunder,  hghtning, 
fire,  rain,  wind,  aurora  boreahs,  etc.)  in  the  shape 
of  dramatic  narratives  of  the  doings  of  heroes  and 
gods  who  are  the  personification  of  these  forces. 
In  some  cases  these  myths  (q.v.)  possess  great 
hterary  excellence. 

4.  Gods  and  God. — Religions  vary  from  the  vast 
polytheism  of  Hinduism  (q.v.)  to  the  theism  of  Chris- 
tianity._  In  most  developed  rehgions,  it  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  the  theistic  ideals  of  its 
better  educated  adherents  and  the  behefs  of  the 
masses.  Because  of  the  difference  in  intelhgence 
of  its  members,  a  people  may  maintain  a  super- 
stitious polytheism  or  a  veneration  of  dead  heroes 
and  saints  side  by  side  with  a  noble  theology  or 
philosophy.    See  Gods;   God. 

5.  A  sacred  literature. — Practically  all  devel- 
oped rehgions  have  their  sacred  books.  See 
Bible;  Koran;  Vedas;  Brahmanism;  Buddhism; 
China,  Religions  of.  These  may  be  legislative, 
philosophical,  poetical,  rituahstic.  See  Sacbed 
Litebatubes. 

6.  Theology. — ^The  term  is  here  used  loosely  to 
indicate  a  body  of  standardized  doctrine.  In  many 
rehgious  groups  this  tends  to  become  dogma,  or 
behefs  made  authoritative  by  the  decision  of  the 
group  and  enforced  as  a  basis  of  membership.  In 
such  dogma  dominant  social  and  political  ideas  and 
practices  are  commonly  used  to  describe  the 
relations  of  men  with  the  deity.  Particularly  in 
the  Christian  rehgion  has  theology  been  a  sort 
of  transcendentahzed  pohtics,  utihzing  such  ideas 
as  sovereign,  law,  punishment,  pardon,  etc.  See 
Science  op  Religion;  Philosophy  in  Relation 
TO  Religion. 

7.  Church. — These  various  characteristics  usually 
co-operate  to  form  a  group  of  devotees.  This  is  par- 
ticukrly  true  of  Christianity  where  the  church  (q.v.) 
has  only  sporadicaUy  been  identified  with  society  as 
a  whole.  Shailer  Mathews 

RELIGIOUS    CORPORATIONS.— European 

law  recognizes  the  church  as  a  public  corporation, 
i.e.,  an  agent  of  the  state  existing  for  a  pubhc 
interest.  When  church  and  state  are  separated  the 
church  must  hve  as  a  purely  private  corporation  as 
in  the  United  States,  i.e.,  as  a  society  incorporated 


Religious  Education 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


372 


by  the  state  to  have  legal  responsibihty  for  making 
contracts  or  holding  property  for  a  religious  use. 
The  corporation  as  such  has  no  charge  of  the  reli- 
gious action  of  the  church,  since  the  state  cannot 
constitutionally  deal  with  religion.  In  some  states 
the  act  of  association  of  itself  incorporates ;  elsewhere 
the  court  must  act.  The  law  respects  the  pohty  of 
the  denomination  in  the  form  of  the  incorporation. 

RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION.— The'  theory  and 
practice  of  developing  immature  persons  in  the 
duties,  ideas,  and  ways  of  Uving  that  characterize 
the  religious  group.  See  also  Childhood,  Religion 
op;  Catechumen;  Catechism;  Catechetical 
Instruction;    Worship. 

1.  Relation  to  General  Education. — 1.  The 
dominance  of  education  by  religion. — Until  recent 
times,  education  has  always  been  religious.  Reli- 
gion was  one  of  the  high  interests  of  the  group  and 
had  gathered  about  it  forms,  ceremonies,  festivals, 
liturgies,  together  with  a  certain  body  of  ideas  found 
in  sacred  books  and  formulated  in  systems  of  faith. 
The  moraUty  of  the  community  was  intimately 
connected  with  religion  and  indeed  was  enforced 
by  religious  sanctions.  Thus  the  youth  growing  up 
in  the  community  required  a  considerable  training  to 
take  his  place  in  the  rehgious  life  and  his  education 
was  always  directed  to  this  end.  This  is  clearly 
seen  in  the  educational  scheme  of  the  Hebrews.  It 
is  characteristic  of  the  nations  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  In  Christendom  education  was  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  church  down  to  the  Reforma- 
tion and  was  largely  in  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics  to 
the  18th.  century.  In  truth,  the  Sunday  School 
arose  in  the  field  of  general  education.  It  was  an 
attempt  to  give  the  rudiments  of  learning  on  Sunday 
to  those  children  who  were  at  work  on  week  days 
and  thus  had  not  acquired  the  abUity  to  read  the 
Bible  and  the  catechism.  The  Sunday  School 
was  adopted  and  developed  as  a  church  institution 
and  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  appointed  agency 
for  religious  instruction.    See  Sunday  School. 

2.  The  public  school. — Modern  so-called,  secular 
education  arose  somewhat  as  a  protest  against  the 
unpedagogical  tyranny  of  the  religious  emphasis, 
partly  on  account  of  the  rich  development  in  the 
curriculum  of  studies  concerned  with  practical 
life,  and  inevitably  because  religious  differences 
produced  by  sectarianism  made  it  impossible  to 
give  religious  instruction  that  would  be  satisfactory 
to  all.  There  is  constant  demand  on  the  part  of 
certain  religious  people  for  religion  to  be  "put  back" 
into  the  public  schools.  More  significant  are  the 
experiments,  in  giving  school  credit  for  Bible  study 
in  the  churches,  and  in  the  actual  establishment  of 
a  week-day  religious  school  supported  by  the  com- 
munity, but  not  by  taxation,  to  which  the  pupils 
may  go  at  stated  times,  by  arrangement  with  the 
public  school  authorities. 

II.  The  Agencies  of  Religious  Education. — 
1.  The  family. — Renewed  emphasis  is  being  placed 
upon  the  family  as  the  fundamental  reUgious  group 
in  which  the  child  learns  to  be  religious  by  sharing 
the  common  life.  As  modem  social  religion  is  seen 
to  be  quite  as  much  concerned  with  personal  relations 
as  with  instructional  materials,  it  is  evident  that  if 
the  family  is  not  religious  it  is  irreligious.  There 
is  no  possibility  of  neutrality.  The  vital  matter 
of  sex  education  is  best  worked  out  in  the  home. 
The  school  and  the  church  are  therefore  concerning 
themselves  with  the  training  of  parents  as  the  most 
effective  way  in  which  to  train  children.  The 
problems  of  religious  education  are  very  intimately 
related  to  the  changing  conditions  of  modern 
family  life. 

2.  The  school. — Education  is  a  unitary  process. 
The  ehmiuation  of  rehgious  instruction  from  the 


pubUc  school  does  not  absolve  that  institution 
from  its  responsibihty  in  the  moral  and  reUgious 
development  of  its  pupils.  The  whole  trend  of 
social  education  as  represented  by  Dewey  and 
many  others  is  in  the  direction  of  the  achievement 
of  the  fundamental  religious  values.  A  monograph 
by  Rugh,  The  Essential  Place  of  Religion  in  Educa- 
tion, points  out  clearly  and  practically  how  a  school 
in  the  very  organization  of  its  corporate  hfe  is 
teaching  religion  though  it  may  never  use  the  word. 
Much  closer  co-operation  between  the  school  and 
other  agencies  of  rehgious  education  are  clearly 
possible. 

3.  The  library. — The  ideals  of  children  are 
formed  far  more  by  their  voluntary  reading  than 
by  many  of  their  prescribed  studies.  They  turn 
to  the  books  of  high  flavored  adventure,  which  often 
present  dangerously  immoral  achievements,  because 
of  their  craving  for  a  hfe  that  is  one  of  movement. 
Large  possibilities  of  good  he  in  the  direction  of 
wise  guidance  in  the  choice  of  wholesome  stories 
which  will  meet  this  eager  interest.  Pubhc  libraries 
are  usually  very  anxious  to  co-operate  with  schools 
and  churches  in  the  matter  of  securing  the  best 
hterature  and  providing  helpful  direction  to  readers. 

4.  The  community  itself,  apart  from  the  special 
institutions  aheady  considered,  is  an  educational 
agency.  Its  streets,  its  parks  and  playgrounds, 
or  the  lack  of  these,  its  business  hfe,  its  commercial- 
ized amusements^  its  bill  boards,  its  regulations 
of  pubhc  health,  its  police,  aU  are  influences  affect- 
ing the  young  hfe  and  perhaps  very  easily  doing  more 
to  break  down  the  socializing  process  than  all  other 
constructive  efforts  can  build  up.  Education 
cannot  be  considered  by  itself  but  must  be  con- 
sidered as  part  of  the  total  social  hfe  in  which  the 
children  grow  up. 

5.  The  church  has  its  own  peculiar  responsibihty 
but  must  act  as  a  correlator  of  the  activity  of  all 
the  agencies  described.  Its  weakness  today  is  the 
hmitation  of  its  educational  efforts  to  the  brief 
Sunday  School  hour.  The  church  is  composed  of 
families  and  therein  hes  its  opportunity  to  make 
contact  with  the  life  of  the  children  and  to  help 
in  the  unifying  of  their  education. 

III.  The  Organization  op  Religious  Educa- 
tion.— 1.  Various  organizations. — The  worldwide 
institution  which  has  concerned  itself  with  religious 
education  is  the  Sunday  School.  It  has  had  an 
extraordinary  development  in  practically  all  denomi- 
nations and  throughout  the  world.  It  is  not 
always  an  integral  part  of  the  church  but  some- 
times maintains  a  semi-independence.  In  most 
churches  the  pastor  has  very  httle  oversight  of  the 
Sunday  School.  Side  by  side  with  this  long 
established  organization,  there  has  grown  up  in 
recent  years,  a  large  number  of  educational  societies 
and  clubs  in  the  church.  Most  notable  are  the 
young  people's  societies,  others  are  various  boy 
and  girl  orders  founded  upon  chivalry,  and  recently, 
outside  the  church  but  often  adopted  by  it,  the 
Boy  Scouts,  the  Girl  Scouts,  the  Campfire  Girls. 

2.  The  correlation  of  the  religious  educational 
agencies  in  the  local  churches  is  one  of  the  most 
pressing  of  our  problems.  The  Sunday  School 
has  organized  its  classes  of  adolescents,  giving  to 
them  outside  duties,  providing  through-the-week 
activities,  requiring  payments  of  money,  and  each 
of  the  other  clubs  and  societies,  more  or  less  rivals 
in  securing  membership,  is  doing  the  same  thing. 
Considerable  confusion  results.  There  is  no  proper 
supervision  of  the  whole  educational  process  and 
there  is  no  adequate  curriculum  of  instruction  and 
activity  through  which  aU  the  young  people  pass. 

3.  The  correlation  of  the  religious  education  of 
the  community  is  a  further  step  that  remains  to  be 
taken.     Is  this  to  be  brought  about  through  a 


373 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS  ReUgious  Experience 


community  board  of  religious  education  with  a 
professional  superintendent  corresponding  to  the 
superintendent  of  pubUc  instruction?  Will  the 
Christian  associations  with  their  trained  secretarial 
staff  and  their  weU  equipped  buildings  furnish  the 
natural  correlating  organizations? 

4.  Associations. — The  American  Sunday  School 
Union  is  an  organization  for  planting  new  Sunday 
Schools.  The  International  Sunday  School  Associa- 
tion undertakes  through  township,  county,  state, 
and  international  officers  and  conventions  to  stimu- 
late the  life  and  work  of  the  Sunday  Schools.  Its 
conmiittee  has  prepared  lessons  since  1871.  The 
Religious  Education  Association  seeks  to  act  as  a 
clearing  house  for  all  the  interests  of  rehgious 
education.  It  holds  annual  conventions,  pubhshes 
a  magazine  and  various  bibliographies  and  con- 
ducts investigations.  The  Sunday  School  Council 
of  EvangeUcal  Churches  is  composed  of  the  educa- 
tional officers  of  the  various  denominations  who 
meet  annually  for  conference  upon  the  common 
interests  which  they  represent.  The  Council 
now  has  representatives  on  the  International 
Lesson  Committee.  The  Commission  on  Religious 
Education  of  the  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches 
of  Christ  in  America  is  organized  to  study,  investi- 
gate and  make  reports  upon  the  problems  of  religious 
education. 

IV.  The  Method  op  Religious  Education. — 
1.  Instructional  material. — The  International  Lesson 
Committee  now  prepares  two  sets  of  Bible  lessons — 
the  imiform,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  plan 
which  has  been  in  vogue  nearly  half  a  century,  and 
the  graded  course  adapted  to  the  various  ages  of  the 
pupils.  A  modified  uniform  course  is  also  provided 
wluch  makes  some  recognition  of  the  principle  of 
grading.  Independent  course  not  confined  to  Bibli- 
cal material  have  also  been  prepared,  notably  the 
Constructive  Studies  of  the  University  of  Chicago 
Press,  the  completely  graded  series  of  Scribner's 
and  the  new  Beacon  series  of  the  Unitarian  Society. 
Beyond  these  series  there  is  a  complete  curriculum 
of  missionary  studies  prepared  by  the  Missionary 
Education  Movement.  The  Boy  Scouts  and  the 
Campfire  Manuals  and  the  excellent  ethical  and 
rehgious  textbooks  of  the  Christian  Associations, 
swell  the  volume  of  material. 

2.  Training  in  worship,  a  most  important  duty 
of  the  family  and  of  the  church,  has  been  httle 
regarded  except  in  the  more  ritualistic  communions. 
Instruction  in  the  elements  of  worship,  practice  in 
the  proper  use  of  those  elements,  are  basal  require- 
ments. Then  there  is  needed  the  proper  conditions 
for  worship  approximating  to  those  generally  pro- 
vided for  adults.  It  is  a  question  whether  the  pastor 
ought  not  to  supplant  the  superintendent  in  the 
conduct  of  the  worship  of  the  children  of  the 
church, 

3.  Training  in  religious  living  can  only  take 
place  fuUy  in  the  actual  social  life  of  the  young 
people.  But  it  is  possible  to  create  opportunities 
for  social  co-operation  and  service  which  may  be 
excellent  practice  in  religious  behavior. 

4.  The  training  of  religious  teachers  and  leaders 
is  a  most  urgent  need  for  the  betterment  of  religious 
education.  To  a  Umited  extent  this  will  involve 
the  employment  of  professional  rehgious  directors, 
a  policy  already  adopted  by  the  larger  "churches. 
But  the  volunteer  system  must  continue  for  the 
great  number  of  boy  and  girl  leaders,  and  this 
requires  a  far  more  thorough  training  system  than 
has  yet  been  employed.  Standard  teacher  training 
systems  are  being  developed  and  community  insti- 
tutes are  making  a  beginning  in  serious  work.  The 
church  coUeges  ought  to  offer  courses  in  theory  and 
practice  which  may  be  taken  by  young  people 
expecting  to  do  lay  service  in  the  church. 


5.  The  Science  of  Religious  Education. — A  begin- 
ning is  being  made  in  the  universities  and  divinity 
schools  to  deal  scientifically  with  the  problems  of 
rehgious  education  and  to  train  speciahsts  in  the 
field.  Tests,  measurements,  experiments,  must 
be  devised  and  developed,  following  in  general  the 
direction  which  the  science  of  education  is  pur- 
sumg.  Theodobe  G.  Scares 

RELIGIOUS  EXPERIENCE.— That  aspect  of 
experience  expressing  itself  in  rehgious  ways. 

1.  Dipferentiatiom  op  Religious  Experi- 
ence. 1.  The  kinship  of  moral  experience  and 
rehgion  is  notoriously  close.  "Morahty,  tinged 
with  emotion"  has  been  accepted  by  many  as  a 
definition  of  rehgion.  Undoubtedly  all  profound 
rehgious  experiences  have  an  indispensable  ethical 
element.  But  the  converse  is  not  true.  There  are 
many  profound  ethical  experiences  which  are  not  of 
themselves  rehgious.  Nor  is  it  difficult  to  perceive 
just  what  additional  factor  causes  a  moral  experi- 
ence to  become  a  rehgious  experience.  So  long  as 
the  self  which  is  passing  through  a  moral  experience 
remains  related  to  its  fellow  men  only,  the  experience 
in  question  is  ethical  only  and  not  religious  But 
the  moment  that  the  whole  moral  environment 
widens  to  include  along  with  men  some  non-human 
or  extra-human  being  or  beings,  that  moment  the 
experience  has  become  rehgious.  It  has  not  ceased 
to  be  moral,  but  it  is  no  longer  merely  moral. 
Nor  is  it  difficult  to  see  why  all  profoimd  religious 
experiences  have  been  by  common  consent  admitted 
to  have  necessarily  an  ethical  element  or  quality. 
The  self  that  has  consciously  envisaged  an  extra- 
human  being  or  beings  has  been  inevitably  modified 
by  that  encounter;  has  found  a  new  self-estimate  or 
self-direction,  and  such  a  changed  self  cannot 
escape  some  modification  of  its  attitude  toward 
the  other  human  selves  with  whom  daily  intercourse 
is  held.  And  such  conscious  modification  of  one's 
attitude  toward  one's  fellow  men  is  essentially  a 
moral  matter. 

2.  Another  view  similar  to  the  definition  of 
rehgion  as  "morahty  tinged  with  emotion"  is 
that  defended  by  Ames,  in  his  Psychology  of  Reli- 
gious Experience,  namely,  that  rehgion  is  the  social 
consciousness  in  its  most  intense  form.  "The  great 
common  concerns  of  humanity,  or  of  a  human  group, 
are  essentially  religious,  in  this  view.  And  no  doubt 
there  is  something  of  truth  therein.  The  great 
elation  of  the  national  spirit  in  time  of  war  is  closely 
akin  to  religious  enthusiasm.  Strong  patriotic 
feeling  is  often  if  not  always  sacramental.  But 
here  again,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  clearly 
between  the  rehgious  and  the  non-rehgious  phases 
of  such  social  consciousness.  In  war  for  example, 
a  nation  is  soon  driven  to  envisage  its  own  destiny, 
to  see  itself  in  its  historic  and  cosmic  setting,  to 
feel,  whether  mistakenly  or  not,  that  the  right 
for  which  it  fights  has  some  sort  of  universal  vaHdity, 
some  not  merely  mundane  sanction.  When  a 
nation's  consciousness  passes  into  this  particular 
phase,  it  certainly  therein  becomes  religious. 
Sooner  or  later,  for  instance,  embattled  democracy 
comes  irresistibly  to  feel  that  "the  voice  of  the 
people  is  the  voice  of  God."  It  is  not  the  mere 
enhancement  of  community  interest  as  such,  that 
gives  the  rehgious  quality,  but  rather  the  reference 
of  the  group  interest  to  some  standard  or  power 
outside  the  merely  human  sphere. 

3.  There  has  also  been  much  confusion  of  reh- 
gious and  aesthetic  experience.  The  foregoing 
distinctions  were  made  on  the  assumption  that 
rehgion  is  essentiaUy  the  attitude  of  a  self  or  of  a 
human  group  toward  some  extra-human  or  not 
merely  human  environment.  Here  again  this 
definition  may  clarify  the  question.    The  aesthetic 


Religious  Journalism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


374 


consciousness  is  an  attitude  of  appreciation  toward 
the  environment.  In  this  aesthetic  mood  the  sense 
of  ego,  the  consciousness  of  self,  may  be  present  or 
absent,  or  at  least  may  wax  or  wane.  Also  the 
aesthetic  object  may  be  a  work  of  art  or  a  part  of 
nature.  When  aesthetic  contemplation  of  natural 
objects  becomes  suffused  with  a  sense  of  selfhood  in 
the  observer,  then  and  then  only  the  aesthetic  mood 
should  be  said  to  possess  the  rehgious  quaHty.  (It 
should,  however,  be  noted  that  works  of  art  tend  by 
reason  of  age,  association,  and  grandeur,  to  take  on 
a  more  than  merely  human  signfficance.  In  the  great 
cathedral,  for  instance,  the  human  workmanship 
may  be  forgotten  in  a  sense  of  its  unearthly  beauty. 
The  mood  induced  readily  becomes  reUgious.) 
The  logic  of  the  situation  is  that  the  selfhood, 
aroused  by  whatever  psychic  forces  are  involved, 
irresistibly  brings  with  it  a  sense  of  otherness  in  the 
object,  of  something  personal  or  quasi-personal 
in  the  object  or  behind  it.  The  beauty  of  a  land- 
scape may  be  to  many  beholders  merely  sensuous. 
But  to  certain  minds  or  in  certain  moods,  the 
sensuous  appeal  passes  into  an  intensified  feeling  of 
personahty  and  this  inevitably  and  unwittingly 
posits  the  presence  of  an  animate  being  somehow 
revealed  by  the  beautiful  object.  This  is^  the 
aesthetic  mood  that  has  become  aesthetic-religious. 
The  philosophy  of  ScheUing,  the  poetry  of  Words- 
worth, the  nature  psalms  of  the  Hebrew  seers 
illustrate  the  varying  degrees  to  which  the  aesthetic 
attitude  toward  nature  passes  into  the  reUgious  phase. 

II.  The  Validity  op  Religious  Experience. 
1.  The  psychological  studv  of  reUgious  experience 
has  made  two  points  stand  out  with  supreme  chal- 
lenge. One  is  that  reUgion  is  as  natural  and  under 
proper  conditions  as  inevitable  as  an  interest  in 
baseball,  or  money,  or  poUtics.  From  this  con- 
viction has  sprung  the  crusade  for  reUgious  educa- 
tion. 

2.  The  other  point  is  that  since  the  individual's 
reUgious  experience  is  completely  mediated  by 
the  experience  of  the  group,  and  this  in  turn  is  imi- 
versally  conditioned  by  habitat,  the  vicissitudes  of 
history  and  the  interplay  of  social  habit  (custom) 
and  the  innovations  due  to  chance  and  human 
idiosyncracy,  reUgious  beliefs  and  experience  would 
seem  to  have  only  a  relative  vaUdity.  However, 
to  those  who  feel  that  reUgion  is  sick  with  what 
we  might  caU  "psychologitis,"  reassurance  wiU 
no  doubt  come  from  the  conceptions  of  the  evolution 
of  religion,  the  validity  of  faith  as  "working  hypothe- 
sis," and  the  place  of  reUgion  as  the  motive  power 
for  human  world  reconstruction  rather  than  as  an 
exploitation  of  other-worldly  mysteries. 

A.  Clinton  Watson 

RELIGIOUS  JOURNALISM.— The  entire  work 
of  producing  reUgious  periodicals.  ReUgious  jour- 
naUsin,  however,  as  usually  understood  and  cus- 
tomarily considered,  is  more  particularly  concerned 
with  the  product  itself  than  with  the  processes  of 
production. 

It  appears  to  be  impossible  to  state  just  when 
religious  journaUsm,  as  typified  by  the  modern 
reUgious  newspaper,  began.  Surely  no  such  publi- 
cations existed  as  long  ago  as  two  hundred  years 
unless  disputatious  pamphlets  and  tracts  may  be 
regarded  as  incipient  journalism.  Indeed,  it  was 
not  until  1615,  163  years  after  the  reputed  discovery 
of  printing  by  movable  type  that  the  regular  pubUca- 
tion  of  news  began  in  Das  Frankfurter  Journal,  the 
oldest  European  weekly.  In  the  United  States 
rival  claims,  each  vigorously  defended,  are  made  for 
primacy  in  pubUshing  a  reUgious  journal.  In 
any  event  the  newspaper  represented  by  each  set 
of  claimants  has  undergone  transformations  in 
form,  in  contents,  in  ideals,  and  in  most  instances, 
in  name. 


The  more  significant  changes  noticeable  in 
reUgious  journals  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
19th.  century  and  the  earUer  years  of  the  20th. 
concern  chiefly  their  mechanical  development. 
The  evolution  from  the  huge  "blanket  sheet" 
into  a  size  of  page  more  convenient  for  the  reader 
evidently  suggested  and  faciUtated  the  creation  of 
an  increasing  number  of  "departments."  In 
the  days  of  the  excessively  large  type-page  it  was  not 
infrequent  to  divide  the  contents  of  the  journal 
into  "reUgious"  and  "secular"  departments— 
the  latter  presumably  prohibited  for  Sunday 
reading.  The  fading  of  distinction  between  that 
which  is  "spiritual"  and  that  which  is  "worldly" 
is  seen  in  the  form  of  the  20th  century  religious 
newspaper  in  which  the  reading  matter  concerns 
itself  with  all  aspects  of  Ufe,  separated  by  no 
typographical  bulkheads. 

The  growing  complexity  of  religious  Ufe  is  mani- 
fest in  these  sub-divisions  of  newspaper  contents. 
One  of  the  earlier  of  them  was  devoted  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Simday  school — its  aims,  its  activities, 
its  curricula.  The  growth  and  results  of  efficient 
Sunday-school  endeavor  were  markedly  encour- 
aged by  the  regular  weekly  pubUcation,  in  advance, 
of  the  prescribed  Sunday-school  lesson-text  of  the 
uniform  lessons  with  comments  thereon.  Such 
publication  was  first  begun  by  a  Baptist  newspaper 
pubUshed  in  Chicago,  later  called  The  Standard. 
Its  _  Sunday-school  lesson  department  was  soon 
copied  by  other  reUgious  journals  until  almost 
every  such  paper  in  the  Protestant  world  provided 
a  similar  service  for  the  churches,  and  eventually, 
many  daily  newspapers,  once  a  week,  did  likewise. 

The  discovery  of  photo-engraving  and  the 
low  cost  of  iUustrations  which  this  process  made 
available,  as  compared  with  those  produced  by 
the  laborious  art  of  the  wood-engraver,  have 
enabled  the  pubUshers  of  reUgious  journals  to  utiUze 
pictorial  representations  of  passing  events,  both  reli- 
gious and  secular.  It  is  conceivable  that  this  adapta- 
tion of  photography  and  engraving  to  illustrative 
purposes  may  be  one  of  the  causes  for  an  observable 
shrinkage  in  the  number  of  denominational  organs. 
Side  by  side  with  the  increased  use  of  moderate-priced 
illustrations  apparently  began  the  noticeable  com- 
bination of  several  groups  of  smaller  newspapers 
the  smaller  being  merged  into  a  larger  one,  more 
prosperous  and  more  frequently  iUustrated.  There 
are  several  instances  in  which  one  such  journal  has 
secured  by  purchase  or  arrangement  as  many  as  six 
to  eight  others.  The  result  of  such  combinations 
is  the  lessening  of  the  number  of  religious  journals, 
although  the  number  of  readers  has  not  been  de- 
creased to  aziy  appreciable  extent.  Indeed,  the 
combinations  of  groups  of  journals  is  one  of  the 
noticeable  tendencies  among  religious  periodicals, 
while  the  growth  of  interdenominational  or,  more 
strictly  speaking,  of  non-denominational  journals  is 
another.  In  Great  Britain  the  non-denominational 
journal  has  become  a  recognized  power  in  religious 
literature  and  politics  to  a  degree  seldom  equaled 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  United  States  while 
the  number  of  denominational  organs  is  doubtless 
decreasing  their  power  in  stabiUzing  the  opinions  of 
thinking  people  remains  one  of  the  marked  char- 
acteristics of  American  social  Ufe.  The  natural 
conservatism  of  religious  leaders,  their  manifest 
disinterestedness,  the  greater  amount  of  time  per- 
mitted by  a  weekly  rather  than  by  a  daily  expression 
of  opinion  and  conviction  are  elements  which 
may  be  regarded  as  explanatory  of  this  power  to 
create  right-mindedness,  while  the  popuUir  beUef, 
whether  based  on  fact  or  not,  that  the  metropoUtan 
press  is  largely  under  the  influence  if  not  under  the 
control  of  organized  commercialism,  may  also 
have,  negatively,  its  share  in  accrediting  to  the 


375 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Repentance 


weekly  journal,  and,  in  particular  to  the  religious 
journal,  this  conservation  of  wise  pubUc  opinion. 

The  most  reliable  statistics  available  show  that 
in  the  United  States  there  are  about  900  rehgious 
periodicals.  Of  these  422  are  published  weekly; 
300  monthly;  14  bimonthly;  24  semimonthly; 
5  semi-weekly :  3  fortnightly;  1  daily;  79  quarterly. 
A  number  of  those  issued  less  frequently  than 
weekly  are  merely  Sunday-school  lesson  helps  and 
cannot  be  regarded  as  religious  journals  in  the 
common  acceptance  of  these  words.  The  com- 
bined circulation  of  the  whole  group  has  been 
estimated  by  experts  as  nearly  16,000,000  copies. 
In  Great  Britain  the  number  of  rehgious  periodicals 
is  considerably  less  but  the  average  circulation 
of  each  is  greater.  In  continental  Europe  there  are 
comparatively  few  such  periodicals,  unless  there 
may  be  included  theological  quarterlies  and  the 
like. 

A  considerable  number  of  religious  newspapers 
once  privately  owned,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  appar- 
ent wane  of  denominationahsm,  in  order  to  maintain 
existence  are  pubUshed  by  denominational  societies 
or  general  organizations.  In  not  a  few  instances 
papers  whose  constituency  was  chiefly  confined  to  a 
single  state  have  become  the  property  of  state  mis- 
sionary societies. 

In  countries  where  missionary  associations 
are  maintaining  missionaries  a  unique  class  of 
periodicals  haa  come  to  exist.  These  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  creating  an  esprit  de  corps  among 
the  resident  pastors,  teachers  and  physicians,  often 
widely  scattered  and  seldom  gathered  in  conference, 
and  of  giving  information  of  needs  and  progress  to 
the  constituency  of  the  home  base. 

J.  Spencer  Dickerson 

RELIQUARY. — A  repository  in  which  rehcs 
are  preserved.  Many  of  them  are  artistically 
ornamented. 

REMONSTRANTS.— Dutch  Protestants  who 
defended  Arminian  views  after  the  death  of  Armin- 
ius,  andin  1610  presented  a  "remonstrance"  (whence 
the  name)  to  the  states  of  Holland  and  Friesland, 
which  stated  their  adherence  to  the  Five  Points 
of  Arminianism  (q.v.).  They  founded  a  colony 
in  Schleswig  in  1621.  The  Remonstrants  were 
virtually  condemned  by  the  decisions  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort  (1619),  but  in  1630  were  granted  religious 
liberty  in  Holland.  They  to-day  have  27  vigorous 
churches. 

RENAISSANCE. — A  transitional  movement 
from  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  modern  world,  marked 
by  a  revived  appreciation  throughout  western 
Europe  of  classic  culture,  a  passionate  enthusiasm 
for  freedom  and  spontaneity,  and  an  enlarged  range 
of  human  interests. 

Its  chronological  boundaries  are  difficult  to 
limit.  Foregleams  may  be  seen  in  the  revived 
Aristotelianism  of  the  12th.  century,  in  Abelard, 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  Frederick  II,  and  Dante. 
With  the  age  of  Petrarch  (1304-74)  its  characteris- 
tic features  are  clearly  defined.  Its  culmination  in 
Italy  may  be  fixed  at  the  sack  of  Rome  (1527),  after 
which  it  becomes  identified  with  the  transalpine 
peoples. 

An  interest  early  developed  and  highly  char- 
acteristic was  the  archaeological — the  study  of 
Rome's  ruins,  the  deciphering  of  inscriptions,,  and 
the  rebuilding  of  her  crumbling  structures.  Literary 
monuments  of  the  past  were  zealously  sought  after, 
despots  and  merchant  princes,  patricians,  popes, 
and  monks,  all  dihgently  locating  and  storing 
manuscripts.  With  the  accumulation  of  these 
came  the  printer,  the  translator,  and  the  expositor. 
Inventive  genius  wrought  triumphs  with  the  print- 


ing press.  The  task  of  translation  gave  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  Greek  scholars  of  the  East,  notably 
after  the  Turkish  possession  of  Constantinople. 
The  enthusiasm  for  exposition  created  the  expositor, 
the  itinerant  professor,  the  academy,  and  muItipMed 
universities.  Nature  also  made  her  appeal  to 
men  of  this  age.  In  contrast  with  mediaeval 
days,  men  responded  to  the  charm  of  moimtain 
scenery,  waters,  flowers,  sunsets,  and  bird  songs. 
This  appreciation  for  beauty  found  expression  in 
the  masterpieces  of  Giotto,  Ghiberti,  Raphael, 
Michael  Angelo,  Da  Vinci.  Nothing,  however, 
is  quite  so  significant  as  the  higher  evaluation  of 
human  personaUty  (see  Humanism).  Hence  the 
human  portrait  so  prominent  in  art,  the  thirst  for 
fame,  the  confident  hope  of  immortahty,  the  venera- 
tion of  birthplaces  and  graves,  the  beginnings  of 
biography  and  autobiography,  the  relish  for  wit  and 
satire.  Men  revolted  against  the  regulations  and 
restraints  of  mediaeval  ecclesiasticism.  In  this 
exuberant  passion  for  freedom,  feudalism  was 
sloughed  off,  the  spirit  of  nationalism  was  born, 
science  started  on  her  career,  and  geographical 
discoveries  were  launched. 

Among  the  defects  of  the  movement  was  a 
pedantry  that  jeopardized  originahty  and  spon- 
taneity, a  tendency  to  regard  the  classics  as  the 
sole  standard  of  scholarship  and  means  of  mental 
discipUne,  and  a  misguided  hberty  that  in  many 
quarters  degenerated  into  immorahty  and  un- 
bridled lust.  Beneath  the  surface  of  social  culture 
there  remained  gross  appetites  and  savage  passions 
that  have  left  their  record  in  chapters  of  violence, 
poisonings,  and  assassinations. 

Within  Italy,  the  Renaissance  effected  Httle 
toward  reforming  the  church.  The  "Renaissance 
Popes"  were  interested  largely  in  -the  classical 
aspects  of  the  awakening,  and  their  court  took  on 
added  splendor  and  pomp.  Some  indeed  repre- 
sented the  worst  hcentiousness  of  unbridled  freedom. 
Across  the  Alps  it  was  otherwise.  Among  these 
northern  peoples  with  their  deeper  moral  cast  the 
Renaissance  caused  no  divorce  of  moraUty  nor 
hostihty  to  Christianity.  Suggestive,  rather,  of  a 
new  approach  to  the  problem  of  reform,  it  led  a 
group  of  scholars  into  the  field  of  bibhcal  and 
Oriental  research,  among  whom  were  Reuchhn, 
Melanchthon,  and  Erasmus.  In  others  such  as 
Colet  and  ZwingU  it  instilled  an  enthusiasm  for 
bibhcal  exposition. 

Through  the  principle  of  historical  interpreta- 
tation,  their  zeal  for  bibhcal  knowledge,  their 
recognition  of  the  many-sidedness  of  human  inter- 
ests, and  their  insistence  upon  the  right  of  private 
interpretation,  the  Humanists  undermined  the 
authority  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  laid  the  foimda- 
tions  for  consistent  Protestantism,  saved  the 
Reformation  from  some  of  the  excesses  of  its 
best  friends,  and  suggested  a  method  by  which  in 
the  fulness  of  time  the  church  may  be  cured  of 
her  ills.  Peter  G.  Mode 

RENAN,  JOSEPH  ERNEST  (1823-1892),— 
French  theologian  and  orientalist,  educated  for  the 
R.C.  clergy;  but  his  study  of  philosophy  led  to  his 
renunciation  of  orders,  and  his  devotion  to  scholar- 
ship. His  hterary  remains  are  numerous  and  impor- 
tant, the  chief  being  his  Life  of  Jesus,  History  of 
Israel,  Future  of  Science,  Studies  in  Religious 
History,  and  volumes  on  the  Origins  of  Chris- 
tianity. While  critically  rejecting  supernatural 
rehgion,  he  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  esthetic 
power  of  rehgion. 

REPENTANCE.— A  turning  about,  a  radical 
revision  of  one's  course.  Specifically,  turning 
from  a  sinful  to  a  godly  life. 


Reprobation 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


376 


While  a  definite  turning  from  evil  to  good  is 
involved  in  all  religions  with  an  ethical  import, 
repentance  has  received  especial  attention  in 
Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism.  The 
great  prophets  of  Israel  declared  it  to  be  the  primary 
condition  of  God's  favor,  and  the  messages  of  John 
the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus  stressed  repentance  as  the 
condition  of  membership  in  the  Kingdom.  The  new 
attitude  of  heart  was  supposed  to  be  permanent; 
but  it  was  soon  evident  that  many  persons  failed 
to  maintain  purity  of  life.  Hence  a  "second 
repentance"  was  early  recognized.  The  question 
as  to  how  frequently  repentance  should  be  valid  led 
to  ecclesiastical  supervision  and  regulation,  growing 
into  the  sacrament  of  penance  (q.v.).  The  Protes- 
tant Reformation  restored  the  personal  and  purely 
spiritual  meaning  of  repentance. 

Repentance  connotes  both  an  emotional  element 
and  an  act  of  will;  a  change  of  course  accompany- 
ing a  change  of  mind,  sorrow  for  the  past  and  the 
facing  of  a  new  direction;  "Godly  sorrow  worketh 
repentance."  This  conception  of  repentance  as 
"a  sincere  and  thorough  changing  of  mind"  is  the 
indispensable  first  step  of  a  sinner  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  reUgious  life,  and  is  much  stressed  in 
evangeUcal  preaching.  Herbert  A.  Yoittz 

REPROBATION. — A  term  signifying  the  fate 
of  those  not  included  in  God's  election.  It  involves 
eternal  condemnation.    See  Predestination. 

REQUIEM. — In  the  R.C.  church  a  solemn  mass 
sung  on  behalf  of  the  souls  of  the  departed,  so  called 
from  the  first  word  of  the  Latin  introit.  Requiem 
aeternam  dona  eis,  Domine  ("Give  eternal  rest  to 
those,  O  Lord"). 

REQUIESCAT. — A  prayer  for  the  repose  of  a 
departed  soul,  so  called  from  the  first  word  of  the 
Latin  Requiescat  in  pace  (May  he  rest  in  peace); 
frequently  abbreviated  to  R.  I.  P. 

REREDOS. — In  church  architecture,  an  orna- 
mental screen  forming  a  background  for  the  altar. 

RESCRIPT. — A  reply  in  writing  from  the  Pope 
in  response  to  a  question  of  canon  law  or  ethics. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  imperial  rescripts 
whereby  the  Roman  emperors  answered  questions 
of  law,  the  answer  having  the  force  of  a  decree. 

RESERVATION,  MENTAL.— See  Mental 
Reservation. 

RESERVATION  OF  THE  SACRAMENT.— 
The  withholding  of  portions  of  the  consecrated 
elements  of  the  eucharist  for  other  religious  uses. 
The  custom  arose  in  the  2d.  century  of  reserving 
portions  to  be  administered  privately  to  sick 
members  or  those  unable  to  attend  the  public 
service.  In  mediaeval  times  the  use  of  withheld 
portions  as  charms,  and  the  adoration  of  other 
portions  arose,  the  latter  developing  into  the 
feast  of  Corpus  Christi  (q.v.).  In  Protestant 
churches  the  custom  fell  into  disuse,  and  where 
communion  is  administered  to  the  sick,  the  ele- 
ments are  consecrated  at  the  time. 

RESPONSORY  OR  RESPONSORIUM.— A 

term  for  formal  congregational  responses  in  htur- 
gical  services. 

RESTITUTION.— In  theological  usage,  the 
ultimate  restoration  of  all  things  to  a  state  of 
bliss  and  righteousness  in  harmony  with  God's 
vilL 


RESTORATIONISM.— The  belief  that  all  men, 
including  sinners  who  die  unrepentant,  will  be 
saved  as  a  consequence  of  the  restitution  of  all 
things  to  the  control  of  God. 

Such  a  view  does  not  involve  the  denial  of 
divine  punishment  of  sinners,  but  makes  God's 
love  rather  than  punitive  justice  supreme.  In 
more  or  less  distinct  form  it  has  appeared  in  Chris- 
tian teaching  since  the  days  of  Origen,  but  has 
always  been  regarded  as  unorthodox.  The  doctrine 
of  Purgatory  (q.v.)  whUe  not  without  some  resem- 
blance, is  not  a  form  of  restorationism  since  its 
cleansing  discipline  is  not  permitted  all  men  and  the 
R.C.  church  has  taught  the  endless  duration  of 
punishment.  The  leading  Protestant  bodies  have 
opposed  restorationism  as  unbiblical,  although 
from  the  Reformation  period  it  has  been  advocated 
by  various  groups  of  Christians  and  by  many  promi- 
nent theologians  of  the  19th.  century.  It  thus 
became  the  subject  of  widespread  interest  both 
within  and  without  the  Universahst  churches. 
At  present  although  not  ecclesiastically  recognized 
except  by  Universahsts,  it  arouses  Uttle  discussion, 
doubtless  because  of  the  diminishing  emphasis 
laid  upon  the  punitive  aspects  of  God's  sovereignty 
and  the  use  of  other  than  pohtical  concepts  in 
theology.     See  Universalism. 

Shailer  Mathews 
RESURRECTION  OF  THE  DEAD.— See 
Future  Life,  Conceptions  of  the. 

RETENTION  OF  SINS.— The  ecclesiastical 
denial  of  forgiveness  or  withholding  of  absolution. 
See  Keys,  Power  of  the. 

RETREAT. — In  reUgious  usage,  a  time  or  place 
specifically  devoted  to  prayer,  meditation  and  self- 
examination,  a  custom  of  long  duration  in  the 
Roman,  and  introduced  by  Pusey  into  the  Anglican 
church. 

REUCHLIN,  JOHANN  (1455-1522).— Noted 
humanist,  whose  fame  rests  primarily  on  his  intro- 
duction of  the  study  of  Hebrew  language  and  litera- 
ture in  Germany.  His  defense  of  Jewish  hterature 
in  the  face  of  a  persecuting  attempt  to  destroy 
aU  Jewish  writings  led  to  his  being  represented 
as  denying  fundamental  Christian  doctrines. 

REUSCH,  FRANZ  HEINRICH  (1823-1900).— 
Old  Cathohc  divine  who,  with  Dollinger,  withdrew 
from  the  R.C.  church  as  a  protest  against  the 
papal  infaUibility  decree;  an  influential  professor 
at  the  University  of  Bonn;  retired  into  the  lay 
communion  as  a  protest  against  the  Old-CathoHc 
enactment  permitting  the  clergy  to  marry. 

REUSS,  EDOUARD  GUILLAUME  EUGENE 

(1804-1891).— Theologian  in  the  University  of 
Strassburg.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  the  appUcation 
of  critical  historical  method  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible. 

REVELATION.— The  disclosure  to  men  of  the 
divine  purpose  or  of  superhuman  knowledge,  usually 
in  ways  deemed  superior  to  the  ordinary  processes 
of  reasoning.  Used  also  to  denote  the  body  of 
truth  thus  disclosed. 

1.  The  universal  quest  for  revelation. — The 
limitations  of  normal  knowledge  in  the  face  of 
pressing  needs  lead  men  to  seek  avenues  of  special 
mformation.  The  history  of  religion  shows"^  great 
variety  of  such  attempts.  The  most  important 
are:  (a)  Significant  occurrences  which  are  con- 
sidered "signs"  pointing  toward  the  desired  informa- 
tion. Colors  of  objects,  direction  of  movement, 
peculiar  formations,  etc.,  are  thus  interpreted. 
Astrology  (q.v.)  is  a  highly  developed  forij  of  this 


377 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Revivals  of  Reli^on 


idea.  See  Divination,  (h)  Casting  of  lots  or 
examination  of  entrails,  (c)  Oracles  (q.v.)  which 
mediate  the  will  of  the  god  directly  through  specific 
places  or  persons,  (d)  Dreams  and  visions,  which 
are  beUeved  to  record  realities  not  accessible  to  the 
mind  in  waking  moments,  (e)  Ecstasy,  in  which  a 
prophet  is  inspired  to  utter  divine  truth.  (/)  Sacred 
books,  either  written  by  divine  inspiration  or  divinely 
authorized.  With  the  advance  of  cultiu"e,  all  excej)t 
the  last  two  tend  to  disappear;  and  revelation  is 
now  generally  located  in  the  utterances  of  prophets 
and  the  message  of  sacred  scriptures. 

2.  The  authentication  of  revelation. — Whenever 
stress  is  laid  on  superhuman  characteristics,  revela- 
tion must  commend  itself  by  divine  credentials. 
In  primitive  thinking,  abnormal  psychical  activities 
(such  as  trance  or  ecstasy  or  "possession"  by  a 
spirit)  are  usually  regarded  as  evidence.  But  the 
possibiUty  of  maUgn  influences  is  also  recognized. 
Deception,  either  subjective  or  due  to  diabolical 
suggestion,  may  exist.  "False  prophets"  and 
"magicians"  compete  for  recognition  with  the 
"true"  prophets.  In  order  to  obviate  confusion, 
certain  objective  tests  are  demanded.  Miracles 
wrought  in  connection  with  a  message  are  evidences 
of  divine  approval,  though  even  these  may  be 
wrought  by  diabolical  agencies.  Prophetic  pre^j 
ricQction  of  events  is  another  test,  which  may  b^ 
Iverified  by  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy.  Authori- 
tative credentials  of  inspiration  on  the  part  of 
authors  of  sacred  books  may  be  demanded  in  order 
to  verify  subjective  claims. _ 

In  Judaism  and  Christianity  much  stress  has 
been  laid  on  authentication  by  these  tests,  and  the 
canonical  Scriptures  have  been  declared  to  be  the 
sole  utterances  completely  authenticated.  It  is 
granted  that  there  is  a  revelation  to  be  derived 
from  nature,  and  that  individuals  other  than  biblical 
writers  may  have  a  genuine  insight  into  God's 
truth;  but  only  in  sacred  Scripture  do  we  find 
infallible  revelation.  Historical  criticism,  however, 
discloses  facts  which  make  it  difficult  to  maintain 
this  doctrine  of  external  authentication,  and  there  is 
a  distinct  tendency  in  modern  times  to  appeal  to 
the  inherent  spiritual  powey  of  the  biblical  mes- 
sage rather  than  to  external  credentials. 

3.  The  relation  between  revelation  and  reason. — 
Whatever  is  reaffirmed  or  endorsed  by  reason  is  in  a 
stronger  position  than  that  which  is  liable  to  adverse 
criticism.  Hence  thoughtful  men  have  always 
sought  to  show  the  reasonableness  of  revelation. 
Thomas  Aquinas  taught  ^  that  while  revelation 
furnishes  knowledge  otherwise  inaccessible  to  human 
reason,  yet  there  is  nothing  contrary  to  reason  in  its 
content.  This  position  has  been  generally  approved 
both  in  Catholicism  and  in  Protestantism,  although 
it  is  often  _  practically  _  repudiated  when  reason 
utters  criticism  of  traditional  doctrine.  So  long 
as  "reason"  was  conceived  as  a  purely  speculative 
process,  little  difiiculty  was  experienced  in  harmo- 
nizing "right"  reason  with  revelation.  ^But  if 
"reason"  is  fortified  by  exact  processes  of  historical 
and  empirical  investigation,  it  may  become  so  strong 
as  to  compel  modifications  in  the  idea  of  revelation. 
This  has  actually  occurred  in  the  past  century  or 
two.  Today  there  is  an  increasing  agreement 
that  the  Bible  is  not  to  be  taken  as  teaching  a 
"revealed"  science.  Even  the  religious  ideals  of 
Scripture  are  found  to  be  colored  by  contemporary- 
conceptions.  Consequently,  revelation  is  more  and 
more  being  considered  as  exceptional  spiritual 
insight  rather  than  as  a  non-human  communication 
of  truth.  The  Bible  is  regarded  as  a  "progressive 
revelation,"  culminating  in  Christ.  And  the  con- 
tent of  revelation  is  restricted  to  the  realm  of 
religious  experience.  God's  character  and  purpose 
are  so  disclosed  in  the  Bible  and  pre-eminently  in 


Jesus,  that  trust  and  love  are  made  possible,  and 
personal  communion  with  God  ensues.  See  Bible; 
Inspiration;    Infallibility;    Authority. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
REVEREND.— Originally  a  term  of  respect, 
now  an  honorable  prefix  to  the  names  of  ministers. 
The  term  "very  reverend"  is  the  formal  address 
of  a  dean  in  the  Anghcan  church,  or  a  principal  of 
a  Scottish  university.  Bishops  are  called  "right 
reverend,"  and  archbishops,  "most  reverend." 

REVERS. — A  written  acceptance  of  the  doc- 
trinal standards  of  Lutheranism  required  of  min- 
isters and  of  candidates  for  ordination. 

REVIVALS  OF  RELIGION.— Also  called  "Mis- 
sions." Times  of  special  religious  interest,  marked 
by  the  conversion  of  large  numbers.  Not  peculiar 
to  Christianity,  but  more  or  less  characteristic  of  aU 
religions. 

The  history  of  Christianity  begins  with  a  revival, 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
and  the  conversion  of  three  thousand  in  a  single 
day  (Acts  2).  Ever  since,  revivals  have  been 
frequent  and  fruitful,  and  certain  centuries  have 
been  marked  by  their  recurrence  and  wide  extent. 
Extensive  revivals  accompanied  the  preaching  of  the 
Franciscans  in  the  latter  half  of  the  13th,  century. 
The  Reformation  has  often  been  described  by 
historians  as  a  revival  of  religion.  In  modern  times, 
the  great  revival  of  the  18th.  century  in  England, 
under  the  Wesleys  and  Whitefield  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  movements  in  Christian  history. 

The  Great  Awakening  (q.v.)  beginning  in  1734 
at  Northampton,  Mass.,  under  the  preaching  of 
Jonathan  Edwards,  extended  through  most  of  New 
England,  and  three  visits  of  George  Whitefield 
to  the  colonies  greatly  deepened  and  extended  the 
movement,  which  had  momentous  effects  on  the 
Christian  history  of  America.  The  19th.  century 
was  distinguished  by  successive  waves  of  revival, 
which  practically  determined  the  progress  of  Ameri- 
can churches  and  religious  institutions.  The 
earliest  of  these  were  of  the  type  known  as  "camp 
meetings,"  held  in  the  open  air  for  several  days  or 
weeks  in  succession.  Many  of  these  were  attended 
by  surprising  physical  demonstrations,  locally 
known  as  the  "jerks,"  at  the  time  ascribed  by  most 
Christians  to  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  by 
some  to  the  devil.  Progress  in  medicine  and 
psychology  has  made  it  clear  that  this  was  a  species 
of  hysteria,  and  many  other  phenomena  of  revivals 
are  now  interpreted  in  the  light  of  what  we  have 
learned  of  the  psychology  of  the  crowd. 

In  the  earlier  revivals  there  were  no  evangelists, 
in  the  modern  sense.  The  first,  and  in  some  respects 
the  greatest,  of  this  class  of  preachers  was  Charles 
Grandison  Finney  (q.v.).  He  worked  uniformly  in 
close  connection  with  the  churches,  and  his  preach- 
ing was  doctrinal  and  argumentative  to  a  degree 
unapproached  by  other  evangelists.  He  was  excep- 
tionally successful  in  arousing  and  convincing 
men — doctors,  lawyers,  merchants — who  had  been 
indifferent  or  hostile  to  rehgion.  The  churches  of 
towns  like  Utica,  Rochester,  Buffalo,  for  two  genera- 
tions showed  the  effect  of  his  labors.  If  he  did  not 
introduce,  he  extended  and  popularized,  use  of  the 
"mourner's  bench" — the  earliest  of  those  devices  of 
revivalist  preachers  whose  common  psychological 
justification  is  their  effectiveness  in  leading  men  to 
immediate  decision  when  religious  feeling  and 
conscience  are  aroused. 

One  of  the  most  notable  revivals  occurred  in 
1858,  following  a  great  financial  panic.  It  began 
in  a  noon-day  prayer-meeting  of  business  men  in 
the  John  Street  Methodist  church,  New  York,  spread 
like  a  prairie  fire  over  the  country  and  ceased 


Rewards  and  Punishments  A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


378 


almost  as  suddenly  as  it  began.  The  converts 
within  a  year  were  estimated  at  half  a  milhon. 
In  suddenness  of  beginning,  extent  of  progress,  num- 
ber of  converts  and  rapidity  of  subsidence,  this 
revival  stands  unique. 

Edward  Payson  Hammond,  from  1865  onward, 
also  worked  in  and  with  the  churches,  and  was 
especially  successful  as  a  preacher  to  children. 
He  made  the  first  extensive  use  of  the  "inquiry 
meeting"  as  a  feature  of  revival  work.  Dwight  L. 
Moody  and  Ira  D.  Sankey  were  the  first  great  lay 
evangelists,  their  predecessors  having  all  been 
ministers.  Two  of  their  methods  were  novel,  and 
became  popular.  They  reintroduced  the  practice  of 
Whitefield,  in  holding  their  meetings  in  large  public 
buildings,  or  in  "tabernacles"  built  for  the  purpose; 
and  they  introduced  that  form  of  hymnody  known 
as  the  "gospel  hymn"  (the  real  father  of  which  was 
WiUiam  B.  Bradbury) — a  "catchy"  melody,  with 
a  spirited  refrain  and  a  captivating  rhythm.  The 
music  has  certain  obvious  merits  for  popular  assem- 
bhes,  but  the  accompanying  "hymns  are  often 
worthless.  The  more  recent  meetings  of  WiUiam  A. 
Sunday  in  the  chief  American  cities,  repeat  the 
features  of  the  earher  campaigns,  onlv  substituting 
the  "sawdust  trail"  for  the  "mourner  s  bench"  and 
the  "inquiry  meeting."  There  is  great  difference 
of  opinion  among  Christian  ministers  and  laymen 
alike,  as  to  the  permanent  worth  of  the  revival. 

REWARDS  AND  PUNISHMENTS.— Pleasur- 
able or  painful  experiences  which  are  so  related  to 
the  commission  of  certain  acts  as  to  serve  either 
as  incentives  or  as  deterrents. 

Wherever  individuals  are  found  whose  natural 
interests  are  opposed  to  socially  approved  standards, 
conformity  must  be  secured  by  extraneous  means. 
Acts  naturally  distasteful  will  be  performed  if  this 
performance  is  the  gateway  to  coveted  pleasure; 
and  acts  inherently  attractive  will  be  refrained  from 
if  suffering  is  anticipated  as  an  immediate  conse- 
cjuence.  Rewards  and  punishments  are  thus 
important  means  of  moral  control. 

1.  The  moral  education  of  the  individiuil  may  be 
faciUtated  by  rewards  and  punishments.  Habits 
may  be  estabhshed  in  this  way  before  the  individual 
is  mature  enough  to  make  rational  decisions.  The 
accumulated  wisdom  of  the  race  may  thus  be 
capitalized.  The  moral  danger  here  is  that  mere 
comphance  with  custom  may  be  secured  without 
any  inner  love  for  ideals.  Consequently  the  aim  of 
moral  education  is  to  reduce  so  far  as  possible  the 
appeal  to  external  inducements,  and  to  give  pri- 
mary attention  to  the  initiation  of  the  individual 
into  social  sympathy  with  group  ideals.  The 
rewards  of  virtue  are  thus  part  and  parcel  of  the 
practice  of  virtue.  When  this  attitude  is  achieved, 
"virtue  is  its  own  reward." 

2.  Political  organization  is  necessarily  expressed 
in  specific  laws  which  must  be  obeyed  if  pubUc 
welfare  is  to  exist.  Since  it  is  assumed  that  citizens 
will  be  loyal,  external  rewards  usually  do  not  accom- 
pany legislation.  But  punishments  play  a  large 
part  in  the  administration  of  law.  When  the 
mdividual  has  defied  public  opinion,  external 
restraint  becomes  necessary.  To  make  such 
restraints  genuinely  moral  is  an  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult task,  and  considerable  discretion  is  usually 
left  to  the  judge,  so  that  mitigating  circumstances 
may  be  given  full  weight.  It  is  increasingly  felt 
that  the  imposition  of  quantitatively  fixed  penalties 
is  too  crude  to  serve  the  ends  of  justice,  and  the 
"indeterminate  sentence"  is  growing  in  favor. 
When  a  punishment  creates  or  enhances  an  anti- 
social attitude  its  moral  failure  is  self-evident. 
There  is  an  increasing  demand  that  penalties  shall 
be  viewed  primarily  as  means  of  creating  social  I 


loyalty    rather    than    as    mere    retribution.    See 
Penology. 

3.  In  religion  rewards  and  punishments  have 
been  regarded  as  God's  way  of  expressing  approval 
or  disapproval.  The  vicissitudes  of  ordinary  life 
are  frequently  viewed  as  divine  "judgments." 
But  wider  experience  shows  the  futility  of  such  a 
theodicy.  The  Book  of  Job  is  the  classic  protest 
against  it.  Hence  rehgion  eventually  locates  the 
divine  rewards  and  punishments  in  another  world. 
The  ideas  of  Heaven  and  Hell  (qq.v.)  sum  up  this 
conception.  Christianity  has  for  centuries  been 
conceived  as  a  means  of  preparing  the  soul  to  claim 
the  rewards  and  to  escape  the  punishments  of  a 
future  life.  Here,  too,  has  been  encountered  the 
moral  danger  involved  in  externaUsm,  and  the  great 
rehgious  leaders  have  stressed  the  immediate 
rewards  of  an  uplifting  experience  of  God's  approval 
rather  than  the  external  events  of  a  future  life. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

RIDGLEY,  NICHOLAS  (ca.  1500-1555).— Eng- 
lish bishop,  active  in  the  English  Reformation, 
being  one  of  the  signers  of  the  decree  denying  the 
pope's  jurisdiction  in  England.  On  rehgious 
grounds,  he  opposed  the  ascendancy  of  Mary  to  the 
English  throne,  and  with  her  commg  to  power,  he 
was  excommunicated,  convicted  of  heresy,  and 
burnt  at  the  stake. 

RIGHT.— As  a  noun,  the  standard  of  conduct; 
as  an  adjective,  an  act  or  choice  or  purpose  which  is 
in  accord  with  a  standard,  whether  this  standard 
is  regarded  as  set  by  God,  by  laws,  by  social  judg- 
ment, or  by  conscience. 

In  many  languages  the  words  for  right  and  law 
are  the  same  or  from  the  same  root,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  ethical  meaning  is  derived  from 
social  judgments.  It  is  nearly  equivalent  to  "what 
ought  to  be  done,"  but  not  quite,  since  at  a  given 
time  it  may  appear  that  of  two  acts  either  would  be 
right  (neither  be  wrong)  although  one  may  have 
such  considerations  in  its  favor  as  to  make  it 
probable  that  it  ought  to  be  done  rather  than  the 
other.  The  relation  of  the  right  to  the  good  is 
differently  conceived  by  ethical  schools.  Teleo- 
logical  schools,  such  as  the  utilitarian,  consider  the 
good  as  fundamental  and  regard  the  right  as  the  means 
to  the  good.  Kant  on  the  other  hand  holds  that  the 
only  good  without  quaHfication  is  the  good  will,  and 
the  good  will  is  one  governed  by  a  right  motive.  Still 
another  view  would  maintain  that  neither  can  be 
derived  from  the  other.  Sidgwick  regards  each  as 
too  elementary  a  notion  to  be  resolved  into  elements, 
although  he  holds  the  final  test  of  an  action  to  be 
its  results  measured  in  terms  of  happiness;  the 
principle  that  I  must  consider  the  general  happi- 
ness and  not  merely  my  own  rests  on  an  intuition 
of  reason.  Intuitionists  of  the  rationahst  type 
regard  the  right  as  nearly  equivalent  to  the  reason- 
able, and  hold  that  it  is  determined  for  us  by 
reason.  Westermarck,  on  the  contrary,  holds  that 
the  emotion  of  indignation  is  the  primary  psycho- 
logical factor.  We  are  indignant  and  resent 
certain  acts.  li  now  this  resentment  is  not  purely 
personal  but  is  sympathetic  resentment,  we  regard 
the  act  as  wrong  (i.e.,  we  call  it  wrong  because  we 
feel  the  emotion  of  sympathetic  resentment;  not 
vice  versa  that  we  first  judge  it  wrong  and  then 
resent  it).  James  H.  Tufts 

RIGHTEOUSNESS.— The  attitude  of  loyalty 
to  the  Right  (q.v.). 

The  conception  of  righteousness  comes  into 
prominence  where  social  organization  is  valued. 
It  presupposes  certain  moral  obhgations  to  which 
the  individual  is  expected  to  be  loyal.  The  word 
has  received  especial  emphasis  in  the  Egyptian, 


379 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Rites,  Rituals,  Etc 


Hebrew,  Christian  and  Mohammedan  religions, 
where  divine  favor  is  pictured  as  being  conditioned 
on  man's  fideUty  to  what  is  right.  The  apostle 
Paul,  holding  that  perfect  righteousness  is  out 
of  reach  of  human  effort,  proclaimed  the  possi- 
bility of  a  divinely  given  righteousness  acquired 
through  faith  in  Christ.     See  Justification. 

Theologically,  righteousness  is  a  primary 
characteristic  of  God;  and  also  describes  the 
quahties  of  uprightness.  It  impUes  an  inner 
independence  of  character  which  guarantees  fidehty 
to  the  highest  justice,  and  is  hence  a  cardinal 
virtue. 

RIG-VEDA. — A  collection  of  1017  liymns 
arranged  in  ten  books.  They  were  the  gradual 
product  of  priestly  f  amiUes  who  composed  and  sang 
them  in  the  conduct  of  the  sacrifices  of  the  early 
Vedic  Aryans.  These  family  books  reflect  a  poly- 
theistic nature-reUgion,  the  chief  gods  iddressed 
being  Indra,  Soma,  Agni  and  Varuna  (qq.v.).  See 
also  Vedic  Religion,  III;   Sacred  Literatures, 

RISHIS. — A  term  used  of  inspired  sages  in 
India  especially  of  the  ancient  seers  who  were  the 
authors  of  the  sacred  books. 

RITA. — Cosmic  order.  A  Hindu  word  for  the 
basic  moral  and  physical  law  of  the  universe. 

RITES,  RITUALS  AND  CEREMONIES.— 
These  terms  are  treated  here  as  practically  synony- 
mous. The  character  which  they  all  share  is  that  of 
an  act  or  a  series  of  acts  performed  according  to  an 
established  order  determined  by  custom  or  rule. 
They  are  not  restricted  to  rehgious  observances 
though  most  commonly  appUed  to  these.  Courts  of 
law  have  their  ceremonies,  as  do  social  functions. 
There  are  rites  of  initiation  into  secular  societies 
and  it  is  not  inappropriate  to  speak  of  the  ritual  of 
college  graduation  or  of  inauguration  into  political 
office.  Many,  if  not  all  such  customs  once  had 
religious  significance  and  rehgion  is  the  soil  in 
which  they  flourish. 

As  compared  with  the  cult  (q.v.)  rites  may  be 
more  occasional,  lacking  periodicity  and  persistence. 
The  rites  signify  the  formal  action  of  the  observ- 
ances, with  less  emphasis  upon  the  behefs  or  doc- 
trines. A  group  of  related  rites  belong  to  the  cult. 
In  Christianity  we  have  the  "rite  of  baptism,"  the 
"rite  of  confirmation,"  the  "last  rites."  Since  rites 
or  ceremonies  are  integral  factors  of  the  cult  it  is 
impossible  to  treat  them  without  discussing  principles 
which  apply  also  to  the  cult. 

The  origin  of  rites  may  be  sought  in  the  phe- 
nomena of  habit  and  custom.  The  relation  is  par- 
ticularly clear  in  early  society.  For  example 
among  the  Todas  the  ritual  of  their  most  sacred 
occasions  is  largely  the  routine  of  the  dairy,  their 
sole  occupation  being  the  care  of  their  buffaloes. 
The  dairies  are  their  temples,  the  dairymen  are  their 
priests  and  the  buffaloes  and  the  dairy  products  are 
sacred.  The  customary  procedure  in  the  care  of  the 
buffaloes  has  become  fixed  and  any  variation  is  tabu. 
Among  the  AustraUans  a  clan  which  has  the  plum 
tree  for  its  totem  has  for  one  of  its  ceremonies  the 
dramatization  of  gathering  plums.  While  the  clan 
sit  in  a  circle  two  men  go  into  the  center,  one  imi- 
tating the  knocking  down  of  plums  and  the  other 
gathering  them.     The  ceremonies  of  agricultural 

f)eoples  preserve  the  form  of  their  occupational 
abor.  Sowing  and  reaping  and  harvesting  furnish 
the  action  of  the  rituals.  The  folk-dances  of  various 
people  are  often  fragments  of  their  rehgious  ritual 
now  detached  and  re-enacted  for  pleasure  but  pre- 
serving the  patterns  more  or  less  clearly  from  which 
they  originally  sprang.    The  recurrence  of  the  times 


of  stress  and  satisfaction,  involving  the  very  exist- 
ence and  welfare  of  the  group  affords  both  the  emo- 
tional tension  and  the  repetition  by  which  habit  and 
custom  develop.  The  ceremonies  in  turn  make  their 
contribution  of  excitement  and  thereby  enhance  the 
objects  and  activities  in  which  they  center.  Recent 
writers  have  explained  how  the  performance  of  rites, 
before  the  hunt  is  started  or  the  grain  sowed,  height- 
ens the  sense  of  the  value  of  the  end.  The  more 
elaborate  the  preUminary  performances  the  more 
is  the  appreciation  of  the  object  increased.  This 
extension  of  the  mediating  activity  magnifies  the 
feeling  of  the  importance  of  the  end.  In  extreme 
cases  the  means  may  become  an  end  in  itself  and 
then  the  ceremony  tends  to  be  merely  formal. 

The  occasions  on  which  religious  ceremonies 
occur  throw  hght  upon  their  nature.  They  do  not 
occur  at  random  nor  with  reference  to  an  indefinite 
number  of  objects  and  events.  These  occasions 
may  be  grouped  into  three  classes:  those  which 
concern  the  crises  in  the  hfe  cycle  of  the  in- 
dividual, those  related  to  the  seasons  and  those 
having  to  do  with  strangers.  Under  the  first  are 
the  rites  enacted  at  the  birth  of  the  child,  at  puberty, 
when  he  is  initiated  into  the  tribe,  at  the  time  of 
marriage,  in  case  of  illness  and  at  death.  These 
are  all  of  importance  to  the  group  and  genuine  public 
interest  inheres  in  them.  The  second  class  of  occa- 
sions pertains  to  the  relation  of  man  to  Nature,  his 
dependence  upon  her  and  her  dependence  upon  him. 
Magical  rites  are  performed  to  bring  the  spring 
rains,  to  guarantee  the  fertility  of  the  earth,  the 
growth  of  grain,  and  its  preservation.  The  cere- 
monies convej^  to  Nature  vital  energy,  warding 
off  evils  and  insuring  safety  and  plenty.  Floods, 
drouths,  famine,  earthquakes,  echpses,  fire  and  all 
dire  calamities  are  dealt  with  by  the  all-powerful 
rites.  A  third  set  of  events  for  ritual  treatment  are 
contacts  with  strangers  either  in  war  or  in  hospi- 
tality. In  either  case  there  is  present  an  ahen  or 
foreigner  whose  presence  must  be  disarmed  of 
danger  by  the  proper  usages.  Even  in  developed 
reUgions  these  are  the  occasions  when  rites  are  most 
in  evidence — at  Easter  and  Harvest  and  Christmas. 
There  are  also  ceremonies  which  seem  to  attach 
to  incidental  experiences  or  to  events  long  forgotten 
while  the  rites  are  maintained  from  force  of  custom. 
Head-hunting  among  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  seems 
to  persist  chiefly  as  an  occasion  of  excitement  or 
rests  upon  the  impulse  of  the  young  men  to  prove 
their  courage.  In  some  tribes  it  is  beUeved  that 
after  death  aU  the  enemies  a  man  has  killed  will 
become  his  slaves.  In  modern  society  there  are 
survivals  of  customs  having  more  or  less  ritual  such 
as  those  in  connection  with  May  Day,  Hallowe'en, 
and  St.  Valentine's  Day. 

A  close  relation  exists  between  ritual  and  the 
various  arts.  Even  the  most  primitive  ceremonies 
involve  features  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  ele- 
mentary forms  of  the  fine  arts.  There  is  also  some 
ground  for  the  view  that  the  different  arts  become 
conscious  and  elaborate  their  technique  most  fully 
only  when  their  original  social  origin  and  rehgious 
unity  have  begun  to  disintegrate.  At  least  a  survey 
of  any  typical  ceremony  includes  the  following. 
There  is  first  of  aU  the  sacred  place.  It  may  be  a 
spot  of  natural  beauty  and  seclusion,  or  a  temple. 
The  ceremonial  ground  acquires  its  fitness  for  the 
purpose  in  the  first  instance  by  virtue  of  some  im- 
pressive natural  features  or  because  it  is  the  scene 
of  important  events  in  mythical  or  historical  times. 
But  the  performance  of  the  ceremony  itself  makes 
a  place  sacred  and  this  quahty  is  intensified  by 
repeated  use.  ,  In  primitive  times  the  ground  is 
often  freshly  prepared  for  the  rites  by  making 
designs  of  the  totem  or  other  sacred  object  by  a 
mixture  of  human  blood  and  ochre.    In  later  times 


Rites,  Rituals,  Etc. 


A  DICTIONAKY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


380 


the  art  of  architecture  covers  the  sacred  spot  by  a 
permanent,  symbolic  structure.  The  ceremonial 
dress  of  the  participants  develops  aesthetic  interest 
in  the  direction  of  textiles  and  various  ornaments  of 
the  person.  The  garments,  head  dress  and  insignia 
of  the  priests  are  often  intricately  elaborated. 
Usually  a  story  or  myth  accompanies  the  per- 
formance of  the  rite.  It  may  be  recited  by  one 
designated  for  the  purpose  or  chanted  by  the  group. 
Lyric  and  epic  poetry  have  usually  had  their 
development  in  connection  with  festivals  and  cele- 
brations. Thus  music  is  naturally  ehcited  espe- 
cially in  the  chant  and  choral  accompaniment. 
Musical  instruments  are  employed  to  accent  the 
rhythm  and  heighten  the  emotional  effect.  The 
light  and  heat  and  smoke  from  the  ritual  fire  add 
impressiveness,  especially  at  night.  But  the 
enumeration  of  these  elements  separately  omits 
the  most  important  single  feature,  namely,  the 
dramatic  action.  It  is  this  which  gives  Ufe,  ani- 
mation, unity,  and  meaning  to  the  ceremonial. 
The  action  consists  of  processions,  mimetic  dancing 
and  dramatizations  of  the  important  events  or 
interests  concerned.  The  different  artistic  aspects 
are  thus  blended  into  a  vital  whole.  So  unified  is 
this  organic  complex  that  it  is  frequently  forbidden 
to  use  any  feature  privately  or  outside  the  cere- 
monial occasion.  For  example  it  would  be  sacri- 
lege to  recite  the  story  of  the  myth  for  entertainment 
or  any  other  purpose.  It  is  sacred  to  its  proper 
occasion  and  setting.  One  reason  why  modern  art 
at  time  seems  so  lost  and  meaningless  is  because  it 
attempts  to  be  "art  for  art's  sake"  whereas  the 
natural  function  of  any  art  is  in  connection  with 
some  organic,  purposeful,  ideal  interest  in  alliance 
with  other  arts.  It  is  also  an  interesting  feature 
of  the  ceremony  that  it  generally  employs  an 
archaic  or  foreign  speech,  corresponding  to  our 
ceremonial  use  of  Latin  or  King  James  EngUsh. 

Another  feature  of  the  aesthetic  character  of 
the  ceremonial  comes  out  in  the  play  attitiide 
which  it  manifests.  Nothing  could  be  more 
erroneous  than  the  impression  that  religious  rites 
are  necessarily  or  predominantly  sad.  While  they 
are  earnest  and  felt  to  be  of  the  utmost  importance 
they  are  yet  joyous  and  lively.  This  is  evidently 
true  of  the  celebrations  of  harvest  and  victory 
but  it  is  true  also  that  generally  there  is  a  high 
note  of  exhilaration,  of  expansion  and  expectation. 
The  social  character  of  the  ceremonies  is  conducive 
to  this.  It  is  a  time  of  reunion  and  the  hohday 
spirit  prevails.  Feasting  and  drinking  and  orgiastic 
dancing  are  common  to  the  rites.  Fear  is  not  so 
prominent  and  perhaps  never  so  exclusive  an  atti- 
tude as  some  of  the  older  views  of  religion  taught. 

There  are  certain  practical  results  of  the  ceremo- 
nies which  occur  as  natural  consequences  though  it 
is  doubtful  whether  they  are  consciously  sought. 
One  is  the  discipMne  and  training  of  the  young  during 
the  initiation  ceremonies.  The  conscious  purpose 
seems  to  be  to  impart  by  the  magical  rites  the 
mysterious  life  of  the  totem.  But  the  awe  inspiring 
scenes  following  upon  fasting  and  vigils  and  direst 
warnings  impress  the  attitudes  and  interests  of  the 
group  in  an  effective  way.  Further  the  social 
bonds  of  the  tribe  are  cemented  in  the  furnace  of  a 
great  emotion.  This  tends  to  unity,  to  the  inhibi- 
tion of  unsocial  impulses  and  to  the  rousing  of  the 
greatest  loyalty  and  devotion.  The  rnethod  of  this 
ceremonial  control  is  that  of  suggestion  and  arbi- 
trary authority.  The  ritual  group  has  not  been  a 
"deUberative  assembly."  The  demand  for  more 
inteUigent,  critical  control  of  social  activity  in 
civilized  society  at  the  present  time  creates  a  new 
set  of  problems  for  ceremonial  rehgion,  but  it  is 
believed  by  many  that  symbolism  and  ritual  are 
capable  of  such  purification  and  adaptation  as  the 


growing  scientific  impulse  may  rightly  demand. 
At  least  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  with  the  develop- 
ment of  education  and  science  in  modern  society 
ceremonial  rituals  are  undergoing  elaboration  and 
refinement.  Edward  S.  Ames 

RITSCHL,  ALBRECHT  (1822-1889)  .—Noted 
German  theologian,  who  broke  with  the  speculative 
Hegehan  theology  and  introduced  a  new  critical 
evangeUcal  method.  See  Ritschlianism.  He 
was  professor  at  Bonn,  1846-1864,  and  at  Gottingen 
from  1864  until  his  death.  His  most  important 
work  is  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Justification 
and  Reconciliation. 

RITSCHLIANISM.— A  type  of  theological 
thinking  which  originated  with  Albrecht  Ritschl 
(q.v.)  and  exercised  wide  influence  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  19th.  century. 

RitschUanism  can  perhaps  be  best  understood  as 
an  attempt  to  conserve  the  evangehcal  Lutheran 
type  of  piety  while  repudiating  the  method  of  ortho- 
doxy in  favor  of  colnplete  freedom  of  criticism. 
Rehgiously  Ritschlianism  makes  central  the  inner 
assurance  of  divine  salvation;  but  instead  of  basing 
this  assurance  on  the  mere  message  of  the  Bible  it 
derives  it  from  an  appreciation  of  the  inner  life  of 
Jesus.  The  following  traits  of  Ritschlianism  may 
be  noted : 

1.  Complete  freedom  of  inquiry,  in  opposition 
to  the  orthodox  demand  for  conformity.  Faith,  it  is 
insisted,  must  mean  personal  conviction,  not  simply 
assent  to  authorized  doctrines.  Critical  scholar- 
ship is  cordially  welcomed. 

2.  A  sharp  distinction  between  the  outer  world  of 
causal  relations  and  the  inner  world  of  experienced 
values.  Religion  rests  on  value-judgments  rather 
than  on  objective  demonstrations.  The  religious 
man  is  one  who  feels  the  power  of  God  over  his  con- 
science and  will.  This  inner  experience  is  a  suffi- 
cient vindication  of  the  reality  of  the  object  of  faith, 
even  if  external  evidence  be  inadequate.  This 
emphasis  on  the  sufficiency  of  the  experience  of 
values  led  to  a  sharp  polemife  against  the  use  of 
metaphysics  in  theology.  The  Ritschlian  doctrine 
of  value- judgments  has  been  interpreted  by  hostile 
critics _  to _  mean  metaphysical  agnosticism;  but 
the  objective  reaUty  of  God  is  plainly  impUed  in  the 
RitschUan  exposition.  A  metaphysical  doctrine  of 
God  does  not  supply  a  Christian  experience  of  God — 
this  is  the  Ritschhan  contention. 

3.  Emphasis  on  the  historical  Jesus  as  the  one 
historical  fact  which  imparts  to  men  a  value-experience 
of  God.  In  the  place  of  biblical  proof-texts  or  philo- 
sophical arguments,  Ritschlianism  puts  a  personal 
acquaintance  with  the  inner  life  of  Jesus  as  the 
source  of  religious  assurance.  In  Jesus  the  Chris- 
tian experiences  the  power  of  God  to  forgive  him 
and  to  transform  him  inwardly.  The  Ritschlian 
theology  is  Christocentric,  in  that  it  tests  all  doc- 
trines by  the  vital  revelation  of  God  in  Jesus. 

4.  The  ethical-social  content  of  theology.  The 
revelation  of  God's  purpose  in  Jesus  is  seen  in  the 
ideal  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  The  creation  of  a 
community  of  righteous  men  is  God's  purpose. 
Love  is  the  primary  attribute  of  God.  Salvation 
consists  in  the  creation  of  Christ-Uke  character. 
The  Work  of  Christ  consists  in  effecting  a  moral 
reconcihation  between  God  and  man. 

Ritschl's  influence  began  to  be  felt  in  the  1860's, 
and  between  1870  and  1880  he  had  stimulated 
several  able  scholars,  who  were  later  known  as 
"RitschHans."  The  most  noted  of  these  are  Har- 
nack,  the  famous  church  historian  in  Berlin,  Herr- 
mann, the  influential  theologian  at  Marburg,  Schiirer, 
Julius  Kaftan,  H.  H.  Wendt,  Haring,  and  Lobstein. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 


381 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Roman  Catholic  Church 


RITUALISM. — The  assigning  of  a  primary 
place  in  religion  to  prescribed  forms  of  worship,  such 
as  sacraments  or  hturgies. 

The  social  organization  of  religion  demands  some 
forms  of  common  action  in  worship  which  shall 
reinforce  and  interpret  the  consciousness  of  a 
common  religious  life.  See  Cult;  Rites,  Rituals, 
AND  Ceremonies.  An  important  factor  in  the 
effectiveness  of  such  rites  and  ceremonies  is  the 
sense  of  sanctity  induced  by  a  minutely  exact 
performance  of  the  required  acts.  Ancient  origin 
and  a  sense  of  mysterious  significance  are  also 
important  aids.  This  very  nature  of  ritual,  how- 
ever, tends  to  remove  it  from  the  scope  of  criticism. 
It  thus  is  an  important  aid  in  maintaining  the 
authority  of  a  religious  institution,  and  naturally 
plays  an  indispensable  part  in  high-church  con- 
ceptions of  religion.  Rationalistic  and  ethical 
religious  movements  have  usually  objected  to  ritual- 
ism on  the  ground  that  an  emotional  and  even 
superstitious  trust  in  ceremonies  and  sacraments 
supplants  devotion  to  truth  and  righteousness. 
The  word  has  thus  come  to  have  a  depreciatory 
meaning  in  most  Protestant  movements. 

RIVER  BRETHREN.— The  name  of  three 
smaU  sects  originating  among  Swiss  settlers  in 
Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.  Their  tenets  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Dunkards  (q.v.).  They  teach 
literal  obedience  to  N.T.  commands,  and  practise 
foot-washing,  strict  Sabbatarianism  and  trine  immer- 
sion.    Membership  in  1919,  5,389. 

ROBERTSON,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1816- 
1853). — AngUcan  preacher,  known  as  Robertson 
of  Brighton.  He  was  a  thoughtful,  earnest  preacher 
with  liberal  but  deeply  reUgious  views^  attracting 
people  of  all  classes  to  his  church  by  his  oratorical 
gifts  and  his  spiritual  insight.  He  exercised  a 
profound  influence  on  the  religious  thinking  of  his 
generation. 

ROBINSON,  JOHN  (1575-1625)  .—Educated 
at  Cambridge,  associated  with  the  Separatist 
congregation  at  Gainsboro,  and  later  with  that  at 
Scrooby  Manor,  he  with  his  flock  emigrated  (1607) 
to  Holland,  disembarking  at  Amsterdam,  from 
which,  shortly  after,  removal  was  made  to  Leiden. 
There  he  became  the  staunch  defender  of  Calvinism, 
and  the  leading  counsellor  of  the  Pilgrims  in  their 
American  adventure.  Large  hearted  and  sound  in 
judgment,  he  more  than  any  other  man  placed  the 
imprint  of  his  personality  on  the  Pilgrim  group. 
He  died  in  Holland  before  he  was  able  to  carry  out 
his  plan  of  joining  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  Rock. 
His  works  (reprint  by  Ash  ton,  1851),  cover  doctrine, 
church  polity,  and  essays  on  moral  themes. 

ROCHET. — An  ecclesiastical  vestment,  con- 
sisting of  a  white  tunic  reaching  about  to  the  knees, 
and  worn  by  prelates  and  bishops  and  on  special 
papal  sanction  by  cathedral  canons.  The  earhest 
use  of  the  rochet  dates  from  the  9th.  century. 

ROGATION  DAYS.— The  Monday,  Tuesday, 
and  Wednesday  preceding  Ascension  Day,  so  desig- 
nated from  the  custom  of  chanting  htanies  in  pro- 
cession, a  custom  dating  from  the  5th.  century. 

ROGATION  SUNDAY.— The  Sunday  pre- 
ceding Ascension  Day. 

ROMAN  CATECHISM.— A  catechism  author- 
ized by  the  Council  of  Trent  and  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  Pope  Pius  IV.  It  was  intended  to 
set  forth  accurately  aiid  comprehensively  the  content 


of  Roman  Catholic  Faith,  and  is  regarded  as  a 
systematic  exposition  of  Catholic  doctrine  as 
defined  in  conscious  opposition  to  the  Protestant 
Reformation. 

ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH.— I.  The 

Name  consists  of  three  words,  each  emphasizing 
special  aspects  of  a  logically  coherent  whole. 
"Church"  here  suggests  the  claim  that  Christ 
founded  a  visible  and  self-perpetuating  society; 
"Cathohc"  (Greek  katholik6,  universal),  that  the 
church  is  by  intention  world-wide;  and  "Roman," 
that  the  pope  as  bishop  of  Rome  is  the  divinely 
appointed  center  of  unity.  On  such  presuppositions 
the  Larger  Catechism  of  Pope  Pius  X.  states  that 
"all  those  who  do  not  acknowledge  the  Roman 
Pontiff  as  their  Head,  do  not  belong  to  the  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ"  (p.  44).  _  The  appellation  "Roman 
Catholic"  has  been  used  in  Enghsh  legislation  since 
1791,  replacing  by  request  earher  designations  such 
as  "papist." 

II.  The  Term  Catholic  Church  first  occurs 
about  110  or  115  a.d.  in  the  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to 
the  Smyrneans  (8:2):  "Wherever  the  bishop 
shall  appear,  there  let  also  the  multitude  be, 
even  as  wherever  Christ  may  be,  there  is  the 
CathoUc  Church";  i.e.,  the  presence  of  the  bishop 
is  the  visible  test  which  shows  that  the  congrega- 
tion is  part  of  the  world-wide  church  of  which 
Christ  is  the  invisible  head. 

This  world-wide  Church  is  one  and  there  is  none 
other  beside  it;  the  term  CathoUc  implies  unique- 
ness. Paul  spoke  of  the  church  as  the  body  of 
Christ  (I  Cor.  12;  Col.  1:18),  in  whom  there  is  a 
unity  transcending  class,  nationality,  or  race 
(Col.  3: 11).  Let  this  unity  transcend  place,  and 
you  have  the  idea  of  non-local,  or  Catholic.  The 
safest  definition,  then,  of  the  term  Catholic  as 
applied  to  the  Church  is  negative:  it  means  the 
Church  not  restricted  to  any  locality,  province,  or 
country,  but  diffused  throughout  the  whole  world. 
The  churches  in  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and  elsewhere, 
are  the  local  embodiments  of  this  one  church,  the 
unity  being  unaffected  by  the  distribution  of  the 
one  into  the  many,  which  is  purely  geographical. 

The  Larger  Catechism  prescribed  by  Pius  X. 
(p.  43)  does  not,  however,  rest  in  negatives:  it 
defines  the  Catholic  Church  as  "the  Society  or 
Congregation  of  all  the  baptized,  who,  wayfarers  on 
this  earth,  profess  the  same  Faith  and  Law  of  Jesus 
Christ;  participate  in  the  same  Sacraments;  and 
obey  their  lawful  Pastors,  and  in  particular  the 
Roman  Pontiff."  The  Cathohc  Church  is  here  de- 
fined as  the  body  of  the  faithful  who  share  in  the  grace 
of  the  (Catholic)  sacraments,  accept  the  (Catholic) 
creeds,  and  hve  in  obedience  to  the  (Catholic)  hier- 
archy, whose  head  is  the  pope.  The  real  criterion 
has  become  subjection  to  the  pope;  the  other  defi- 
nitions are  circular. 

III.  Rise  of  the  Ancient  Catholic  Church. 
— By  the  time  of  Irenaeus  (died  about  202  a.d.), 
the  corollaries  of  the  universality  of  the  Church  had 
been  clearly  drawn.  As  Ritschl  and  others  have 
shown,  the  rise  of  the  Ancient  Catholic  church  was 
the  result  of  controversies  acute  from  about  140  to 
180  a.d.  The  Gnostics  were  then  asserting  that 
their  distinctive  views,  based  on  alleged  secret 
tradition  going  back  to  the  earhest  days  of  Chris- 
tianity, were  the  only  correct  ones.  Against  the 
Gnostic  claim  to  possess  the  inside  facts  about  the 
real  nature  of  Christianity,  the  churches  in  centers 
like  Rome,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  where  apostles  had 
labored,  employed  a  triple  hne  of  defence:  the  rule 
of  faith,  the  teaching  authority  of  the  bishops,  and 
the  canon  of  Scripture. 

1.  From  the  earliest  times  candidates  for  baptism 
had  had  to  profess  some  formula  such  as  "Jesus  is 


Roman  Catholic  Church        A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


382 


Lord"  or  "Jesus  is  the  Christ"  (Paul;  Acts);  and 
somewhat  later  they  had  to  be  baptized  in  the  name 
of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(Matthew  28: 19f.).  This  triune  formula  was 
expanded  at  Rome,  in  the  first  half  of  the  2nd. 
century,  into  the  Old  Roman  Creed,  the  nucleus  of 
the  so-called  Apostles'  Creed  (q.v.):  the  added 
material  going  chiefly  to  prove  that  Jesus  had 
lived  a  real  human  life,  over  against  Marcion  or 
similar  exponents  of  docetic  views.  See  Docetism. 
The  Old  Roman  Creed  was  required  of  candidates 
for  baptism,  and  is  therefore  a  "baptismal  symbol." 
When  writers  about  the  year  220  speak  of  a  "rule 
of  faith"  they  either  mean  such  a  baptismal  symbol, 
or  a  similar  list  of  doctrines  considered  essential. 

2.  The  teaching  authority  of  the  bishops  was 
used  to  show  that  the  rule  of  faith  was  authentic; 
and  conversely,  that  the  secret  traditions  boasted 
by  the  Gnostics  were  unknown  in  the  churches 
founded  by  the  apostles,  and  therefore  could  not 
possibly  be  correct.  If  the  secret  traditions  had 
actually  been  genuine  they  should  have  been  handed 
down  through  the  bishops  of  those  churches  which 
could  trace  the  succession  of  their  teachers  back  to 
the  apostles.  This  style  of  argumentation  had 
been  used  by  Greek  schools  of  philosophy  in 
repudiating  alleged  secret  traditions;  they  had 
emphasized  the  fact  that  these  were  unknown  to 
their  pubUcly  acknowledged  succession  of  teachers 
in  centers  like  Athens.  The  adoption  of  this 
defence  made  the  bishops  guarantors  of  the  correct- 
ness of  the  apostolic  tradition;  and  rendered  the 
synods,  or  councils  of  bishops,  the  court  of  final 
appeal  as  to  orthodoxy.  This  development  took 
place  in  the  fight  against  Montanism  (q.v.),  and 
put  the  bishop  into  the  exalted  position  of  discerner 
(cf.  I  Cor.  12: 10)  or  judge  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
inspiration  of  the  prophets.  The  episcopate  was 
regarded  as  certainly  possessing  the  Spirit,  a  view 
which  underHes  the  bishop's  monopoly  of  the  right 
to  ordain. 

3.  Parallel  with  the  emphasis  on  the  chain  of 
witnesses  to  apostoUc  teaching  was  the  appeal  to  the 
hterary  remains  of  the  apostles.  Their  writings,  hke 
those  of  other  Christian  leaders  such  as  Clement  of 
Rome,  had  long  been  sought  and  collected  for  pur- 
poses of  instruction  and  edification;  now  all  writings 
not  by  one  of  the  Twelve,  or  by  Paul,  or  (as  in  the 
case  of  Mark  and  Luke)  by  one  whose  information 
came  at  first  hand  from  the  original  apostles,  were 
left  out  of  that  Ust  which  we  call  the  Canon  of  the 
New  Testament.  This  process  of  eUmination  saved 
Christianity  from  accretions  of  legendary  and 
fictitious  material.  Even  writings  bearing  the 
name  of  apostles  were,  however,  to  be  rejected  if 
they  did  not  conform  to  the  rule  of  faith. 

IV.  The  Pre-eminence  of  Rome  in  the  Ancient 
CathoUc  Church  was  inevitable,  and  that  for 
several  reasons:  1.  The  Roman  was  one  of  the 
largest  Christian  communities  in  the  world.  Its 
internationalism  was  shown  by  its  continuing  for 
about  two  centuries  to  use  the  Greek  language  in  its 
services,  instead  of  Latin.  Constantly;  re-enforced 
by  immigration  as  well  as  by  conversions,  it  ulti- 
mately overcame  the  difiiculties  of  the  language 
question,  and  by  the  pontificate  of  Fabianus 
(236-250)  had  developed  the  seven  orders  of  the 
clergy  and,  if  we  may  beheve  a  statement  handed 
down  in  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  a  scheme  of  sub- 
division of  church  work  so  elaborate  that  it  prob- 
ably would  have  broken  down  in  any  but  the  largest 
of  Christian  communities.  Just  as  Rome  in  the 
2nd.  century  led  in  the  fight  against  heresy,  every 
exotic  variety  of  which  desired  to  be  represented  in 
Rome  for  reasons  both  of  pride  and  of  propaganda, 
so  in  the  3rd.  century  Rome  led  in  specializing  the 
functions  of  the  clergy. 


2.  Among  the  great  numbers  which  belonged 
to  the  church  in  Rome  there  were  probably  certain 
persons  of  wealth  (Flavius  Clemens).  In  the  2nd. 
and  3rd.  centuries  several  writers  mention  the 
charitable  aid  given  by  the  Roman  Church  to 
afflicted  Christians,  even  in  places  outside  of  Italy; 
here  as  elsewhere  service  was  a  root  of  power. 

3.  The  Church  at  Rome  shared  to  some  extent 
in  the  political  prestige  of  the  capital  of  the  empire. 
Itself  the  shining  goal  of  persecution,  it  could  at 
times  secure  valuable  information.  The  transfer- 
ence of  the  capital  to  Constantinople  in  330,  seven 
years  before  the  baptism  of  Constantine,  made  it 
impossible  for  the  bishops  of  Rome  to  base  their 
claim  to  precedence  on  the  political  eminence  of 
their  city.  It  was  the  patriarchs  of  Constanti- 
nople who  plumed  themselves  on  being  bishops  of 
the  capital,  which  they  called  New  Rome,  as  stated 
by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  The  pope  then 
reigning,  Leo  I.,  publicly  based  his  claim  upon  the 
texts  for  the  primacy  of  Peter  (Matthew  16,  18; 
Luke  22:31;  John  21:l5f.),  thereby  offsetting 
the  passing  political  distinction  of  Constantinople 
by  asserting  for  the  papacy  a  perpetual  foundation 
of  divine  right. 

4.  A  chief  distinction  of  the  Roman  Church  was 
the  fact  that  it  was  the  only  Christian  community 
in  the  Latin-speaking  world  where  apostles  had 
resided.  Rome  boasted  of  being  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdoms  of  Peter  and  Paul,  a  claim  which  we 
do  not  know  was  contested  by  any  other  locaUty. 
With  such  apostles  as  its  alleged  founders,  Rome 
was  regarded  as  a  pre-eminent  depository  of  genuine 
apostolic  tradition. 

V.  Reform  through  the  Secular  Power. — 
During  the  seven  centuries  which  elapsed  between 
Constantine  and  Hildebrand,  the  reform  of  the 
church,  theoretically  left  chiefly  to  provincial 
synods,  was  in  cases  of  emergency  undertaken  on  the 
initiative  of  the  secular  power.  Kings  and  emperors 
were  careful  to  use  ecclesiastics,  in  particular 
archbishops  or  patriarchs,  to  execute  their  policies; 
but  the  fact  remains  that  virtual  control  of  the 
church  by  the  crown  was  practiced  in  most  of 
the  states  which  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  After  the  popes  broke  away  from  the 
power  of  the  Eastern  Empire  in  the  8th.  century, 
friends  of  order  looked  to  the  Carolingians,  or 
to  their  Saxon  and  Salian  successors,  to  intervene 
with  military  forces  in  critical  emergencies.  The 
donation  of  Charlemagne  (774),  the  revival  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  the  West  (800),  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  bad  popes  by  Otto  I.  and  Henry  III.  in  963 
and  1046  are  instances  of  such  intervention. 

VI.  Reform  by  Strengthening  the  Papacy. — 
The  weakness  of  depending  on  the  secular  power 
for  reform  was  that  no  emperor  whose  sources  of 
men  and  supphes  lay  north  of  the  Alps  could  perma- 
nently retain  control  of  central  Italy.  The  reform- 
ers of  the  11th.  century,  led  by  Hildebrand  (Gregory 
VII.),  insisted  that  lasting  improvement  in  the 
state  of  the  church  could  never  be  brought  about 
by  the  secular  power;   it  must  come  from  within. 

Hildebrand's  plan  was  reform  by  centralization. 
The  election  law  of  1059  put  the  control  of  the  choice 
of  the  pope  into  the  hands  of  the  cardinals,  and 
particularly  of  the  suburban  bishops  who  were 
habitually  the  Liturgical  assistants  of  the  pope. 
With  these  were  associated  the  priests  of  the  princi- 
pal or  "cardinal"  churches  of  Rome,  and  the  deacons 
who  were  among  the  major  administrative  officers. 
The  lay  participation  in  papal  elections  was  reduced 
to  a  mere  shout  of  approval;  and  the  influence  of  the 
German  king  was  practically  eliminated.  Secure 
in  the  control  of  the  papacy  the  reformers  used 
legates  to  break  the  power  of  archbishops  north 
of  the  Alps. 


383 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS        Roman  CathoUc  Church 


Centralization  usually  increases  the  number  of 
officials.  To  keep  them  from  starvation  in  lean 
years  it  was  necessary  to  bring  new  kinds  of  business 
to  the  papal  court.  Appeals  and  dispensations 
were  mmtipUed.  This  process,  in  fuU  swing  under 
Innocent  II.  (1130-1143),  showed  its  potency  for 
evil  particvilarly  during  the  Great  Schism  (1378- 
1417),  when  a  divided  Europe  had  to  support  more 
than  one  papal  court,  and  exactions  multiplied. 

During  the  centuries  from  the  preaching  of  the 
first  crusade  by  Pope  Urban  II.  (1095),  to  the  with- 
drawal of  the  last  Occidental  garrisons  from  Pales- 
tine (1291),  the  attempt  to  still  the  jealousies  of 
Europe  and  to  unite  its  military  forces  in  a 
series  of  holy  wars  against  the  infidel  had  strength- 
ened the  pope.  The  financial  weakness  of  the 
papacy,  however,  continued  to  hamper  its  develop- 
ment as  an  international  power.  Though  the 
Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  in  1215  granted  the 
pope  the  right  to  tax  the  church  to  raise  money  for 
crusades,  nevertheless  in  most  respects  the  pope, 
Uke  many  mediaeval  kings,  was  expected  "to  five 
of  his  own."  The  income  from  the  Papal  States, 
together  with  certain  customary  dues,  such  as 
Peter's  Pence,  was  quite  inadequate  to  finance  an 
international  spiritual  empire.  In  the  absence 
of  the  power  to  tax,  resort  was  had  to  a  fee  system; 
so  that  each  item  of  business  was  supposed  to 
pay  for  itself  and  a  little  more.  The  evils  of  this 
method  are  notorious:  each  hungry  official  desires 
to  affix  his  vis6  to  every  dispensation  or  appeal, 
thus  creating  unnecessary  delay  and  expense. 
Add  to  this  the  sale  of  offices  and  of  the  right  of 
succession  to  offices  (expectancies),  and  the  effici- 
ency of  government  is  deeply  impaired. 

In  the  14th.  century  the  papacy  entered  upon 
two  successive  periods  of  misfortune.  _  The  Baby- 
lonian Captivity  followed  almost  immediately 
on  the  struggle  of  Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303)  and 
Philip  IV.  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  hke  his 
antagonist,  Edward  I.  of  England,  fought  many 
wars  and  asked  for  grants  from  ecclesiastics  so 
regularly  that  what  was  nominally  a  gift  became 
practically  a  tax.  Then  in  the  Bull  Clericis  Laicos 
(1296)  Pope  Boniface  protested  that  ecclesiastical 
property  should  not  be  taxed  without  the  pope's 
consent,  a  principle  which,  if  it  had  been  accepted, 
would  have  given  to  the  papacy  a  very  material 
part  of  the  power  of  the  purse  in  every  European 
country. 

VII.  CoNCiLiAR  Supremacy. — ^The  return  of 
the  popes  from  Avignon  to  Rome  was  followed  by  a 
contested  election  which  inaugurated  the  Great 
Schism  (1378-1417).  A  disputed  succession  is  the 
bane  of  monarchy;  the  problem  the  secular  states 
settled  by  war  the  church  settled  by  a  temporary 
revival  of  a  theory  that  the  oecumenical  council  is 
supreme.  In  1415  the  Council  of  Constance  took 
this  position.  It  even  adopted  a  plan  for  parha- 
mentary  government  for  the  church  by  councils  to 
be  convened  in  five  years,  then  in  seven,  and  then 
every  decade.  This  scheme  broke  down,  but  the 
question  as  to  whether  pope  or  council  is  supreme 
was  debatable  for  more  than  four  centuries.  Con- 
ciliar  supremacy  was  maintained  by  the  Galileans, 
whose  essential  principles  were  best  formulated  in 
the  Declaration  of  the  Galilean  Clergy  (1682), 
which  says  that  the  pope  has  no  power  over  civil 
and  temporal  matters  (outside  the  Papal  States); 
that  oecumenical  councils  are  superior  to  the 
pope;  and  that  even  in  matters  of  faith  the  pope's 
judgment  is  not  irreformable  unless  ratified  by  the 
consent  of  the  church. 

VIII.  The  Victory  of  Papalism. — ^The  position 
opposed  to  Gallicanism  is  called  Ultramontanism; 
it  maintains  that  the  supreme  authority  in  the 
church  is  located  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps  from 


France  (ultra  monies) .  This  view  is  also  known 
as  Papalism,  in  distinction  from  Episcopalism  or 
Cyprian's  theory  that  the  church  is  an  ohgarchy  of 
bishops  in  which  the  pope  is  merely  first  among  his 
peers.  On  the  eve  of  the  Protestant  Reformation, 
the  Fifth  Council  of  the  Lateran  declared  (1516) 
that  the  pope  has  authority  over  all  councils,  and 
that  he  may  call,  transfer,  or  dissolve  them.  This 
did  not  settle  the  question  of  supremacy,  which  was 
so  acute  that  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-63)  did  not 
dare  to  legislate  upon  it.  The  definite  victory 
of  Ultramontanism  came  at  the  Vatican  Council 
(1870);  it  was  possible  because  the  French  Revolu- 
tion had  shattered  the  strongholds  of  Galhcanism 
in  the  Bourbon  autocracies,  and  because  Napoleon, 
through  his  secularizations,  had  broken  the  political 
power  of  the  great  German  archbishops.  The 
Vatican  Decree  asserted  that  the  pope  has  the 
supreme  power  of  governing  the  universal  church, 
not  merely  in  faith  and  morals,  but  also  in  matters 
of  discipline,  administration,  and  pronouncing 
judgment.  It  also  stated  that  the  pope  possesses 
ordinary  and  immediate  jurisdiction  in  every 
diocese.  Every  cleric  holding  any  position  of 
influence  in  the  Roman  Church  is  now  required  to 

fromise  and  swear  true  obedience  to  the  Bishop 
Rome,  successor  to  St.  Peter,  Prince  of  the 
Apostles,  and  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  (since 
1877)  also  to  believe  in  the  Vatican  decrees  (Canon 
1406).  The  Anti-Modernist  Oath  of  1910,  which 
must  be  signed  by  all  candidates  for  major  orders, 
asserts  also  that  the  church  was  founded  by  the 
historic  Christ  and  is  built  on  Peter  and  his  suc- 
cessors to  the  end  of  time. 

The  ecclesiastical  sovereignty  of  the  pope  is 
limited  by  no  theory  of  the  separation  of  powers 
into  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial.  As  supreme 
legislator  Pope  Benedict  XV.  in  1917  issued  a  new 
Codex  luris  Canonici  on  his  own  authority,  received, 
as  he  beHeves,  from  Christ.  This  is  an  admirable 
codification,  such  as  the  papacy  had  not  promul- 
gated for  precisely  six  centuries.  With  the  learned 
notes  and  index  by  Cardinal  Gasparri,  it  is  an  indis- 
pensable aid  to  all  who  would  understand  the  rules 
of  Roman  Catholicism.  Like  the  Code  of  Justinian, 
it  is  pubhshed  by  authority  of  an  autocrat. 

IX.  Infallibility. — ^The  pope  is  not  merely 
supreme;  in  some  matters  he  claims  infalhbihty 
(q.v.).  This  prerogative  is  hmited  to  the  field  of 
faith  and  morals.  Prior  to  the  Vatican  Council, 
some  Roman  Catholics,  particularly  in  France,  had 
hoped  that  the  pope^  when  declared  infalUble,  would 
solve  pending  political  and  social  questions,  by  a 
series  of  oracles;  but  this  expectation  has  been 
disappointed.  The  popes  have  not  even  declared 
officially  which  of  their  own  pronouncements  during 
the  past  three  centuries  are  infallible.  In  the 
absence  of  certainty,  the  faithful  are  taught  to 
venerate  every  official  utterance  of  the  pope  as 
the  voice  of  one  who  may  speak  with  infalUbiUty 
(cf.  Canon  1324),  and  to  obey  dicta  which  may 
after  all  be  merely  what  the  Pharisees  called  "a 
hedge  about  the  Law."  The  statesmen  of  the 
Vatican  realize  that  few  positions,  particularly  in 
the  field  of  poUtical  or  social  theory,  can  be  irre- 
versible. If  the  Syllabus  of  Pius  IX  (1864)  were 
declared  infalUble,  it  might  embarrass  the  papal 
diplomats  in  dealing  with  governments  of  the 
20th.  century.  Thus  the  pope's  freedom  of  cathe- 
dratic  utterance  is  hmited  not  merely  by  the 
infalUble  declarations  of  his  predecessors  (if  he  will 
teU  which  of  their  pronunciamentos  are  really 
infallible),  but  also  by  a  proper  regard  for  the 
probable  perplexities  of  his  successors  in  deaUng 
with  a  world  which  is  in  social  and  inteUectuai 
evolution.  The  CathoUc  Church  is  at  present 
guided  on  the  legal  fiction  of  provisional  finality. 


Roman  CathoUc  Church       A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


384 


The  actual  fixation  by  infallible  decree  of  any  matter 
open  to  serious  question  would  endanger  the  very 
infallibility  on  which  all  depends. 

X.  Concessions  in  Science  and  Economics. — 
Though  infallible,  Rome  is  not  always  inflexible. 
It  has  modified  its  practical  attitude  on  many 
questions.  _  In  spite  of  the  condemnation  of  Galileo 
in  1633  it  is  no  longer  heretical  to  disbelieve  that 
the  earth  is  the  immovable  center  of  the  universe. 
Disregarding  the  Bull  of  Innocent  VIII.  against 
witchcraft,  Roman  Catholics  today  prefer  to  have 
obnoxious  old  women  investigated  by  an  ahenist 
rather  than  by  an  inquisitor.  The  church  now 
forbids  anyone  to  undertake  exorcism  (apart  from 
rites  such  as  baptism),  except  by  express  license  of 
the  ordinary  and  after  diligent  investigation  that 
the  person  is  really  possessed  by  a  demon — which 
is  difficult  to  prove  (Canon  1151).  As  regards 
geology,  a  latent  concession  in  the  phraseology  of 
the  "Short  History  of  Rehgion"  (appended  to  the 
"Larger  Catechism"  of  Pope  Pius  X.),  says  that 
the  creation  of  the  world  "occupied  six  periods  of 
time,  which  Holy  Scripture  calls  Days"  (p.  299). 
In  the  sphere  of  ethics  the  Roman  Church  per- 
mitted first  the  modification  through  custom  and 
casuistry  of  the  canonical  prohibition  of  receiving 
interest  on  money  ("usury"),  and  then  quietly 
dropped  it;  so  that  the  new  Code  permits  a  not 
immoderate  rate  of  interest  (Canon  1543).  _  Thus 
the  papacy  is  no  longer  an  enemy  of  capitaUsm. 

XL  Modernism. — Rome  has  responded  to  some 
extent  to  the  movements  of  contemporary  thought, 
but  certain  Roman  Catholic  scholars  have  tried  to 
go  faster  than  is  compatible  with  Catholicism.  In 
the  later  years  of  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII.,  these 
tendencies  developed  rapidly,  particularly  in 
France  and  in  Italy.  The  movement  was  stigma- 
tized in  1907  by  syllabus  and  by  encycUcal  as 
Modernism  (q.v.).  It  has  two  principal  aspects: 
the  one  philosophical,  the  other  historical. 
(1)  Philosophical  modernism  is  rooted  in  the 
instinct  to  defend  the  faith.  He  who  would  con- 
vince an  opponent  cannot  shut  himself  up  within  a 
closed  circle  of  CathoUc  truth  and  plead  "pre- 
scription" against  heresy;  he  must  find  a  common 
ground  upon  which  to  argue,  and  in  so  doing  is  likely 
to  make  concessions  resented  by  ecclesiastical 
authority.  (2)  Historical  criticism,  particularly 
under  the  influence  of  evolutionary  theory,  has 
made  scholars  increasingly  distrustful  of  the  Roman 
CathoUc  presupposition  that  "tradition  was,  and  is, 
guided  in  a  special  manner  by  God,  Who  preserves 
it  from  being  curtailed,  mutilated,  or  falsified" 
(Pohle  in  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  XIV,  581d). 
The  anti-modernist  oath,  since  imposed  on  priests 
now  checks  human  ingenuity.^ 

XII.  Statistics. —  Krose  in  the  Catholic  Ency- 
clopedia (XIV,  1912)  gives  the  total  number  of 
CathoUcs  in  the  world  at  264,505,922;  Europe. 
188,577,058;  Asia,  12,661,498;  AustraUa  and 
Oceania,  1,244,055;  Africa,  2,689,839;  America, 
87,614,635.  Large  figures  of  this  sort  are  severely 
attacked  by  Joseph  McCabe  in  his  Decay  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  The  Official  Catholic  Directory  of 
1921  gives  the  following  salient  facts:  the  present 
Pope  is  Benedict  XV.,  elected  Sept.  3,  1914.  In 
the  CoUege  of  Cardinals  there  are  5  Cardinal 
Bishops,  48  Cardinal  Priests,  7  Cardinal  Deacons. 
In  the  United  States,  there  are  2  Cardinals,  14  other 
Archbishops,  93  Bishops,  21,643  Priests,  10,790 
churches  with  resident  pastors,  5,790  _  mission 
churches,  113  seminaries,  8,291  seminaries,  215 
colleges  for  boySj  710  academies  for  girls,  6,048 
parish  schools  with  an  attendance  of  1,771,418, 
295  orphanages  with  46,777  orphans,  118  homes  for 
the  aged,  and  17,885,646  CathoUcs. 

W.  W.  Rockwell 


ROMAN  RELIGION.— A  term  used  to  cover 
the  religious  Ufe  in  the  Roman  state  for  a  period  of 
some  1200  years. 

I.  First  Period,  from  the  Founding  op 
Rome  (753  b.c.)  to  the  Dedication  of  the 
Capitoline  Temple  (509  b.c). — A  Ust  of  festivals, 
some  fragments  of  priestly  chants,  a  few  formulas 
of  prayer  and  a  tradition  that  is  frequently  vague 
or  inaccurate  are  our  only  sources  for  the  earUest 
period  of  R,oman  reUgion.  With  this  meagre  evi- 
dence detailed  reconstruction  is  impossible,  but 
enough  information  is  available  to  enable  us  to 
sketch  it  in  general  outUne.  It  was  a  reUgion  of 
clearly  marked  limitations,  and  reflected  the  narrow 
life  of  a  primitive  community  whose  social  and 
private  life  had  as  yet  shown  but  Uttle  development 
and  whose  chief  activities  were  agriculture,  stock- 
raising  and  war.  But  within  these  narrow  Umits 
the  number  of  gods  included  in  their  worship  was 
very  large.  To  the  primitive  Roman  the  world 
swarmed  with  spirits,  most  of  whom  were  definitely 
associated  with  some  particular  function.  Saturnus 
was  the  god  of  sowing;  Tellus  (Earth)  was  the 
power  who  received  and  nourished  the  seed ;  Ceres 
was  the  spirit  of  growth,  Flora,  of  blossom;  Pomona, 
of  fruit;  Consus,  of  harvest.  Pales  was  the  divinity 
of  the  pasture  land;  Fons,  of  springs;  Volturnus,  of 
rivers.  Mater^  Matuta  and  Carmenta  were  con- 
nected with  birth;  Larenta,  Carna  and  Veiovis, 
with  death.  In  the  house  Janus  was  immanent  in 
the  door  and  Vesta  in  the  hearth-fire.  There  seems 
indeed  to  have  been  no  Umit  to  this  system  of 
speciaUzation.  It  was  the  beUef  of  the  Romans  that 
the  number  of  gods  exceeded  that  of  men,  as  is 
shown  by  their  doctrine  of  the  Genius,  the  spiritual 
double  who  attended  and  watched  over  each  man, 
and  the  Juno  who  fulfilled  a  similar  function  for 
every  woman.  There  were  many  other  spirits  or 
groups  of  spirits,  like  the  Lares,  who  protected  the 
commimity  and  afterwards  the  home,  the  Penates, 
spirits  of  the  store-room  (penus)  and  Manes,  the 
spirits  of  the  dead.  Towering  over  all  was  the 
triad  that  consisted  of  Jupiter,  Mars  and  Quirinus. 
Jupiter  was  the  great  sky-god,  with  whom  were 
associated  all  celestial  phenomena:  the  bright  blue 
of  the  heavens,  thunder,  Ughtning  and  rain.  Mars, 
if  not  originally  a  war  god,  was  connected  with 
war  at  an  early  date,  while  Quirinus  was  a  counter- 
part of  Mars,  whose  cult  had  grown  up  among  the 
community  that  dwelt  on  the  Quirinal  Hill. 

All  these  divinities  were  thought  of  merely  as 
gods  of  the  Roman  state.  In  Roman  reUgious 
consciousness  they  were  not  related  to  the  welfare 
of  other^  communities,  or  to  the  world  at  large. 
The  original  Roman  reUgion  had  no  cosmogony,  no 
myths,  no  divine  genealogies.  Moreover,  it  was 
not  anthropomorphic  and  had  neither  images  nor 
temples.  On  the  ceremonial  side  it  was  elaborate 
and  precise  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  The 
numerous  festivals  were  celebrated  according  to 
strictly  prescribed  forms.  No  deviation  of  any 
kind  was  permitted.  Violation  of  a  regulation 
pertaining  to  a  procession,  sacrifice,  prayer  or  any 
other  ritual  detail  vitiated  the  whole  ceremony. 
The  purpose  of  each  festival  was  to  maintain  right 
relations  with  some  god  or  group  of  gods;  and 
when  the  ceremony  had  been  scrupulously  per- 
formed, it  was  beUeved  that  the  god  would  do  his 
part. 

Divination  also  was  practiced  by  the  early 
Romans,  and  they  beUeved  that  by  watching  the 
flight  and  noting  the  cries  of  birds  and  by  the 
observation  of  various  other  signs  they  could 
determine  whether  the  gods  were  favorable  or 
unfavorable  to  some  plan  proposed  or  project  under 
consideration.  This  was  the  institution  of  the 
auspices  {auspicia). 


385 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Roman  Religion 


II.  From  the  Dedication  op  the  Capitoline 
Temple  (509  b.c.)  to  the  BEGiNNiNa  op  the 
Second  Punic  War  (218  b.c). — The  temple  of 
Jupiter,  Juno  and  Minerva  on  the  CapitoUne  Hill, 
though  not  dedicated  till  the  first  year  of  the 
Republic,  was  begun  in  the  period  of  the  Tarquin 
dynasty.  The  Tarquins  were  Etruscans,  and  the 
combination  of  these  three  gods  in  a  triad  that 
displaced  the  earlier  group  of  Jupiter,  Mars  and 
Quirinus  was  one  of  many  manifestations  of  Etrus- 
can influence  in  Roman  religion.  The  combina- 
tion goes  back  ultimately  to  the  Greek  divinities 
Zeus,  Hera,  and  Athene,  but  the  practice  of  com- 
bining them,  or  rather  their  Etruscan  counterparts, 
was  much  more  common  in  Etruria  than  in  Greece 
and  it  was  from  the  former  country  that  the  Romans 
derived  it.  Moreover  the  temple  itself  was  the 
work  of  Etruscan  architects,  and  the  clay  statue  of 
Jupiter  which  it  contained  was^  modelled  by  Etrus- 
can artists.  To  Etruscan  influence  must  be 
ascribed  also  the  institution  of  the  triumph  with  its 
elaborate  procession,  and  the  organization  of  the 
great  Roman  festival  (Ludi  Romani),  both  of  which 
were  connected  with  the  worship  of  Jupiter.  But 
it  was  not  only  from  its  northern  neighbor  that 
Rome  was  receiving  new  ideas.  From  the  Greek 
cities  in  Southern  Italy  a  stream  of  rehgious  influ- 
ences was  pouring  into  the  metropoUs.  The  last 
period  of  the  monarchy  saw  the  introduction  of  the 
SibylUne  books  from  Cumae  in  Campania,  and  in 
the  first  years  of  the  Republic  the  cults  of  Apollo, 
Hermes  (Mercury),  and  Demeter  (Ceres)  were 
estabUshed.  With  these  began  that  Hellenization 
which  was  the  cause  of  such  far-reaching  changes 
in  Roman  reUgion. 

With  the  extension  of  Roman  power  over  Italy 
many  gods  of  Italian  provenance  were  also  added  to 
the  list.  First  among  these  was  Diana  of  Aricia, 
the  erection  of  whose  temple  on  the  Aventine 
Hill  marked  Rome's  hegemony  in  the  Latin  league. 
The  cult  of  Fortune  (Fortuna)  was  brought  from 
Praeneste;  that  of  Venus  (originally  a  goddess  of 
gardens  and  the  charm  of  external  nature)  from 
Ardca.  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  Hercules,  though 
ultimately  of  Greek  origin,  came  to  Rome  from 
Tusculum  and  Tibur  respectively  and  were  always 
thought  of  as  Italic  in  origin.  Throughout  the 
whole  period  of  her  political  expansion  Rome 
showed  the  utmost  liberaUty  toward  the  religious 
beliefs  of  the  peoples  whom  she  conquered  or  with 
whom  she  had  political  or  commercial  affiUations. 
She  not  only  tolerated  their  cults  but  in  many  cases 
absorbed  them  into  her  state  reUgion. 

Profound  changes  took  place  also  in  the  external 
forms  of  worship.  The  use  of  cult  statues  and 
the  building  of  temples  mark  the  estabUshment  of 
anthropomorphic  ideas,  and  these  steadily  increased. 
The  spectacular  element  became  more  and  more 
prominent.  This  tendency  is  clearly  seen  in  the 
gorgeous  display  which  characterized  the  celebra- 
tion of  triumphs  and  of  the  Roman  games.  No- 
tably spectacular  also  were  two  other  institutions 
of  this  period,  namely  the  ledisternium  and  the 
supplicatio.  The  former  was  a  banquet  of  gods. 
On  a  table  were  placed  food  of  various  kinds  and 
on  the  dining  couches  that  surrounded  it  on  three 
sides  were  laid  images  of  the  gods  in  whose  honor 
the  feast  was  spread.  It  was  one  of  the  shows  of 
Rome  and  the  people  came  in  crowds  to  see  it.  A 
more  direct  appeal  to  popular  interest  was  made 
by  the  supplicatio,  for  in  this  the  people  took  an 
active  part.  In  large  numbers,  with  garlands  on 
their  heads  and  laurel  branches  in  their  hands,  they 
passed  from  temple  to  temple  prostrating  them- 
selves and  praying  to  each  god  in  turn  for  aid 
in  some  national  crisis  or  giving  thanks  for  a 
victory. 


HI.  From  the  Beginning  of  the  Second 
PtJNic  War  to  the  End  op  the  Republic. — • 
The  ledisternium  ordered  by  the  senate  in  217  B.C. 
after  Hannibal's  victory  at  Lake  Trasimennus  is  a 
significant  event  in  Roman  religion.  For  in  the 
six  pairs  of  divinities  who  reclined  at  that  divine 
banquet,  we  see  the  twelve  great  gods  of  Greece: 
Jupiter  and  Juno  (Zeus  and  Hera),  Neptune  and 
Minerva  (Poseidon  and  Athene),  Mars  and  Venus 
(Ares  and  Aphrodite),  Apollo  and  Diana  (Apollo  and 
Artemis),  Vulcan  and  Vesta  (Hephaestus  and 
Hestia),  Mercury  and  Ceres  (Hermes  and  Demeter). 
This  shows  how  far  the  process  of  Hellenization 
had  gone,  and  in  the  two  succeeding  generations  its 
progress  was  still  more  rapid.  But  Roman  reUgion 
did  not  confine  her  fist  of  foreign  cults  to  the  gods  of 
Greece.  In  the  year  205  b.c,  the  Senate,  worn  out 
by  the  long  war  and  discouraged  by  the  fact  that 
Hannibal  and  his  army  were  stiU  in  Italy,  decreed 
that  the  worship  of  the  Mother  of  the  Gods  (also 
called  the  Great  Mother  or  Cybele)  should  be 
introduced  into  Rome.  This  was  a  Phrygian 
cult  and  it  was  the  first  of  the  numerous  oriental 
religions  that  afterwards  played  so  important  a 
r61e  in  Roman  religious  history.  This  oriental 
influence  developed  its  greatest  strength  under  the 
Empire,  but  the  Mother  of  the  Gods  was  not  the 
only  eastern  divinity  in  Rome  in  RepubHcan  times. 
The  Egyptian  goddess  Isis  was  already  known  there 
in  the  age  of  Sulla.  Other  influences  also  were  at 
work.  _  As  a  result  of  the  improved  standards  of 
education  and  the  rapid  development  of  Roman 
Uterature,  the  cultured  classes  became  famiUar 
with  Greek  philosophy,  and  many  now  sought  in 
the  theories  of  the  Stoics  or  the  Epicureans  the 
answers  to  those  questions  which  to  earlier  genera- 
tions had  se^ed  to  he  exclusively  witmn  the 
field  of  religion. 

The  conditions  so  briefly  sketched,  were  bound 
to  react  most  unfavorably  upon  the  old  religion, 
and  it  is  without  surprise  that  we  find  on  all  sides 
indications  of  deep-seated  decay.  Many  cere- 
monies were  entirely  neglected;  numerous  Roman 
divinities  were  forgotten;  the  priesthoods  became 
disorganized,  and  many  of  the  temples  crumbled 
into  ruins. 

IV.  The  Reforms  of  Augustus. — Dismayed 
by  the  lamentable  state  of  the  national  rehgion, 
Octavian,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  pro- 
ceeded to  introduce  reforms.  He  reorganized  the 
priesthoods;  filled  the  office  of  high-priest  of 
Jupiter  {FlamenlDialis),  which  had  been  vacant 
for  seventy-five  years;  increased  the  privileges  of 
the  Vestal  Virgins  so  as  to  induce  noble  famihes  to 
make  their  daughters  take  the  vows;  rebuilt  eighty- 
two  temples  or  sanctuaries  which  had  collapsed; 
and  after  his  division  of  the  city  into  fourteen  wards 
and  of  each  ward  into  many  precincts  (vici)  he 
placed  in  each  precinct  a  shrine  of  the  Lares  of  the 
cross-roads  {Lares  Compitales),  and  between  the 
figures  of  the  two  Lares  was  a  representation  of  his 
own  Genius. 

V.  The  First  Two  Centuries  of  the  Empire. 
— ^The  reforms  of  Augustus  were  the  basis  of  the 
religion  of  the  first  two  centuries,  and  one  of  the 
outstanding  features  of  the  period  was  the  sancti- 
fication  of  the  imperial  idea.  The  two  measures  of 
Augustus  which  produced  the  most  startling  results 
were  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  his  Genius 
in  the  cult  of  the  Lares  Compitales  and  the  insti- 
tution of  the  worship  of  the  Emperors  {Divi  Imperor 
tores),  which  he  had  initiated  by  building  in  the 
Forum  a  temple  to  Julius  Caesar  {Divus  luliv^), 
whom  the  Senate  had  declared  a  ^od.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  a  new  class  of  divinities  in  the 
Roman  pantheon.  When  an  Emperor  died,  the 
Senate,  except  in  cases  where  special  odium  or 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


386 


infamy  attached  to  his  name,  decreed  him  divine 
honors.  A  temple  was  erected  and  priests  were 
appointed.  In  Rome  this  emperor- worship  con- 
fined itself  to  the  dead  emperors.  But  in  some  of 
the  provinces,  especially  in  the  East,  and  in  many 
provincial  towns  in  Italy  both  Augustus  and  his 
successors  were  worshiped  during  their  lifetime. 

Oriental  divinities,  some  of  which,  like  that  of 
the  Mother  of  the  Gods  and  of  Isis,  had  been  intro- 
duced during  the  Republican  period,  became  in- 
creasingly popular  during  this  period,  although  we 
do  not  hear  of  many  of  them  obtaining  recognition 
as  state  cults.  Among  these  were  the  Syrian  goddess 
who  won  the  favor  of  Nero,  and  the  Persian  god  of 
light,  Mithras. 

VI.  The  Third  and  Fourth  Centuries  and 
THE  End  op  Roman  Religion. — In  the  3rd. 
century  the  oriental  cults  reached  the  acme  of  their 
popularity.  The  Sun-god  El  Gabal  of  Hemesa  in 
Syria,  the  Invincible  Sun  ^  {Sol  Invictus)  from 
Palmyra  and  the  Carthaginian  goddess  Caelestis 
all  had  their  votaries.  None  of  these,  however,  could 
compare  in  popularity  with  the  three  cults  already 
mentioned:  the  Mother  of  the  Gods,  Isis  (with 
Serapis  and  the  other  divinities  of  the  Egyptian 
group)  and  Mithras.  These  were  the  great  rivals 
in  the  3rd.  century,  and  they  only  ceased  to  contend 
with  one  another  when  they  found  their  prestige 
threatened  by  the  rapidly  increasing  strength  of 
Christianity.  It  is  one  of  the  important  facts  of 
religious  history  that  the  great  struggle  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  was  not  with  the  old  Roman  gods  or  with 
the  Graeco-Roman  divinities,  but  with  these 
oriental  cults,  which  by  their  more  spectacular 
ceremonies,  their  stronger  emotional  appeal,  and 
their  hope  of  a  future  hfe  had  driven  the  old  beliefs 
into  a  distinctly  subordinate  position.  Through 
some  of  their  doctrines  they  had  even  prepared  the 
way  for  Christianity.  The  church-fathers  described 
Mithraism  as  a  diabolical  imitation  of  Christianity. 
There  were  indeed  some  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  two,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  Chris- 
tianity ever  had  a  more  dangerous  rival  than  the 
cult  of  Mithras.  But  the  victory  of  the  Christians 
was  assured  when  in  311  the  Emperors  Galerius, 
Constantine  and  Licinius  granted  them_  official 
recognition.  While  this  edict  only  gave  Christianity 
equal  rights  with  the  cults  previously  recognized  by 
the  state,  the  favor  of  Constantine  conferred  upon 
the  cause  an  unrivalled  prestige.  It  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  end,  and  within  three  generations  the 
collapse  of  paganism  was  complete. 

Gordon.  J.  Lainq 

ROMAN  RITE.— The  prescribed  liturgical 
and  rehgious  forms  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

ROMANTICISM. — As  an  art  term,  Romanti- 
cism is  contrasted  with  Classicism  and  signifies 
a  valuation  of  the  emotional  as  against  the  rational 
factor,  of  the  imaginative  as  against  the  actual, 
of  the  unusual  and  adventurous  as  against  the 
habitual  and  commonplace,  of  the  individual  or 
unique  as  against  that  which  is  ordered  by  general 
rule.  As  apphed  to  a  philosophy  of  life  it  is  con- 
trasted on  the  one  hand  with  conventionalism  or 
strict  adherence  to  established  proprieties,  on  the 
other  with  the  regulation  and  himting  of  impulse  and 
passion  by  rules  of  abstract  reason,  or  with  expect- 
ing the  individual  to  conform  to  general  laws.  In 
the  phraseology  of  Nietzsche,  it  says  "Yes!"  to  life's 
urge,  whereas  conventionalism,  puritanism,  ration- 
alism, legalism,  say  "No!" 

Historically  it  was  exhibited  in  a  literary,  musical, 
social  and  ethical  movement  at  the  close  of  the  18th. 
and  the  beginning  of  the  19th.  centuries  which 
accompanied  the  pohtical  demand  for  emancipation 
and  liberty.     It  rejected  the  classic  rules  of  the 


17th.  century  which  banned  Gothic  architecture 
and  Shakespeare  as  irregular  and  barbarous.  It 
revolted  against  social  distinctions  of  rank  or  against 
legal  and  ecclesiastical  authority  when  these  would 
interfere  with  the  individual's  freedom  or  his 
passion.  It  set  the  natural  as  a  watchword  against 
the  artificial,  and  identified  rules  with  the  artificial. 

As  an  ethical  principle,  romanticism  builds  on 
one  of  the  two  factors  in  life — the  factor  of  newness, 
variation,  originaUty,  uniqueness.  Life  without 
these  is  dull  and  defective  in  that  richness  which  is 
one  element  at  least  in  perfection.  Life  which 
centers  its  interest  on  keeping  rules  tends  to  be 
Pharisaical  or  at  least  too  pedantic  for  generous 
and  heroic  and  spontaneous  activities.  The  defects 
and  dangers  of  romanticism  are,  however,  equally 
obvious.  Passion  and  emotion  unchecked  by  sober 
reflection,  individual  impulse  unregulated  by  the 
experience  of  the  past,  and  by  general  rules,  are 
likely  to  be  capricious,  selfish,  and  unfruitful. 

James  H.  Tufts 

ROMANUS.— Pope  for  four  months,  897. 

ROOD.— Old  English  of  "rod";  a  term  used  for 
a  gaUqws,  or  cross,  in  particular  for  the  Holy  Cross 
on  which  Christ  was  crucified.  The  screen  dividing 
the  chancel  from  the  nave  in  a  church  is  called  the 
rood  screen  from  the  crucifix  surmounting  it. 

ROSARY. — A  string  of  beads  used  in  devotions 
by  Tibetan  Buddhists,  Mohammedans,  and  R.C. 
Cfhristians.  In  Catholic  devotions,  the  beads  are 
of  different  sizes,  and  so  arranged  that  a  complete 
cycle  of  prayers  may  be  told  off  on  the  rosary. 

ROSICRUCIANISM.— The  name  given  to  a 
movement  in  the  17th.  century,  said  to  be  derived 
from  a  society  organized  by  a  legendary  Christian 
Rosenkreuz,  who  imparted  to  the  society  occult 
learning,  including  the  solution  of  the  many  prob- 
lems of  mediaeval  science,  such  as  the  transmutation 
of  metals,  the  secret  of  everlasting  youth,  the 
philosopher's  stone,  etc.  The  history  of  the 
movement  is  very  imperfectly  known. 

ROTHE,  RICHARD  (1799-1867).— Lutheran 
theologian  who  studied  under  Schleiermacher, 
Hegel,  and  Neander,  professor  at  the  Universities  of 
Heidelberg  and  Bonn.  His  great  work  was  the 
Theologische  Ethik,  an  inspiring  ideahstic  system  in 
which  he  taught  that  the  rehgious  and  ethical  hfe 
are  coincident,  and  that  the  process  of  history  is  the 
unfoldihg  of  the  purpose  of  the  absolute,  personal 
God. 

ROUSSEAU,  JEAN  JACQUES  (1712-1778).— 
French  philosopher  and  man  of  letters,  one  of  the, 
leaders  of  the  Romanticist  movement  in  French 
thought.  See  Romanticism.  His  Social  Contract 
supplied  the  social  and  pohtical  motives  of  the 
French  Revolution.  His  Smile  expressed  his 
educational  conceptions  which  laid  stress  on  the 
inherent  goodness  of  child  nature  and  conceived  the 
task  of  education  as  the  development  of  the  native 
desires  and  capacities  of  the  child  rather  than  the 
subjection  of  the  mind  to  the  doctrines  already 
formulated  by  society.  Rehgiously  Rousseau  has 
been  called  a  "sentimental  deist,"  placing  the 
emphasis  on  the  emotional  side. 

ROYCE,  JOSIAH  (1855-1916).— American  phi- 
losopher, who  occupied  the  chair  in  history  of 
philosophy  at  Harvard.  He  was  an  influential 
defender  of  absolute  idealism  and  contributed  to  the 
philosophy  of  rehgion  from  that  point  of  view.but 
with  constant  emphasis  upon  social  and  ethical 
considerations.    He  ultimately  formulated  his  ideal 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Russian  Sects 


of  life  in  his  Philosophy  of  Loyalty,  and  interpreted 
Christianity  as  the  rehgion  of  "loyalty  to  the 
Beloved  Community." 

RUBRIC. — A  portion  of  a  manuscript,  made 
conspicuous  by  red  or  other  distinguishing  type. 
The  word  is  now  used  to  denote  the  instructions  or 
rules  printed  in  hturgical  books  directing  the 
conduct  of  the  services,  these  having  been  originally 
printed  in  red.  They  now  appear  in  itaUcs  in  the 
prayer  books. 

RUDRA. — A  destructive  storm  god  of  early 
Vedic  religion  who  was  later  absorbed  in  Shiva. 

RUFINUS  TYRRANIUS  (ca.  343^10).— Pres- 
byter and  theologian,  at  first  a  close  friend  of 
Jerome.  The  friendship  was  broken  because 
Rufinus  supported  Origen  whom  Jerome  repudiated. 
Rufinus'  great  work  was  the  translation  into  Latin 
of  the  great  Greek  fathers. 

RULE  OF  ¥AlTK.—(Regula  Fidei.)  A  formula- 
tion of  authoritative  behef  designed  to  secure  a 
correct  content  of  faith  in  Cathohc  Christianity  and 
to  exclude  heresy.  The  conception  appeared  in 
the  2nd.  century  when  it  was  necessary  to  define 
truly  apostolic  Christian  doctrine  over  against 
Gnosticism  (q.v.).  The  content  of  the  rule  of  faith 
was  probably  an  elaboration  of  early  baptismal 
confessions,  and  eventually  included  the  items  of 
the  Apostles'  Creed  (q.v.).  The  real  canon  of 
faith,  however,  was  the  total  apostoUc  teaching 
interpreted  by  the  Apostolic  church  rather  than  the 
creed  alone,  which  has  always  been  used  as  a  symbol 
of  acceptance  of  Catholic  doctrine  as  a  whole,  and 
not  as  an  official  compendium  of  doctrinal  beliefs. 

RUSSIAN  SECTS.— The  term  sects  in  Russia 
may  be  used  in  a  broader,  and  in  a  narrower  sense. 
In  a  broader  sense,  it  means  all  the  Russian  sects 
either  derived  from  the  raskol,  or  developed  under 
Western  and  Judaic  influences.  In  a  narrower 
sense,  it  means  only  the  latter,  with  the  exclusion 
of  the  raskol  and  its  ramifications. 

I.  Raskol. — The  term  raskol  means  schism, 
and  the  raskolniki  are  those  Russian  Christians 
who  have  broken  the  bond  of  allegiance  to  the 
official  Orthodox  Church.  They  are  called  also 
slaroobriadtsy  (followers  of  the  old  rites),  and 
staroviery  (old  believers). 

The  raskol  owes  its  origin  to  the  correction  of 
the  Uturgical  books,  which  in  the  16th.  century 
were  fuU  of  mistakes.  Various  learned  monks  and 
priests  studied  Greek  manuscripts  for  this  purpose. 
Partly  because  of  religious  fanaticism,  partly 
because  of  personal  animosity  towards  Nikon,  a 
Patriarch  who  organized  the  great  hturgical  reform, 
a  group  of  Russian  priests  and  monks  opposed  the 
undertaking  and  appealed  to  the  Czar  against  him. 
Their  protests  were  rejected.  Violent  measures 
were  adopted  by  the  State  to  end  this  opposition. 
One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  raskol,  the  protopope 
Awakum,  was  burned  alive  with  two  of  his  adher- 
ents on  the  14th.  of  April,  1682.  A  ukaze  of 
Tsarevna  Sophia  Aleksieevna,  issued  in  1685, 
ordered  the  obstinate  raskolniki  to  be  put  into  iron 
cages  and  burned  ahve.  As  time  went  on,  a  whole 
code  of  repressive  laws  against  them  was  compiled 
by  the  government  under  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Synod,  and  it  was  only  in  1905  that  the  severity  of 
the  civil  power  was  somewhat  mitigated. 

The  doctrinal  features  of  the  raskol  were  already 
formulated  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century  and  they 
have  been  kept  in  substantially  the  same  form  to  this 
day.  In  their  opinion,  the  Russian  Church  has 
fallen  into  heresy  (Nikonianism) :  she  is  the  embodi- 


ment of  Antichrist:  the  liturgical  books  corrected 
and  edited  by  Nikon  are  filled  with  heretical  doc- 
trines. Old  editions  and  images  are  to  be  used  in 
the  worship  of  God.  They  insist  upon  the  addition 
of  the  word  "true"  to  the  eighth  article  of  the  Nicene 
creed;  the  use  of  two  fingers  (instead  of  three)  in  the 
performance  of  baptism,  and  in  the  act  of  blessing; 
the  spelling  of  the  name  Isus  instead  of  lisus 
(Jesus). 

From  the  outset,  the  raskol  separated  into  two 
main  branches:  Popovtsy  and  Bezpopovtsy.  The 
former,  who  may  be  named  in  English  "the  followers 
of  priests,"  beheve  in  the  incarnation  of  Antichrist 
in  the  souls  of  Nikon,  and  Peter  the  Great;  still,  they 
do  not  reject  the  priesthood  and  sacraments  of  the 
orthodox  church,  and  they  accept  the  services  of 
priests  who  prefer  their  financial  offers  to  those  of  the 
Orthodox  Church.  The  bezpopovtsy  (literally  "with- 
out priests")  beheve  in  the  full  enslavement  of  the 
Russian  Church  to  Antichrist,  and  consequently  the 
decay  of  the  orthodox  hierarchy,  the  necessity  of 
breaking  with  its  representatives  and  repudiating 
their  sacraments,  and  of  rebaptizing  the  members 
of  the  orthodox  church.  Both  branches  spht  into  a 
considerable  number  of  sects  and  ramifications,  more 
than  150. 

The  popovtsy  had  a  better  organization  in  the 
19th.  century.  Even  from  the  18th.  century  they 
strove  to  have  a  hierarchy  of  their  own,  and  vainly 
entreated  the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and 
Jerusalem  to  ordain  bishops  of  their  behef.  Their 
efforts  were  crowned  with  success  in  1847,  when  the 
Greek  metropolitan  Amvrosios  of  Sarajevo  agreed  to 
take  up  his  residence  in  the  raskolnik  monastery  of 
Bielokrinitsa  (Bukovina),  and  to  raise  to  the  episco- 
pate and  priesthood  monks  and  laymen  coming  from 
Russia.  Thus  the  popovtsy  ceased  being  dependent 
on  deserters  from  the  clergy  of  the  Russian  orthodox 
church.  The  so-called  hierarchy  of  Bielokrinitsa, 
contemptuously  designated  by  the  epithet  of  "Aus- 
trian" in  the  polemical  writings  of  orthodox  mis- 
sionaries, increased  considerably  the  power  and 
organization  of  the  raskol.  At  this  time,  it  numbers 
15  bishoprics,  and  an  arch-bishopric  at  Moscow.  In 
1904  the  Russian  Senate  approved  a  revision  of  the 
repressive  laws  frequently  enacted  against  the 
raskol.  The  following  year  the  raskolniki  were 
granted  freedom  of  worship. 

The  exact  number  of  the  raskolniki  is  unknown, 
for  the  intolerance  of  the  old  regime  forced  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Russian  sects  to  conceal  themselves. 
The  official  statistics  estimate  their  number  as 
2,200,000.  These  figures  are  evidently  false. 
According  to  other  sources,  they  are  20  millions — ■ 
clearly  exaggerated.  The  statistics  of  I.  luzov 
give  3,650,000  popovtsy,  and  7,000,000  bezpopovtsy. 
It  is  generally  beheved  in  Russia  that  the  raskolniki 
amount  to  15  milhons. 

II.  Sects. — In  a  narrow  sense,  the  term  sect  in 
Russia  imphes  the  acceptance  of  novelties  in  the 
domain  of  the  orthodox  faith,  and  to  this  extent, 
it  is  contrasted  to  the  raskol,  which  professes  attach- 
ment to  the  traditional  teaching  of  Eastern  Chris- 
tianity. Russia  abounds  in  sects  which  deviate 
entirely  or  in  part  from  the  doctrine  of  the  ortho- 
dox church,  and  which  have  either  had  their  origin 
or  found  much  encouragement  from  Western  Re- 
formers. In  general,  they  are  either  the  remnants 
of  the  heresies  of  the  primitive  church,  imported  into 
Russia  in  the  Middle  Ages  by  Bogomils  (q.v.),  or 
they  are  the  product  of  Protestant  propaganda. 
According  to  P.  MiUukov,  and  other  modern  stu- 
dents, Russian  sects  ought  to  be  considered  as  the 
spontaneous  evolution  of  the  rehgious  feehngs  of 
the  Russian  soul.  They  are  as  national  as  the 
raskol;  they  mark  a  movement  of  reaction  against 
the  paralyzing  formalism  of  the  official  church. 


Russian  Sects 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


388 


The  Russian  sects  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  mystic  and  rationalist.  The  former  go  back 
to  the  17th.  century,  and  believe  that  their  members 
are  the  incarnation  of  the  Godhead,  and  possess 
the  inner  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  their 
souls.  The  latter  regard  reason  as  the  supreme  rule 
of  religious  beUef  and  reject  the  dogmas,  sacraments 
and  Uturgical  practices  of  the  organized  churches. 
The  most  important  of  the  mystic  sects  are  the 
Khlysty  and  Scoptsy:  of  the  rationalistic,  Molokany 
and  Stundisty. 

1.  Khlysty. — The  history  of  Russian  sects  goes 
back  to  the  15th.  century,  when  Matviei  Bashkin 
taught  in  Moscow  that  the  church  was  the  society 
of  the  faithful;  that  the  icons  were  accursed  idols; 
that  the  ecclesiastical  traditions  were  mere  fables; 
that  the  sacraments  were  forgeries  of  priests.  But, 
it  was  in  the  16th.  century  that  the  seed  sown  by 
Bashkin  and  Theodosii  Kosoi  developed  in  the 
most  interesting  and  mysterious  of  the  Russian  sects, 
that  of  the  "men  of  God,"  or  of  the  Khlysty  (prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  Khristy). 

The  Khlysty  arose  as  a  protest  against  the  moral 
deficiencies  of  the  Russian  clergy  and  the  exagger- 
ated rituaUsm  of  the  Russian  church.  They  began 
the  series  of  mystic  sects  of  Russia.  The  first  of 
their  many  pseudo-Christs  was  Ivan  Timofeev  Sus- 
lov.  After  his  death,  his  prerogatives  were  taken 
over  by  Prokopii  Lupkin,  who  spread  the  sect  in  the 
governments  of  Nizhni-Novgorod  and  Yaroslav. 
The  civil  power  spared  no  efforts  nor  cruelties  to 
uproot  the  sect.  In  1733  its  leaders,  among  them  a 
nun,  Anastasia,  were  beheaded.  Yet  the  Khlysty 
outlived  the  persecution.  They  exist  under  the 
various  denominations  of  Men  of  God,  Montanists, 
Chaloputy,  Searchers  for  Christ,  etc.  They  deny  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  whom  they  consider  the  Son  of 
God  but  in  a  moral  sense;  they  beUeve  in  the  trans- 
migration of  souls,  in  the  immediate  fellowship  of 
God  with  men,  in  the  continuance  of  the  prophetic 
gifts;  they  reject  the  sacraments  of  the  Orthodox 
Church,  particularly  marriage. 

2.  Skoptsy. — The  Khlysty  gave  birth  to  another 
mystical  sect,  which  the  Russian  government  ranked 
among  the  most  harmful  of  the  Russian  empire,  the 
sect  of  the  Skoptsy  (eunuchs).  It  was  founded 
in  the  second  half  of  the  18th.  century  by  a  peasant 
of  the  government  of  Orel,  Kondrat  SeUvanov,  who 
declared  himself  to  be  the  son  of  God,  sent  to  baptize 
men  with  fire.  The  chief  tenet  of  the  sect  is  castra- 
tion, as  the  only  way  to  come  back  to  the  purity  and 
spirituality  of  our  first  parents.  They  consider  it 
as  the  greatest  sacrament  of  God,  because  they 
believe  that  it  was  practised  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  performed  on  Jesus  Christ  by  John  the  Baptist. 
They  were  waiting  the  day  when  according  to  the 
Revelation  of  St.  John,  XIV,  1,  they  will  be  144,000. 
Then  the  chief  of  the  sect  wiU  dethrone  the  "white 
Czar"  and  embody  in  himself  a  Russia  cleansed  of 
all  human  passions.  They  continue  their  propa- 
ganda in  Russia,  in  the  utmost  secrecy,  and  it  is 
beUeved  that  they  have  accumulated  immense 
riches.  They  are  divided  into  various  ramifica- 
tions. The  so-called  spiritual  sA;op<sy  reject  castra- 
tion and  require  only  the  practice  of  chastity. 

3.  Molokany. — RationaUstic  sects  center  around 
Molokany  and  Stundisty.  Their  common  feature  is 
the  denial  of  the  church,  the  free  inquiry  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Holy  Scripture,  the  rejection  of 
sacraments,  hierarchy,  the  reverence  due  to  saints, 
liturgical  rites  and  fasting. 

The  Molokany  recognize  as  their  founder  a  tailor 
of  Tambov,  Semen  Matvieev  Yklein,  in  the  second 
half  of  the  18th.  century.  At  the  beginning,  they 
favored  the  observance  of  the  legal  practices  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  abstained  from  eating 
the  flesh   of   impure    animals.    Further  on  they 


denied  the  equaHty  of  persons  in  the  godhead, 
and  the  reahty  of  the  incarnation.  To  them, 
the  Sacraments  have  only  a  spiritual  value:  the 
Lord's  Supper  means  the  spiritual  assimilation  of 
the  Gospel.  The  true  church  of  Christ  survived 
till  the  4th.  century  when  it  was  corrupted  by  the 
Fathers  and  the  Oecumenical  Councils.  The  Bible 
has  but  a  moral  sense.  Jesus  Christ  proclaimed  the 
reUgious  and  civil  equahty  of  all  men:  therefore  a 
hierarchy  is  useless,  civil  laws  are  not  obUgatory: 
mihtary  conscription  and  war  are  accursed  by  God. 

The  Molokany  lack  doctrinal  cohesion.  They 
show  the  influence  of  Khlysty  and  Stundisty  and 
of  Tolstoism.  Some  of  them  formed  the  sect  of  the 
Sabbatists,  who  keep  the  Sabbath;  others  fused  with 
the  ancient  converts  to  Judaism.  In  1820,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  sect,  Maksim  Akinfiev  Popov  tried  to 
organize  the  life  of  his  fellow  beUevers  on  a  com- 
munistic basis.  Others  also  turned  to  mysticism, 
and  gave  rise  to  new  sects,  whose  teaching  bears  the 
imprint  of  strong  Jewish  influences  (Sopuny,  Vied- 
entsy,  Siontsy) . 

4.  Stundism. — Numerically  the  most  important 
of  the  Russian  rationalistic  sects  is  that  of  the  Stund- 
isty (Stundism).  This  name  is  derived  from  the 
German  word  Stunde  (hour),  for  the  followers  of 
the  sect  meet  together  in  their  prayer  houses  at 
appointed  times.  Under  the  term  Stundism  are 
included  aU  the  branches  of  Baptists.  The  Baptist 
movement  was  derived  from  Germany,  spread  under 
the  influence  of  German  preachers  and  colonists. 
The  high  moral  standards  and  economic  independ- 
ence of  the  German  Baptists  in  Russia  powerfully 
contributed  to  the  diffusion  of  their  reUgious  beUefs 
among  Russian  peasants.  The  chief  dogmas  of 
Stundism  are  the  atonement  by  the  death  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  participation  in  the  charismatic  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  the  justification  of  the  soul  through 
faith.  They  reject  the  hierarchy,  the  veneration 
of  the  saints,  and  of  the  sacred  images,  tradition, 
and  prayers  for  the  dead.  They  accept  the  sacra- 
ments merely  in  a  moral  sense.  Stundism  is  the 
most  active  of  the  Russian  sects.  Their  adherents 
are  to  be  found  in  all  the  governments  of  Russia, 
and  many  raskolniki  go  over  to  them.  They  show 
a  great  spirit  of  soUdarity,  abstain  from  intoxicating 
liquors  and  smoking,  and  distinguish  themselves  by 
their  charity  and  generosity.  It  is  beUeved  that 
they  number  two  miUions.  The  former  regime 
tried  in  vain  to  stop  their  progress.  The  most 
violent  of  orthodox  polemists  however,  are  forced  to 
do  justice  to  their  high  moraUty. 

The  number  of  sects,  both  mystic  and  rational- 
ist, is  steadily  increasing  in  Russia;  the  ascendancy, 
however,  seems  to  belong  to  the  rationaMst  sects. 
To  their  expansion  Russian  missionaries  have 
largely  contributed  for  economic  motives. 

More  than  200  sects  have  been  classified.  The 
most  recent,  born  in  the  20th.  century,  are  the 
"Readers"  (Chtetsy),  who  condemn  the  use  of 
tobacco  and  intoxicating  draughts;  the  "Prophets" 
(Proroki)  who  keep  the  Sabbath  and  reject  the 
Hierarchy:  the  Khekulity,  who  refuse  the  worship 
of  icons,  deny  the  sacraments,  and  practice  public 
confession  of  their  sins;  the  Ivannites,  who  adore 
the  famous  arch-priest  Ivan  of  Cronstadt  (d.  1909) 
as  the  reincarnation  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  his  friend, 
Porphyria  Kiseleva  (d.  1905),  as  the  Mother  of 
God;  the  "New  Israel,"  who  preach  the  exodus 
from  Egypt,  i.e.,  the  abandonment  of  the  orthodox 
church;  the  sect  of  the  Lazarevtsy,  who  venerate  a 
woman  of  Nizhny-Novgorod  as  the  soul  of  God. 
The  task  of  finding  out  new  sects,  and  outUning  their 
doctrines  for  many  years  was  fulfilled  by  a  monthly 
magazine,  "The  Missionary  Review"  (Missionerskoe 
Obozrienie)  founded  in  Kiev  in  1896,  and  transferred, 
to  Petrograd  in  1899.     In  1916  an  ex-organ  of  the 


389 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sabbath  and  Sunday 


Ecclesiastical  Academy  of  Petrograd,  The  Ecclesi- 
astical Messenger,  was  transformed  into  the  official 
organ  of  The  Missionary  Committee  of  the  Holy 
Governing  Synod,  and  persistentljr  waged  war 
against  all  the  heterodox  denominations,  and  de- 
nounced a  great  number  of  new  sects.  After  the 
downfall  of  Czarism,  by  a  decree  issued  on  May 
13-26,  1917,  the  Holy  Synod  suppressed  "the  Mis- 
sionary Committee"  and  its  organ,  and  opened  the 
era  of  the  freedom  of  conscience  for  Russian  dis- 
senters. 

III.  DucHOBORS. — The  term  derived  from  dukh 
(spirit),  and  borets  (struggler)  has  in  Russian  a 
negative  and  a  positive  meaning.  It  means  those 
who  fight  against  the  spirit,  that  is,  according  to 
the  theologians  of  the  official  church,  those  who 
deny  the  vital  elements  of  the  supernatural  life, 
and  the  sacraments.  In  a  positive  sense  it  means 
the  champions  of  the  spirit,  those  who  fight  for 
its  emancipation  from  rehgious  materiahsm,  the 
formaUsm  of  the  organized  churches.  The  origin 
of  the  Duchobors  is  wrapped  in  mystery.  Some 
find  the  traces  of  the  sect  in  the  Quakerism  preached 
at  Kharkov  by  a  Prussian  officer  in  1740,  or  at  Mos- 
cow in  1737,  or  in  the  sect  of  the  Khlysty  in  1717. 
At  the  end  of  the  18th.  century  they  were  scattered 
throughout  all  Russia,  especially  in  the  govern- 
ments of  the  Don,  and  of  Kharkov,  Many  of  them 
were  cruelly  persecuted  and  exiled  to  Siberia.  Alex- 
ander I  permitted  them  to  establish  themselves 
on  the  borders  of  the  river  Molochnaia,  and  here, 
between  1805-1808  they  founded  nine  villages,  prac- 
ticed community  of  goods,  and  reached  a  high 
degree  of  economic  independence.  They  num- 
bered 6,000.  In  1841  Czar  Nicholas  I  ordered  them 
to  be  transferred  to  the  desert  regions  of  Transcau- 
casia. Tliey  obeyed,  and  under  the  direction  of 
a'  energetic  woman,  Luceria  Kalmykova,  and  a 
peasant,  Peter  Vasilevich  Verigin,  they  revived  their 
economic  prosperity. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  JI.,  they  were 
fiercely  persecuted.  Verigin  was  sent  to  Siberia, 
and  passing  through  Moscow,  became  acquainted 
with  Leo  Tolstoi,  and  accepted  his  theories  about 
war.  In  1894  and  1895  the  Duchobors,  in  spite  of 
severe  repressions,  refused  to  be  enlisted  into  the 
army.     By  order  of  the  government  they  were 


expelled  from  their  villages,  and  many  of  them  died 
of  starvation  and  ill-treatment.  Thanks  to  the 
pleas  of  Tolstoy  and  the  pecimiary  help  of  English 
Quakers,  several  hundred  of  them  left  Russia  in 
1898  and  emigrated  to  the  Island  of  Cyprus.  The 
failure  of  that  emigration  led  them  to  search  for  a 
better  home,  and  in  1899-1905  they  estabUshed 
themselves  in  Canada,  where  they  reach  at  present 
the  number  of  10,000.  They  attempted  to  apply 
their  communistic  doctrines,  and  their  theories 
about  marriage,  but  they  met  with  the  opposition  of 
civil  authorities,  who  revoked  most  of  their  con- 
cessions of  land.  The  problem  has  not  been  solved, 
the  Duchobors  preferring  material  ruin  to  the 
repudiation  of  their  theories.  The  Scriptures  are 
regarded  by  the  Duchobors  as  a  dead  book,  corrupt- 
ing the  mind.  They  accept  some  narratives  and 
maxims  of  the  Gospel  and  interpret  them  in  the  light 
of  the  inner  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
Trinity  is  not  real,  but  a  symbol  of  the  faculties  of 
the  soul.  Jesus  Christ  is  a  man  in  whom  the  divine 
intelhgence  flashes  with  greater  intensity.  His 
Gospel  is  like  a  diary  of  our  own  life.  Like  Christ, 
we  are  born,  we  teach,  suffer,  die,  and  are  resur- 
rected. Christ  is  the  eternal  Gospel,  living  within 
our  souls.  After  death,  good  souls  transmigrate 
into  the  bodies  of  the  saints,  and  the  wicked  into  the 
bodies  of  beasts,  where  they  lose  their  conscious- 
ness. The  church  is  invisible;  creeds  are  useless; 
priesthood  an  evil  institution,  Jesus  Christ  being 
the  only  redeeming  priest.  Sacraments  are  worth- 
less ceremonies.  There  is  no  need  of  churches  for 
the  religious  life.  The  worship  of  icons  is  detest- 
able. Marriage  consists  in  the  promise  of  reciprocal 
love  between  husband  and  wife  and  divorce  is 
granted  in  the  case  of  adultery. 

AURELIO   PaLMIERI 

RUTHENIAN  RITE.— The  liturgical  forms 
prescribed  by  the  Ruthenian  Catholic  church. 
The  old  Greek  Slavonic  hturgy  is  used,  although 
the  headship  of  the  Pope  of  Rome  is  acknowledged. 

RUYSBROECK,  JAN  VAN  (1293-1381).— 
Dutch  mystical  teacher  and  author  known  as  the 
"Ecstatic  Teacher,"  whose  teaching  influenced 
two  sects,  Friends  of  God  and  Brothers  of  the 
Common  Life  (qq.v.). 


SAADIA  BEN  JOSEPH  (892-942).— Jewish 
philosopher,  gaon  (q.v.)  of  Sura,  Babylonia.  His 
great  literary  work  embraces  Hebrew  grammar, 
translations  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic,  piyyutim 
(q.v.),  legaUstic  tracts,  polemical  writings,  especially 
against  the  Karaites  (q.v.)  and  philosophic  boolcs 
especially  the  Sefer  Emunot  we  Deot  (Book  of  Faith 
and  Doctrine)  in  which  he  reduces  Jewish  doctrine  to 
a  system,  and  verifies  its  revealed  truths  through 
rationaUstic  speculation.  Saadia  brought  into  Jew- 
ish life  and  study  the  fruits  of  the  rich  Moham- 
medan Arabic  civiUzation  of  his  time. 

Harold  F.  Reinhart 

SABAISM  or  SABIANISM.— The  behefs  of  a 
semi-Christian  sect  of  Babylonia,  resembling  the 
Mandaeans  (q.v.),  the  earliest  mention  of  which  is 
in  the  Koran  (2:59;  5:73;  22:17). 

SABATIER,  LOUIS  AUGUSTE  (1839-1901).— 
French  Protestant  philosopher  and  theologian; 
taught  in  Strassburg  until  the  German  conquest  of 
Alsace,  then  in  the  Protestant  theological  schools 
of  Paris.  He  advocated  a  liberal  type  of  theology, 
showing  the  influence  of  Schleiermacher  and 
Ritschl.  His  best  known  works  are  Outlines  of 
a  Philosophy  of  Religion,  and  Religions  of  Authority 
and  the  Religion  of  the  Spirit. 


SABBATARIANISM.- A  term  for  the  doctrine 
advocated  by  certain  Christian  sects,  such  as  the 
Seventh-day  Baptists,  that  the  seventh  day  or 
Jewish  Sabbath  should  be  observed  as  the  Christian 
day  of  rest;  used  also  to  characterize  the  ideal  of  a 
rigid  observance  of  Sunday  as  a  sacred  day. 

SABBATH    and    SUNDAY.— The   two   words 

are  often  confounded,  but  they  are  really  _  quite 
distinct:  Sabbath,  the  Jewish  holy  day,  is  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week;  Sunday,  the  Christian 
day  of  rest  and  worship,  is  the  first  day.  The 
institutions  are  as  distinct  in  origin  and  purpose  as 
the  days. 

Traces  of  a  weekly  holy  day  are  found  among 
other  ancient  Semitic  peoples,  but  the  Sabbath  is  a 
Hebrew  institution,  of  which  we  first  read,  as  of 
something  long  established  and  well  known,  in 
Exod.  16:23.  It  evidently  antedated  the  Deca- 
logue. The  day  has  a  divine  origin,  in  the  sense 
that  men  were  guided  to  establish  an  institution 
that  meets  a  fundamental  and  permanent  human 
want — the  need  of  periodic  rest  to  offset  cumulative 
fatigue.  The  original  idea  of  the  Sabbath  was 
simply  cessation  from  labor,  and  neither  Law  nor 
Prophets  make  mention  of  worship  on  that  day. 
After  the  exile,  the  synagogue  developed,  at  first 


Sabbatical  Year 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


390 


as  a  mere  school  for  instruction  of  the  people  in  the 
Law,  and  the  Sabbath,  as  a  day  of  leisure,  was  natu- 
rally chosen.  Out  of  this  school  grew  the  idea  of 
Sabbath  worship,  and  a  liturgy  developed,  consist- 
ing of  prayer  and  praise  taken  almost  wholly  from 
the  O.T.  Jesus  observed  the  Sabbath,  but  he 
gave  his  disciples  a  more  hberal  interpretation 
of  the  Sabbath  law  than  was  current  in  his  day 
(Mark  2:27;  3:4). 

Traces  of  the  observance  of  the  first  day  of  the 
week  are  found  in  the  N.T.  (John  20:26;  Acts  20:7; 
I  Cor.  16:2).  But  there  is  no  command  to  observe 
the  day,  and  in  the  hterature  of  the  first  three 
centuries  observance  of  the  Lord's  day  _  is 
regarded  as  a  commemoration  of  the  resurrection 
and  a  joyful  privilege,  not  a  legal  obhgation.  The 
first  legal  recognition  of  the  day  is  in  a  decree  of 
Constantine  published  in  321,  which  calls  it  the 
"venerable  day  of  the  sun."  Laws  requiring  rest 
from  labor  were  promulgated  in  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne, and  became  general  in  aU  "Christian" 
nations.  The  notion  that  the  obligation  of  the 
third  commandment  has  passed  over  to  Sunday 
making  that  the  "Christian  Sabbath"  is  quite 
modern  and  is  confined  to  English-speaking  coun- 
tries. It  was  first  advocated  by  the  Rev.  Nicholas 
Bownd,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
in  The  True  Doctrine  of  the  Sabbath  (London, 
1606),  and  speedily  became  the  prevalent  idea 
among  the  Puritans,  whence  it  has  descended  to 
most  of  the  existing  Protestant  churches  of  England 
and  America,  but  has  never  found  acceptance  in 
Continental  Europe,  among  Protestants  or  Catholics. 

Henry  C.  Vedder 

SABBATICAL  YEAR.— In  the  O.T.  legislation, 
every  seventh  year  when  land  must  he  fallow. 
Cf.  Lev.  25:1-7. 

SABBATINE  PRIVILEGE.— In  the  R.C.  church 
the  prompt  liberation  from  purgatorial  suffering 
of  those  on  whom  the  Virgin  Mary  has  had  favor 
and  for  whom  she  interceded;  a  name  derived  from 
the  apocryphal  bull  of  1322  in  which  this  special 
privilege  is  made  to  be  granted  to  members  of  the 
CarmeUte  order,  the  deliverance  purporting  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  Sabbath  after  the  member's 
death. 

SABELLIANISM.— The  theory  advocated  by 
Sabellius  who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  3rd. 
century.  He  taught  that  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit  are  three  modes  of  manifestation  of  the  one 
divine  being,  who  was  present  as  Creator  and 
Lawgiver  in  the  Father,  Redeemer  in  the  Son,  and 
Life-giver  in  the  Holy  Spirit. 

SABIANS.— See  Mandeans. 

SABINIAN.— Pope,  604-606. 

SABORA. — (Plural:  saboraim.)  Hebrew  title 
appUed  to  the  Jewish-Babylonian  scholars  of  the 
6th.  century,  to  whom  the  final  redaction  of  the 
Talmud  is  due. 

SACERDOTALISM.— A  term,  derived  from 
the  Latin  word  for  priest,  denoting  a  reHgious 
system  in  which  everything  is  valued  in  relation 
to  the  ministrations  of  the  priestly  order.  It  is 
usually  employed  in  a  derogatory  sense,  indicating 
an  unwholesome  preference  for  sacramental  regu- 
larity in  contrast  to  personal  and  moral  values. 

SACRAMENTAL  MEAL.— A  meal  in  some 
manner  sacred  and  observed  with  characteristic 
ceremony. 


There  are  at  least  three  types  of  such  meals  and 
the  differences  between  them  relate  to  the  place  of 
the  divine  being.  It  is  common  to  regard  the 
meat  of  animals  killed  for  sacrifice  as  sacred  because 
dedicated  to  this  purpose  and  also  because  a  part 
having  been  offered  on  the  altar,  the  remainder  is 
also  sanctified.  This  is  probably  the  prevalent 
view  of  the  sacrificial  meal  where  a  highly  developed 
theism  has  been  reached.  This  refined  symbolism 
has,  however,  a  much  more  intimate  and  elemental 
background  in  earlier  stages  of  religion.  A  second 
type  of  sacramental  meal  is  that  in  which  the  god 
is  present  with  his  people  and  shares  directly  in 
the  meal.  Then  the  parts  which  are  consumed  by 
the  altar-fire,  and  the  blood  poured  out  as  a  liba- 
tion upon  the  sacred  place  of  sacrifice,  since  they 
disappear,  are  easily  regarded  as  the  portion  taken 
by  the  god.  The  more  substantial  parts  are  for 
his_  human  devotees.  The  third  type  is  that  in 
which  the  god  himself  is  eaten  by  the  worshipers. 
It  is  now  well  understood  that  among  many  primi- 
tive people  the  most  sacred  beings  were  animals. 
Accounts  give  vivid,  detailed  descriptions  of  the 
ceremonial  eating  of  these  totem  deities.  In  the 
earlier  stages  of  more  developed  rehgions  such  a 
custom  was  prevalent.  The  cult  of  Dionysos 
among  the  Greeks  may  be  cited.  "In  the  frenzied 
observance  of  the  cult  the  myth  of  Dionysos  pur- 
sued by  the  Titans,  assuming  different  forms,  and 
finally  m  bull  shape  being  rent  asunder  by  them,  was 
reproduced  in  ritual.  An  ox,  a  goat,  or  sometimes 
even  a  boy,  representing  or  incarnating  the  god,  was 
rent  by  the  maddened  worshipers,  and  the  raw  flesh 
was  devoured."  Two  things  are  highly  important 
in  this  ceremony.  The  first  is  that  the  animal 
was  the  center  of  attention  in  the  pastoral  stage 
and  was  felt  to  be  the  carrier  of  life,  of  divine 
energy.  It  was  often  thought  to  be  the  ancestor 
of  the  tribe.  In  the  second  place,  the  object  of 
eating  the  god  was  to  appropriate  by  the  most 
effective  manner,  the  magic  power  which  he  pos- 
sessed.    Thus  the  tribe  renewed  its  potency. 

Edward  S.  Ames 

SACRAMENTALISM.— The  doctrine  that  in 
the  sacraments  themselves  there  is  an  inherent 
saving  power. 

SACRAMENTARIAN.— (1)  One  who  believes 
in  the  saving  power  of  the  sacraments.  A  sacra- 
mentalist.  (2)  In  early  Lutheran  polemic  theology, 
one  who  denied  the  real  corporeal  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  sacrament,  affirming,  as  did  ZwingU,  that  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  present  only  in  a 
symboHc  (sacramental)  sense. 

SACRAMENTARY.— In  the  R.C.  church,  a 
book  containing  the  liturgy  for  the  celebration  of 
Mass,  or  other  sacraments. 

SACRAMENTS.— Rehgious  rites  composed  of 
two  elements,  a  physical  sign  and  a  spiritual  good. 

I.  Origin. — The  various  modifications  of  the 
sacramental  idea  which  have  appeared  in  the  Chris- 
tian church  may  be  traced  to  two  distinct  elements 
which  are  already  found  in  the  apostolic  age.  The 
sacramental  rite  was  (1)  originally  purely  repre- 
sentative or  symbolic,  (2)  afterward  invested 
with  mysterious  or  magical  efficacy.  This  modi- 
fication was  introduced  by  Paul  in  his  teaching 
concerning  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  and  was 
embodied  in  the  later  writings  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. _  It  did  not,  however,  originate  with  Paul, 
nor  is  it  pecuUar  to  Christian  thought,  but  is  deeply 
rooted  both  in  Semitic  and  in  other  early  religious 
custom.  Belief  in  a  resident  and  efficacious  super- 
natural virtue  available  for  the  worshiper  appears 
in  animism  and  in  the  ceremonials  connected  with 


391 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus'' 


magic.  The  same  idea  is  characteristic  of  the 
Orphic  and  Eleusinian  mysteries,  the  taurobolium  in 
the  widely  celebrated  mysteries  of  Cybele  and 
Attis,  the  Haoma  offering  in  Zoroastrianism,  and 
certain  early  Semitic  rites  as  in  devouring  the 
sacred  camel  in  order  to  become  possessed  of  its 
divine  efficacy. 

II.  Usage  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. — 
1.  Augustine. — The  sacraments  include  two  ele- 
ments— physical,  related  to  sense  perception,  and 
supernatural,  related  to  intelhgence,  which  become 
sacraments  by  the  mediation  of  the  Word.  The 
sacraments  are  therefore  matter  and  form;  the 
matter  as  such  is  indeterminate  and  might  be  put 
to  various  uses,  but  the  word  of  institution  spoken 
by  the  minister  with  sacramental  intent  stamps  the 
material  as  sacramental  and  makes  it  the  efficacious 
vehicle  of  grace.  This  does  not,  however,  mean 
that  the  matter  of  the  sacrament  is  indifferent; 
on  the  contrary  it  is  fittingly  symbolic,  as  the  water 
signifying  purification,  and  the  bread  sustenance. 
The  term  "sacrament"  was  therefore  applied  to 
various  solemn  acts  under  control  of  the  church,  as 
ordination,  marriage,  and  anomting. 

2.  The  Scholastics. — The  Scholastics  defined  the 
sacrament  as  those  rites  which  signified  and  caused 
the  inward  grace.  The  Council  of  Trent  defined 
them  as  symbols  of  sacred  reality,  a  visible  form  of 
invisible  grace,  both  containing  and  conferring 
grace  on  those  who  are  suitably  disposed.  This 
action  of  the  sacrament,  which  takes  place  not  by 
reason  of  anything  human  but  wholly  by  virtue 
of  the  will  of  God,  is  defined  by  the  phrase  ex  opere 
operato.  Since  Peter  Lombard  the  Roman  church 
has  selected  seven  from  the  large  number  of  sacred 
acts — baptism,  confirmation,  holy  eucharist,  pen- 
ance, extreme  unction,  orders,  and  matrimony; 
these  are  sacraments  properly  so-called.  The 
Council  of  Trent  decreed  that  these  were  instituted 
by  Christ,  but  did  not  exphcitly  determine 
whether  they  were  instituted  immediately  or  medi- 
ately; this  is  therefore  generally  regarded  as 
not  a  defined  but  only  a  position  theologically 
certain.  In  respect  to  some  sacraments,  as 
baptism  and  the  eucharist,  Christ  determined 
the  exact  matter  and  form;  in  respect  to 
others,  he  determined  that  special  grace  should  be 
conferred,  but  committed  to  apostles  and  the  church 
the  precise  matter  and  form  of  the  ceremony,  as  e.g., 
confirmation  and  orders.  A  modernist  interpreta- 
tion is  that  the  sacraments  owe  their  existence  to 
development  within  the  church,  leaving  it  an 
open  question  whether  Christ  either  directly  or 
indirectly  instituted  any  of  the  sacraments. 

3.  Differences  among  the  sacraments. — The  sacra- 
ments have  a  twofold  reference — individual:  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  penance,  eucharist,  extreme 
unction;  social:  orders  and  matrimony.  Baptism 
and  penance  are  "sacraments  of  the  dead,"  i.e.,  they 
may  be  received  by  one  who  is  in  a  state  of  mortal 
sin;  to  such  a  one  they  give  life.  The  five  other 
sacraments  are  "sacraments  of  the  Uving,"  and 
presuppose  a  state  of  grace.  Three  of  the  sacra- 
ments— baptism,  confirmation,  and  holy  orders — • 
can  be  received  but  once,  on  the  ground  that  they 
imprint  an  indelible  mark  on  the  soul.  The  sacra- 
ments differ  in  dignity  and  necessity,  ^  The  eucha- 
rist is  first  in  dignity,  since  here  is  Christ's  presence; 
holy  orders  is  second.  In  necessity  baptism  is 
first,  penance  is  before  extreme  unction  and  is 
necessary  for  those  who  commit  mortal  sin  after 
baptism;  and  there  must  be  ordination  if  the  church 
is  to  have  ministers. 

4.  Ministration  of  the  sacraments. — Baptism 
may  in  an  emergency  be  celebrated  by  any  one  with 
the  right  matter,  form,  and  institution,  although 
ordinarily  only  those  who  are  in  orders  may  properly 


administer  it.  Only  a  bishop  can  give  sacred  orders, 
and  customarily  confirmation  also.  The  priestly 
order  is  necessary  for  the  eucharist,  penance,  and 
extreme  unction.  The  minister  shall  be  in  a  state 
of  grace,  although  the  efficacy  of  the  sacrament  is 
not  from  the  minister  but  from  the  institution  of 
God.  Baptism  is  the  sole  condition  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  six  other  sacraments. 

III.  Protestant  Doctrine. — 1.  Lutheran  idea 
of  the  sacraments. — A  sacrament  is  a  rite  which  was 
instituted  by  God,  to  which  is  joined  the  promise 
of  grace.  It  includes  two  elements — an  earthly 
and  visible,  a  heavenly  and  invisible;  these  become 
sacramentally  united  by  the  word  of  institution. 
The  rite  is  divided  into  three  stages :  (1)  the  formula 
of  institution;  (2)  dispensing  the  sacraments; 
(3)  receiving  the  same.  The  efficacy  of  the  sacra- 
ments is  due  not  to  the  influences  of  the  Spirit  nor  to 
the  faith  of  the  recipient,  but  to  the  power  inherent 
in  them  through  the  word  of  institution;  yet  they 
take  effect  in  those  only  who  have  faith.  They 
are,  therefore,  necessary  if  one  is  to  receive  the 
grace  which  they  signify.  The  aim  is  to  extend  the 
gospel  to  all  believers,  and  at  the  same  time  to  renew 
attention  to  the  benefit  of  Christ,  to  strengthen  the 
ties  of  love,  and  to  stimulate  piety.  An  inherent 
efficacy  of  the  sacraments  independent  of  faith  in  the 
subject  of  it  is  not  to  be  assumed.  Melanchthon 
and  the  Augsburg  Confession  enumerate  three 
sacraments — baptism,  eucharist,  and  penance. 
When,  however,  it  was  made  a  condition  that  only 
those  rites  which  were  instituted  by  Christ  may 
be  claimed  as  sacraments,  penance  was  set  aside 
and  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  recognized  as 
alone  valid. 

2.  Reformed  doctrine. — In  general  this  was  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Lutheran  body.  According  to 
the  Westminster  Standards,  "a  sacrament  is  an 
holy  ordinance  instituted  by  Christ;  wherein,  by 
sensible  signs,  Christ  and  the  benefits  of  the  New 
Covenant  are  represented,  sealed,  and  applied" 
to  those  who  are  within  the  covenant  of  grace. 
In  distinction  from  the  Lutherans  who  required 
general  confession  with  a  purely  declaratory  absolu- 
tion, the  Reformed  body  enjoined  private  con- 
fession to  God — only  in  extreme  cases  to  the 
spiritual  adviser — and  general  confession  in  the 
congregation. 

3.  Zwinglian  doctrine. — ^The  sacraments  are 
not  properly  means  of  grace,  but  means  for  symbolic 
presentation  of  the  truths  of  the  gospel.  They 
are  also  memorials  of  the  processes  of  redemption. 
Moreover  they  are  the  appropriate  means  by  which 
Christians  confess  their  religion  before  the  church 
and  the  world.  This  view  was  adopted  by  the 
Remonstrants,  who  maintain  that  the  sacraments 
are  objective  signs  presented  to  the  mind,  and  that 
their  efficiency  consists  in  their  power  to  waken  a 
response  to  the  divine  grace. 

4.  The  Friends. — There  is  no  place  for  the  sacra- 
ments in  their  worship.  They  indeed  allow  that 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  practiced 
for  a  time  in  the  early  church,  but  only  as  a  con- 
cession to  the  weakness  of  faith.  The  grace  which 
was  thus  symbohzed,  being  purely  inward  and 
spiritual,  admits  of  no  external  form. 

C.  A.  Beckwith 
SACRED  BOOKS. — See  Sacred  Literatueb. 

SACRED  HEART  OF  JESUS.— A  devotion  in 
the  R.C.  church,  first  officially  authorized  by  the 
Congregation  of  Rights  in  1765,  but  of  long  standing 
in  mystical  worship.  The  heart  of  Jesus  as  the 
seat  of  infinite  divine  love  calls  forth  a  peculiarly 
intense  and  tender  devotion.  In  1856  Pius  IX. 
appointed  the  Friday  after  the  Octave  of  Corpus 
Christi  as  a  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 


Sacred  Literatures 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


392 


SACRED  LITERATURES.— The  emphasis  upon 
Scripture  varies  according  to  each  rehgious  develop- 
ment. When  authority  is  vested  in  a  collection  of 
writings  beUeved  to  be  exact  records  of  revealed 
eternal  truth  the  sacred  literature  stands  clearly 
apart  from  other  religious  writings.  It  sometimes 
happens,  however,  that  the  sacred  literature  is  dis- 
tinguishable only  because  of  its  connection  with  the 
founder  of  the  religion  or  its  great  popularity  and 
influence.  In  the  following  sections  the  effort  is 
made  to  catalogue  the  recognized  authoritative 
sacred  writings  of  the  various  religions. 

I.  Babism,  Bahaism  (qq.v.). — The  authoritative 
Babi  book  is  the  Bayan  written  by  the  Bab  in  1848. 
For  Bahaism  the  "most  holy  book"  is  Baha  Ullah's 
Kitah-i-Aqdas. 

II.  Buddhist. — The  sacred  literature  of  Bud- 
dhism is  divided  into  two  main  groups,  that  of  the 
Hlnayana  school  of  Ceylon,  Burma  and  Siam  and 
that  of  the  so-called  northern  Buddhism  which  is 
mostly  Mahayana,  of  Nepal,  Tibet,  China  and 
Japan.  The  sacred  canon  of  the  first  group  was 
written  in  Pali  and  fixed  by  the  1st.  century  B.C. 
It  is  called  the  Tipitaka,  or  Three  Baskets,  the 
Vinaya,  the  Sutta  and  the  Abidhamma.  The 
Vindya-pitaka  is  a  book  of  rules  and  instructions 
for  the  guidance  of  the  hfe  of  the  members  of  the 
Order.  The  Sutta-pitaka  comprises  five  nikdyas  or 
collections  and  consists  of  sermons,  narratives  of 
the  Buddha,  poetic  sections,  discourses  for  edifica- 
tion and  magic  texts.  The  Abidhamma-pitaka  is  a 
more  scholastic  group  of  writings,  later  than  the 
others,  setting  forth  the  "higher  religion."  To  the 
Tipitaka  should  be  added  the  MUindonpanha  of 
which  the  first  three  books  are  very  old.  This  is  a 
supposed  dialogue  between  a  Buddhist  teacher  and 
the  Greek  Menander  regarding  the  principles  of 
the  religion. 

The  Mahayana  literature  was  mostly  written 
in  Sanskrit  and  from  that  translated  into  the  Chinese 
and  other  languages.  The  three  main  groups  of 
early  Buddhism,  the  Sthaviras  or  phenomenalists, 
the  Sarvdstivddins  or  realists,  and  the  Mahdsdnghikas 
or  idealists  each  produced  their  particular  Uterature. 
The  Sarvdstivddins  seem  to  have  had  a  Tripitaka 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  Hlnayana.  A  text 
marking  the  transition  from  the  Hlnayana  to  the 
Mahayana  is  the  Mahdvastu.  A  considerable  litera- 
ture centers  around  the  life  of  Buddha  of  which 
examples  are  preserved  in  the  Lalita-vistara,  the 
Buddha-charita  and  the  Jdtaka-mdld.  After  the 
2nd.  century  a.d.,  the  full  Mahayana  literature  is 
in  control.  The  great  texts  which  have  influenced 
the  Buddhism  of  the  far  east  are  the  Saddharma- 
pundanka  (ca.  200  a.d.),  i.e.,  the  "Lotus  of  the 
True  Law,"  the  Sukhdvati-vyuha,  devoted  to 
Amitabha  and  his  land  of  bliss,  the  Kdranda-vyuha 
which  glorifies  Avalokita,  the  Ganda^vyHha,  cele- 
brating Manjusri  and  the  philosophic  work,  the 
Prajnd-pdramitds. 

Buddhism  in  India  was  gradually  assimilated  to 
Hinduism  and  incorporated  the  Sakti  idea,  the 
use  of  Mantras  and  spells,  the  practice  of  Yoga  and 
occult  devices.  This  gave  rise  to  the  Buddhist 
Tantrik  literature  from  the  6th.  century  onward. 

III.  Chinese. — 1.  Confucian. — The  canonical 
literature  comprises  the  five  classics  and  the  four 
books.  Their  authority  comes  from  their  origin 
in  sages  who  have  realized  the  perfect  life  in  harmony 
with  the  order  of  nature  and  are  therefore  able  to 
instruct   others.     The   five    classics   are    (1)    the 

Yi-  King  or  Book  of  Changes,  a  primitive  system  of 
divination  elaborated  by  successive  sages  into  a 
complicated  cosmology  and  a  method  of  forecasting 
the  future;  (2)  the  Shvr-King  or  Book  of  History, 
probably  edited  by  Confucius;  (3)  the  Shi-King,  or 
Book  of  Poetry,  a  collection  of  odes  from  various 


periods  down  to  the  6th.  century  B.C.;  (4)  the 
Li-Ki  or  Book  of  Ceremonial  Usages,  giving  the 
correct  religious  and  social  custom  for  the  important 
incidents  of  hfe;  (5)  the  Ch'un  Ch'iu,  attributed 
to  Confucius  and  supposed  to  be  the  annals  of  the 
state  of  Lu  from  720  B.C.  to  478  B.C.  The  four 
Books  are:  (1)  the  Analects,  Lun  Yu,  made  up 
mostly  of  remembered  sayings  of  Confucius  regard- 
ing the  ideal  of  life,  ethics  and  government;  (2)  the 
Great  Learning,  Ta  Hsueh,  an  attempt  to  set  forth 
the  method  of  Confucius  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
ideal  character;  (3)  the  Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
Chung  Yung,  attributed  to  the  grandson  of  Con- 
fucius, sets  the  individual  as  a  moral  agent  in  relation 
to  the  natural  order  by  correct  relation  with  which 
he  reaUzes  and  expresses  the  ideal;  (4)  the  writings 
of  Mencius  on  ethics  and  politics. 

2.  Taoist. — The  philosophic  idealism  of  the 
Chinese  intellectuals  produced  a  considerable  litera- 
ture of  which  the  Tao-Teh-King  attributed  to 
Lao-tse  deserves  to  rank  in  authority  with  the  Con- 
fucian classics.  A  typical  exposition  of  the  rehgious 
philosophy  of  Taoism  is  that  of  Chuang-tse. 

Popular  Taoism  which  absorbed  the  animistic 
and  magical  superstitions  of  the  people  as  well  as 
much  of  Buddhism  has  a  sacred  book  in  its  Book 
of  Rewards  and  Punishments.  It  consists  of  212 
commandments  with  the  sanctions,  enforced  by 
the  spirits  of  earth  and  heaven,  for  good  and  evil 
actions.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

IV.  Christian. — See  Bible. 

V.  Christian  Science. — See  Christian  Sci- 
ence. 

VI.  Egyptian. — The  sacred  literature  of  Egypt 
consists  of  two  main  divisions:  (1)  the  Pyramid 
texts,  which  contain  magical  formulae,  rites  con- 
nected with  funerals  and  offerings  at  the  tomb, 
hymns,  myths  and  prayers  on  behalf  of  the  dead; 
(2)  the  Book  of  the  Dead  which  was  a  collection  of 
magical  spells  intended  to  secure  for  the  deceased 
safety  in  his  passage  to  the  other  hfe,  power  over 
adversaries  on  the  way,  eternal  life  and  happiness. 
The  writing  was  either  inscribed  in  the  tomb  or 
coffin  or  upon  papyri  rolls  placed  with  the  dead. 
To  these  two  groups  should  be  added  scattered 
hymns  to  the  gods,  the  Litanies  of  Seker,  and  the 
Festival  Songs  and  Lamentations  of  Isis  and  Neph- 
thys.  See  Egypt,  Religion  of;  Book  of  the 
Dead. 

VII.  Hindu. — The  sacred  literature  of  Hindu- 
ism grew  up  around  the  sacrificial  ritual  set  in  a 
world-view  of  naturism.  The  Rig-  Veda  consists 
of  a  collection  of  1017  hymns  intended  to  be  sung 
in  connection  with  the  ritual,  produced  during 
several  centuries  by  seven  great  famihes  of  priests 
and  finally  collected  into  ten  books.  The  Yajur- 
Veda  is  a  group  of  liturgies  setting  forth  the  correct 
performance  of  the  ritual  of  the  sacrifices.  The 
Sdma-Veda  consists  largely  of  hymns  drawn  from 
the  Rig-Veda  especially  from  the  ninth  book  and  set 
to  melodies  for  singing  in  connection  with  the  soma 
sacrifices.  The  Atharva-  Veda  is  a  book  of  glorified 
rehgious  magic.  The  texts  of  these  sacred  books 
are  called  mantras.  Added  to  each  of  the  Vedas  are 
Brdhmanas,  prose  writings  of  explanation  and 
exposition  _in  the  form  of  commentaries.  Later 
came  the  Aranyakas  and  Upanishads,  the  former 
called  the  "Forest  Books"  probably  because  they 
were  used  in  the  instruction  of  the  hermit  forest- 
dwellers.  Both  developed  a  philosophic  religion 
on  the  basis  of  the  Vedas.  This  whole  group  of 
writings  is  called  shruti,  "revelation,"  as  contrasted 
with  the  less  authoritative  smriti  or  "tradition." 

Though  classed  as  "tradition"  the  later  htera- 
ture  is  no  less  important.  Earliest  are  the  SUtras, 
the  twelve  Shrauta-sUtras  or  priestly  handbooks  of 
instruction  in  the  use  of  the  Vedas,  the  six  Dharma- 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sacred  Thread 


sutras  or  works  on  law  and  ethics,  the  twelve 
Grihya-sutras  or  house-books  which  deal  with  the 
domestic  cult. 

The  popular  Vaisnavite  literature  of  India 
centers  around  the  two  great  epic  poems,  the 
Mahdbharata  and  the  Ramayana.  Originally  popu- 
lar poems,  they  were  both  transformed  by  priests 
into  religious  literature  in  the  interest  of  the  cult  of 
Vishnu  and  became  a  vast  storehoxise  of  philosophic, 
legal  and  theological  lore.  The  Bhagavadgitd,  a 
section  of  the  Mahdbhdrata  was  very  influential  in 
the  religious  development  of  India.  A  great  religious' 
literature  grew  up  around  this  theistic  poem.  ^ 

The  eighteen  Purdnas  form  another  division  of 
popular  sacred  literature  deaUng  with  cosmology, 
history  and  rehgious  philosophy.  They  exalt  Vishnu 
and  Shiva  as  the  chief  gods.  The  idea  that  the 
female  energy  of  the  Supreme  God  is  the  active 
force  in  the  world  gave  rise  to  the  Sakta  cults  and 
hundreds  of  Tantras  in  which  the  goddess  plays  the 
chief  r61e. 

The  Veddnta-sHtras  which  develop  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  Upanishads  are  the  central  Scriptures 
of  the  orthodox  intellectuals. 

In  addition  to  the  above  list,  which  may  be 
called  the  main  trunk  of  Hindu  sacred  literature, 
are  other  writings  no  less  influential  and  no  less 
revered  by  special  groups.  The  Sankhya  system, 
which  has  its  roots  in  the  oldest  literature,  came  to 
its  classic  statement  in  the  4th.  century  a.d.  in  the 
Sdnkhya-kdrika,  a  poem  of  seventy  verses.  In  the 
middle  of  the  4th.  century  a.d.  the  Yoga-sUtra  of 
Patanjali  fvu-nished  the  authoritative  literature  for 
the  theistic  development  of  the  Sankhya.  The 
VaisheshUca  and  Nyaya  systems  have  as  their  basic 
literature  the  Vaisheshika-sutra  of  Kanada  Kashy- 
apa  and  the  Nydya-sutra  of  Gautama.  The  Jains 
are  supposed  to  have  had  originally  a  canon  of 
Scripture  in  twelve  Angas  which  was  handed  down 
orally  for  centuries  and  finally,  after  a  thousand 
years,  reduced  to  writing  by  the  Svetambara  sect 
m  the  early  6th.  century  a.d.  The  twelfth  Anga 
was  lost,  and  the  surviving  45  documents  of  the 
present  canon  are  in  dubious  condition. 

Two  sacred  books  of  India  produced  under  Mos- 
lem influence  after  the  16th.  century,  the  Bdnl  of 
Dadu,  leader  of  the  Dadupanthis  and  the  Adi- 
Granth  of  the  Sikhs  are  worshiped  by  the  members 
of  these  sects.  The  books  are  chiefly  poetic  teaching 
and  prayers. 

For  literature  of  Buddhism  in  India  see  section  I 
above.  A.  Eustace  HatDon 

VIII.  Jewish. — See  Bible;    Talmud. 

IX.  MoRMONisM. — See  Book  op  Mormon. 

X.  Moslem. — ^The  Koran  is  the  sacred  book  of 
the  Moslem  world,  venerated  ever  since  its  inception 
by  all  good  Mohammedans  in  quite  the  same  manner 
and  measure  in  which  mediaeval  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians revered  and  still  revere  their  respective  Bibles. 

It  is  a  small  book,  not  quite  the  size  of  the  Chris- 
tian New  Testament,  consisting  of  114  sections, 
caUed  Surahs;  these  are  not  like  the  chapters  of 
the  Bible,  mere  subdivisions  of  a  larger  "book," 
but  each  is  intended  to  be  complete  within  itself, 
like  the  Psalms.  Verse  divisions  of  several  schools 
facilitate  the  finding  of  smaller  passages.  The 
whole  book  is  further  subdivided  in  various  ways 
for  devotional  purposes,  as  the  Jews  have  done  in 
their  Torah  or  Pentateuch. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Surahs  is  peculiar. 
Aside  from  the  first,  which  is  a  much  revered  prayer 
like  the  Christian  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Jewish 
Shema,  the  longer  and  later  ones,  often  composed 
of  very  heterogeneous  material,  are  placed  first,  the 
shorter  and  for  the  most  part  earlier  ones  last. 
The  Moslems  superscribe  each  Surah  to  distinguish 
those  which  belong  to  the  earUer  period  in  Mecca,  to 


the  later  period  in  Medina,  and  those  about  which 
there  is  difference  of  opinion.  These  distinctions 
are  not  wholly  satisfactory  to  modern  historical 
sense.  Many  Surahs  are  composite,  some  contain- 
ing additional  revisional  material  by  Mohammed 
himself.  The  textual  criticism  of  the  Koran  has 
not  yet  arrived  at  the  stage  reached  by  that  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments. 

The  collection  as  we  now  have  it  is  not  from  the 
hand  of  Mohammed,  but  was  made  more  than 
15  years  after  his  death  during  the  reign  of  the  third 
Caliph  Othman  (644-656  a.d.).  The  tradition 
that  the  first  Caliph  Abu  Bekr  had  previously 
published  a  similar  official  edition  is  mere  anti- 
Othmanic,  i.e.,  anti-Omayyad  propaganda.  The 
Othmanic  edition  has  remained  the  accepted  text 
of  the  holy  book  to  the  present  day.  No  modern 
scientific  edition  yet  exists,  but  for  their  day 
and  purpose  the  editors  did  very  well.  None  but 
the  most  infinitesimal  changes  or  additions  to 
Mohammed's  words  have  yet  been  proven  against 
them,  and  no  omissions  of  any  size  or  consequence. 
Some  duplication,  not  as  yet  carefully  examined, 
was  unavoidable  in  the  effort  to  include  everything 
obtainable.  Mohammed  wrote  little  or  nothing.  A 
large  part  he  dictated  to  secretaries,  sometimes 
in  revised  form  without  canceling  the  original;  some 
portions  seem  to  have  been  gathered  in  writing 
by  his  followers  for  devotional  or  other  use. 

The  whole  is  homiletic  in  tone  and  for  the  most 
part  intended  for  use  in  _  ritual  prayer.  From 
rhapsodic  expressions  of  religious  sentiments  aroused 
by  simple  but  rigid  monotheistic  conceptions  com- 
bined with  eschatological  fears  it  passes  through 
allusions  to  and  more  or  less  exact  quotations  from 
the  prophets,  biblical  and^  otherwise,  to  legislative 
enactments,  sometimes  in  minute  detail,  but 
never  systematically  complete.  Mohammea,  like 
his  followers,  believed  every  word  of  it  to  be  inspired 
by  God,  through  various  angeUc  agencies,  from  a 
great  archetypal  holy  book  in  heaven.  The  style 
is  very  good  for  one  of  the  first  Arabic  attempts  at 
prose,  but  it  is  not  so  superexceUent  as  most  Moham- 
medans suppose.  The  sonorous  rhymed  prose  is 
not  well  represented  in  any  EngUsh  translation, 
the  best  of  which  still  is  that  of  Rodman  (reprinted 
in  the  Everyman's  series).  M.  Sprenglinq 

XI.  Samaritan. — See  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

XII.  Shinto. — See  Kojiki;  Nikon gi;  Norito. 

XIII.  ZOROASTRIAN. 1.   ScC  AvESTA.  _ 

2.  Pahlavi  literature. — The  name  applied  to  the 
patristic  literature  of  Zoroastrianism,  as  supple- 
menting the  Avesta,  or  sacred  book  of  that  rehgion. 
The  Pahlavi,  or  Middle  Persian,  in  which  these 
writings  composed^  is  a  special  form  of  Iranian 
language,  difficult  m  many  respects.  Most  impor- 
tant among  the  Pahlavi  books  is  the  Bundahishn, 
a  sort  of  Iranian  Genesis  and  Revelation,  based  upon 
the  "Damdat  Nask"  of  Zoroaster;  second,  the 
Denkart,  "acts  of  the  religion,"  together  with  the 
theological  treatises  Dindrl  Malnog-l  Khirdd, 
"opinions  of  the  Spirit  of  Wisdom,"  and  Ddtistdn-i 
Derng,  "religious  judgments";  and,  finally,  Ardd- 
Vlrdf  Ndmak,  a  Persian  apocalypse  or  Dantesque 
vision  of  heaven  and  hell,  vouchsafed  to  the  saintly 
Arda  Viraf.  This  latter  work  has  been  translated 
mto  English  by  E.  W.  West,  The  Book  of  Arda- 
Viraf,  Bombay,  1872;  and  translations  of  the 
preceding  and  other  Pahlavi  texts  have  likewise 
been  made  by  E.  W.  West  in  the  series  of  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,  edited  by  F.  Max  Mtiller. 

A.  V.  Williams  Jackson 

SACRED  THREAD.— The  mark  of  the  three 
higher  castes  of  India.  In  the  conferring  of  the 
thread  in  boyhood  the  child  attains  the  Aryan  rank, 
is  said  to  be  "twice-born,"  is  taught  the  gayatrl 
(q.v.)  and  placed  in  charge  of  a  guru  for  religious 


Sacred  Vessels 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


394 


training.  The  thread  lies  upon  the  left  shoulder 
and  falls  on  the  right  side.  Its  ancient  religious 
meaning  is  blurred  today  but  it  is  highly  regarded 
as  a  mark  of  caste. 

SACRED  VESSELS.— Vessels  and  utensils 
employed  in  religious  ceremonies  in  all  religions 
and  all  times  have  been  regarded  as  dedicated  to 
the  divinities  in  whose  rites  they  are  employed, 
and  hence  as  sacred.  Types  of  such  vessels  are  cups 
and  bowls  for  libations,  services  for  sacramental 
banquets,  la  vers  for  ablutions,  fonts  for  baptisms, 
aspergilla  for  purifications,  as  well  as  votive  vases 
of  many  sorts,  and  also  such  sacrificial  implements 
as  knives,  axes,  fire-makers,  etc.  Sacred  utensils 
often  preserve  archaic  traditions,  as  for  example, 
flint  knives  were  anciently  used  in  sacrifice  long 
after  bronze  or  iron  had  come  into  ordinary  use. 
The  sacred  vessels  of  Solomon's  temple,  as  carried 
away  into  Babylon,  are  described  II  Kings  25 :  13-17, 
and  again,  as  restored,  Ezra  1:7-11.  After  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  the 
temple  vessels  were  taken  as  plimder  by  the  Romans 
and  are  in  part  pictured  on  the  Arch  of  Titus.  The 
most  important  sacred  vessels  employed  in  Christian 
rites  are  those  used  in  celebrating  the  sacrament 
and  in  the  rites  of  baptism.       H.  B.  Ai^exander 

SACREDNESS.— A  quahty  pertaining  to  per- 
sons or  things  by  virtue  of  their  close  relationship 
to  Deity.    See  Holiness. 

Among  primitive  peoples  the  world  of  material 
and  psychical  phenomena  was  classified  under  two 
heads,  the  sacred  and  the  profane.  To  the  former 
belonged  the  gods  and  all  things  pertaining  to  them, 
their  priests,  shrines,  vessels,  etc.  This  conception 
of  sacredness  as  a  relationship  was  shared  by  the 
early  Hebrews,  and  persisted  all  through  Hebrew 
history.  The  priests  naturally,  as  ^  guardians  of 
the  ritual,  were  chiefly  concerned  with  the  sacred 
things.  The  prophets  supplemented  the_  priestly 
influence  with  ethical  and  spiritual  teachings  that 
tended  to  make  the  thought  of  sacredness  less  and 
less  materialistic.  The  New  Testament  continues 
the  prophetic  tradition  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus  and 
the  priestly  attitude  toward  sanctity  finds  recogni- 
tion in  the  writings  of  Paul  and  bvUks  large  in  the 
sacramental  system  of  Christianity.  Protestantism 
with  its  increasing  emphasis  upon  ethics,  has  more 
and  more  left  it  to  the  Catholic  church  to  empha- 
size sacredness  in  religion.       J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

SACRIFICE. — An  act  in  which  something  (gen- 
erally, but  not  always,  an  article  of  food  or  drink) 
is  devoted  to  God. 

I.  Extent  op  the  Practice. — Among  primi- 
tive peoples  everywhere,  ritual  constituted  the 
main  part  of  religion.  The  most  outstanding  and 
significant  part  of  this  ritual  was  the  act  of  sacrifice. 
Only  in  the  most  highly  spiritual  and  ethical  reli- 
gions, notably,  e.g.,  Christianity,  Brahmanism, 
Buddmsm  and  Mohammedanism,  was  sacrifice 
even  in  theory  abandoned. 

II.  The  Meaning  op  Sacrifice. — There  has 
always  been  wide  difference  of  opinion  among 
students  of  religion  as  to  the  original  significance 
of  the  sacrificial  act.  Some  of  the  more  important 
and  wide-spread  views  may  be  noted  here.  ^  The 
gift  theory  has  had  a  large  following.  This  view  is 
that  the  worshiper  brings  his  gift  to  the  altar  either 
as  expressing  his  gratitude  for  favors  received  from 
the  gods  or  as  intended  to  appease  the  divine  wrath 
stirred  up  by  offenses  of  which  the  worshipper  is 
keenly  conscious.  The  substitutionary  theory  is 
still  widely  held.  It  holds  that  sacrifice  is  an 
expiation  for  sin,  and  that  the  death  of  the  sacri- 
ficial animal  is  as  a  substitute  for  the  death  of  the 


sinful  sacrificer  himself.  The  sacramental  theory 
is  popular  with  students  of  anthropology.  It 
interprets  sacrifice  as  intended  to  remove  from  the 
worshiper  the  limitations  and  tabus  which  attach  to 
him  as  a  profane  person  and  to  invest  him  with  the 
characteristics  and  privileges  of  sanctity.  The 
sacrifice  here  serves  as  an  intermediary  between  the 
sacred  and  the  profane.  The  communion  theory 
was  brought  into  prominence  by  W.  Robertson 
Smith  in  his  Religion  of  the  Semites  (1889).  This 
theory  makes  sacrifice  a  rehc  of  totemism  (q.v.). 
Originally  the  sacrificers  ate  together  the  animal 
which  represented  their  ancestors  and  their  god,  so 
that  the  act  was  thought  of  as  eating  the  god  (cf. 
the  modern  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  [q.v.]). 
Later  this  became  a  simple  act  of  communion,  the 
god  and  the  worshiper  alike  taking  part  in  the 
sacrificial  meal  which  through  the  food  and  drink 
thus  shared  established  a  common  bond  of  fife 
between  the  parties  to  the  sacrifice.  Thus  sacri- 
fice was  thought  of  as  "the  food  of  God."  What- 
ever theory  of  sacrifice  be  adopted,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  for  the  early  sacrificers  themselves  the 
act  was  the  important  thing,  the  interpretation  of 
the  act  was_  of  small  importance.  The  same 
act  might  be  interpreted  in  as  many  ways  as  there 
were  sacrificers;  it  was  none  the  less  effective. 

III.  The  Prevalence  op  Sacrifice. — Sacri- 
fice in  varying  forms  was  fimdamental  in  all  primi- 
tive religions,  and  has  been  prominent  in  more 
advanced  reUgions,  such  as  those  of  the  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Egyptians,  the  Zoroastrianism  of 
Persia,  the  systems  of  Greeks  and  Romans,  the 
Islam  of  Mohammedans,  the  Taoism  and  Buddhism 
of  China,  the  Shintoism  of  Japan,  the  Brahmanism 
of  India,  the  monotheism  of  the  Hebrews  and  even 
in  Christianity,  in  some  of  its  phases.  The  kinds 
of  offerings,  the  materials  used,  and  the  sacrificial 
seasons  everywhere  have  much  in  common.  Whole 
burnt-offerings,_  food  and  drink  offerings,  incense 
and  flower  offerings  are  common;  and  such  sacrifices 
are  made  at  the  seasons  of  the  new  moon,  the 
full  moon,  the  solstices,  and  the  time  of  first- 
fruits,  and  under  circumstances  resembling  Hebrew 
sacrifice  at  many  points. 

IV.  Kinds  op  Hebrew  Sacrifice. — ^The  differ- 
ent kinds  of  Hebrew  sacrifice  can  only  be  listed 
here,  viz.,  (1)  Burnt-offering,  (2)  Peace-offering, 
(3)  Meal-offering,  (4)  Sin-offering,  (5)  Trespass- 
offering,  (6)  Drink-offering,  (7)  Freewill-offering, 
(8)  Heave-offering,  (9)  Wave-offering,  (10)  Thank- 
offering  and  (11)  Incense-offering.  In  the  sphere 
of  Burnt-offerings  belongs  the  custom  of  human 
sacrifice  which  was  practised,  at  least  sporadically, 
from  the  earliest  times  until  the  Exile,  and  that  too 
as  a  part  of  traditional  Hebrew  rehgion  (Gen.  22 :  11 ; 
Judg.  ll:34ff.;  Jer.  7:31;  Ezek.  20:26;  23:37; 
Mic.  6:6  f.).  The  practice  of  human  sacrifice  pro- 
tects the  Hebrews  forever  from  the  charge  that 
they  took  their  rehgion  lightly  or  mechanically. 
No  mere  formalism  induces  parents  to  slay  their 
children  at  the  behest  of  the  gods, 

A  notable  change  in  the  spirit  of  the  sacrificial 
worship  took  place  in  Israel  in  and  after  the  Exile. 
Whereas  the  earlier  sacrifice  had  been  an  occasion 
for  joy  and  mirth,  the  people  freely  expressing 
their  pleasure  in  the  presence  of  their  God  (I  Sam. 
1:9,  12-14;  Isa.  28:7,  8;  Exqd.  32:6),  the  later 
period  finds  sacrifice  converted  into  an  occasion  for 
the  expression  of  sorrow  for  sin  and  a  means  for 
expiation  and  atonement  (e.g.,  Lev.  4:35;  9:3; 
10: 16  ff.,  and  chap.  16). 

V.  Attitude  op  Prophets  toward  Sacrifice. 
— ^The  prophets  did  not  as  a  rule  oppose  sacrifice  as 
such;  even  such  passages  as  Amos  5:25  and  Jer. 
7:22  are  better  understood  as  protests  against  an 
unethical  worship  than  as  reflecting  any  desire  for 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sakti 


the  cessation  of  worship  per  se.  Such  language 
must  be  understood  in  the  light  of  Isa.  1 :  15,  16, 
where  the  prophet  uses  equally  strong  words  about 
praj'^er.  Yet  he  would  not  eUminate  prayer;  he 
would  only  insist  that  prayer  from  an  unethical 
heart  cannot  be  heard  of  God.  Even  so,  the 
prophets  demand  that  sacrifice  to  be  effective  must 
proceed  from  hearts  controlled  by  right  motives. 

VI.  Chbistianity  and  Sacrifice. — The  spirit 
of  Christianity  was  alHed  to  that  of  the  prophets 
rather  than  that  of  the  priests.  Prophecy  with  its 
exaltation  of  the  ethical  in  religion  had  prepared 
the  way  for  the  disappearance  of  sacrifice.  Chris- 
tianity and  history  combined  to  complete  the  work. 
The  destruction  of  the  temple  ended  sacrifice  even 
in  Judaism  itself.  Christianity,  however,  has 
always  insisted  upon  interpreting  the  death  of  Jesus 
as  the  final  and  all  sufficient  sacrifice.  The  precise 
significance  of  the  sacrifice  has  been  the  subject  of 
of  perennial  discussion,  but  the  sacrificial  nature 
of  the  death  has  been  almost  universally  accepted. 

J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

SACRIFICE,  HUMAN— See  Human  Sacrifice. 

SACRILEGE. — ^Infringement  on  the  sacred 
character  or  uses  of  anything  accounted  as  holy  by 
the  followers  of  any  rehgion.  In  primitive  religions, 
such  an  infringement  was  associated  with  tabu 
(q.v.)  and  involved  dangerous  consequences.  The 
transition  to  less  magical  conceptions  is  very 
gradual,  but  in  all  cases  profanation  of  sacred 
things  is  regarded  as  dangerous.  In  canon  law, 
the  crime  was  treated  with  severity,  the  civil 
authorities  often  co-operating  in  inflicting  the 
punishment.  In  English  law,  sacrilege  was  origi- 
nally the  sale  of  church  property  to  a  lajnnan; 
now  it  is  the  breaking  into  a  church  with  the 
intention  of  committing  theft. 

SACRISTAN.— A  church  official  charged  with 
the  care  of  the  sacristy  (q.v.)  and  the  preparation 
for  a  rehgious  service  by  making  ready  aU  garments 
or  objects  required. 

SACRISTY. — In  church  architecture,  a  room 
for  keeping  the  sacred  utensils  and  vestments. 

SADDHARMA-PUNDARlKA.— "The  Lotus  of 
the  True  Law."  One  of  the  most  important  writ- 
ings of  Mahayana  Buddhism  dating  from  the  2nd. 
century  a.d.  The  work  has  been  influential  in 
India  and  China;  in  Japan  it  is  the  most  revered 
of  all  Scriptures.  Buddha  is  in  it  presented  as  an 
eternal  being  identical  with  the  truth  (dharma)  who 
exerts  his  influence  as  teacher  in  all  ages  and  in  many 
modes  to  lead  all  human  beings  to  the  goal  of 
Buddhahood.  The  historic  Sakyamuni  is  shown 
as  an  illusory  appearance  assumed  to  instruct  men. 
A  high  moral  tone  is  given  to  the  teaching  since 
real  sainthood  is  actual  living  in  harmony  with  the 
laws  of  reality,  not  merely  mystic  meditation. 
The  book  is  filled  with  marvels  to  exalt  the  supreme 
glory  of  the  Buddha. 

SADDUCEES. — A  Jewish  party  name  in  Pales- 
tine from  the  2nd.  century  B.C.  to  designate  those 
priests,  with  their  supporters,  who  held  the  high 
pohtical  offices,  were  a  majority  in  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  dominated  the  relations  of  the  nation  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  empires.  The  Sadducees  were 
persons  of  lineage,  position  and  wealth,  the  Jewish 
aristocracy.  Somewhat  Hellenized,  somewhat  lack- 
ing in  spirituaUty,  piety,  and  race  zeal,  maintain- 
ing somewhat  perfunctorily  the  temple  system  of 
worship,  they  were  yet  essentially  faithful  to  their 
nation  and  religion.  As  strict  adherents  of  the 
Old  Testament,  they  opposed  the  later  elaborations 


of  the  law,  and  the  new  eschatological  and  other 
doctrine.  C.  W.  Votaw 

SADHANA. — The  realization  of  unity  with  the 
divine  which  is  the  goal  of  the  Yoga  and  of  rehgious 
practices  of  mystic  meditation  in  Hinduism. 

SAINTS,  CANONIZATION  OF.— The  solemn 
enrollment  on  the  "canon"  or  official  Ust  of  R.C. 
saints  who  are  invoked  and  whose  relics  and  images 
are  venerated  by  the  whole  Church.  It  is  pre- 
ceded by  an  elaborate  "process,"  the  pro  and  con 
interests  being  respectively  represented  by  "God's 
advocate"  and  "the  Devil's  advocate,"  determin- 
ing by  rigid  investigation  that  the  "blessed"  has 
received  an  uninterrupted  popular  veneration  and 
that  thereby  new  miracles  have  been  wrought  since 
"beatification"  (q.v.). 

SAINTS,  VENERATION  OF.— The  anniversary 
(natale)  of  each  martyr  was  observed  as  early  as 
Cyprian  (d.  a.d.  258).  A  counterpart  to  the  inter- 
cession by  confessors  was  the  behef  that  the  martyrs 
intercede  before  God.  During  the  mass  movement 
toward  Christianity  the  church  transformed  heathen 
festivals  into  saints'  days  and  heathen  temples  into 
churches,  incidentally  annexing  many  legends  and 
local  customs.  In  787  the  second  council  of 
Nicaea  decreed  that  the  saints  should  not  receive 
true  worship  (laireia)  but  greeting  and  veneration 
(proskunesis) .  Protestantism  rejected  the  invoca- 
tion of  saints  as  repugnant  to  Scripture,  and  Calvin 
in  particular  stressed  the  peril  of  idolatry. 

W.  W.  Rockwell 

SAIVISM. — One  of  the  great  divisions  of  theistic 
rehgion  in  India.  Shiva  is  a  composite  figure 
formed  by  centuries  of  syncretism.  He  is  at  once 
the  ancient  mountain  god  of  storm,  a  frolicking 
leader  of  dancing  revellers,  the  destroying  and 
reprodticing  power  of  a  pitiless  nature,  the  supreme 
ascetic  Yogi  and  the  symbol  of  philosophic  cahn. 
Finally,  since  philosophy  demanded  that  the 
Supreme  God  be  quiescent,  his  creative  activity  was 
symbolized  in  the  figure  of  his  wife  or  female  energy, 
Sakti  (q.v.).  His  long  history  reaches  from  the 
ancient  storm  god  Rudra  of  the  Vedas  down  to  the 
modern  era. 

Owing  to  the  multiform  character  of  the  religion 
it  has  made  an  appeal  to  all  classes  of  people.  The 
philosopher  has  been  able  to  see  in  Shiva  or  Maha- 
deva  the  supreme  reality  remaining  stable  behind 
the  pitiless  change  and  evolution  of  the  phenomenal 
world.  The  (Safcto  worshipers  found  hSm  through 
worship  of  his  wife,  in  Parvati,  Kali,  Durga  or  Uma. 
While  Shiva  has  never  had  an  avatar  he  is  worshiped 
in  his  manifestation  in  Ganesha  and  other  local 
gods  so  that  any  popular  cults  may  be  assimilated  to 
him.  Asceticism  has  been  carried  to  its  most 
extreme  forms  among  the  Shiva  yogis  who  subject 
themselves  to  the  most  inhuman  tortures.  AlUed 
to  this  religious  devotion  is  the  somber  phase  of  the 
Shiva  cult  which  has  produced  the  groups  who  give 
themselves  up  to  the  worship  of  the  terrible  element 
in  nature  as  represented  in  the  destructive  Kail  or 
Durga,  the  patroness  of  the  Thugs  (q.v.).  The 
Aghoris  who  wander  naked  and  feed  on  human 
corpses  belong  to  this  phase  of  Saivism.  Shiva's 
symbol  is  the  linga.  While  for  the  most  part  the 
emphasis  on  sex  is  austere  in  form  as  among  the 
Lingayats  it  takes  on  the  character  of  license  in 
some  sects.  Thus  the  philosophers  of  absolute 
idealism,  the  ascetic  fakir,  the  mystic  yogi  and  the 
followers  of  the  bhakti  way  all  find  a  place  within 
this  rehgion.    See  Hinduism. 

SAKTI. — The  active  energy  of  God  in  the  Hindu 
sectarian  rehgions.    The  supreme  God  is  usually 


Sakyamuni 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


396 


thought  to  be  quiescent  and  passive;  hence  the 
divine  drama  of  creation  and  evolution  of  the  worlds 
is  attributed  to  his  wife,  his  sakti,  who  is  one  with 
him  in  reality  yet  active,  creative  and  the  driving 
energy  in  the  phenomenal  world.  On  this  account  the 
female  energy  of  God  seems  most  important  and 
assumes  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  cult  of 
popular  or  Tantric  Hinduism. 

SAKYAMUNI.— See  Gautama. 

SALAMANDER. — ^A  fictitious  sprite  portrayed 
as  dwelling  in  fire. 

SALVATION. — ^The  rescue  of  man  from  evil  or 
guilt  by  divine  power  so  that  he  may  attain  blessed- 
ness. 

I.  Historical  Conceptions. — The  conception 
of  salvation  is  the  very  heart  of  real  rehgion.  It 
therefore  shares  in  the  complexity  of  reUgion. 
There  are  numerous  "ways"  of  salvation;  and 
religious  reforms  are  constantly  criticizing  and 
revising  current  ideas  and  practices.  The  most 
prominent  conceptions  are  as  follows: 

1.  Salvation  by  propitiation  of  spirits  or  gods. — 
Where  animistic  conceptions  prevail,  the  ills  which 
man  suffers  are  attributed  to  malignant  spirits, 
while  blessings  may  be  secured  from  favorable 
spirits.  Salvation  consists  in  thwarting  the  power 
of  evil  spirits,  and  in  securing  the  good  will  of  gods 
who  can  confer  blessings.  Magic  (q.  v.)  is  a  common 
means  of  coercing  spirits,  while  offerings,  praises, 
festivals  and  sacrifices  are  believed  to  render  the 
gods  propitious.  Magic  played  a  large  role  in 
Egyptian  and  Babylonian  religions  (qq.v.),  and 
propitiatory  rites  are  universally  employed. 

2.  Salvation  by  rites  of  purification. — A  more 
introspective  and  metaphysical  way  of  conceiv- 
ing religion  pictures  evil  as  a  substantial  taint 
or  corruption  which  vitiates  life.  It  may  be  ac- 
quired by  contagion,  as  in  touching  an  "unclean" 
object,  or  it  may  be  considered  an  inherent  trait  of 
the  flesh  or  of  human  nature.  This  taint  may  be 
removed  by  the  application  of  purifying  substances, 
such  as  water,  blood,  fire,  or  consecrated  prepara- 
tions. Ablutions,  anointings,  the  touch  of  a  priest 
or  sacred  person,  and  mystic  rites  are  the  means  of 
salvation. 

3.  Salvation  by  personal  relation  to  a  divine 
savior. — In  the  mystery-cults  rehgious  hope  was 
attached  to  the  figure  of  a  saviour-god,  who  through 
suffering  and  death  provided  a  mystic  way  of  salva-/ 
tion  to  all  who  were  initiated  into  the  mystery. 
In  Christianity  this  type  of  salvation  found  expres- 
sion in  the  mystic  union  of  the  believer  with  Christ. 
A  poUtical  interpretation  of  this  ideal  is  expressed  in 
the  Jewish  and  Jewish-Christian  doctrine  of 
Messiah  (q.v.).    For  other  conceptions  see  Savior. 

4.  Salvation  by  ascetic  discipline. — -A  complete 
spirituaUzing  of  hfe  may  be  attempted  by  a  syste- 
matic repression  of  fleshly  impulses,  and  a  deUberate 
cultivation  of  high  mystical  or  philosophical  medita- 
tion. ReUance  here  is  placed  on  the  essential  unity 
of  the  spirit  of  man  with  the  ultimate  spiritual 
reality  of  the  universe.  This  ideal  of  salvation  is 
especially  prominent  in  the  religions  of  India,  but 
fiinds  a  place  in  nearly  all  reUgions.  See  Asceticism; 
Brahmanism;  Buddhism. 

5.  Salvation  as  a  reward  for  moral  living. — In  pro- 
test against  non-moral  conceptions  of  salvation, 
reformers  in  many  reUgions  have  insisted  that  salva- 
tion is  really  conditioned  by  moral  character  and 
conduct.  Zoroaster,  the  great  prophets  of  Israel, 
and  many  Christian  teachers  have  stressed  this 
ideal.  While  it  may  be  degraded  to  a  sordid  kind  of 
book-keeping,  it  may  also  be  a  noble   means  of 


expressing  faith  in  the  fundamentally  moral  char- 
acter of  God's  relation  to  men. 

In  actual  rehgious  history  none  of  the  above  con- 
ceptions stands  in  isolation.  While  one  may  be 
put  foremost,  others  usually  appear  as  conditioning 
factors.  The  various  sects  in  any  religion  are  hkely 
to  differ  in  their  emphasis,  and  to  stigmatize  as  im- 
moral or  superstitious  views  to  which  objection  is 
felt.  But  that  genuine  religious  satisfaction  is 
attained  in  all  the  ways  suggested  cannot  be  denied. 

II.  The  Doctrine  of  Salvation  in  Christi- 
anity.— The  distinctive  feature  of  the  Christian  con- 
ception of  salvation  is  the  exaltation  of  Jesus  Christ 
as  the  sole  savior  of  men.  The  various  religious 
ideas  above  described  all  appear  in  Christianity,  but 
their  savingsignificance  is  always  attributed  to  Christ. 
Propitiation  of  God  is  achieved  by  the  sacrificial  death 
of  Christ,  which  supersedes  all  other  sacrifices.  See 
Atonement.  Rites  of  purification  are  limited  to 
the  sacraments  authorized  by  Christ.  See  Sacra- 
ments. Mystic  redemption  through  participation 
in  the  dramatic  experience  of  a  saviour-god  is  for  the 
Christian  spiritual  fellowship  with  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  and  mystic  union  with  the  risen  Christ. 
Ascetic  discipline  is  shaped  so  as  to  induce  a  Christ- 
like spirit.  Good  deeds  are  essential  either  as  obedi- 
ence to  the  commands  of  Christ  or  as  imitation  of 
his  way  of  life. 

Theologically,  the  doctrine  of  salvation  embraces 
two  themes,  (1)  the  doctrine  of  the  work  of  Christ, 
setting  forth  the  divine  provision  for  salvation,  and 
(2)  the  exposition  of  the  appropriation  of  this  pro- 
vision by  man. 

The  work  of  Christ  has  been  expounded:  (1)  As 
messianic  deliverer.  Here  his  triumphant  second 
coming  to  destroy  the  powers  of  evil  and  estabUsh 
the  Kingdom  of  God  is  stressed.  See  Escha- 
tology;  Millenarianism;  Messiah.  (2)  As  the 
incarnation  of  essential  deity,  whereby  human 
nature  is  made  capable  of  divine  possibihties.  Here 
the  divine  nature  (deity)  of  Christ  is  of  primary  im- 
portance. See  Christology.  (3)  As  the  divine 
sacrifice,  his  death  on  the  cross  being  the  means  of 
propitiating  God.  Various  theories  as  to  how  this 
is  effected  have  been  set  forth.  See  Atonement. 
(4)  As  a  revelation  of  God's  love  and  willingness  to 
forgive.  This  has  been  especially  stressed  by 
Ritschhanism  (q.v.).  (5)  As  the  revealer  of  the 
kind  of  life  which  God  approves  and  blesses. 
Modern  "liberalism"  takes  this  view. 

The  appropriation  of  salvation  by  the  beUever 
has  been  analyzed  into  its  various  stages  or  aspects, 
such  as  conviction  of  sin,  repentance,  faith,  conver- 
sion, regeneration,  sanctification,  etc.  (aQ-V-). 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

SALVATION  ARMY.— An  organization  em- 
bodying quasi-military  discipline  aiming  at  the 
spintual,  moral,  and  material  reclamation  of  the 
lower  strata  of  society  unprovided  for  by  other  reh- 
gious and  social  agencies. 

Its  founder  was  WiUiam  Booth  (1829-1912). 
As  first  a  local  Wesleyan  Methodist  minister,  his 
passion  for  open  air  evangelism  led  him  to  inaugu- 
rate an  independent  movement.  His  labors  in  the 
neglected  East  End  of  London  (1865)  led  to  the 
organization  of  the  Christian  Mission,  which  in 
1878  was  given  the  name  of  the  Salvation  Army. 
It  became  henceforth  quasi-miUtary  in  character, 
its  "Orders  and  Regulations"  being  modelled  after 
those  of  the  British  Army.  Its  government  is 
distinctively  autocratic,  and  unquestioning  obedi- 
ence is  demanded.  International  headquarters  are 
in  London. 

The  rapid  spread  of  the  movement  in  Britain, 
thence  to  the  Continent,  to  America  (1880),  and 
ultimately  to  54  countries,  representing  28  languages, 
has  necessitated  thoroughgoing  organization.     The 


397 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sanday,  William 


localized  group  with  its  officers  constitutes  a  corps; 
several  corps  constitute  a  division;  several  divisions 
a  province;  several  provinces  a  territory,  the  latter 
usually  having  national  deUmitations. 

The  early  adoption  of  unconventional  methods 
of  evangelization  (street  preaching;  processions; 
bands;  popular  music;  common  vernacular;  uni- 
forms; mihtary  titles;  etc.)  led  to  persecution, 
ending  only  when  the  real  import  of  the  movement 
became  evident.  While  in  no  sense  a  church,  the 
Army  is  thoroughly  evangelical  in  spirit,  represent- 
ing, doctrinally,  conservative  orthodoxy.  Its 
ministry  is  two-fold:  the  first,  religious,  stressing 
conversion  and  the  clean  life;  the  second,  social,  em- 
ploying many  agencies  of  uplift  (shelters  and 
food-depots;  labor  bureaus  and  factories  for  the 
unenaployed;  refuges  for  fallen  women  and  ex- 
convicts;  maternity  hospitals  and  orphanages; 
home  visitation ;  farm  colonies,  etc.).  Its  principal 
pubUcation,  The  War  Cry,  is  a  powerful  contribu- 
ting agency. 

In  1896  occurred  the  secession  of  Commander 
and  Mrs.  Ballington  Booth,  and  the  organization  of 
the  Volunteers  of  America  (q.v.).  The  rapid  devel- 
opment of  the  Army  led,  in  1920,  to  reorganization, 
in  the  United  States,  into  three  territorial  sub- 
divisions, Eastern,  Central,  and  Western,  ^  with 
headquarters,  respectively,  in  New  York,  Chicago, 
and  San  Francisco.  In  1920  the  Army  numbered 
10,591  corps  and  outposts.  There  were  1,217  corps 
in  Great  Britain,  935  in  the  U.S.A.,  548  in  Canada, 
1,265  in  Australia,  and  1,947  in  Scandinavia  and 
Finland.  The  Army  contributed  most  efficient 
service  dvu-ing  the  war  of  1914-18,  and  won  general 
support  because  of  its  self-sacrificing  work  for  the 
soldiers.  The  devotion  of  so  many  of  its  officers  to 
this  task  forced  a  temporary  reduction  in  activities 
at  the  home  base.  Henry  H.  Walker 

SAMADHI. — The  final  stage  of  Hindu  mysticism 
in  which  the  soul,  lost  in  meditation,  sinks  into  the 
ecstatic  trance  of  union  with  God  and  all  conscious- 
ness of  separate  individuaHty  disappears. 

SAMARITANPENTATEUCH— A  Hebrew  ver- 
sion of  the  Pentateuch  preserved  by  the  Samaritan 
sect  and  written  in  the  Samaritan  characters. 
Jewish  writers  knew  of,  and  the  Church  Fathers  used, 
this  version  of  the  Torah  until  ca.  800  a.d.  It  was 
then  forgotten  until  1616  when  Pietro  della  Valle 
brought  a  copy  from  Damascus.  This  was  the  basis 
of  a  badly  edited  text  in  the  Paris  Polyglot  (1645). 
Since  that  date  numerous  codices  have  reached 
Europe  and  America  but  no  critical  text  has  vet 
been  prepared.  All  of  these  codices  are  probably 
copies  of  the  sacred  codex  preserved  at  Nablus 
(Shechem),  the  date  of  which,  for  lack  of  critical 
study,  remains  uncertain.  Probably,  however,  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  developed  along  compara- 
tively independent  fines  300-400  B.C.  Hence  its 
importance  as  a  version.  It  shows  some  6000  vari- 
ants from  the  Masoretic  text,  most  of  which  are 
unimportant.  It  is  frequently  in  agreement  with 
the  Septuagint.  D.  D.  Luckenbill 

SAMA-VEDA. — A  collection  of  hymns,  mostly 
taken  from  the  Rig-Veda,  set  to  tunes  and  chanted 
in  connection  with  the  soma  sacrifices  in  Vedic 
religion. 

SAMBHOGAKAYA.— See  Dharmakata. 

SAMHAIN.— A  Celtic  festival  of  November 
which  marked  the  beginning  of  the  jy^ear.  Since  at 
this  time  the  vitality  of  the  sun  and  nature  was  at 
low  ebb  a  great  fire  was  built  to  help  magically  the 
powers  of  light  and  life.    The  sacrifice  of  animals 


and  perhaps  human  beings  made  the  rite  more 
effective.  The  participants  brought  themselves  into 
contact  with  the  power  by  eating  the  flesh  of  the 
animals,  by  masking  in  their  skins,  by  lighting  the 
horne  fires  from  the  festival  fire.  At  this  time  also 
divination  and  fortune-telling  were  practiced  to 
discover  what  the  new  year  might  bring.  The 
souls  of  the  dead  returned  to  their  homes  and  shared 
the  festivities.  The  Christian  church  attempted 
to  supplant  this  paganism  by  estabhshing  Nov.  1 
as  All  Saints  Day  and  then  virtually  recognized  the 
old  customs  by  an  All  Souls  Day  following  on  Nov.  2. 
Hallowe'en  still  retains  refics  of  the  primitive  rites. 

SAMHITAS.— The  Hindu  word  for  "coUection" 
usually  referring  to  the  original  collections  of  the 
Vedic  Scriptures. 

SAMSARA. — ^The  eternal  process  of  transmigra- 
tion under  the  law  of  karma  (q.v.)  in  Hinduism. 
It  is  often  likened  to  a  wheel  on  which  souls  revolve 
from  birth  to  death  to  rebirth  endlessly  unless 
released  by  some  way  of  salvation. 

SAMURAI. — ^The  military  knights  and  retainers 
of  the  feudal  age  of  Japan  whose  devotion  to  their 
overlords,  loyalty,  courage  and  love  of  honor  created 
the  code  of  moral  action  called  Bushido  (q.v.). 

SANCTIFICATION.— The  act  or  process  of 
purifying,  cleansing;  or  rendering  sacred  or  holy. 
In  personal  rehgious  fife  dedication  to  a  high  pur- 
pose. 

Ceremonially,  sanctification  is  a  symboUc  rite  of 
dedication  or  consecration  for  a  special,  exalted  serv- 
ice. Thus,  to  sanctify  an  utensil  for  a  temple 
service  is  formally  to  set  it  apart  or  render  it  sacred 
to  a  particular  use.  To  sanctify  a  man  is  cere- 
monially to  dedicate  him  to  some  high  service. 
"Sanctify  yourselves"  is  a  call  to  prepare  cere- 
monially for  a  sacred  occasion  or  service. 

Theologically,  sanctification  implies  spiritual 
cleansing,  moral  purification.  It  has  been  described 
as  an  act  of  the  Holy  Spirit  supplementary  to  regen- 
eration so  as  to  create  a  permanent  devotion  to  the 
will  of  God.  By  some  rehgious  sects  it  is  regarded  as 
the  supreme  stage  in  a  divinely  prescribed  process 
of  salvation — an  exalted  condition  of  holiness,  sin- 
lessness  or  "Perfect-Love."    See  Perfectionism.     " 

Herbert  A.  Yotjtz 

SANCTITY. — From  Latin  sandus,  meanmg 
"holy";  the  quaUty  or  state  of  holiness  or  sacred- 
ness,  usually  associated  with  the  deity  or  objects  of 
worship,  but  also  used  of  institutions  the  uplifting 
influence  of  which  are  recognized.    See  Holiness. 

SANCTUARY.— A  sacred  building  or  place, 
the  center  of  worship.  Temples  or  consecrated 
groves,  churches,  mosques  or  other  places  of  worship 
are  called  sanctuaries.  Since  a  sacred  spot,  because 
men  feared  to  profane  it,  served  as  an  asylum  or 
place  where  refugees  would  be  immune  from  punish- 
ment, vengeance  or  danger,  certain  rights  of  sanctu- 
ary came  to  be  recognized  in  law. 

SANCTUS.— In  the  R.C.  fiturgy,  a  musical 
setting  of  the  praise  song,  "Holy,  Holy,  Holy,  Lord 
God  of  hosts,"  so  called  from  the  first  words  of  the 
Latin  version.  The  Sanctus-bell  is  the  bell  soimded 
when  the  Sandus  is  sung  during  the  celebration  of 
Mass. 

SANDAY,  WILLIAM  (1844-1921).— Noted 
Anghcan  scholar.  Canon  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford.  His  fame  lay  in  the  realm  of  New  Testa- 
ment scholarship.  His  most  important  works  were 
The  Gospels  in  the  Second  Century,  his  Bamptoa 


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398 


lectures  on  Inspiration,   and   his    Commentary   on 
Romans. 

SANDEMANIANS.— See  Glassites. 

SANHEDRIN. — The  highest  Jewish  court  in 
Jerusalem  organized  after  the  return  from  the  exile 
and  continuing  until  125  a.d.  It  had  authority 
over  certain  aspects  of  Jewish  life,  but  the  infliction 
of  the  death  penalty  required  the  sanction  of  the 
Roman  procturator.  The  Great  Sanhedrin  in  Jerusa- 
lem was  comprised  of  71  elders,  scribes  and  mem- 
bers of  high  priestly  families.  Lesser  sanhedrins, 
sitting  in  other  cities  were  appointed  by  the  Jerusa- 
lem body. 

SANKARA  (788-850  a.d.).— A  brilliant  thinker, 
organizer  and  teacher  of  India  who  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Veddnta-sutras.  He  is  perhaps 
the  greatest  exponent  of  the  Veddnta  philosophy 
(q.v.),  teaching  that  Brahman  is  the  only  reality, 
spiritual,  impersonal,  ^  ineffable  and  imknowable. 
Outside  of  Brahman  is  no  existence.  The  whole 
world  of  experience  with  its  ideas  of  the  supreme, 
personal  God,  the  lesser  gods,  individualized  human 
souls  and  material  existences  is  the_ result  of  mdyd 
or  illusion.  The  individual  soul,  in  the  toils  of 
mayd,  makes  use  of  these  illusory  appearances  in 
the  quest  for  release  and  at  last  finds  illumination 
in  realizing  that  it  has  never  been  anything  else 
than  identical  with  Brahman  and  has  ^  had  no 
separate  existence.  At  death  it  sinks  into  the 
eternal  silence  of  the  One  ReaUty. 

SANKHYA. — One  of  the  oldest  and  most  influ- 
ential of  the  religious  philosophies  of  India.  Like 
Buddhism  and  Jainism  it  was  a  product  of  non- 
brahmanical  thinkers  and  a  protest  against  the 
monistic  system  of  Brahmanism.  It  has  remained 
consistently  atheistic  in  denial  of  a  supreme  soul 
or  absolute.  It  posits  two  ultimate  eternal  realities, 
prakriti  or  matter  and  an  infinite  number  of  souls. 
The  phenomenal  universe  is  the  result  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  subtle  primitive  matter  under  the  influence 
of  the  contemplation  of  the  individual  souls  in  the 
capacity  of  "unmoved  movers."  In  its  original 
state  prakriti  contains  the  three  gunas,  or  qualities, 
of  lightness,  heaviness  and  movement  in  a  balanced 
state.  When  the  balance  is  disturbed  by  the 
influence  of  the  souls  a  cycle  of  world  evolution 
begins  and  the  phenomenal  world  is  the  result. 
The  psychical  part  of  man  is  as  material  as  his 
body  and  acquires  consciousness  only  by  the  illumi- 
nation of  the  soul.  By  this  attachment  all  the 
suffering  and  joy  of  the  individual  are  appropriated 
by  the  soul  which  is  deluded  into  the  false  idea 
that  it  is  part  of  the  phenomenal  universe.  Thus 
the  psychical  part  of  man  moves  from  Ufe  to  Ufe 
on  the  wheel  of  existence  until  at  last  the  soul 
realizes  that  it  is  and  always  has  been  entirely 
detached  from  the  material  world.  When  this 
knowledge  possesses  the  soul  salvation  is  achieved. 
At  death,  the  body  and  inner  psychical  nature 
disintegrate  and  the  released  soul  attains  emanci- 
pation from  matter  in  an  eternal  state  of  uncon- 
sciousness like  deep  sleep.  The  roots  of  the  system 
reach  back  to  Vedic  literature  but  the  classical 
statement  is  in  the  Sdnkhya-kdrikd  of  the  4th. 
century  a.d.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

SANKHYA-YOGA.— A  special  development  of 
the  Sankhya  (q.v.)  into  a  theistic  method  of  salva- 
tion. The  philosophic  system  is  the  same  but  a 
Supreme  Soul  or  Is  vara  is  added  to  the  two  eternal 
ultimates  of  the  Sankhya.  He  is  not  a  creator  nor 
in  any  way  connected  with  the  evolving  world  but 
stands  apart  in  complete,  eternal  perfection  beyond 


the  reach  of  karma  or  transmigration.  By  devo- 
tion to  this  supreme  Lord  and  the  practice  of  yoga 
(q.v.)  the  individual  soul  is  able  to  come  more 
speedily  to  the  unconscious  state  of  isolation  from 
the  wheel  of  life.  This  way  of  salvation  was  open 
to  men  of  all  castes. 

SANNYASi. — ^The  ascetic  saint  in  Hinduism. 
Normally  a  man  was  expected  to  pass  through  the 
four  dshramas  (q.v.)  of  student,  householder,  hermit 
and  ascetic.  In  this  last  stage  he  abandoned  every- 
thing, lived  alone,  slept  in  the  open  and  gave  himself 
up  to  rehgious  meditation.  Modern  conditions  in 
India  do  not  favor  this  wandering,  homeless  beggar 
life  for  old  age  but  the  ascetic  devotee  remains. 

SAOSHYANT.— The  future  prophet  and 
restorer  awaited  by  Zoroastrians.  Born  of  a  virgin 
by  immaculate  conception  from  Zoroaster's  seed 
at  the  end  of  the  present  age  of  the  world  he  will 
complete  the  conquest  of  every  evil  thing  and 
establish  the  eternal  Kingdom  of  God  upon  the 
earth. 

SARUM  RITE.— The  liturgy  used  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Sarum  (or  Salisbury)  prior  to  the  EngHsh 
Reformation.  It  was  the  prevalent  hturgy  through- 
out England  in  the  13th.  century,  and  dates  from 
1085. 

SATAN. — The  personal  source,  perpetuator,  and 
instigator  of  evil. 

Though  there  is  early  reference  to  evil  spirits, 
"the  Satan"  appears  first  in  Zech.  3:1  f.  (519  b.c.) 
and  Job  1:6 ff.  (ca.  460  B.C.),  as  a  kind  of  heavenly 
attorney-general,  whose  function  is  to  search  out 
men's  sins  and  failings,  and  so  oppose  their  claims  to 
a  righteous  standing  before  God.  In  I  Chron.  21 : 1 
(ca.  300  B.C.)  Satan  (without  the  article)  has  devel- 
oped into  the  tempter  (cf.  II  Sam.  24:1).  These  mea- 
ger allusions  to  a  superhuman  agency  in  evil  receive  a 
notable  expansion  in  Apocryphal  literature,  partly 
through  Persian  influence.  See  Zoroastrianism. 
Under  the  different  names  of  Satan,  Sotona,  Satan- 
ail,  Satomail,  Beliar,  and  Mastema,  the  devil  is 
represented  as  chief  of  the  rebel  angels  (also  called 
Satans)  who  "rejected  the  Lord  of  light,"  and  were 
thus  cast  down  from  heaven  (//  Enoch  18:3;  29: 
4  f.),  king  of  the  realm  of  evil  (Wisdom  2:24), 
seducer  of  Eve,  and  author  of  death  and  all  other 
ills.  The  N.T.  follows  the  same  general  outlines. 
Satan,  or  Beelzebub,  is  the  personal  head  of  a  king- 
dom opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  God  (Matt.  12 :  26), 
"prince  of  this  world"  (John  14:30),  archtempter 
of  mankind,  and  primal  cause  of  sickness  (especially 
demoniacal  possession)  and  death  (Luke  13:16; 
John  8: 44,  etc.).  The  conception,  however,  is  free 
from  dualism.  Though  opposed  to  God,  Satan 
is  under  Him,  and  even  subserves  His  purpose  of 
salvation  (I  Cor.  5:5;  II  Cor.  12:7).  His  power 
is  equally  limited  in  time.  Christ  has  come  to 
destroy  Satan  and  all  his  works.  In  principle 
this  destruction  is  already  accomplished  (Luke 
10:18;  John  12:31),  though  it  wUl  not  be  com- 
plete till  the  Last  Judgment  (Rom.  16:20;  I  Cor. 
15:24  ff.). 

Christian  theologians  elaborated  the  theory 
that  Satan  is  an  apostate  angel.  This  conception 
is  best  known  through  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Alex.  R,  Gordon 

SATI.— See  Suttee. 

SATISFACTION.— As  a  rehgious  term,  the 
meeting  of  certain  requirements  which,  if  unfulfilled, 
prevent  forgiveness  of  sinners  by  God. 

The  term  differs  from  propitiation  (q.v.)  mainly 
in  that  the  inhibition  to  divine  favor  lies  in  God's 


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Savior 


inability  to  forgive  because  of  man's  failure  to  meet 
conditions  on  which  forgiveness  was  believed  to 
depend.  The  exposition  of  these  conditions  has 
varied  according  to  the  current  limitations  set  upon  a 
ruler's  right  to  pardon  wrongdoers.  The  term  was 
first  used  by  Tertullian,  but  did  not  become  a  center 
of  theological  thought  until  Anselia's  treatise  Cur 
Deus  Homo.  In  that  treatise  God  is  represented 
according  to  feudal  analogies  as  unable  to  forgive 
sinners  until  satisfaction  has  been  rendered  by 
humanity  to  His  infinite  dignity  or  honor,  injured 
by  man's  disobedience.  Christ  as  God-Man  made 
this  satisfaction  by  enduring  suffering  to  which 
because  of  his  sinlessness  he  was  not  obligated. 
Thus  satisfaction  was  possible  because  he  was  both 
man  and  God.  As  man  he  could  render  the  satis- 
faction humanity  alone  could  render,  and  as  God 
he  could  render  a  satisfaction  required  by  the  injury 
to  an  infinite  honor.  Obviously,  such  a  removal  of 
a  hindrance  to  God's  expression  of  his  forgiving 
love  is  a  transcendentalizing  of  feudal  custom. 
Anselm  never  pretends  that  it  is  biblical  or  derived 
from  the  Bible.  Nor  is  there  any  evidence  that  it 
was  held  by  biblical  writers.  Sacrificial  analogies 
with  which  Pauline  thought  abounds  are  not  those 
of  satisfaction. 

When  monarchies  began  to  arise  in  Europe, 
the  relations  existing  between  royalty  and  its  sub- 
jects became  the  dominating  concept  in  exposition 
of  the  forgiveness  Christians  _  had  experienced. 
According  to  the  preval&nt  legal  ideas  the  sovereign 
was  under  obligation  to  see  that  punishment  fol- 
lowed violations  of  his  law.  Pardon  was  impossible 
on  other  terms.  Justice,  that  is,  the  necessity  to 
punish,  must  be  satisfied.  These  principles  were 
extended  to  God.  His  punitive  justice  must  be 
satisfied  as  a  precondition  to  his  remitting  punish- 
ment to  anyone.  This  satisfaction  was  rendered  by 
Jesus  Christ,  who  bore  the  punishment  due  sinners 
(or  at  least  of  those  whom  God  elected  to  save). 
Here  satisfaction  is  not  primarily  to  honor,  although 
the  Anselmic  view  is  maintained,  but  to  punitive 
justice  (Luther,  Calvin).  Even  in  the  rectoral  or 
governmental  theories  of  the  atonement  (Grotius) 
the  idea  of  satisfaction  to  God's  sovereignty  as 
involving  an  obligation  to  maintain  law,  is  to  be 
found.  But  again  the  thought  is  imported  into 
the  few  Scriptural  passages  quoted  in  its  sup- 
port. 

The  moral  worth  of  these  theories  is  apparent. 
They  are  the  means  of  setting  forth  the  fact  that 
God  in  forgiveness  is  not  indifferent  to  morality. 
What  morality  is,  men  find  in  contemporary 
social  practices.  Hindrances  to  pardon  in  the 
case  of  God  are  naturally  suggested  by  con- 
temporary court  practices.  At  basis  analogical, 
such  explanations  easily  became  vital  and  indis- 
pensable to  a  theology  which  was  a  transcendental- 
ized  politics.  They  did  not  give  rise  to  the  faith 
in  God's  forgiveness.  They  helped  rid  it  of  objec- 
tions and  made  it  intellectually  tenable.  The  fact 
was  permanently  evangelical;  the  doctrine  func- 
tionally helpful  as  long  as  its  premises  were  sug- 
gested by  social  practice.  As  modern  religious 
conceptions  of  God's  relation  with  His  world  grow 
more  akin  to  modern  social  ideals  and  rnore  nearly 
approach  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  the  doctrine  of  satis- 
faction, though  still  retained  in  the  16th. -century 
confessions  held  by  various  churches,  has  grown 
anachronistic  and  so  religiously  inelTective.  See 
Atonement.  Shailek  Mathews 

SATYR. — In  classical  mythology,  one  of  a 
race  of  beings,  half-human,  half-beast  portrayed  as 
inhabiting  woodlands,  associates  of  Dionysos  and 
Pan,  and  delightin"-  in  drunken  revelry  and  unre- 
strained desire. 


SAUSSAYE,  PIERRE  DANIEL    CHANTEPIE 

DE  LA  (1848-1918).— Professor  at  Amsterdam 
and  Leyden;  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  historical- 
psychological  interpretation  of  rehgion.  His  sym- 
pathetic insight  into  the  spiritual  values  of  religious 
experience  contributed  toward  a  more  vital  and 
accurate  representation  of  the  phenomena  of  religion. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  widely  influential  textbook 
on  the  history  of  religion. 

SAVIOR. — One  who  makes  possible  the  attain- 
ment of  the  completely  blessed  life.  Since  the  ideal 
of  the  blessed  life  varies  in  different  religions  and  in 
the  same  religion  at  various  periods  the  function 
of  any  particular  savior  may  be  interpreted  differ- 
ently at  different  times.  It  is  more  convenient 
therefore,  to  view  the  various  types  of  savior  rather 
than  to  present  the  changing  interpretation  of  the 
great  personalities  of  the  world  religions.  In 
religions  which  have  the  idea  of  a  Supreme  God 
either  transcending  or  behind  the  phenomenal  world 
of  human  experience  it  becomes  necessary  to  have 
some  mediator  between  the  transcendent  realm  and 
man.    This  furnishes  one  type. 

1.  The  savior  as  revealer. — His  saving  revelation 
may  take  the  form  of  an  unfolding  of  the  means 
by  which  erring  humanity  may  conform  to  the  will 
of  God  as  in  the  early  Jewish  prophets  and  in  Islam; 
or  it  may  be  the  awakening  in  man  of  a  knowledge 
of  his  status  as  in  Neoplatonism,  the  Vedanta  of 
India,  the  higher  Taoism  of  China  and  in  the  system 
of  Clement  of  Alexandria.  Here  man  already  is  in 
possession  of  the  treasure  and  needs  only  to  be 
awakened  to  the  consciousness  of  his  status  in 
relation  to  God  or  Reality. 

2.  The  savior  as  practical  teacher. — In  reUgions 
which  have  no  supernatural  reality  beyond  the 
natural  order,  such  as  classical  Confucianism  and 
original  Buddhism  the  savior  becomes  a  teacher  of 
the  way  of  practical  living.  His  task  is  to  show 
the  method  of  adjusting  the  individual  to  the  cosmic 
law — Tao  or  Dharma.  His  message  deals  largely 
with  social  ethics  and  the  method  of  personal 
development.  This  type  shades  insensibly  into 
the  next. 

3.  The  savior  as  exemplar  and  guide. — One 
great  service  of  the  teacher  of  the  way  of  salvation  is 
in  his  having  given  an  example  of  the  achievement  of 
the  ideal.  So  in  some  forms  of  Buddhism,  Sakya- 
muni,  the  historic  Buddha,  is  revered  as  the  actual 
embodiment  of  the  dharma  in  human  life;  so  the 
twenty-four  Masters  of  the  Jains  and  ISvara  of  the 
Sankhya-yoga,  while  they  do  not  help  |men  directly, 
serve  as  inspiring  examples  of  the  goal  actually 
attained.  Jesus  is  interpreted  in  this  way  by  some 
Christian  groups.  Probably  this  is  also  one  of  the 
functions  of  the  initiatory  ceremonies  of  the  Mystery 
cults  in  that  a  demonstration  is  given  of  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  ideal,  though  the  saviors  of  the  mysteries 
belong  also  to  the  next  class. 

4.  The  savior  as  vicarious  rescuer. — In  ages  and 
religions  which  despair  of  human  powers  to  effect 
an  escape  from  the  evils  of  life  the  savior  brings 
his  superior  status  and  power  to  the  service  of  inen. 
This  took  three  important  forms  in  Christianity: 
(1)  in  the  incarnation  as  the  communication  of  the 
divine  essence  to  the  human,  (2)  in  the  death  of 
Christ  as  the  purchase  price  paid  to  Satan,  (3)  in 
the  death  of  Christ  as  the  satisfaction  of  the  honor 
of  God  (Anselm)  or  of  the  justice  of  God  (Calvin). 
In  the  mystery  religions  also  there  is  a  communica- 
tion of  powers  to  the  initiate.  The^  great  sec- 
tarian religions  of  India  represent  the  incarnations 
of  the  Supreme  in  human  form  as  being  due  to  the 
helplessness  of  a  degenerate  age  which  could  only 
be  saved  by  the  condescending  grace  of  the  Supreme 
God.     So  also  the  function  of  the  bodhisatlvas  in 


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400 


Mahay  ana  Buddhism  is  to  transfer  their  merit  and 
powers  to  the  struggling  souls  in  all  the  worlds.  In 
the  Amitabha  or  Amita  Buddhism  of  China  and 
Japan  is  the  great  example  of  a  savior  who  refused 
the  supreme  blessedness  until  he  had  made  possible 
the  salvation  of  all  who  call  upon  his  name  and 
trust  his  redeeming  grace. 

A  word  should  be  added  concerning  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  savior  to  come  who  will  destroy  evil  and 
establish  the  world-era  of  blessedness  and  peace. 
Such  hopes  may  be  illustrated  by  the  expectation 
of  the  Messiah  in  the  more  conservative  circles  of 
Judaism,  of  the  return  of  Jesus  in  some  Christian 
groups,  of  the  Mahdi  in  the  Shi'ite  sects  of  Islam, 
of  the  coming  avatar  of  the  Supreme  as  Kalki  in 
Hinduism,  of  Maitreya,  the  future  Buddha  and  of 
Saoshyant,  born  of  the  seed  of  Zoroaster,  who  com- 
pletes the  world  program  for  Zoroastrianism. 

A.  Eustace  Haydon 

SAVITRI. — One  of  the  forms  of  the  sun-god  in 
Vedic  religion. 

SAVONAROLA,  GIROLAMO  (1452-1498).— 
Italian  monk,  preacher,  and  martyr;  a  man  of 
splendid  gifts  as  a  pulpit  orator.  His  purity  of  Ufe 
and  remarkable  preaching  gave  him  great  influence 
in  Florence  for  many  years.  But  his  fearless 
denunciation  of  pohtical  and  papal  corruption  so 
aroused  the  hatred  of  those  high  in  authority  that 
in  1498  he,  with  two  of  his  disciples,  Fra  Domenico 
and  Fra  Silvestro,  was  condemned  and  burned  on 
the  charge  of  heresy  and  schism.  No  definition 
of  his  heresy  was  given.  As  a  matter  of  fact  he 
did  not  depart  in  theology  from  orthodoxy,  but 
his  ethical  zeal  was  such  that  he  encountered  the 
opposition  of  the  corrupt  and  worldly  papal  court. 
He  is  often  counted  as  a  forerunner  of  the  Refor- 
mation. 

SCALA  SANTA.— A  stairway  of  28  steps  in 
a  chapel  near  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  purporting 
to  be  the  steps  in  the  palace  of  Pontius  Pilate  at 
Jerusalem  which  Jesus  ascended  and  descended 
during  his  trial.  Pilgrims  to  Rome  usually  ascend 
the  stairs  on  their  knees,  uttering  a  prayer  at  each 
step.    Special  indulgences  are  granted  for  this. 

SCANDAL. — In  biblical  language,  a  stumbling- 
block  or  cause  of  offence  to  others.  In  modern 
usage,  defamation  of  character  due  to  the  maUcious 
or  idle  spreading  of  evil  reports. 

SCAPEGOAT.— At  an  early  stage  of  the 
development  of  reUgious  ideas  uncleanness,  e\  il  or 
sin  is  often  thought  of  as  a  dangerous .  contagion 
adhering  to  a  person  which  may  be  removed  by 
transferring  it  to  an  animal  or  material  object 
which  is  then  excluded  from  the  community  or 
destroyed.  The  term  comes  from  the  late  Hebrew 
practice  of  placing  the  sins  of  the  people  upon  a 
goat  which  was  then  driven  into  the  wilderness  to 
the  demon  Azazel.  Twice  a  year  the  impurities 
of  the  Japanese  people  were  thus  removed  by  ritual 
conducted  by  the  Emperor  and  carried  on  a  horse 
to  be  washed  away  in  the  sea.  See  O'Hakahi. 
Animals  were  used  in  China  and  in  Babylonia.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  transferred  the  commimity 
guilt  to  a  human  victim  who  was  killed  or  thrown 
from  a  height  into  the  sea.  Among  some  peoples, 
e.g.,  the  Pacific  Islanders,  the  transfer  is  made  to  a 
plant  which  is  then  thrown  into  running  water. 
The  evil  may  be  deposited  on  the  victim  either  by 
contact  or  by  magic  ritual. 

SCAPULAR.— A  working  garb  of  certain  monas- 
tic orders,  consisting  of  a  hood  and  a  cloak.  Sym- 
bolically,  narrow  strips  of  cloth  worn   over  the 


shoulders    by    the    members    of    some    R.C.    con- 
fraternities as  a  badge  of  the  order. 

SCEPTICISM.— A  term,  derived  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  to  look  at  carefully,  indicating  an 
unwillingness  to  accept  a  proposition  as  true  unless 
cogent  evidence  is  produced. 

Since  rehgion  involves  faith,  the  sceptic,  who 
is  on  his  guard  against  credulity,  is  ordinarily 
considered  a  foe  to  rehgious  interests;  and  evil 
motives  are  often  attributed  to  him.  While  it  is 
true  that  a  thoroughly  sceptical  attitude  prevents 
one  frona  a  sympathetic  appreciation  of  ideals,  the 
sceptic  is  usually  conscious  only  of  a  desire  to 
seek  the  truth  uninfluenced  by  conventional  demand 
for  assent.  The  searching  questionings  of  Socrates 
were  felt  to  be  irreligious  by  men  of  his  day,  although 
history  has  rendered  a  positive  verdict  as  to  the 
value  of  his  inquiries.  In  modem  times  the  critical 
questioning  of  certain  tenets  fundamental  in  tra- 
ditional theology — such  as  the  authority  of  the 
CathoUc  Church  or  the  infalhbility  of  the  Bible — 
is  often  regarded  as  scepticism.  But  when  such 
questioning  leads  on  to  positive  affirmations,  it 
should  be  regarded  as  criticism  rather  than 
scepticism. 

Thorough-going  scepticism  is  rarely  found; 
for  its  leads  to  such  a  non-committal  attitude  as 
to  make  action  virtually  impossible.  Pyrrhonism 
(q.v.)  is  a  philosophical  curiosity.  The  grounds  for 
our  convictions  are  so  complicated  and  so  varied, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  completely  rational 
vindication  of  our  fundamental  beliefs.  They 
rest  on  practical  and  instinctive  interests  to  so 
large  an  extent  that  they  persist  even  in  the  face 
of  critical  questioning.  Scepticism  is  thus  an  arti- 
ficially developed  attitude.  While  it  is  of  great 
service  in  stimulating  critical  examination  of 
problems,  it  can  never  serve  as  a  primary  ideal  in 
life.     See  Doubt;    Faith;   Certainty. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

SCHAFF,  PHILIP  (1819-1893).— Church  his- 
torian and  theologian,  of  Swiss  birth,  whose  Ufe 
work  was  in  America,  first  at  Mercersburg,  Pa., 
and  then  at  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York.  His  History  of  the  Christian  Church  is  his 
best  known  work.  He  was  a  follower  of  Neander 
combining  critical  scholarship  with  evangelical  piety. 

SCHELLING,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM 
JOSEPH  VON  (1775-1854).— German  philosopher, 
at  first  an  exponent  of  Fichtean  ideahsm;  later 
the  leading  exponent  of  Romanticism  (q.v.).  He 
interpreted  nature  as  a  spiritual  reality  akin  to  the 
inner  life  of  man.  Thus  the  outer  world  and  the 
inner  realm  of  experience  are  different  aspects  of 
one  reahty.  SchelUng  is  an  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  German  idealistic  philosophy. 

SCHISM. — -The  withdrawal  of  a  party  from  a 
rehgious  body  or  church  so  as  to  form  a  different 
sect  or  church.  In  the  N.T.  schism  was  used  of 
dissention  in  the  church  (cf.  I  Cor.  11:18).  The 
early  church  distinguished  "schism,"  as  a  division 
in  organization  growing  out  of  differences  of  opinion 
regarding  authority  or  disciphne,  from  "heresy" 
or  departures  from  the  accepted  doctrines  of  the 
church.  Roman  Cathohc  canon  law  names  the 
same  distinction  as  "pure  schism"  and  "heretical 
schism."  The  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches  is  known  as  the"  Great  Schism,"  culmi- 
nating in  1054.  Other  schisms  have  been  due  to 
rival  parties  electing  their  partisan  popes,  the  most 
noteworthy  being  the  long  schism  of  1378-1429  or 
"Great  Schism  of  the  West"  when  Urban  VI.  and 
his  successors  resided  at  Rome,  and  his  rival 
Clement  VII.  and  his  successors  at  Avignon. 


401 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Science  and  Theology 


SCHLEIERMACHER,  FRIEDERICH  DANIEL 
ERNST  (1768-1834).— Preacher,  theologian  and 
patriot,  Moravian  by  parental  training,  he  studied 
at  Barby  for  the  ministry,  but  becoming  sceptical 
of  the  truth  of  Christianity  through  rationalist 
influences,  gave  himself  to  the  study  of  history  and 
philosophy  at  Halle  University  and  regained  his 
faith.  Professor  at  Halle,  1804,  at  University  of 
Berlin,  1806,  he  became  famous  as  preacher  at  Old 
Trinity  church,  and  distinguished  himself  by  patri- 
otic service  during  the  Napoleonic  wars.  His 
views  frequently  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the 
authorities,  but  he  was  allowed  to  retain  his  chair 
to  his  death. 

His  greatest  achievement  lay  in  the  deliverance 
of  Protestant  theology  from  its  traditional  scholasti- 
cism and  the  renewal  of  scientific  and  philosophic 
interest  in  it.  He  based  theology  on  the  fact  of 
religion  as  experience  in  the  form  of  emotion, 
namely,  the  feehng  of  absolute  dependence,  uni- 
versal and  fundamental  in  men.  He  sought  to 
interpret  Christianity  as  the  historic  faith  in  which 
this  feehng  is  reflected  in  men  from  Christ  himself. 
The  historic  creeds  were  to  be  reinterpreted  in 
terms  of  the  present  higher  Christian  experience 
and  knowledge  of  the  imiverse.  Modern  theo- 
logians have  followed  his  method  increasingly  but 
generally  reject  his  conception  of  religion. 

His  most  important  theological  works  are:  Der 
christliche  Glaube;  Reden  liber  Religion;  and  Kurze 
Darstellung  des  theologischen  Studiums. 

SCHMALKALD  ARTICLES.— Articles  of  faith 
drawn  up  by  Luther,  Melanchthon  and  other 
German   reformers  at   Schmalkald  in   1537.     See 

LUTHERANISM. 

SCHMALKALD  LEAGUE.— A  league  of  Ger- 
man Protestant  princes  formed  in  1531  to  defend 
their  interests  against  the  CathoUc  potentates. 
The  league  was  dissolved  in  1547. 

SCHOLASTICISM.— The  name  given  to  the 
intellectual  system  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Its  period  extends  in  general  from  the  9th.  to 
the  15th.  century,  when  scientific  and  humanistic 
interests  asserted  themselves  with  increasing  power, 
and  scholasticism  lost  its  vogue.  The  point  of 
departure  of  scholasticism  was  an  unquestioning 
acceptance  of  the  dogmas  of  reUgion  as  interpreted 
by  the  church.  Authority  played  the  grand  role 
in  all  spheres  of  life.  But  the  schoolmen  felt  a  keen 
interest  in  speculation,  and  sought  to  rationalize 
theology.  Hence  an  increasing  effort  to  define  the 
relations  of  faith  and  reason. 

In  the  first  period,  extending  to  the  13th.  century, 
there  was  high  confidence  that  reason  could  estab- 
lish and  vindicate  all  the  dogmas.  Faith  and 
reason  were  different  paths  to  the  same  goal.  But 
in  the  13th.  century,  the  classical  age  of  scholasticism, 
Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas  recognized 
the  limits  of  reason.  While  Christianity  is  held 
to  contain  nothing  contrary  to  reason,  it  is  admitted 
to  contain  much  that  transcends  reason.  This 
truth  is  expressed  by  a  new  distinction,  that 
between  natural  and  revealed  rehgion.  Natural 
reUgion,  like  any  natural  science,  is  dependent 
upon  reason,  whereas  revealed  religion  has  faith 
as  its  organ.  This  view  finds  its  literary  expres- 
sion in  Dante.  As  time  passed,  however,  increas- 
ing intellectual  difliculties  were  felt.  Duns  Scotus 
and  William  of  Occam  develop  the  doctrine  of  the 
two-fold  truth,  according  to  which  a  proposition 
may  be  true  for  reUgion  and  false  for  philosophy. 
Religion  is  thus  given  over  to  authority  and  practical 
needs,  science  and  philosophy  to  reason  and  theo- 
retical interests.    This  solution  offered  a  working. 


if  temporary  and  unsatisfactory,  compromise. 
Mysticism  had  wrought  against  rationalism,  as  it 
assigned  religion  to  the  sphere  of  feeling  and  indi- 
vidual experience.  Another  problem  of  scholasti- 
cism was  that  of  universals  and  particulars.  See 
Realism  and  Nominalism. 

Walter  Goodnow  Everett 
SCHOLIUM. — In  commentaries,  an  annotation 
or  expository  statement,  especially  when  made  in 
the  margin  of  the  text. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  ARTHUR  (1788-1860).— 
German  idealistic  philosopher.  In  revolt  against 
the  unbounded  optimism  of  HegeUanism,  he  inter- 
preted the  process  of  cosmic  evolution  as  an  endless 
irrational  struggle  of  sheer  Will,  He  was  influ- 
enced by  Brahmanistic  and  Buddhistic  thought, 
and  his  only  hope  of  deliverance  from  the  irrational 
power  of  the  world  was  through  suppression  of  will. 

SCHURER,  EMIL  ( 1844  - 1910 )  .—German 
Protestant  theologian,  professor  at  Leipzig  and  at 
Gottingen,  renowned  for  his  great  History  of  the 
Jewish  people  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ. 

SCHWABACH  ARTICLES,— A  Protestant  con- 
fession of  seventeen  articles  drawn  up  in  1528  by 
Luther  in  conjunction  with  Melanchthon  and 
Jonas,  emphasizing  uniformity  as  essential  to 
political  strength,  and  consubstantiation  as  opposed 
to  ZwingU's  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

SCHWARTZ,       CHRISTIAN       FRIEDRICH 

(1726-1798). — German  missionary  to  India  under 
the  Danish  Missionary  Society,  and  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge ;  one  of  the  pioneers 
of  Christianity  and  of  Western  Civilization  in  India. 

SCHWEITZER,  ALEXANDER  (1808-1888),— 
Influential  Swiss  pastor  and  professor  at  Zurich, 
He  was  a  devoted  follower  of  Schleiermacher  (q.v.) 
and  brought  to  the  elaboration  of  Reformed  the- 
ology the  principles  which  Schleiermacher  had 
set  forth.  His  system  is  one  of  the  most  imposing 
achievements  of  the  19th.  century  in  its  confident 
use  of  speculative  philosophy  combined  with  a 
profound  appreciation  of  the  close  relationship 
between  theology  and  the  practical  needs  of  the 
church. 

SCHWENCKFELD,  KASPER  (1490-1561),— 
German  theologian  and  mystic.  He  assisted  in 
spreading  the  Reformation  ideals,  but  developed 
an  emphasis  on  immediate  communion  with  God 
which  led  to  a  depreciation  of  the  Lutheran  insist- 
ence on  the  authority  of  Scripture  and  the  necessity 
of  the  sacraments.  He  was  consequently  estranged 
from  the  Lutheran  movement.  His  followers  have 
continued  to  exist  down  to  the  present  day. 

SCHWENCKFELDIANS.— A  German  sect  of 
followers  of  Kasper  Schwenckfeld  (q.v.).  They 
were  mystics  and  were  closely  associated  with  the 
disciples  of  Jakob  Boehme.  Some  einigrated  to 
America  where  a  community  still  exists  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, numbering  over  a  thousand.  Also  called 
"Confessors  of  the  Glory  of  Christ." 

SCIENCE  IN  RELATION  TO  THEOLOGY.— 

During  the  past  three  or  four  centuries,  modem 
science  has  developed  various  features  giving 
rise  to  a  so-called  "conflict  of  science  with  theology." 
I,  The  Fundamental  Facts. — Theology  under- 
takes to  set  forth  the  structure  and  meaning  of  the 
universe  in  relation  to  religious  ends.  It  thus 
inevitably  makes  assertions  concerning  the  physical 
world.  These  may  be  examined  and  criticized  by 
physical  science.     Christian  theology  in  the  course 


Science  and  Theology 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


402 


of  its  development  made  use  of  those  conceptions 
of  the  universe  which  ancient  philosophy  had  estab- 
lished, and  wove  these  into  the  fabric  of  religious 
interpretation  so  completely  that  the  denial  _  of 
their  vaUdity  suggested  doubt  as  to  the  authority 
of  theology.  Modern  science,  in  the  interests  of 
accuracy,  has  insisted  on  important  revisions  of 
ancient  theory.  Christian  theologians  generally 
endeavored  to  keep  the  traditional  system  intact  in 
order  to  conserve  faith  in  religious  authority. 
Thus  science  found  theology  resisting  its  efforts,  and 
theology  found  science  undermining  its  system. 

II.  The  Main  Stages  op  the  "Conflict." — 

1.  The  Copemican  cosmology  completely  altered 
the  existing  theological  picture  of  the  universe.  The 
earth  was  declared  to  be  a  relatively  insignificant 
satellite,  instead  of  being  the  fixed  center  of  the 
universe.  The  biblical  cosmology,  then,  could  not 
be  taken  literally,  and  the  authority  of  the  Bible  was 
challenged. 

2.  Kepler's  laws,  and  Newton's  discovery  of  the 
imiversality  of  the  force  of  gravitation  substituted 
a  mechanistic  for  a  theological  explanation.  _  New- 
ton's theory  was  declared  by  some  theologians  to 
"dethrone  Providence." 

3.  Geological  science  during  the  19th.  century 
gave  an  evolutionary  account  of  the  earth's  history 
strikingly  different  from  the  creation  story  in 
Genesis.  In  the  place  of  six  creative  days  came  the 
picture  of  an  age-long  cosmic  evolution  of  the 
earth  with  an  indefinite  continuation  of  the  geo- 
logical processes  into  the  future. 

4.  The  science  of  zoology  revealed  a  compUcated, 
age-long  evolution  of  fife,  in  which  species  are 
more  or  less  unstable  so  that  new  forms  of  life  con- 
tinually appear.  The  account  of  plant  and  animal 
creation  in  Genesis  is  thus  discredited. 

5.  The  evolutionary  hypothesis  brought  man 
within  the  range  of  animal  evolution  and  thus 
explained  his  origin  in  a  way  conflicting  with  the 
biblical  account. 

6.  The  doctrine  of  the  uniformity  of  nature,  which 
is  presupposed  in  modern  science,  tends  to  dis- 
credit the  conception  of  miracle  as  an  interference 
with  the  laws  of  nature. 

III.  Proposed  Solutions  of  the  Conflict. — 
These  generally  fall  into  one  of  the  following  four 
typical  classes: 

1.  An  uncompromising  affirmation  of  theo- 
logical authority,  coupled  with  a  denunciation  of 
"science  falsely  so-called."  This  was  the  position 
taken  by  both  Catholic  and  Protestant  theologians 
for  a  long  time.  It  is  still  maintained  in  principle, 
though  with  inteUigent  concessions  to  science,  by 
Catholicism,  and  is  vigorously  advocated  by 
Protestant  theologians  who  wish  to  retain  the 
doctrine  of  verbal  or  plenary  inspiration  of  the 
Bible.  It,  of  course,  makes  impossible  any  co- 
operation between  religion  and  modern  science. 

2.  The  so-called  "harmonization"  of  science 
with  the  Bible.  BeUeving  that  God's  revelation 
must  correspond  with  demonstrated  fact,  certain 
theologians  have  sought  a  "true"  interpretation  of 
Scripture  which  shall  correspond  to  estabhshed 
scientific^  doctrine.  The  purpose  underlying  this 
attempt  is  to  reconcile  science  and  religion;  but  the 
effort  to  read  modern  ideas  into  ancient  hterature  is 
historically  open  to  serious  objection. 

3.  The  renunciation  by  theology  of  any  attempt 
to  dictate  scientific  positions,  but  the  retention  of 
the  idea  of  authoritative  doctrine  in  the  purely 
religious  realm.  This  position  forfeits  all  claims 
on  science  in  return  for  immunity  from  scientific 
criticism.  It  is  a  precarious  security  which  is 
gained;  for  if  science  be  excluded  from  religious 
thinking,  some  form  of  mysticism  must  bear  the 
entire  weight  of  theological  conclusions.     Moreover 


a  mind  trained  in  scientific  method  is  not  satisfied 
with  non-scientific  reasoning  in  theology. 

4.  The  reorganization  of  rehgious  thinking  in 
accord  with  modern  scientific  principles.  This  is 
being  undertaken  by  many  constructive  minds. 
It  involves  the  empirical  and  historical  study  of 
religion,  and  an  inductively  ascertained  interpre- 
tation of  the  facts  thus  discovered.  It  revises 
the  theological  theories  of  former  ages  as  freely  as 
science  revises  its  theories.  While  the  power  of 
dogmatic  authority  vanishes,  the  appeal  of  religion 
can  be  based  on  indisputable  rational,  moral,  and 
social  demands. 

Science  and  religion  are  two  ways  of  finding 
enrichment  of  life.  Science  discloses  the  ways  in 
which  things  behave,  and  enables  us  to  control 
processes  of  nature.  Religion  interprets  the  fact 
of  spiritual  kinship  between  man  and  the  vast 
reality  which  surrounds  him.  Modern  theology 
will  discover  and  interpret  the  possibilities  of  wor- 
ship in  the  world  as  explained  by  modern  science. 
Gerald  Birnet  Smith 

SCIENCE  OF  RELIGION.— A  comparatively 
modern  department  of  study  devoted  to  the  religious 
phenomena  of  mankind  with  a  view  to  discovering 
the  historical  development  of  religions,  the  psycho- 
logical origin  and  nature  of  their  customs  and  ideas 
and  the  place  of  religion  in  cosmic  evolution.  These 
three  phases  are  usually  separated  as  History  of 
Religions,  Psychology  of  Religion,  and  Philosophy 
of  Religion;  or  as  Hierography,  Hierology,  and 
Hierosophy. 

The  development  of  the  science  has  been  slow 
owing  to  a  lack  of  consensus  as  to  method.  Some 
of  the  presuppositions  which  hampered  early  stu- 
dents may  be  mentioned,  for  example,  the  assump- 
tion that  Christianity  is  the  true  religion  and 
others  false  or  defective,  which  was  again  based  on 
the  idea  that  reh'gion  is  a  matter  of  beUef  or  of 
truth  revealed  from  God  to  man;  or  the  assumption 
that  reUgions  develop  in  a  uniform  way  so  that  it  is 
only  necessary  to  fix  upon  the  starting-point  of 
reUgion  and  then  arrange  the  various  phases  of 
religious  history  according  to  the  prearranged 
plan;  or  that  the  essence  of  religion  may  be  sharply 
defined  and  then  the  history  of  a  religion  written 
about  the  definition.  At  least  a  dozen  starting- 
points  of  reUgion  have  been  defended;  elements  of 
religion  apparently  similar  in  separate  reUgions 
have  been  discovered  on  investigation  to  be  really 
different;  broad  generalizations  have  repeatedly 
proven  insecure;  true  and  false  have  been  seen  to 
be  relative  terms — with  the  result  that  modern 
students  of  religious  history  tend  to  abandon  the 
quest  for  a  religion  in  general  and  to  undertake 
the  much  more  arduous  task  of  discovering  the 
historic  development  of  each  separate  religion  as  a 
unique  thing  in  the  light  of  its  whole  natural  and 
cultural  setting.  Starting  with  the  assumption 
that  religion  is  a  function  of  the  changing,  growing 
life  of  a  human  group,  the  problem  of  religious  history 
is  to  see  how  they  developed  their  instruments  of 
ideas,  customs  and  institutions  to  control  the 
environment  and  themselves  in  the  interest  of  the 
good  life. 

The  psychology  of  religion  undertakes  the  task 
of  explaining  the  origin  of  religious  ideas  and 
customs,  the  nature  of  religious  behavior  and  of 
determining  methods  of  developing,  changing  and 
recreating  individual  and  social  minds  in  the  light 
of  the  ideal  of  life. 

The  philosophy  of  religion  attempts  to  orient  the 
life  of  man  in  the  universe  but  more  particularly 
in  the  evolving  world  and,  making  use  of  the  findings 
of  the  sciences,  to  project  ideals  for  the  achievement 
of  an  ever  more  perfect  social  organization  of 
humanity.  A.  Eustace  Hatdon 


403 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Secret  Societies 


SCILLITAN  MARTYRS.— A  company  of  twelve 
Christians  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  North  Africa 
under  Marcus  Aurelius,  180,  and  whose  "Acts"  is 
the  earUest  specimen  of  Christian  Latin. 

SCOTCH  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH.— A  con- 
fession of  faith  drawn  up  by  order  of  and  adopted  by 
the  Scottish  parUament  in  1560  by  John  Knox  and 
five  collaborators.  In  1568  it  was  readopted  after 
Queen  Mary's  abdication.  It  is  Calvinistic,  and 
was  superseded  by  the  Westminster  Confession, 
1648.    See  Confessions  op  Faith. 

SCOTUS,  DUNS.— See  Duns  Scottjs. 

SCRIBE,  SCRIBISM.— The  name  and  work  of 
a  certain  Jewish  religious  functionary. 

The  unique  place  given  to  the  Scriptures  among 
the  Jews  led  to  the  rise  of  a  class  called  Scribes, 
whose  professional  task  was  the  interpretation  of 
this  body  of  sacred  literature.  Ezra  is  commonly 
regarded  as  the  first  representative  of  the  scribal 
movement,  which  by  the  1st.  century  a.d.  had 
become  a  characteristic  feature  of  Judaism.  Appar- 
ently by  this  date  the  scribe  was  commonly  given 
the  respectful  title  of  Rabbi  (q.v.).  The  primary 
duty  or  the  scribe  was  to  interpret  the  Law.  He 
explained  its  meaning  with  reference  to  judicial 
matters,  he  was  also  the  professional  teacher  who 
gave  instruction  in  the  schoolsj  and  he  expounded 
the  practical  and  hortatory  implications  of  the 
Scriptures  in  general.  Gradually  successive  genera- 
tions of  scribes  produced  a  large  body  of  oral 
teaching  which  ultimately  attained  a  position  of 
authority  second  only  to  that  of  the  sacred  books. 
It  was  these  "traditions  of  the  fathers"  which  Paul 
had  studied  zealously  prior  to  his  conversion  to 
Christiam'ty  (Gal.  1 :  14)  and  which  occasioned  cer- 
tain conflicts  between  Jesus  and  his  contemporaries 
as  reported  in  the  gospels.  Subsequently  this 
oral  tradition  was  given  written  form  in  the  Mishnah 
(q.v.)  which,  supplemented  in  later  times  by 
extensive  comments,  constitutes  the  oldest  element 
in  the  Talmud  (q.v.).    See  Judaism. 

S.  J.  Case 

SCRIPTORIUM. — The  room  in  a  monastery  set 
apart  for  writing  or  copying  manuscripts. 

SCRIPTURE.— The  sacred  books  of  any  reli- 
mon,  such  as  of  Hinduism  or  Zoroastrianism.  The 
Christian  Bible  (q.v.)  is  frequently  referred  to  as  the 
Scripture,  Scriptures,  or  Holy  Scriptures.  See 
Sacred  Literatures. 

SCRUPLE. — Reluctance  or  misgiving,  arising 
from  ethical  or  religious  motives,  concerning  one's 
obligation  respecting  a  proposed  course  of  action. 

SCRUTINY.-^In  the  R.C.  church  the  method  of 
electing  a  pope  in  distinction  from  acclamation 
and  accession,  by  a  careful  investigation  of  all 
ballots,  the  voting  having  been  done  secretly,  one 
vote  more  than  two  thirds  being  requisite  for  a 
successful  candidate. 

SEAL. — 'A  device  engraved  or  stamped  on  a 
metaUic  surface,  used  in  making  an  impression 
upon  a  plastic  material,  such  as  wax  upon  a  docu- 
ment, to  give  assurance  of  its  authenticity.  The 
use  of  such  seals  is  very  widespread,  and  includes 
the  seals  of  monastic  orders  and  ecclesiastical 
offices  and  institutions.  By  analogy,  the  sacrament 
as  the  means  of  imprinting  an  indelible  mark  on 
the  soul  or  as  an  attestation  of  the  grace  of  Gfod,  is 
called  a  seal. 

SEAMEN,  MISSIONS  TO.— The  first  reli- 
gious organization  for  the  benefit  of  seamen  was  the 


Bible  Society,  afterwards  called  the  Naval  and 
Military  Bible  Society,  organized  in  London, 
Eng.,  in  1780.  From  that  time  organizations 
have  multipUed  to  provide  sailors  with  copies 
of  the  Scriptures,  with  church  services,  reading- 
rooms,  rests  and  homes  in  ports  and  other  con- 
vem'ences.  These  societies  are  chiefly  British, 
Scandinavian,  German  and  American,  the  following 
being  the  principal  ones:  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  dating  from  the  Port  of  London  Society 
1818,  and  the  Bethel  Union  Society,  1819,  the 
Missions  to  Seamen,  the  Royal  National  Mission  to 
Deep  Sea  Fishermen,  the  American  Seamen's 
Friend  Society  dating  from  1828  and  the  German 
Evangelical  Seamen's  Mission. 

SEBASTIAN,  SAINT.— A  young  Christian 
soldier  of  Milan  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  the 
reign  of  Diocletian;  a  popular  subject  in  sacred 
art  because  of  his  youth  and  beauty.  His  festival 
is  celebrated  on  January  20. 

SECOND  ADVENT.— See  Millenarianism. 

SECRET  SOCIETIES  (PRIMITIVE).— A  gen- 
eral term  to  describe  the  sacred  corporations, 
magico-religious  fraternities,  and  esoteric  orders, 
or  "mysteries,"  of  savage  and  barbarous  peoples. 

Almost  every  primitive  community  has  its 
secrets,  carefully  guarded  from  women,  children, 
and  strangers,  or  non-tribesmen.  The  exclusion 
of  these  classes  of  persons  rests,  fundamentally, 
upon  widespread  beliefs  as  to  their  dangerous 
influence.  See  Taboo.  Among  the  Australians 
the  secret  association  includes  all  the  adult  males 
of  the  community,  and  initiation  into  it  is  com- 
pulsory for  every  boy  upon  the  arrival  of  puberty. 
See  Initiation.  The  true  secret  society,  however, 
is  a  voluntary  body  and  in  its  most  developed  form 
may  quite  ignore  differences  of  sex,  age,  and  tribal 
grouping.  Ultimately,  it  becomes,  on  the  rehgious 
side,  a  church,  if  by  a  church  is  meant  any  brother- 
hood whose  members  unite  voluntarily  for  worship. 

1.  Organization. — 1.  Membership. — Limitation 
of  membership  forms  an  essential  feature  of  the 
developed  secret  society,  but  in  this  respect  wide 
diversities  of  custom  exist.  In  Melanesia  there  are 
societies  which  include  the  majority  of  the  adult 
males  of  a  community  and  others  restricted  to 
chiefs  and  the  aristocracy.  Women  belong  to 
some  societies  in  Polynesia,  Africa,  and  North 
America,  but  their  admission  is  probably  a  late 
development.  Africa,  again,  affords  instances  of 
societies  whose  members  are  exclusively  women  or 
slaves.  As  a  rule  a  secret  society  enrolls  only 
fellow-tribesmen,  though  some  large  and  power- 
ful associations  ramify  through  several  tribes. 
Membership  in  a  society  is  often  open  and  pubhc; 
in  other  cases  it  is  carefully  concealed,  with  the 
result  that  no  one  knows  whether  or  not  his  neigh- 
bor is  an  initiate.  A  man  may  sometimes  belong 
to  several  societies,  especially  where  they  have 
different  objects  and  functions. 

2.  Degrees. — A  primitive  secret  society  is 
usually  divided  into  grades  or  degrees,  through 
which  initiates  ascend.  The  general  tendency 
will  be  to  increase  the  number  of  degrees  and  to 
make  the  passage  through  them  constantly  more 
difficult  and  expensive.  The  entire  cost  of  taking 
all  the  degrees  of  Egbo,  an  important  West  African 
order,  has  been  estimated  to  amount  to  over  five 
thousand  dollars.  The  fortimate  few  who  have 
the  wealth  and  social  influence  necessary  to  reach 
the  higher  degrees  thus  come  to  form  an  inner 
circle  and  control  the  organization  in  their  own 
interests.  The  Melanesian  Dukduk,  for  example, 
is  managed  by  the  chief  and  the  leading  members 


Secret  Societies 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


404 


of  the  tribe.  The  origin  of  secret-society  degrees 
is  obscure,  but  in  many  cases  they  appear  to  be 
an  outgrowth  of  the  "age-classes,"  i.e.,  groupings 
of  men  of  approximately  the  same  age,  which  are 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  aboriginal  world. 

3.  The  lodge. — A  secret  society  among  primitive 
races  must  have  its  lodge,  where  the  members  resort 
for  social  intercourse  and  the  performance  of  their 
mysterious  ceremonies.  It  is  usually  estabUshed 
in  some  secluded  place  convenient  to  the  settlement. 
Women,  children,  and  uninitiated  men  may  not 
approach  it  on  pain  of  death.  The  lodge  seems  to 
be  often  a  development  of  the  "men's  house,"  a 
sort  of  club,  pubhc  hall,,  council  chamber,  and 
sleeping  resort  for  the  men  of  a  primitive  com- 
munity. 

4.  Paraphernalia. — ^The  proceedings  of  all  secret 
societies  are  carried  out  with  much  mummery,  dis- 
guising, and  the  use  of  various  devices  to  awe  and 
terrify  outsiders.  But  the  paraphernaha  of  the 
mysteries,  however  basely  employed,  are  everywhere 
connected  with  magico-rehgious  ideas.  Thus,  the 
bull-roarer  (q.v.),  which  is  so  generally  used  to 
frighten  the  uninitiated  or  to  give  warning  that 
secret  rites  are  being  performed,  holds  a  very 
important  place  in  savage  religion.  The  muffled 
roar  which  it  produces  when  rapidly  swung  is  some- 
times regarded  as  the  voice  of  the  tribal  god.  The 
instrument  is  also  supposed  to  possess  magical 
efficacy  and  to  be  potent  in  rain-making  ceremonies. 
Masks  are  worn  by  members  of  secret  societies, 
not  only  as  disguises,  but  also  as  means  of  imperson- 
ating totemic  deities.  The  wearer  of  a  mask  is 
supposed  to  lose  his  own  personaUty  and  to  be 
possessed  by  the  being  whom  it  represents.  Both 
bull-roarers  and  masks  often  retain  a  sacred  signifi- 
cance long  after  the  disappearance  of  the  secret 
rites  in  which  they  figured.  The  exhibition  to  the 
novices  of  these  and  other  sacra  forms  the  central 
and  most  impressive  feature  of  the  initiation  rites. 

II.  Functions. — 1.  Initiatory. — Where  practi- 
cally all  the  adult  males  of  the  community  form  a 
secret  association,  one  of  its  most  important  duties 
is  that  of  initiating  the  tribal  youth  into  manhood. 
The  neophytes  are  removed  from  defiling  contact 
with  women,  subjected  to  various  ordeals,  instructed 
in  rehgion,  morality,  and  traditional  lore,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  new  name,  a  new  language,  and  new 
privileges — in  a  word,  made  men.  This  initiatory 
procedure  may  be  retained  by  secret  societies, 
properly  so  called,  though  sometimes  boys  who 
have  not  reached  the  age  of  puberty  are  admitted 
to  them. 

2.  Politico-judicial. — To  outside  observation 
the  poUtical  and  judicial  duties  of  many  secret 
societies,  particularly  in  Melanesia  and  Africa, 
appear  especially  noteworthy.  The  societies  pun- 
ish criminals  and  act  as  executioners,  serve  as  night 
police,  collect  debts,  protect  private  property,  and, 
when  they  extend  over  a  wide  area,  help  to  maintain 
intertribal  amity.  The  Melanesian  Dukduk  has 
been  described  as  "judge,  pohceman,  and  hangman 
all  in  one."  Where  it  prevails  the  natives  are 
afraid  to  commit  any  serious  offense.  The  West 
African  society,  says  Miss  Kingsley,  "as  a  machine 
for  the  people  is  splendid:  can  tackle  a  tyrannous 
chief,  keep  women  in  order,  and  even  regulate  pigs 
and  chickens,  as  nothing  else  has  been  able  to  do 
in  West  Africa."  The  value  of  these  associations, 
as  guardians  of  law  and  order,  is  now  being  more  and 
more  recognized  in  colonial  administration.  On 
the  other  hand,  their  activity  is  usually  attended 
with  much  oppression  of  the  uninitiated,  especially 
women,  who  are  compelled  to  make  heavy  contribu- 
tions of  food  and  are  often  severely  whipped  for  real 
or  suspected  lapses  from  the  path  of  rectitude. 
The   power  of   the  secret  societies  rests  largely 


upon  the  belief,  assiduously  cultivated  among 
outsiders,  that  the  members  are  in  constant  associa- 
tion with  evil  spirits  and  the  ghosts  of  the  dead. 

3.  Magico-religious. — -Ceremonies  of  a  magico- 
religious  character  are  performed  by  many  of  the 
societies,  especially  in  North  America.  The 
masked  and  costumed  members  impersonate  animal 
or  supernatural  characters  and  present  songs, 
dances,  and  tableaux  vivants,  forming  an  elaborate 
dramatization  of  the  native  legends.  They  con- 
duct various  rites  connected  with  the  ripening  of 
the  crops,  the  production  of  rain,  and  the  multiplica- 
tion of  animals  used  for  food.  The  preparation 
of  charms  and  spells,  the  discovery  of  witchcraft, 
and  the  cure  of  diseases  are  also  included  among 
their  functions.  In  some  cases  these  orders  prac- 
tically monopolize  the  tribal  magic  and  religion. 

III.  Origin. — The  various  activities  of  primi- 
tive secret  societies,  as  dramatic,  magico-reUgious, 
and  initiatory  corporations,  bear  a  marked  resem- 
blance to  those  of  totemic  clans.  See  Totemism. 
This  fact  suggests  a  genetic  relationship  between 
the  two  institutions.  There  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  evidence,  chiefly  from  Melanesia  and 
North  America,  which  indicates  that  the  amalgama- 
tion of  a  number  of  clans  into  a  tribe  results  in  the 
formation  of  one  or  more  secret  societies,  whose 
performances  are  essentially  the  rituals  of  the 
commingled  totemic  groups.  It  does  not  necessarily 
foUow  that  the  rise  of  a  secret  society  always  breaks 
up  the  earlier  totemic  grouping.  The  clans  may 
still  survive  as  social  divisions,  though  no  longer 
in  possession  of  their  distinctive  ceremonies.  As 
a  rule,  however,  secret  societies  seem  to  flourish 
most  where  the  clan  system  is  decadent  or  has 
entirely  disappeared.  This  fact  is  not  without 
importance  in  the  general  history  of  rehgion. 
It  means  a  movement  away  from  the  narrow 
Umits  of  the  clan,  membership  in  which  depends 
on  birth,  in  the  direction  of  a  more  voluntary 
organization  enrolHng  its  members  from  all  parts  of 
the  community.  It  has,  indeed,  a  germinal 
ecclesiastical  significance. 

IV.  Decline  and  Survival. — Secret  societies 
of  the  type  that  has  been  described  are  obviously 
adapted  only  to  the  conditions  of  primitive  hfe. 
At  the  present  time  Christian  missions  and  the 
civihzing  agencies  introduced  by  traders  and  colon- 
ists are  the  most  effective  cause  of  their  downfall. 
They  often  survive,  however,  as  purely  social 
clubs.  It  is  probable  that  secret  societies  existed 
in  prehistoric  times,  since  the  Greek  and  Mithraic 
mysteries  were  reUgious  brotherhoods  which  re- 
tained in  their  initiatory  ritual  such  rude  features 
as  the  use  of  bull-roarers  and  masks,  as  well  as 
ceremonies  representing  the  death  and  resurrection 
of  the  neophytes.  Even  now  in  remote  parts  of 
Europe,  among  the  peasantry,  there  are  per- 
formances by  masked  and  costumed  actors  which 
present  a  curious  and  doubtless  not  fortuitous 
resemblance  to  the  mystic  rites  of  savagery.  It 
is  interesting,  also,  to  note  how  such  associations  as 
the  medieval  Vehmgericht  and  the  modern  White 
Caps  have  reproduced,  unconsciously,  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  primitive  secret  societies. 

HuTTON  Webster 
SECT. — A  group  which  has  separated  from 
another  more  inclusive  religious  body  because  of 
divergence  of  behef  or  practice.  A  sect  may  be 
accused  of  holding  heretical  doctrine;  but  its 
independent  organization  enables  it  to  disown 
the  authority  of  any  other  body  over  it. 

The  term  is  usually  employed  in  a  derogatory 
sense.  A  sectarian  is  supposed  to  place  petty 
pecuharities  above  the  great  unifying  fundamentals 
of  rehgion.  The  Cathohc  church  views  all  Protes- 
tant bodies  as  sects.    A  similar  conception  marks 


405 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Semi-Arianlsm 


high-church  Anglican  thinking.  Protestants  gen- 
erally refer  to  the  larger  bodies  as  denominations, 
the  sub-divisions  of  these  as  sects.  Historians  refer 
to  the  sub-species  of  the  great  religions  as  sects. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 
SECULAR  CLERGY.— The  ecclesiastical  desig- 
nation for  men  who  have  been  admitted  into 
holy  orders  but  have  not  taken  the  vows  of  a 
monastic  order. 

SECULARISM.— The  principle  that  all  activi- 
ties and  institutions  should  be  governed  solely  by 
regard  for  the  goods  of  this  hfe.  Secularism  is 
imalterably  opposed  to  ecclesiastical  control  of 
institutions.  A  prominent  tenet  of  secularism  is 
that  religion  should  be  excluded  from  the  public 
schools  and  that  no  state  support  should  be  granted 
to  any  church  or  church-controlled  institution. 

SECULARIZATION.— Appropriation  of  church 
property  by  the  state  for  pubUc  uses.  Mediaeval 
kings  often  confiscated  church  wealth  before  the 
papacy  won  control.  The  Reformation  involved 
many  secularizations,  especially  of  monasteries,  as 
in  England.  Catholic  countries  expelling  the 
Jesuits  in  the  18th.  century  secularized  their  wealth. 
Austria  secularized  two-fifths  of  the  convents  in 
1782.  Similar  instances  occur  in  Portugal  (1833, 
1864,  1910),  Spain  (1838),  Italy  (1870),  France 
(1901,  1904).  The  whole  wealth  of  the  French 
Church  was  declared  national  property  in  1789, 
since  when  the  church  has  had  only  the  use  of 
buildings.  In  1803,  to  compensate  them  for  loss 
of  territory  to  France,  German  sovereigns  were 
given  the  lands  of  the  Prince-Bishops  of  Cologne, 
Mainz  and  Trier.  F.  A.  Christie 

SEDER. — A  Hebrew  term  for  the  ceremonial 
meal  and  the  ritual  connected  therewith  celebrated 
at  Passover  in  the  Hebrew  home  under  the  direction 
of  the  head  of  the  family. 

SEDUCTION.— Enticement  of  a  person  from 
right  conduct  by  alluring,  but  specious,  considera- 
tions; specifically,  enticing  a  woman  to  sacrifice 
her  virtue  by  allurement  or  promise  of  marriage. 

SEE,  THE  HOLY.— See  Holy  See;  Pope. 

SEEKERS. — 'The  name  applied  to  a  group  of 
radical  rehgious  enthusiasts  in  England  in  the  17th. 
century.  They  sought  to  attain  a  purely  spiritual 
hfe  in  which  the  trammels  of  the  flesh  should  be 
eliminated.  In  this  quest  they  objected  to  the 
imposition  of  external  authority  and  were  accused 
by  churchmen  of  various  extravagances.  They 
believed  in  non-resistance,  and  denied  the  right  of 
the  state  to  coerce  men. 

SELF-DEFENSE.— In  jurisprudence,  the  right 
to  defend  one's  person,  property  or  reputation  from 
maUcious  illegal  attacks,  involving  violence  or 
danger.  Under  certain  circumstances  the  law 
declares  a  person  innocent  who  kills  another  in  self- 
defense.  In  politics  the  right  claimed  by  a  state 
or  by  a  group  of  citizens  in  a  state  to  defend  insti- 
tutions or  other  cherished  privileges  from  malicious 
attacks,  sometimes  a  justification  for  civil  or  inter- 
national war.  Ethically,  the  exercise  of  seK- 
defense  is  a  difficult  problem  for  moral  judgment; 
in  some  instances  submission  may  seem  the  wiser 
course,  while  in  other  instances,  especially  where 
social  interests  are  at  stake,  self-defense  is  usually 
judged  the  only  ethical  course.  There  are  various 
Christian  bodies  which  on  the  basis  of  Matt.  5: 39  ff. 
deny  the  right  of  employing  violence  even  in  self- 
defence.    See  Non-resistance. 


SELF-DEND^.— The  subordination  of  one's 
personal  ambitions  or  appetites  in  the  interests 
of  promoting  a  larger  good,  such  as  the  altruistic 
motive  of  seeking  the  welfare  of  others,  or  the  reli- 
gious motive  of  seeking  the  glory  of  God.  Self-denial 
is  fundamental  in  asceticism,  monasticism,  Puritan- 
ism, and  forms  of  social  and  missionary  service. 
Also  called  self-sacrifice.  Modern  psychology  recog- 
nizes the  existence  of  several  potential  "selves" 
in  any  individual's  aspirations.  Any  choice  involves 
the  suppression  of  a  certain  "self"  so  as  to  give 
right  of  way  to  another  "self."  It  is  only  when  a 
choice  involves  the  sacrifice  of  strong  emotional 
attachments  that  one  becomes  conscious  of  self- 
denial.  The  wiUingness  to  subordinate  personal 
preferences  to  a  larger  good  is  a  mark  of  moral 
earnestness.    See  Self-realization. 

SELF-PRESERVATION.— The  instinctive  de- 
sire to  make  one's  hfe  secure  by  preventing  hostile 
forces  from  inflicting  damage. 

The  "right  of  self-preservation"  is  usually  a 
sufficient  justification  for  action.  But  this  instinct 
has  expressed  itself  in  certain  powerful  emotions 
which  may  suppress  other  considerations.  If  every 
individual  is  permitted  to  indulge  the  suggestions  of 
fear,  hatred,  pugnacity,  etc.,  the  welfare  of  all 
other  individuals  is  endangered.  The  instinct  is 
therefore  regularly  subjected  to  social  control.  The 
individual  is  led  so  to  identify  himself  with  his 
group  that  his  desire  for  self-preservation  is  blended 
in  desire  to  maintain  the  group  hfe.  In  this  way 
the  instinct  may  be  transmuted  into  the  ideal  of 
loyalty  to  a  cause  in  which  one  finds  the  reahzation 
of  his  better  "self."  See  Self-realization;  Self- 
defense. 

SELF-REALIZATION.— The  moral  ideal  or 
goal  of  conduct  conceived  as  development  of  person- 
ahty.  Impulsions  and  desires  are  distinctively 
human  just  so  far  as  they  are  related  to  the  hfe  of 
the  self  as  a  whole.  The  organization  of  this 
personal  hfe  may  reach  different  degrees  of  coherence 
and  may  center  about  different  kinds  of  interest. 
To  that  extent  one  may  speak  of  different  "selves" 
in  the  same  person,  as  for  example  higher  and  lower 
or  momentary  and  lasting.  The  theory  under 
definition  conceives  the  moral  ideal  to  be  the  devel- 
opment of  the  most  comprehensive,  lasting,  and  inte- 
grated self,  the  "true"  self.  This  ideal  reconciles 
self-sacrifice  and  self-expression,  satisfaction  of 
feehng  and  rational  control.  It  is  conceived  not 
as  a  static  goal,  attainable  once  for  all,  but  a  dynamic 
process,  an  endless  unfolding  of  the  potential  self. 
It  is  social  rather  than  individual,  because  the  true 
self  is  universal;  one  can  develop  only  in  union  with 
others,  ultimately  with  all  others.  Therefore  the 
precept,  "Be  a  person,"  requires  no  added  precept, 
"Respect  others  as  persons";  the  former  involves 
the  latter.  This  ethical  ideal  is  propounded  in  a 
metaphysical  sense  by  Hegelian  idealism,  and  in 
an  empirical  sense  by  recent  psychological  ethics. 

J.  F.  Crawford 

SELF-SACRIFICE. — See  Self-denial. 

SELFISHNESS. — The  reference  of  ambitions, 
choices,  courses  of  action,  etc.,  solely  to  selfish  inter- 
ests, in  contrast  with  the  altruistic  or  rehgious 
interests,  recognized  in  self-denial  (q.v.).  Since 
regard  for  selfish  interests  is  apparently  the  most 
persistent  motive  in  human  life,  attempts  have  been 
made  to  construct  ethical  theories  on  this  basis. 
See  Hedonsim.  The  anti-social  consequences  of 
selfishness  are  so  evident,  however,  that  the  term 
is  ordinarily  used  to  denote  an  imethical  attitude. 

SEMI-ARIANISM.— The  position  of  the  medi- 
ating party  in  the  Christological  controversy  of  the 


Semi-Pelagianism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


406 


4th.  century,  affirming  that  the  Son  is  of  like  sub- 
stance to  the  Father.    See  Homoiousios. 

SEMI-PELAGIANISM.— A  movement  arising 
simultaneously  in  N.  Africa  and  Gaul,  attempting 
to  mediate  between  the  extremes  of  Augustinian 
predestinarianism  and  Pelagian  free  will.  The 
distinctive  teaching  was  that  in  regeneration  there 
was  co-operation  of  the  divine  grace  and  human 
will.  This  position  was  disapproved  at  the  councils 
of  Orange  and  Valence  in  529  because  it  posited  a 
measure  of  human  abiUty,  but  the  condemning 
councUs  forbade  the  teaching  of  predestination  to 
evil.  Semi-Pelagianism  has  appeared  repeatedly 
in  theology,  although  not  avowedly  under  that 


SEMINARIST.— See  Seminaky-Priest. 

SEMINARY-PRIEST.— In  the  Roman  CathoUc 
chuych,  usually  apphed  to  a  priest  educated  in  a 
foreign  seminary.    Also  called  Seminarist. 

SEMITES,  RELIGION  OF  THE.— The  reUgion 
of  the  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Hebrews,  Phoeni- 
cians, Aramaeans,  Syrians,  Arabs,  and  all  the  other 
kindred  peoples  of  S.  W.  Asia,  namely,  of  Arabia  and 
the  region  to  the  north  bordered  by  Persia,  Asia 
Minor  and  the  Mediterranean. 

I.  Range. — All  these  peoples  differed  con- 
siderably as  regards  the  age,  extent  and  character  of 
their  culture.  They  range  from  the  desert  and 
nomad  tribes  of  all  ages  to  civihzed  states  and 
empires.  The  culture  of  the  famous  empires  of 
Babylonia  and  of  Assyria  can  be  traced  back  to 
about  the  beginning  of  the  3rd.  millennium  B.C., 
that  of  the  Hebrews,  Phoenicians  and  other  petty 
states  of  Palestine  and  Syria  flourished  in  the  1st. 
millennium  B.C.,  and  that  of  the  Arabs  fell  into 
two  periods,  one  before  the  Christian  era  which  is 
separated  by  an  age  of  transition  and  decay  from 
the  other,  the  highly  distinctive  culture  of  the  Moham- 
medans, dating  from  the  7th.  century  a.d.  This 
is  not  to  mention  the  cultures  of  the  Old  Aramaeans 
of  north  Syria  (8th.  century  b.c),  the  Nahataeans, 
Pahnyrenes,  and  others  of  less  prominence.  More- 
over, many  of  the  Semitic  peoples  have,  at  one 
time  or  another,  carried  their  rehgion  outside 
the  Semitic  area  proper;  and  three  great  positive 
religions  of  today  are  of  Semitic  origin — 'Judaism, 
Christianity  and  Islam.  Consequently,  in  order 
to  keep  the  subject  within  Kmits,  it  is  customary 
to  treat  under  the  title  of  this  article  the  general 
features,  referring  the  reader  to  details  for  the  sepa- 
rate articles  on  the  positive  rehgions  and  the  reU- 
gions  of  the  peoples  mentioned. 

II.  Main  Periods. — 1.  Sumero-Semitic. — Semi- 
tic religion  viewed  as  a  whole  can  be  conveniently 
divided  into  three  main  periods.  Although  some 
of  the  early  prehistoric  stages  can  be  reconstructed 
from  the  excavations  and  from  the  primitive  features 
of  the  Semitic  rehgions.  the  first  period  is  character- 
ized by  the  highly  developed  religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  dating  from  about  3000  B.C.  Here, 
as  also  in  Egypt  during  the  3rd.  millennium,  rehgions 
thought,  ethical  ideas  and  social-political  institutions 
reached  a  level  which  is  astonishingly  elevated  when 
compared  with  that  at  which  many  primitive  and 
savage  tribes  still  remain.  The  culture,  however,  is 
largely  indebted  to  the  non-Semitic  Sumerians. 
It  was  at  its  apogee  during  the  First  Babylonian 
Dyriasty,  a  distinctively  Semitic  dynasty,  famous 
for  its  royal  legislator  Hammurapi  (about  2000  B.C.). 
The  rise  of  Babylon  involved  the  supremacy  of  its 
local  god  Marduk  over  other  gods;  old  h3Tnns  and 
myths  were  reshaped,  the  rehgion  received  a  stamp 
which  it  continued  to  maintain,  and  the  rehgious 


hterature  assumed  a  form  that  became  classical. 
This  Grolden  Age  and  Creative  Epoch  was  followed 
by  many  centuries  of  events  of  political  significance, 
and  about  1000  b.c.  we  reach  the  age  of  Assyria  and 
the  small  peoples  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 

2.  Palestinian. — ^Assyria  became  the  heir  of 
Babylonian  culture,  and  after  some  extraordinary 
military  successes  suddenly  broke  down  amid  far- 
reaching  ethnical  movements  and  internal  confusion 
throughout  W.  Asia.  The  old  empires  of  Assyria 
and  (after  a  short-hved  renascence)  of  Babylonia 
now  disappeared,  and  Indo-European  influence 
spread,  through  the  presence  of  the  Persians  and, 
later,  the  Greeks.  The  significance  of  this  period 
hes  in  the  rehgious  history  of  Palestine.  The  Old 
Testament  represents  (in  the  modern  historical 
view)  the  outcome  of  the  profoundest  of  religious 
developments  prior  to  the  Christian  era.  The  old 
religion  of  the  Hebrews,  very  closely  akin  to  that  of 
all  other  Semitic  peoples,  received  a  new  impulse, 
and  a  new  spiritual  force  animated  and  reshaped 
the  earlier  beliefs.  Hence  the  O.T.  as  a  whole  is 
closely  related  to  the  Semitic  rehgions,  yet  no  less 
unambiguously  testifies  to  the  changes  effected 
by  the  prophets  and  other  men  of  rehgious  genius  in 
Israel.  The  newly  reconstituted  religion  appears 
in  the  5th.  century  b.c.  as  that  Judaism,  the  origin 
of  which  was  traditionally  carried  back  to  the 
relatively  remote  beginnings  of  the  people.  So, 
while  empires  and  states  fell,  Israel  stood  forth  as  a 
rock,  and  faithful  Jews  resisted  the  increasing 
influences  of  Greek  thought.  The  fusion  of  Semitic 
and  Greek  (Hellenistic)  ideas  chiefly  affected  the 
educated  and  governing  classes;  and  another  age  of 
far-reaching  unrest — more  psychical  than  ethical — 
was  vital  for  Semitic  rehgion.  Christianity  arose 
and  grew  up  in  opposition  to  Judaism;  but  although 
each  reacted  upon  the  other,  it  is  noteworthy  that 
neither  can  be  said  to  undergo  any  continuous  and 
effective  development  upon  Semitic  soil.  The 
Second  Period  closes  with  the  increasing  weakness 
of  these  two  rehgions  among  the  people  and  the 
decay  of  western  (Byzantine)  influence. 

3.  Mohammedan. — The  third  period  is  Arabian — • 
due  to  the  rise  of  a  new  rehgion  under  Mohammed  in 
the  7th.  century  a.d.  It  spread  with  amazing 
rapidity  throughout  the  Semitic  area,  and  far 
beyond;  and  its  success  has  always  called  for 
explanation.  It  would  seem  that,  among  other 
causes,  the  simphcity  and  directness  of  the  funda- 
mental tenets  of  Islam  made  it  more  authoritative 
and  intelligible  than  the  relatively  highly  developed 
thought  of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  It  is  an 
instructive  fact,  therefore,  that  as  Islam  con- 
quered and  developed  its  theology  and  philosophy 
(with  some  indebtedness  to  the  earlier  progress  of 
thought  among  its  defeated  rivals),  it  soon  began 
to  pass  beyond  the  mental  horizon  of  its  simpler 
adherents.  Consequently,  under  a  veneer  of  Islam 
there  may  often  be  seen  ideas  strange  and  contrary 
to  it,  although  in  entire  harmony  with  popular 
psychology.  So,  the  third  period  ends  at  the  present 
age  with  very  considerable  divergence  of  rehgious 
belief  among  the  various  strata  of  population;  and, 
as  frequently  happened  (e.g.,  during  the  old  Hebrew 
monarchies),  popular  religion  tends  to  encourage 
features  which  cannot  be  tolerated  by  the  loftier 
and  more  organized  conceptions  and  ideals  which 
characterize  the  more  prominent  stages  in  the 
lengthy  history  of  Semitic  rehgion. 

III.  Special  Features. — 1.  Variety. — Judaism 
and  Christianity  arose  upon  a  soil  saturated  with 
ancient  religious  ideas;  and  many  traces  of  the 
old  Sumero-Semitic  culture  can  be  recognized 
in  the  Bible,  the  Talmud  and  early  non-canonical 
writings.  This  old  culture  collapsed  with  the  fall 
of  Assyria  and  Babylonia;  it  was  swept  away  by 


407 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS       Semites,  ReUgion  of  the 


waves  of  Persian,  Greek  and  Roman  influence,  and 
few  living  elements  remained  when  Islam  appeared. 
Islam,  in  constrast  to  the  previous  non-Semitic 
influences,  was  a  new  and  distinctively  Semitic 
impulse,  a  new  beginning,  so  to  speak.  It  intro- 
duced a  new  God  (Allah),  and  not  a  new  stage  in 
conceptions  of  God.  It  represented  a  simpler  stage 
in  religion,  and  the  general  cultural  level  was,  in  cer- 
tain respects,  simpler  than  before.  Hence  one 
cannot  assume  that  there  has  been  some  continuous 
progressive  development  in  Semitic  religion,  nor  can 
one  treat  the  desert  Arab  as  the  typical  Semite, 
or  infer  that  the  advanced  thought  of  the  priests  and 
prophets,  of  the  upper  classes,  or  of  the  higher  civiUza- 
tions  of  Babylonia  and  Assjrria  necessarily  per- 
meated all  classes  alike. 

2.  Character. — As  among  other  peoples,  the 
religious  ideas  were  practical  before  they  were 
speculative.  The  preservation  of  society  comes 
first,  whence  the  prominence  of  "agricultural" 
rehgion,  "nature-worship,"  and  also  the  importance 
of  goddesses,  virgins  or  mothers,  and  cults,  sym- 
bolical of  all  kinds  of  fertility  and  growth.  Although 
the  ceremonial  Ucentiousness,  against  which  Israelite 
prophets  thundered,  may  have  entered  from  Asia 
Minor,  a  certain  exuberance  and  sensuousness 
characterized  the  ancient  Semites.  The  horrible 
human  sacrifice  among  the  western  states,  may 
be  of  foreign  derivation,  although  it  was  appar- 
ently wanting  among  the  Assyrians.  The  civiUza- 
tion  of  this  people  became  barbaric  and  brutal  as 
it  became  a  miUtary  power.  A  just  estimate  of 
Semitic  religion  must  notice  the  indications  of 
sensuality  and  passion  as  also  the  fine  ethical  and 
spiritual  ideas,  whether  among  the  Hebrews  or 
their  neighbors.  In  general,  the  permanent  contri- 
butions of  the  Semites  to  religion  cannot  conceal 
a  characteristic  racial  immaturity  and  extreme- 
ness. 

IV.  Extremeness. — The  very  striking  varia- 
tions of  thought  even  in  the  O.T.  itseK  illustrate 
extremes  of  what  may  be  included  under  the  term 
"supernaturalism."  The  remarkable  i)re valence  of 
"magical"  and  "magico-religious"  ideas  (par- 
ticularly in  Babylonia  and  Assyria),  Jewish  angel- 
ology,  the  local  cults  of  devils  and  saints  among  the 
mediaeval  and  modern  peasantry,  the  "supersti- 
tions" exemplified  in  the  "Arabian  Nights"  with 
their  ancient  and  modern  analogies — all  these 
represent  a  "supernaturalism"  with  many  and 
profoimdly  different  forms,  varying  in  spiritual, 
ethical  and  intellectual  significance.  In  harmony 
with  these  facts  is  the  absence  of  dominating  con- 
ceptions of  personality,  law  and  order,  and  causation. 
Although  the  gods  themselves  may  be  thought  of 
as  human,  there  is  an  unstable  anthropomorphism- 
totemistic  or  animal  symbolism  and  imagery  recur, 
e.g.,  in  Babylonia.  There  is,  further,  a  strange 
alternation  betweeen  gloom,  insecurity,  and  fear,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  an  excess  of  confidence  and 
arrogance  on  the  other.  The  ideas  of  the  "super- 
natural" are  akin  to  those  of  the  political  realm,  and 
the  typical  monarch  is  autocratic,  arbitrary,  inacces- 
sible, but  changeable,  and,  on  occasion,  remarkably 
democratic  and  free  with  his  favors  ("unto  half  my 
kingdom").  There  could  be  dependence  upon 
the  rulers  either  of  the  visible  realm,  or  of  the  imseen 
and  a  certain  cringing  and  humility  interchanged 
with  a  famiUarity  and  confidence  of  which  some 
popular  narratives  of  the  O.T.  are  sufficient  proof 
(e.g.,  Judg.  7: 17,  36  fit.).  The  varjdng  conceptions 
of  the  relations  between  man  and  the  unseen  are 
analogous  to  those  among  other  peoples  but  they 
take  profoundly  significant  forms  in  Israel,  and, 
under  the  stress  of  bitter  experiences,  culminate  in 
the  consciousness  of  vital  truths  associating  God 
and  man. 


V.  Order. — What  may  be  called  an  overpower- 
ing sense  of  the  "immediacy  of  the  supernatural" 
is  exempUfied  alike  in  rehgious  fervency,  fanatical 
excess,  and  the  vagaries  of  "magic."  The  Semites 
are  relatively  primitive  in  contrast  to  the  Greeks 
with  their  conceptions  of  human  personality  and 
order.  Order  is  embodied  in  the  head  or  despot, 
or  there  is  a  recognition  of  Divine  stability  (Num. 
23:19,  etc.).  But  the  Semites  were  generally 
averse  from  order  and  discipUne,  and  lacked  system- 
atized principles  for  the  guidance  of  rehgious, 
social,  and  national  life.  Semitic  history  is  full  of 
intrigues  and  rivalries;  communities,  which  could 
flourish  in  isolation  with  their  few  and  simple 
interests,  could  not  compromise  when  beliefs  and 
ideas  were  in  opposition.  At  all  times,  social, 
political,  and  religious  ideas  intermingle,  and 
rival  groups  could  be  united  by  the  common  recog- 
nition of  a  politico-religious  head,  or  a  ruler  of 
divine  or  semi-divine  authority.  Chiefs  and  kings 
frequently  had  religious  functions,  and,  conversely, 
religious  leaders  (e.g.,  a  high-priest,  or  a  reformer) 
could  acquire  political  power.  See  Mohammed. 
A  new  dynasty  would  be  accompanied  with  some 
rehgious  activity  (cf.,  e.g.,  Jeroboam  I.,  Jehu),  and 
a  great  king,  Uke  Sargon  II.,  having  gained  the 
throne,  would  send  his  messengers  to  teach  "the 
fear  of  God  and  the  king."  Religions,  social  and 
pohtical  conditions  progressed  or  decayed  together, 
and  a  clear  example  of  radical  disintegration  can 
be  seen  in  the  days  of  Arab  "heathenism"  before 
the  rise  of  Mohammed.  The  general  similarity 
in  the  ebb  and  flow  of  events  impressed  itself  upon 
the  Semites,  but  they  have  numbered  some  excel- 
lent historians  and  the  O.T.  itself  contains  the 
earliest  written  history.  Ibn  Khaldun,  a  famous 
Mohammedan  historian  of  the  14th.  century  in 
his  discussion  of  the  usual  moral  deterioration  of 
nomads,  who  have  passed  into  settled  hfe,  asserted 
that  the  Arabs  were  incapable  of  founding  an 
empire,  unless  they  were  imbued  with  rehgious 
enthusiasm  by  a  prophet  or  saint.  And  while  he 
contended  that  esprit  de  corps  and  rehgion  were 
indispensable,  writers  in  Israel  many  centuries 
previously  saw  a  rehgious  significance  in  their  past 
and  denouncing  abuses  which  impaired  social  unity, 
inculcated  the  common  recognition  of  the  God  of 
their  fathers. 

VI.  Monotheism. — The  oft-repeated  beUef  in 
a  Semitic  tendency  to  monotheism  requires  quali- 
fication. Zeal  and  enthusiasm  favor  the  conception 
of  a  single  and  "jealous"  God;  but  in  practical  hfe 
henotheism  is  more  prevalent,  the  recognition  of 
the  supremacy  of  one  God  above  others,  who 
however,  are  not  without  their  authority.  More- 
over, pohtical  organization  made  for  the  sole 
supremacy  of  the  national  ruler  and  equally,  of  the 
national  god,  although,  again,  local  and  other 
gods  were  not  necessarily  repudiated.  Yet,  al- 
though there  are  always  various  efforts  to  co- 
ordinate or  unify  the  gods,  there  is  no  philosophical 
conception  of  a  one  and  only  God.  The  ideas  of 
order  and  of  causation  did  not  advance  sufficiently. 
Mathematics,  astronomy  (viz..  astrology)  and 
anatomy  (viz.,  Uver-divination)  ^  certainly  made 
considerable  progress  in  Babylonia,  but  they  are 
scarcely  "sciences."  The  Semites  had  not  that 
detached  interest  which,  among  the  Greeks,  led  to 
the  beginnings  of  science  and  philosophy.  On  the 
other  hand,  Orientals  have  always  been  famous 
for  proverbial  and  gnomic  utterances  and  for 
shrewd  worldly  wisdom,  and  when  Greek  phi- 
losophy spread,  it  was  this  side  of  Semitic  temper 
which  was  stimulated.  The  results  are  seen  in 
the  "Wisdom  Literature"  of  the  Jews  of  Palestine 
and  Alexandria  (Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Ben  Sira, 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  etc.).     Here  are  the  rudiments 


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408 


of  a  moral  or  ethical  philosophy  (not  developed, 
however,  as  by  the  Chinese),  a  philosophical 
climax,  the  prelude  of  which  is  the  religious-ethical 
monotheism  of  Israel — a  practical  living  faith. 

VII.  Conclusion. — Semitic  rehgion,  viewed 
as  a  whole,  is  in  an  immature  or  "child"  stage. 
The  Semites  did  not  reach  the  stage  of  intellectual 
development  exemplified  in  Indian  speculation, 
Persian  rationalism  and  the  Greek  conception  of 
order  and  personality.  But  although  the  Indo- 
European  stage  so  far  represents  a  certain 
characteristic  maturity,  it  lacks  that  rich  and  vmre- 
strained  "supernaturalism"  which,  alike  in  its 
best,  as  also  in  its  unfavorable  aspects,  is  character- 
istic of  the  Semites.  It  is  true  that  some  admirable 
advances  were  jmade,  e.g.,  in  the  age  of  Hammurapi 
(ca.  2000  B.C.),  in  Assyria  in  the  7th.  century  B.C. 
among  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  and  again  under  Islam. 
But  the  Semitic  lands  remain  the  abode  of  grotesque 
magic,  demonology  and  superstition,  foes  to  all 
further  progress,  although  none  the  less  they  are 
lands  which  gave  birth  to  impulses  which  have 
led  to  the  profoimdest  developments  outside  them. 

Stanley  A.  Cook 

SEMLER,  JOHANN  SALOMO  (1725-1791).— 
German  theological  professor  at  the  Universitjr  of 
Halle;  a  pioneer  in  the  use  of  critical,  historical 
methods  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  of  church 
history.  He  clearly  outUned  the  principles  of 
critical  scholarship  which  since  his  day  have  gradu- 
ally displaced  the  former  dogmatic  presuppositions 
which  controlled  bibUcal  and  historical  mterpre- 
tation. 

SEPARATISTS.— A  word  applied  to  religious 
bodies  which  separate  themselves  from  an  estab- 
hshed    church. 

The  state  churches  compulsory  for  the  whole 
population  which  characterized  early  Protestantism 
encountered  the  opposition  of  those  who  conceived 
the  church  as  embracing  only  those  who  in  adult 
hfe  had  experienced  divine  grace.  So  in  England 
where  a  state  church  governed  by  royally  appointed 
bishops  with  a  prescribed  form  of  worship  (Book  of 
Common  Prayer)  was  compulsory  for  all,  discontent 
affected  both  those  Puritans  who  preferred  Calvin's 
system  of  government  and  worship  and  a  more 
radical  party  of  "Separatists"  who  argued  from 
Scripture  (1)  that  a  church  was  a  voluntary  union 
of  those  only  who  shared  a  vital  religious  experience 
("a  body  of  believers"),  (2)  that  a  minister  should 
be  chosen  by  the  congregation  and  be  limited  in 
ministerial  functions  to  his  own  congregation, 
(3)  that  while  synods  were  useful  each  congregation 
was  an  autonomous  church.  Such  a  system  in- 
volved separation  from  the  sjtate  church  and  a 
segregation  of  godly  "believers"  from  the  unregener- 
ate.  Though  the  Anabaptist  views  of  Dutch 
refugees  doubtless  were  a  stimulating  influence,  these 
positions  were  argued  solely  from  Scripture  by 
Robert  Browne  who  (1580)  founded  a  Separatist 
church  in  Norwich,  removed  almost  immediately 
to  Middelburg,  Holland.  Another  church  in  Lon- 
don (1587)  had  the  variation  of  rule  by  elders  who 
once  elected  were  permanent  in  office  (Barrowism). 
A  remnant  of  this  church  fled  to  Amsterdam  (1593). 
Rejection  of  Puritan  demands  by  James  I.  (Hamp- 
ton Court  Conference,  1604)  stimulated  the  forma- 
tion of  Separatist  churches.  One  formed  in  Gains- 
borough under  John  Smyth  fled  to  Amsterdam 
(1608)  where  it  conformed  to  Mennonite  standards 
and  those  members  who  returned  to  England  made 
the  birth  of  the  great  Baptist  denomination  by  the 
creation  of  the  first  Baptist  church  in  London 
(1613)  under  Rev.  Thomas  Helwys.  The  Scrooby 
church  under  Rev.  John  Robinson  (1606),  driven 
to  Amsterdam  (1608),  and  moved  to  Leiden  (1609), 


is  the  beginning  of  the  Congregationalists.  Fearing 
absorption  in  Dutch  hfe  this  group  obtained  a  grant 
from  the  Virginia  Co.  (1619)  and  settled  at 
Plymouth  now  in  Massachusetts.  The  Puritans 
who  (1628  ff.)  migrated  to  this  neighborhood  while 
at  the  outset  conceiving  themselves  as  simply  Puri- 
tan members  of  the  EngUsh  national  church  followed 
the  model  of  the  Plymouth  Separatists  by  constitut- 
ing churches  by  a  voluntary  covenanting  of  regener- 
ate believers  with  a  ministry  appointed  by  the 
congregation.  Eventually  with  the  separation  of 
church  and  state — ^fuial  and  complete  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1833 — Congregationalism  became  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  Separatist  ideal.        F.  A.  Christie 

SEPHARDIM.— Spanish  Jews,  that  is  the 
descendants  of  the  Jews  who  were  expelled  from 
Spain  and  Portugal  in  the  15th.  century.  They  live 
now  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world.  They  have 
a  ritual  differing  from  that  of  other  Jews,  and  in 
some  places  even  speak  a  language  of  their  own,  a 
Spanish  dialect  called  Ladino. 

SEPTUAGESIMA.— The  third  Sunday  preced- 
ing Lent. 

SEPTUAGINT.— See  Versions  of  the  Bible. 

SEPULCHRE,  CANONS  REGULAR  OF  THE 
HOLY. — A  R.C.  order  founded  in  Jerusalem  in 
1114,  and  granted  the  guardianship  of  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  reputed  to  be  built  over  the 
tomb  in  which  Jesus  Christ  was  placed  after  his 
crucifixion. 

SEQUENCE.— In  R.C.  liturgies,  a  rhythmical 
Latin  hymn.  The  Dies  I  roe  and  the  Stabat  Mater, 
are  famous  examples.  At  the  Reformation  the 
sequence  was  replaced  by  a  congregational  hymn 
in  the  Lutheran  and  Anglican  hturgies. 

SERAPHIM. — The  angelic  presences  seen  by 
Isaiah  in  his  vision  (Isa.  6:2-7).  Personifications 
of  the  lightning,  originally  serpen t-hke  in  form, 
they  appear  hovering  over  the  throne  of  Yahweh, 
their  wings  symbolizing  reverence,  purity  and 
service,  their  chief  function  being  to  guard  the 
divine  holiness  (q.v.)  and  transmit  it  to  men.  For 
later  developments  see  Cherubim. 

SERAPION.— Bishop  of  Thebes,  Egypt  in  the 
4th.  century,  who  was  ranged  on  the  Athanasian 
side  in  the  Arian  controversy;  renowned  as  the 
reputed  author  of  a  sacramentary  or  prayer  book 
prepared  for  episcopal  use.  This  is  the  most 
elaborate  of  the  early  liturgical  books. 

SERAPIS. — Greco-Egyptian  deity;  a  combina- 
tion of  Osiris  and  Apis,  regarded  as  god  of  the 
underworld,  and  associated  with  cults  of  healing; 
worshiped  in  Egypt,  Greece  and  Rome. 

SERGIUS.— The  name  of  four  popes. 

Sergius  /.—Pope,  687-701. 

Sergius  II. — Pope,  844-847. 

Sergius  III.— Pope,  898,  904-911,  supported  by 
only  a  portion  of  the  cardinals.  From  898-904 
his  enemies  prevented  his  presence  in  Rome. 

Sergius  7F.— Pope,  1009-1012. 

SERMON. — A  discourse,  usually  prepared  and 
dehvered  by  a  minister  of  religion  as  a  part  of 
public  worship,  and  based  on  a  Scripture  text. 
See  Homiletics. 

SERPENT. — In  almost  every  portion  of  the 
world,  both  ancient  and  modern,  peculiar  awe  at- 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Shamanism 


taches  to  serpents.  This  is  due  to  several  factors, 
of  which  perhaps  the  most  obvious  is  the  dangerous 
character  of  the  bite  of  many  serpents,  so  that  the 
reptile  is  conceived  as  a  malignant  power  or  as 
the  embodiment  of  a  maleficent  divinity.  ^  Again,  the 
serpent  casts  its  slough,  appearing  in  renewed 
strength  and  beauty.  Hence  it  becomes  a  symbol 
of  immortahty,  and  is  sometimes  pictured  with  its 
tail  in  its  mouth  to  typify  eternity.  From  another 
point  of  view,  the  sudden  appearance  and  silent 
passage  of  the  serpent,  together  with  its  fondness  for 
living  in  holes  in  the  earth,  cause  it  to  be  regarded  as 
a  re-incarnation  of  ftie  departed;  and  this  beUef 
is  strengthened  when,  as  is  the  case  with  some 
harmless  serpents,  it  prefers  to  dwell  near,  or  even 
in  or  under,  a  human  dwelling,  the  serpent  thus 
becoming  a  household  deity. 

The  generally  uncanny  nature  of  the  serpent, 
and  its  bright,  unwinking  eyes,  cause  it  to  be 
regarded  as  especially  wise.  The  reason  for  its 
association  with  gods  of  healing,  as  the  Greek 
Asklepios,  is  obscure,  unless  such  deities  were 
originally  divinities  of  disease  as  weU  as  of  health. 
The  idea  that  the  serpent  is  associated  with  phaUic 
rites  is  to  be  viewed  with  much  reserve. 

Louis  H.  Gray 

SERVETUS,  MICHAEL  (MIGUEL  SERVETS) 
(1511-1553). — ^Spanish  physician  and  theologian, 
with  pronounced  mystical  views  which  led  to  his 
denial  of  certain  doctrines  of  traditional  Chris- 
tianity. Especial  opposition  was  aroused  by  his 
denial  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  As  a  result 
of  a  controversial  correspondence  with  John  Calvin, 
who  charged  him  with  Pantheism,  he  was  arrested, 
condemned,  fined,  and  burned  aUve. 

SERVITES.— A  R.C.  mendicant  order,  founded 
in  1233  by  seven  citizens  of  Florence,  Italy,  as  a 
means  of  devoting  themselves  with  singleness  of 
heart  to  the  service  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  There 
are  representatives  in  Italy,  Austria,  Germany, 
England  and  the  U.S.A.  The  full  title  is  "Reli- 
gious Servants  of  the  Holy  Virgin." 

SESSION. — In  the  Presbyterian  politj^,  a 
governing  body  comprising  the  elders  of  the  indi- 
vidual church  and  the  minister.  In  the  church  of 
Scotland,  called  the  "Kirk-session." 

SET. — An  Egyptian  god  who  may  have  been 
originally  a  sun-god  of  Upper  Egypt  corresponding 
to  the  sun-god  Horus  of  Lower  Egypt.  The  con- 
flict between  Horus  and  Set  is  thus  accounted  for  as 
a  reflection  of  the  contest  of  the  tribes  in  which 
the  followers  of  Horus  conquered  Upper  Egypt. 
With  the  supremacy  of  Osiris  and  Horus,  Set 
acquired  an  evil  character,  was  identified  with 
darkness  and  became  the  symbol  of  the  spiritual 
powers  of  evil  in  conflict  with  life  and  light. 

SEVERINUS.— Pope  for  3  months  in  640. 

SEVERUS,    ALEXANDER.— See    Alexander 

Severtjs. 

SEVERUS,  SULPICIUS  (ca.  363-425).— A 
Christian  Gaul,  author,  scholar  and  preacher.  His 
principal  writings  were  a  sacred  history  from  the 
creation  to  his  own  time,  and  a  life  of  Martin  the 
Monk. 

SEXAGESIMA.— The  second  Sunday  before 
Lent. 

SEXTON. — Originally  the  door-keeper  of  a 
church;  sometimes  in  former  times  a  grave  digger; 


at  present  the  care-taker  of  the  church  property, 
building  and  grounds,  vestments,  utensils,  etc. 

SHABBAT.— (Hebrew:  "Sabbath,"  whence  the 
English  word.)  The  Jews  celebrate  the  seventh 
day,  Saturday,  the  traditional  Sabbath,  as  the  day 
of  rest.  Throughout  their  history,  they  have  been 
strict  in  its  observance,  and  have  made  many  laws 
regarding  it.  Today,  although  economic  necessity 
has  driven  many  Jews  to  work  on  the  Sabbath,  the 
day  is  still  kept  as  one  of  rest  by  some,  and  as 
the  day  of  special  prayer  by  all  Jews  throughout  the 
world.  Like  all  days,  counted  by  the  Jewish 
calendar,  the  Sabbath  lasts  from  sundown  (Friday) 
to  sundown  (Saturday).      Harold  F.  Reinhart 

SHABBATHAI  ZEBI  BEN  MORDECAI  (1626- 
1676). — -Jewish  pseudo-Messiah  of  Smyrna.  In 
youth  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  mystical 
books,  Uved  an  ascetic  life,  and  was  constantly  in  a 
state  of  ecstasy.  In  the  year  1648,  he  declared 
himself  to  be  the  Messiah  and  gathered  about  him  a 
band  of  followers,  which  in  the  course  of  his  travels, 
grew  to  large  numbers.  In  1665,  he  announced 
himself  publicly  as  the  deliverer  of  the  Jews,  causing 
boundless  enthusiasm  in  Jewish  communities 
throughout  the  world.  He  was  arrested  by  the 
Sultan  and  saved  his  Hfe  by  embracing  Islam. 
Some  of  the  credulous  ones  refused  to  renounce  the 
behef  in  him  even  after  his  apostasy;  and  the  sect 
of  Shabbathaians  continued  to  exist  even  long 
after  their  hero's  death.       Harold  F.  Reinhart 

SHAIKH. — A  trained  leader  and  guide  in  the 
mystic  orders  of  Islam.  They  are  usually  elected 
by  the  group  which  they  lead  and  the  appointment 
confirmed  by  a  higher  shaikh  of  the  sect.  Their 
influence  is  very  great  especially  in  maintaining 
loyalty  to  the  established  order  and  in  providing 
for  the  masses  an  emotional  rehgious  life. 

SHAKERS. — Shaking  Quakers,  founded  by  Ann 
Lee.  Quakeress,  influenced  by  the  "French  Proph- 
ets. '  In  1770  she  claimed  that  it  was  revealed  to 
her  from  on  high  that  celibacy  was  a  divine  require- 
ment. Under  supposed  divine  guidance,  with  a 
company  of  converts,  she  emigrated  from  England 
to  America  in  1774.  After  gaining  some  means  of 
subsistence  by  manual  labor  they  settled  at  Water- 
vHet,  N. Y.  Within  a  few  years  they  gained  a  num- 
ber of  adherents  from  Baptists  and  others  in  New 
York  and  New  England  chiefly  through  revival 
meetings,  their  strong  emotionalism  and  claina  of 
divine  inspiration,  with  accompanying  physical 
convulsions,  greatly  impressing  the  impressionable. 
Shakers  lay  chief  stress  on  virginal  purity,  com- 
munity of  goods,  and  separation  from  the  world. 
They  place  Ann  Lee  on  a  level  with  Jesus,  the  latter 
representing  the  male,  the  former  the  female  prin- 
ciple in  God;  but  they  regard  neither  as  divine. 
The  dispensation  inaugurated  by  Mother  Ann  they 
regard  as  the  final  one,  involving  the  estabUshrnent 
of  Christ's  kingdom  upon  earth.  They  consider 
themselves  the  Pentecostal  or  Millennial  Church. 
They  do  not  believe  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body 
or  in  Christ's  atoning  work.  They  have  (1919)  12  so- 
cieties in  the  United  States  with  a  membership  of  367. 

A.  H.  Newman 

SHAMANISM.-7-The  belief  amon^  certain 
primitive  peoples,  originally  among  tribes  in  Siberia, 
which  centers  about  the  "shaman"  or  medicine-man, 
a  fimctionary  combining  certain  elements  of  priest 
and  doctor  and  beheved  to  have  in  himself  authority 
to  order  the  gods  or  spirits  for  the  securing  of  good 
and  averting  of  evil.  He  directs  the  ceremonial,  and 
other  pubhc  interests,  frequently  through  the  medi- 
um of  ecstatic  phenomena. 


Shamash 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


410 


SHAMASH. — The  most  important  of  the  sun- 
gods  of  Babylonian  rehgion  whose  cult  centered  at 
Sippar.  He  represents  the  kindly  and  life-giving 
power  of  the  sun.  Whether  as  god  of  light  and 
order  or  because  of  his  beneficence  he  came  to  be 
recognized  as  the  god  of  righteousness  and  justice 
in  whose  name  judges  gave  decisions  and  kings 
proclaimed  their  laws. 

SHANG-TI.— The  heaven  god  of  Confucian 
rehgion.  "The  Supreme  Emperor,"  as  the  name 
is  interpreted,  is  the  personal  form  of  religious 
address  used  in  prayer  and  in  state  ritual  in  contrast 
with  the  impersonal  form  Tien,  "Heaven,"  pre- 
ferred by  Confucius  and  the  intellectuals  of  ancient 
China. 

SHEDD,  WILLIAM  GREENOUGH  THAYER 

(1820-1894). — American  Presbyterian  theologian, 
professor  at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
noted  for  his  logical  and  systematic  presentation 
of  Calvinistic  theology.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  theological  works  including  a  three  volume 
work  on  Dogmatic  Theology. 

SHE-ELOT  U-TESHUBOT.— (Hebrew:  "ques- 
tions and  answers.")  A  term  designating  a  great 
mass  of  Jewish  hterature  consisting  of  the  decisions 
of  Rabbis,  made  in  answer  to  questions,  both  theo- 
retical and  practical,  addressed  to  them.  This 
hterature  has  accumulated  through  1700  years, 
the  first  examples  of  it  appearing  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Mishna  (q.v.),  and  collections  of 
She-elot  u-Teshubot  being  pubUshed  frequently  in 
all  times  down  to  our  own. 

SHEKINAH.— (Hebrew:  "dweUing.")  The 
glory  oi  God  dwelUng  on  earth.  The  term  is  fre- 
quently used  in  Jewish  literature  where  it  is  desired 
to  avoid  mention  of  the  name  of  God  Himself. 

SHEMA.— (Hebrew:  "hear!")  The  initial  word 
of  the  verse  (Deut.  6:4),  "Hear,  O  Israel,  the  Lord 
is  our  God;  the  Lord  is  one!",  which  declaring  the 
absolute  belief  in  monotheism,  constitutes  the 
Jewish  confession  of  faith.  The  term  is  used  also  to 
indicate  the  verse  with  its  accompanying  passage  in 
the  liturgy,  and  also  the  entire  first  part  of  the  Syna- 
gog  Hturgy  in  which  this  passage  is  foimd. 

SHEMONEH  ESREH.— (Hebrew:  "eighteen.") 
The  term  used  to  designate  the  central  part  of  the 
Synagog  hturgy,  so  called  because  it  comprises 
eighteen  (that  is  originally,  but  now,  nineteen) 
blessings,  consisting  of  praise  and  thanks  to  God,  and 
petitions  on  behalf  of  the  individual  and  the  com- 
munity, 

SHEN. — ^The  higher,  good  spirits  of  Chinese 
folk-belief.  The  more  important  shen  rise  to  the 
status  of  gods.  All  are  identified  with  the  yang 
principle  of  the  universe  as  embodiments  of  light, 
activity  and  hfe. 

SHEOL. — The  Hebrew  designation  of  the  abode 
of  departed  spirits.  (Prov.  27:20;  Ps.  88:12.) 
It  was  conceived  of  as  a  pit  or  underworld,  a  view 
commonly  held  by  the  Babylonians  and  other 
ancient  peoples.  In  early  Hebrew  thought  it  was 
not  regarded  as  under  the  control  of  Yahweh,  but 
later  this  limitation  disappears.  See  Future  Life, 
Conceptions  of  the. 

SHI'ITES. — One  of  the  two  leading  divisions 
of  Mohammedanism,  the  other  being  the  Sunnites. 
The  main  tenet  of  the  Shi'ites  is  the  belief 
that  the  Khahphate  and  office  of  imam  passed  by 
inheritance  from  Mohammed  to  'Ah  and  his  descend- 


ants. The  Shi'ite  sect  has  been  most  powerful 
in  Persia.  They  have  their  own  traditions,  and 
jealously  maintain  their  claim  to  be  the  true  repre- 
sentatives of  Islam.  They  are  divided  into  various 
sects.    See  Mohammedanism;  Sunnites. 

SHI-KING. — One  of  the  Chinese  classics,  called 
the  "Book  of  Poetry"  made  up  of  305  odes  dating 
from  the  12th.  to  the  6th.  century  B.C.  These 
hymns  reveal  a  fine  social  loyalty  and  a  religious 
devotion  centered  about  the  family  cult  and  the 
powers  of  nature. 

SHINGON. — A  form  of  Japanese  Buddhism 
taught  by  Kukai  (774-835  a.d.).  It  is  a  mystical 
pantheism  teaching  that  the  universal  Buddha, 
Vairochana,  is  the  spiritual  reality  in  every  particle 
of  the  universe  which  is  his  body.  Hence  all 
nature  and  the  human  heart  are  vital  with  the 
divine  presence.  This  made  it  possible  for  Kukai 
to  recognize  all  forms  of  religion  and  the  worship  of 
all  gods  as  in  some  measure  an  approach  to  truth. 
He  arranged  the  various  types  of  religion  in  ten 
stages  placing  Shingon  as  the  tenth  in  which  the 
soul  is  fully  conscious  of  its  identity  with  the 
Eternal  Buddha.  The  sect  made  use  of  elaborate 
ritual,  mystic  prayers  and  rites.  Its  great  work 
was  in  accomplishing  a  popular  synthesis  of  Shinto 
and  Buddhism  usually  called  Ryobu. 

SHINTO. — Shinto  is  a  faith  indigenous  to  Japan. 
The  name  is  formed  of  two  Chinese  words:  Shin, 
meaning  god  or  gods,  and  To,  signifying  the  way. 
This  term  first  came  into  use  after  the  introduction 
of  Buddhism,  to  distinguish  the  native  faith  from 
the  ahen  religion. 

_  The  faith  is  evidently  an  elemental  nature  wor- 
ship, rendered  more  personal  and  vital  through  the 
identification  of  human  ancestry  with  natural 
powers.  Kami  is  the  Japanese  word  for  deity,  the 
object  of  worship  in  Shinto.  It  originally  signified 
anything  above  or  superior,  and  gradually  came  to 
mean  anything  looked  upon  with  fear  or  respect. 
"The  term  Kami  is  applied  in  the  first  place  to  the 
various  deities  of  Heaven  and  Earth  who  are  men- 
tioned in  the  ancient  records,  as  well  as  to  their 
spirits  which  reside  in  the  shrines  where  they  are 
worshiped.  Moreover,  not  only  human  beings,  but 
birds  and  beasts,  plants  and  trees,  seas  and  moun- 
tains, and  all  things  whatsoever  which  deserve  to 
be  dreaded  and  revered  for  the  extraordinary  and 
pre-eminent  powers  which  they  possess,  are  called 
Kami"  (Motoori). 

Kojiki,  The  Record  of  Ancient  Affairs,  completed 
in  712  A.D.,  and  Nihongi,  The  Record  of  Japan,  720 
A.D.,  are  considered  the  sacred  books  of  Shinto.  /They 
contain  objective,  picturesque  accounts  of  prehistoric 
events.  No  system  of  theology  or  of  ethics  has  been 
produced  from  them  beyond  the  expository  and 
apologetic  writings  of  Mabuchi,  Motoori  and  Hirata. 

The  ethics  of  Shinto  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
phrase  — "follow  the  pure  impulse  of  your  heart." 
Within  the  holy  place  of  the  shrine  there  is  usually 
a  mirror,  "typical  of  the  human  heart  which  in  its 
purity  reflects  the  image  of  deity."  The  teaching 
concerning  the  future  life  is  vague,  though  the  exist- 
ence of  immaterial  spirit  is  recognized. 

A  significant  fact  in  Shinto  is  the  absence  of  all 
effort  to  objectify  deity  in  visible  form.  Simplicity 
and  purity  are  characteristic  of  all  Shinto  shrines. 
They  are  built  of  unpainted  wood  and  covered  not 
infrequently  with  thatched  roofs,  as  much  as  possible 
in  primitive  style.  Before  them  are  peculiar  gate- 
ways, called  Torii,  consisting  of  two  pillars  with 
horizontal  beams,  the  higher  projecting  slightly  to 
either  side,  the  lower  being  parallel  to  the  first  but 
not  projecting. 


411 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS  Sikhs,  ReUgion  of  the 


The  idea  underlying  all  Shinto  services  is  that  of 

gurity.  The  impurities  from  which  religious 
eUevers  seek  cleansing  are  those  caused  by  contact 
with  the  dead,  with  human  blood,  etc.,  rather  than 
those  of  a  moral  character.  Harai  and  Misogi 
are  Shinto  rites  of  purification,  by  name  and  sym- 
bolic action  meaning  the  sweeping  away,  the  cleans- 
ing away  of  evil,  natural  and  objective.  Divine 
protection  is  sought  against  all  lands  of  natural 
evil  such  as  flood,  pestilence,  and  famine;  and  the 
straw  rope,  with  pendant  strips  of  paper  or  of  straw, 
so  universal  before  a  shrine  is  a  token  of  protection 
from  evil  influences. 

The  worshiper  at  the  shrine  calls  the  attention 
of  the  unseen  deity  by  ringing  a  gong,  and  worships 
with  dignified  clapping  of  the  hands  in  front  of  the 
bowed  head.  The  offerings  consist  of  small  portions 
of  rice,  fish,  vegetables,  wine,  etc.,  while  the  Gohei, 
or  rod  from  which  are  suspended  strips  of  white 
paper,  before  aU  shrines  is  symbolic  of  offerings  of 
cloth. 

Formerly  all  Japanese  funeral  ceremonies  were 
in  accord  with  Buddhist  rites;  but  of  late,  especially 
among  the  aristocratic  classes,  there  has  arisen  a 
fashion  of  observing  occasions  of  death  with  Shinto 
services.  A  further  innovation  in  Shinto  is  the  not 
infrequent  modern  practice  of  celebrating  marriage 
at  Shinto  shrines  by  priests  in  imitation  of  the 
Christian  service.  Tasuku  Habada 

SmVA  (CIVA).— A  composite  god  of  Hindu 
sectarian  religion.  He  absorbed  the  old  Vedic 
storm  god,  Rudra;  was  represented  in  terrifying 
form  as  "lord  of  demons";  became  a  symbol  of  the 
philosophic  concept  of  merciless  change  in  nature 
with  its  two  phases  of  dissolution  and  restoration 
or  reproduction;  took  on  the  quaUty  of  the  ideal 
yogi  as  the  greatest  of  all  ascetics  and  finally,  was 
identified  with  a  boisterous,  dancing  god  of  the 
mountains.  Thus  he  made  appeal  to  all  classes  of 
men.  As  the  essential  creatiye  force  of  the  universe 
he  rises  to  the  rank  of  the  supreme  God  in  Saivism 
(q.v.).  His  symbol  is  the  linga.  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Shiva  form  the  triad  of  great  gods  of  later 
Hinduism.    See  Trimijrti. 

SHOFAR. — A  Hebrew  term  signifying  the  ram's 
horn  mentioned  frequently  in  the  Bible  to  be  blown 
on  New  Moon  and  at  many  other  times.  It  is  still 
used  by  the  Jews,  especially  on  the  New  Year's  Day 
when  it  is  blown  in  the  Synagog,  annoimcing  God's 
judgment  and  calhng  to  repentance. 

SHOHET,— A  Hebrew  term  for  a  Jewish 
slaughterer  of  animals,  who  kills  according  to  ritually 
correct  methods. 

SHRADDHAS.— The  family  offerings  to  the 
souls  of  dead  relatives  made  by  Hindus.  After  the 
completion  of  the  funeral  sacrifices  the  shraddfias 
are  performed  on  the  eleventh  day  and  thereafter 
monthly  for  a  year,  then  on  every  succeeding 
anniversary  of  the  death.  They  consist  of  offer- 
ings of  food,  water  and  flowers  with  the  accompani- 
ment of  mantras  or  chanted  spells. 

SHROUD,  THE  HOLY.— The  windmg  sheet  in 
which  Jesus  was  buried. 

SHROVETIDE.— The  time  for  confession  (from 
shrive,  to  confess,  a  word  derived  from  the  Lat. 
scribo,  to  write,  hence  to  prescribe).  It  refers  to  the 
day  before  Ash  Wednesday  (which  is  called  Shrove 
Tuesday),  or  sometimes  to  tlie  three  days  before. 

SHRUTI. — The  revealed  Scriptures  of  Hinduism 
of  the  highest  grade  of  authority,  namely,  the  Vedas 


including  the  Brahmanas  and  Upanishads.  These 
are  thought  to  have  been  divinely  given  to  the 
ancient  sages. 

Shu-KING. — One  of  the  Chinese  classics.  A 
collection  of  historical  writings  of  uneven  value 
containing  much  that  is  undoubtedly  legendary  and 
the  whole  evidently  arranged  with  the  purpose  of 
reinforcing  the  autocratic  social  organization. 
The  work  contains  material  that  is  important  for  the 
understanding  of  the  early  reUgion.  It  was  prob- 
ably edited  by  Confucius. 

SIAM,  RELIGIONS  OF  AND  MISSIONS  TO. 

— ^A  kingdom  in  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  of 
S.  Asia  with  a  mixed  population  of  over  6,000,000. 
The  Siamese  themselves  are  Hinayana  Buddhists, 
the  King  being  held  as  the  defender  of  the  orthodox 
faith.  The  Laos  also  are  Buddhists.  The  Malays 
of  Siam  are  Mohammedans.  The  hill  people  of  the 
country  are  still  ani  mists,  practising  a  revolting 
type  of  demon-worship.  Ceremonials  of  a  religious 
character  have  great  importance  in  Siamese  life. 
The  representatives  of  Christianity  have  been  chiefly 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  from  France,  and  Pres- 
byterian missionaries  from  the  U.S.A.  (since  1848), 
but  the  progress  of  the  Christian  religion  has  been 
rather  slow. 

SIBYLLINE  ORACLES.— A  composite  group 
of  writings  dating  all  the  way  from  the  2nd.  century 
B.C.  to  the  3rd.  a.d.  The  collection  embraces  Jew- 
ish and  Christian  documents  written  in  Homeric 
style  and  in  imitation  of  the  lost  heathen  Sibylline 
books.  The  Oracles  purport  to  foretell  future  events, 
particularly  with  reference  to  distinguished  persons, 
cities,  and  kingdoms. 

SIDDUR.— (Hebrew:  "order.")  A  term  by 
which  the  Jews  designate  their  book  of  daily  prayers. 

SIFRA. — A  Hebrew  commentary  to  the  book 
of  Leviticus  dating  from  the  3rd.  century  a.d. 

SIGN  OF  THE  CROSS.— A  movement  of  the 
hand  so  as  to  suggest  a  cross  in  outline,  as  a  Uturgical 
act  performed  on  various  occasions  in  the  R.C. 
church. 

SIKHS,  RELIGION  OF  THE.— The  religion 
of  an  Indian  sect  (numbering  about  three  miUions) 
found  chiefly  in  the  Punjab. 

Sikhism  marks  a  distinct  Mohammedan  reaction 
on  Hinduism.  It  was  founded  by  Nanak  (bom  near 
Lahore  1469  a.d.),  a  disciple  of  Kabir  (founder  of  an 
important  sect).  He  was  of  a  dreamy,  impractical, 
reUgious  temperament;  was  popularly  called  mad; 
wandered  about  composing  hymns  and  attracting 
followers;  finally  won  recognition  as  a  saint.  He 
was  succeeded  by  nine  gurus  (teachers)  to  1708  a.d. 
The  sacred  Scripture,  the  Adi  Granth  (a  new  Granth, 
not  so  popular,  was  compiled  by  the  tenth  guru), 
is  made  up  of  hymns  of  Kabir,  Nanak  and  his  suc- 
cessors, and  other  holy  men,  collected  by  the  fifth 
guru,  Arjun,  in  1604  a.d.  Till  then  the  Sikhs  had 
lived,  quietly  in  the  Punjab  as  a  small  quietistic  com- 
munity of  Quakers.  Arjun  hved  hke  a  prince, 
changed  the  voluntary  contributions  into  a  fixed 
tax,  organized  the  community,  meddled  in  politics, 
and  drew  the  attention  and  enmity  of  the  Moham- 
medans to  the  sect.  The  Sikhs,  attracting  many 
hardy,  restless  spirits  to  their  cause,  gradually 
developed  into  a  nation  of  fanatical  fighters.  The 
tenth  guru  (Govind)  refused  to  appoint  a  successor; 
directed  that  the  Granth  be  regarded  as  his  suc- 
cessor. With  the  downfall  of  the  Moguls  the  Sikhs 
became    paramount    in    the    Punjab,    but    were 


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412 


conquered  by  the  British  in  1849.  The  center  of 
worship  is  the  Golden  Temple  at  Amritsar  where  the 
Granth  is  preserved  in  a  shrine  and  accorded  almost 
divine  worship. 

Nanak,  hke  Kabir,  revolted  against  the  social 
and  ceremonial  restrictions  of  Hinduism,  against  its 
formalism,  against  caste  and  idols  (although  he 
kept  karma  and  transmigration) .  Discarding  asceti- 
cism and  monkhood  he  preached  life  in  the  world. 
He  rejected  polytheism  and  taught  that  there  is  but 
one  god,  not  Allah  or  Rama  or  Krishna,  but  just 
God.  This  all-powerful  God  is  formless  and  incom- 
prehensible; so  that  there  is  no  metaphysics,  just 
a  fanatical  devotion  to  God.  The  relation  of  God 
to  the  world  is  a  pantheistic  one.  God  does  not 
manifest  himself  to  men  by  incarnations.  The 
guru  alone  mediates  between  men  and  God.  He  is 
to  be  followed  implicitly  (Sikh  is  derived  from 
Sanskrit  gisya  "pupil").  Individual  souls  are  like 
sparks  from  God.  Salvation  consists  in  reuniting 
the  individual  soul  and  God.  The  emphasis  is  on 
inwardness  and  fiery  devotion  rather  than  on 
external  ceremonies  or  on  moraUty.  Although 
Nanak  taught  the  equahty  of  all  men  caste  distinc- 
tions have  slowly  been  creeping  in.    W.  E.  Clark 

SILLON. — A  group  of  Roman  Catholics, 
founded  in  1890,  which  attempted  to  reconcile  the 
R.C.  church  and  democracy,  and  sought  a  radical 
reconstruction  of  society  by  abolishing  capitaHsm. 
According  to  its  program  a  quasi-syndicalist  society 
would  be  established  in  which  there  would  be 
neither  wage-earner  nor  employer.  The  move- 
ment was  banned  by  the  Pope  but  continues  to 
exist. 

SILVERIUS.— Pope,  536-537. 

SILVESTER.— The  name  of  two  popes  and  two 
antipopes. 

Silvester  I. — Bishop  of  Rome,  314-335,  and 
included  in  the  papal  lists. 

Silvester  II. — Pope,  999-1003;  before  his  ^eva- 
tion  to  the  papacy  was  famous  as  a  Christian 
teacher  under  the  name  Gerbert,  and  as  archbishop 
of  Rheims  and  Ravenna.  A  man  of  indomitable 
energy,  an  erudite  scholar,  and  first  herald  of  the 
crusades,  he  did  much  to  further  the  primacy  of  the 
church  at  Rome. 

Silvester  ///.— Antipope,  1044-1046. 

Silvester  IV. — ^Antipope,  1102. 

SIMEON  STYLITES  (390-459).— Syrian 
anchoret,  and  most  renowned  of  the  piUar-hermits; 
for  thirty  years  living  on  a  pillar  (Greek,  stylos, 
whence  the  name). 

SIMON  MAGUS. — A  Samaritan  sorcerer  who 
wanted  to  purchase  the  miraculous  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  from  Peter  and  John.     See  Acts  8:9  fE. 

SIMON,  RICHARD  (1638-1712).— French 
theologian,  whose  fame  rests  on  his  contributions 
to  the  literary  and  historical  criticism  of  the  Bible, 
for  which  he  incurred  the  opposition  of  Catholics 
and  Protestants  alike. 

SIMONS,  MENNO.— The  founder  of  the 
Menonnites  (q.v.). 

SIMONY. — ^The  offence  of  presenting  any  one  to 
a  benefice  in  return  for  monetary  or  other  con- 
siderations; so  called  from  the  incident  of  Simon 
Magus  (q.v.). 

SIMPLICIUS.— Pope,  468-483;  during  the 
monophysite  controversy. 


SIN. — An  attitude  or  tendency  in  man  express- 
ing itself  in  acts  contrary  to  what  is  divinely 
approved,  and  hence  incurring  divine  displeasure 
and  penalty. 

1.  The  General  Meaning  op  Sin. — Sin  is  a 
distinctively  religious  conception.  It  is  distin- 
giiished  from  crime  (offence  against  civil  law)  and 
vice  (offence  against  socially  approved  standards  of 
behavior)  in  that  these  are  judged  by  human  norms, 
while  sin  is  behavior  which  incurs  superhuman  con- 
sequences. The  notion  of  sin  is  closely  allied  to  the 
conception  of  tabu  (q.v.)  in  the  early  stages  of 
religious  thought.  The  offences  against  divine 
power  may  be  purely  ceremonial,  and  may  even 
be  somewhat  perplexing  if  judged  by  human  stand- 
ards. For  example,  when  Uzzah,  with  the  best 
of  intentions,  put  out  his  hand  to  steady  the  ark 
lest  it  fall,  he  was  smitten  dead.  He  had  rashly 
touched  a  sacred  object  (I  Sam.  6:6,  7).  But 
inasmuch  as  recognized  moral  standards  gain  in 
dignity  by  being  invested  with  divine  sanction, 
the  conception  of  sin  usually  comes  to  include 
immoral  acts  of  all  sorts.  The  more  completely 
rehgion  is  dominated  by  ethical  ideals,  the  more 
closely  does  the  conception  of  sin  coincide  with  that 
of  wrong-doing  in  general.  Yet  even  in  the  most 
advanced  forms  of  religion  there  are  emphases  in  the 
definition  of  sin  which  are  different  from  those  of 
ethics.  Such  acts  as  blasphemy,  or  desecration  of 
buildings  or  utensils  designed  for  a  specifically 
religious  purpose,  are  viewed  with  pecuhar  horror 
even  though  no  direct  injury  to  men  is  in- 
volved. 

II.  Main  Types  of  Sinful  Acts. — 1.  The 
violation  of  sanctity. — A  fundamental  difference 
between  the  divine  and  the  human  is  that  pecuUar 
quahty  which  is  called  sacredness  or  holiness.  A 
mysterious  power  resides  in  what  is  sacred.  This 
power  must  be  reverenced  and  any  approach  to  it 
must  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  the  proper 
rituals  and  a  condition  of  religious  purity  on  the 
part  of  man.  To  violate  this  sanctity  is  equivalent 
to  refusing  to  recognize  the  divine  power.  Such 
desecration  or  pollution  brings  upon  the  offender  a 
curse.  Oedipus,  for  example,  while  doing  his 
utmost  to  avoid  committing  the  crime  which  the 
oracle  had  foretold,  unwittingly  slays  his  father 
and  marries  his  mother.  His  guilt  is  as  real  and 
his  punishment  as  sure  as  if  he  had  intentionally 
offended.  Such  acts  as  failing  to  bury  a  dead 
body,  indulging  in  sexual  relations  in  irregular 
ways,  refusing  to  extend  hospitality  to  a  stranger, 
and  taking  human  life  are  peculiarly  heinous.  The 
dread  of  a  curse  following  the  offender  is  vividly 
portrayed  in  folklore  and  Literature. 

2.  Closely  allied  to  desecration  is  anything 
which  is  an  offence  against  the  divine  dignity.  The 
Greek  hybris,  with  its  wanton  defiance  of  all  prin- 
ciples of  reverence,  was  peculiarly  offensive  to  the 
gods.  To  neglect  the  rituals,  to  be  careless  in 
making  sacrifice,  to  indulge  in  skepticism  or  unbe- 
lief concerning  sacred  things,  to  take  the  name  of 
God  in  vain  are  instances  of  this  kind  of  sin. 

3.  Disregard  for  the  principles  of  humanity 
and  justice. — ^When  moral  disorder  is  introduced 
among  a  people  the  reputation  of  their  rehgion 
suffers,  and  their  God  is  discredited.  Thus  social 
injustice  is  generally  emphasized  as  sin. 

It  is  evident  that  the  exact  nature  of  sinful 
acts  will  depend  upon  the  general  stage  of  culture. 
In  earher  stages  of  rehgious  thought  ritual  and 
■  ceremonial  offences  are  very  prominent.  With  the 
development  of  more  rational  standards  sin  comes 
more  and  more  to  be  identified  with  morahty.  But 
even  in  the  most  highly  developed  reHgions  there 
are  certain  items  which  carry  over  the  earlier  feehng, 
and  are  condemned  more  on  the  basis  of  an  inherited 


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Sixtus 


feeling   of   horror   than   on   grounds  of   critically 
ascertained  moral  worth  or  un worth. 

III.  The  Punishment  of  Sin. — This  may 
take  the  form  of  an  inescapable  fate  or  curse  which 
follows  a  man  and  holds  him  in  its  power  no  matter 
how  he  may  strive  to  escape.  Karma  (q.v.)  is  an 
impersonal  cosmic  fate.  Retribution  is  here  viewed 
as  a  relentless  cosmic  process.  The  Greek  Nemesis 
expresses  a  similar  idea.  But  when  there  is  the 
conception  of  a  distinctly  personal  god  or  gods, 
the  anger  of  the  offended  divine  being  is  represented 
as  the  source  of  the  punishment.  The  penalty 
may  be  inflicted  immediately,  as  when  the  sinner  is 
smitten  dead  (e.g.,  Uzzah,  Ananias)  or  it  may 
consist  in  a  period  of  misfortune,  such  as  disease, 
poverty,  social  ostracism.  Punishment  in  an 
after  life  is  very  generally  affirmed  if  the  sinner 
has  not  borne  the  full  penalty  on  earth.  See 
Retribution;    Future   Life,   Conceptions   op 

the;    JuDGMENt. 

IV.  The  Remission  op  Sin. — See  Propitia- 
tion; Atonement;  Forgiveness;  Penance. 

V.  The  Christian  Doctrine  op  Sin. — As 
stated  in  confessional  Christian  theology,  sin  came 
into  the  world  through  the  voluntary  transgression 
of  God's  command  by  Adam.  As  a  result  of  this 
original  disobedience,  an  evil  taint  was  inherited 
by  all  Adams'  descendants.  Men  are  thus  bom 
with  original  sin  (q.v.),  and  are  partakers  in 
Adam's  guilt  as  well.  This  innate  evil  tendency 
inevitably  expresses  itself  in  actual  sins.  Thus 
men  are  to  be  religiously  defined  as  sinners.  ^  Salva- 
tion consists  in  the  appropriation  of  a  divine  pro- 
vision by  means  of  which  original  sin  may  be 
eradicated  through  regeneration  and  actual  sins  may 
be  forgiven  on  the  basis  of  the  atoning  work  of 
Christ.  Roman  Catholic  theology  makes  the  dis- 
tinction between  mortal  sins  (q.v.)  which  bring 
spiritual  death,  and  venial  sins  (q.v.)  which  only 
impair  the  work  of  grace  in  man's  Ufe.  Protestant- 
ism, rejectingthe  system  of  penance,  rejected  also 
any  classification  which  might  seem  to  minimize  the 
awful  character  of  sin. 

In  recent  years  sin  has  been  redefined  in  the 
h'ght  of  modem  philosophical  and  social  conceptions. 
Ideahstic  philosophy  laid  stress  upon  the  finite 
character  of  man  which  inevitably  leads  him  into 
imperfect  and  even  into  perverted  ways  of  thinking 
and  acting.  The  doctrine  of  evolution  has  revealed 
instincts  and  impulses  inherited  from  a  brute 
ancestry  and  not  yet  fully  imder  moral  control. 
The  development  of  spiritual  Ufe  must  therefore 
contend  against  powerful  physical  impulses.  Social 
science  has  made  us  acquainted  with  the  social 
inertia  of  estabh'shed  customs,  so  that  although 
"time  makes  ancient  good  uncouth,"  moral  advance 
is  difficult.  Thus  the  doctrine  of  Adam's  fall  is 
giving  place  to  different  explanations  of  sin,  and  in 
the  process  the  content  of  sm  is  coming  to  be  almost 
entirely  in  the  realm  of  moral  requirements  rather 
than  in  the  realm  of  ritual. 

Gerald  Birnet  Smith 

SIN. — ^The  moon-god  in  Babylonian  rehgion 
with  chief  centers  at  TJr  and  Harran.  With  the 
rise  of  the  science  of  astrology  this  deity  became 
increasingly  important  as  "Lord  of  Knowledge." 
Since  the  calendar  was  regulated  by  the  moon  he  is 
always  prominent. 

SIN-OFFERINGS.— A  class  of  sacrifices  de- 
signed to  free  the  worshiper  from  ritual  or  moral 
defilement. 

Whether  a  common  idea  underlies  the  various 
forms  of  animal  sacrifice  is  not  clear.  In  the 
religious  systems  which  are  best  known  to  us 
several  classes  of  these  sacrifices  are  sharply  dis- 
tinguished.   The  one  now  under  consideration  is 


based  on  the  belief  that  it  is  dangerous  to  approach 
the  sanctuary  without  special  precautions.  Since 
the  world  is  full  of  things  unclean,  that  is,  anti- 
pathetic to  the  divinity,  the  worshiper  must  make 
sure  that  no  contagion  has  affected  him.  Ablution 
therefore  usually  precedes  an  act  of  reUgious 
worship.  But  the  appUcation  of  water  may  not  be 
enough,  and  so  the  use  of  substances  which  have  a 
positively  sacred  quahty  is  indicated.  Where  the 
cow  is  regarded  as  sacred  (for  example)  urine  of  this 
animal  will  be  used  for  purification. 

The  close  connection  between  purification  and 
consecration  is  well  shown  in  the  Hebrew  ritual 
where  the  rite  of  purification  used  for  the  leper  is 
almost  identical  with  that  used  in  consecrating  a 
priest  for  his  service.  In  each  case  uncleanness 
must  be  counteracted  by  the  application  of  a  sacred 
substance.  Since  among  sacred  substances  the 
blood  of  a  sacred  animal  is  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful, these  rites  involve  a  sacrifice.  In  the  ordinary 
sin-offering,  however,  the  blood  is  not  apphed  to 
the  worshiper  but  to  the  temple  or  some  of  its 
vessels.  The  priestly  writer  believed  that  every 
unwitting  violation  of  the  Law  (and  sin-offerings  are 
brought  for  unwitting  violations  only)  infected 
the  temple  and  altar.  The  blood  therefore  is 
applied  to  these  and  not  to  the  worshiper.  What- 
ever is  effected  for  him  is  accomphshed  by  the 
laying  on  of  hands  (q.v.). 

The  word  sin-offering  might  also  be  applied  to 
what  are  properly  called  cathartic  victims.  The  sins, 
offences,  or  diseases  of  men  are  in  theory  trans- 
ferred to  these  victims  which  are  then  expelled 
from  the  country  or  slain  at  some  point  outside  the 
boundary.  The  scape-goat  provided  for  in  the 
Hebrew  ritual  is  a  familiar  example.  This  goat 
however,  is  not  called  a  sin-offering,  and  is  offered 
to  the  desert  demon  instead  of  to  the  God  of 
Israel.  And  the  common  idea  that  the  sin-offering 
is  a  substitute  for  the  sinner  and  is  slain  in  his 
stead  has  no  foundation  in  the  Old  Testament. 

H.  P.  Smith 

SINECURE.— Literally,  "without  care."  A 
benefice  where  the  incumbent  is  allowed  to  reside 
at  a  distance,  and  have  his  obligations  discharged 
by  another,  or  where  there  are  no  active  duties. 
Hence,  popularly,  a  position  yielding  an  income 
with  httle  or  no  responsibility  mcurred. 

SIRACH,  WISDOM  OF  JESUS,  SON  OF.  - 

See  Jesus;  SonopSirach. 

SIRICIUS.— Pope,  384-399. 

SISTERHOODS.— Organizations,  usually  reli- 
gious, of  women  for  purposes  of  mutual  edification, 
or,  more  generally,  for  carrying  on  benevolent  or 
missionary  activities.  The  R.C.  church  has  numer- 
ous sisterhoods.  The  secular  organizations  of 
women  are  usually  called  sororities.  See  Brother- 
hood. 

SIX  ARTICLES. — ^An  anti-Lutheran  decree 
issued  by  Henry  VIII.  of  England  in  1543  "for 
abolishing  diversity  of  opinions  in  religion." 

The  articles  upheld  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
substantiation,  and  declared  the  continuance  of  cer- 
tain Romish  practices,  such  as  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
private  masses,  and  auricular  confession. 

SIXTUS.— The  name  of  five  popes. 

Sixtus  I.  (XYST  US). —The  sixth  bishop  of 
Rome,  ca.  116-125. 

Sixtus  II. — Bishop  of  Rome,  257-258;  martyred 
in  the  Valerian  persecution. 

Sixtus  III.— Pope,  432-440. 


Skandhas 


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414 


Sixtus  IV. — Pope,  1471-1484:  previous  to  his 
occupation  of  the  papacy,  was  general  of  the 
Franciscan  order.  He  was  a  lavish  patron  of  art 
and  of  letters,  built  the  Sistine  chapel,  and  instituted 
the  famous  Sistine  choir, 

Sixtus  V. — Pope,  1585-1590;  a  man  of  large 
ambition  and  achievement.  He  improved,  the 
fiscal  affairs  of  the  papacy,  reformed  the  constitution 
of  the  college  of  cardinals,  and  completed  some  of 
the  most  famoxis  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  Rome. 

SKANDHAS. — ^The  aggregate  of  physical  and 
psychical  activities  which  constitute  the  himian 
personality  according  to  early  Buddhism.  There 
IS  no  sold  underlying  these  changing  groups  of 
reactions.  When  the  physical  organism  and  its 
psychic  accompaniments  of  perception,  sensation, 
predisposition  (the  result  of  karma),  and  conscious- 
ness exist,  this  is  a  human  being. 

SKEPTICISM.— See   Scepticism. 

SLANDER. — A  misrepresentation  maliciously 
circulated  so  as  to  injure  the  reputation  of  another. 
Legally,  written  slander  is  hbelous.  Suits  must  be 
supported  by  evidence  of  special  damage  to  a  man's 
reputation,  profession,  or  business.  Slander  is 
universally  condemned  by  all  moral  and  reb'gious 
codes. 

SLAVERY. — Slavery  as  a  social  institution 
originated  in  primitive  times.  It  was  the  result 
of  a  discovery  that  it  was  more  profitable  to  preserve 
war  captives  for  use  than  to  kill  and  eat  them. 
Male  slaves  could  be  put  to  work  in  the  field; 
women  served  to  gratify  the  sex  desire,  and  were 
useful  at  indoor  occupations.  Slavery  became 
general  before  written  history  began. 

Frequent  wars  made  possible  a  large  accumula- 
tion of  slaves,  and  they  became  an  economic  and 
social  necessity.  They  performed  manual  labor 
of  all  sorts.  They  were  the  handicraftsmen  of  the 
time.  They  were  even  employed  in  the  learned 
professions,  for  not  a  few  were  well  educated  and  of 
high  social  standing  before  the  fortunes  of  war 
deprived  them  of  liberty.  Abundance  of  cheap 
labor  on  the  one  hand  and  abundance  of  wealth  and 
leisure  on  the  other  gave  opportunity  for  the  culti- 
vation of  the  arts,  and  made  possible  the  building 
of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  and  the  development  of 
the  far-famed  Athenian  culture;  but  they  also  per- 
mitted selfish  exploitation  of  human  abilities, 
unhealthy  class  distinctions,  the  brutalizing  of 
both  master  and  slave,  and  an  untold  amount  oi 
human  misery. 

Among  certain  peoples  there  was  an  easing  of 
the  burdens.     Hebrew  law  protected  the  slave  and 

Erovided  for  his  ultimate  emancipation.  At  Athens 
e  had  many  privileges,  including  recognized 
marriage,  the  right  to  accumulate  property,  and 
a  possibihty  of  emancipation.  In  early  Roman 
days  the  slave  worked  in  the  field  beside  his  master, 
but  in  later  times  the  miUtary  successes  of  Rome 
spoiled  the  character  of  the  race,  and  masters  had 
small  regard  for  a  class  that  was  in  complete  sub- 
jection, and  Uttle  care  of  individuals  that  were 
easy  to  replace.  Yet  emancipation  became  com- 
mon for  those  who  could  purchase  their  freedom, 
and  sometimes  masters  voluntarily  freed  thousands 
of  slaves. 

Among  ancient  pagans  there  was  no  question 
about  the  propriety  of  slavery.  It  was  justified  by 
philosophers,  and  seemed  a  permanent  and  neces- 
sary social  arrangement.  Religion  tended  to  soften 
the  rigors  of  slavery,  but  even  Christianity  did  not 
condemn  it  as  an  institution.  The  principles  of 
Christianity,  however,  were  so  contrary  to   the 


principles  of  class  inferiority,  selfish  exploitation, 
and  general  oppression,  that  the  growing  influence 
of  the  Christian  religion  was  against  the  institution 
and  favored  the  economic  process  that  was  presently 
transforming  the  slave  mto  the  mediaeval  serf. 
Rehgion  stimulated  and  sanctioned  the  ethics  that 
were  evolving  out  of  a  new  social  order  based  on 
the  possession  of  agricultural  soil.  The  Church 
habitually  took  the  side  of  the  oppressed,  until  its 
own  vested  interests  aUied  it  with  the  landed 
aristocracy. 

The  rise  of  the  cities  and  the  growth  of  modern 
industry  and  commerce  tended  to  break  up  a  social 
system  that  centered  in  the  manor.  Serfdom 
gradually  ceased.  Free  peasants  stiU  worked  on  the 
land,  and  were  often  httle  better  off  than  before, 
but  were  nominally  free.  ^  Then  the  sudden  expan- 
sion of  the  European  horizouj  and  the  new  oppor- 
tunities for  acquiring  wealth  m  foreign  plantations 
stimulated  a  demand  for  labor  far  greater  than  the 
small  European  populations  could  supply.  This 
demand  was  met  partially  also  by  the  forced  labor 
of  natives  in  mines  and  on  plantations;  but  it  was 
not  long  before  it  seemed  most  profitable  to  transfer 
large  numbers  of  Africans  to  America.  The  kid- 
napping of  unprotected  negroes,  the  cruelty  of  the 
"middle  passage,"  the  denial  of  such  primitive 
rights  as  personal  Hberty  to  work,  to  mate,  and  to 
be  merry,  became  the  characteristics  of  an  anti- 
quated institution  that  had  nearly  lost  its  recognition 
as  a  human  institution,  but  now  became  justi- 
fied as  divine.  It  is  evidence  of  the  low  ethical 
standards  of  the  most  advanced  nations  that  they 
should  have  found  satisfactory  such  sanctions  of 
this  ancient  evil. 

The  early  19th.  century  brought  better  con- 
victions. The  slave  trade  was  abohshed  by  legis- 
lative action  in  the  British  empire  and  in  the  United 
States.  Slavery  in  the  American  South  survived, 
defended  as  an  economic  necessity  and  a  social 
custom  sanctioned  by  the  Old  Testament,  until 
ended  by  emancipation  in  1863.  The  European 
nations  meanwhile  had  abohshed  slavery  in  their 
colonies.  The  old  institution  has  fingered  where 
civilization  has  least  developed,  but  even  the  last 
traces  of  it  are  disappearing  as  the  world  comes 
under  the  dominance  of  nations  that  accept  the 
humane  principles  of  Christian  ethics. 

Henry  K.  Rowe 

SLAVIC  RELIGION.— The  religion  of  the 
Slavic  peoples,  particularly  of  the  Elbe  Slavs  and 
the  Russians,  Czechs,  and  Poles. 

I.  The  Supreme  God. — Both  Elbe  Slavs  and 
Russians,  we  are  told,  had  a  chief  deity,  though 
his  name  is  not  given.  For  the  Russians  this  was 
undoubtedly  Perun,  the  thunder-god  (developing 
into  a  sky-god);  for  the  Elbe  Slavs  the  deitv 
Svarog  has  been  suggested  for  this  honor,  though 
the  testimony  of  Baltic  rehgion  (i.e.,  of  the  ancient 
Prussians,  Lithuanians,  and  Letts)  would  seem  to 
point  once  more  to  Perun. 

II.  Elbe  Slavs. — The  most  venerated  god  of 
the  Elbe  Slavs  was  Svantovit,  whose  worship 
centered  about  his  idol  in  the  great  temple  at 
Arkona,  on  the  island  of  Riigen.  Omens  were 
drawn  from  a  white  horse  sacred  to  him,  and  a 
festival  was  celebrated  in  his  honor  soon  after 
harvest,  when  portents  were  sought  for  the  coming 
year.  The  deities  Rugievit  (or  Rinvit),  worshiped 
at  Garz,  Porevit,  Porenutius  ("Son  of  Perun"), 
and  the  war-god  Gerovit  may  have  been  doublets 
of  Svantovit. 

Another  important  deity  was  Triglav  ("Three- 
Heads"),  whose  chief  seats  of  worship  were  in 
Stettin  and  Wollin,  and  whose  cult  seems  to  have 
resembled  that  of  Svantovit.  The  divinity  Radi- 
gast,  who  Ukewise  possessed  an  elaborate  temple 


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Social  Ethics 


and  a  sacred  horse,  is  taken  by  some  scholars  to  be 
the  eponymous  deity  of  the  capital  of  the 
Rhetarians;  and  the  same  theory  may  be  advanced 
concerning  Jula,  whose  lance  was  an  object  of 
worship  at  JuUn  (the  modern  Wollin  in  Pomerania). 

Other  Elbe  gods,  of  whom  we  know  little  more 
than  the  names,  were  Podaga  (cf.  the  PoUsh  air- 
goddess  Pogoda?),  Pripegala,  Rinvit,  Turupid, 
Puruvit,  Pisamar,  and  Proven.  Zcernoboch 
("Black  God,"  perhaps  the  Tierna  Slav  of  the  Ice- 
landic Knytlingasaga)  seems  to  have  been  a  god  of 
evil. 

Besides  gods  the  Elbe  Slavs  worshiped  goddesses, 
but  we  have  no  details  concerning  them,  except  that 
one  of  them  was  represented  on  a  banner.  The 
veneration  of  household  deities  is  also  recorded. 

III.  Russians,  Czechs,  and  Poles. — -The  chief 
god  was  Perun  (to  whom  the  oak  was  sacred). 

Veles  is  described,  somewhat  doubtfully,  as  a 
god  of  flocks.  His  idols  stood  in  Kief,  Novgorod, 
and  Rostof ;  in  modern  folk-lore  his  place  is  filled 
by  St.  Blasius,  a  shepherd  and  martyr  of  Caesarea 
in  Cappadocia.  Chors  ("Golden  [Idol],"  borrowed 
from  Greek  chrysos)  seems  to  have  been  a  sun- 
god;  and  Dazhbog  may  possibly  be  compared  with 
the  Samogitian  deity  Datanus  ("Generous"). 
Other  alleged  Russian  deities  are  very  dubious, 
such  as  Simarg  and  Mokosh,  while  Troyan  is 
merely  an  apotheosis  of  the  Emperor  Trajan. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  know  that  Svarog  was 
equated  with  the  Greek  Hephaistos;  and  he  may 
perhaps  be  the  same  as  the  "celestial  smith" 
of  Baltic  folk-songs,  and  comparable  with  the 
Finnish  Ilmarinen,  the  Teutonic  Wieland,  and 
the  Vedic  Tvashtar.  He  had  a  son  (Elbe  Slav 
Svarazhitz,  Russian  Svarozhich)  who  was  also  a 
fire-god,  and  whose  idol  stood  beside  that  of  Radi- 
gast.    Stribog  was  possibly  a  god  of  winter. 

A  number  of  Polish  deities  have  been  identified: 
Yesza  (Jupiter),  Liada  (Mars),  Dzydzilelya  (Venus), 
Nyja  (Pluto),  Dzewana  (Diana),  Marzyana  (Ceres), 
besides  an  air-deity  (Podoga)  and  a  life-deity 
(Zhywie) ;  but  these  are  not  beyond  suspicion. 

IV.  Modern  Survivals. — The  domestic  gods 
worshiped  by  the  Slavs  survive  in  the  Russian 
DMushka  domovoy  ("House  Gaffer"),  Polish 
Skrzat,  Czech  Skritek  or  Hospodaficek,  Bulgarian 
Stopan,  all  of  whom  play  much  the  same  role  as 
the  English  brownie.  There  are  Ukewise  deities 
of  fate  (Rozhanice,  Sudjenice,  Dolya,  SreCa), 
and  spirits  of  water,  forests,  fields,  and  mountains 
(Vily,  Divy,  Judy,  etc.).  BeUef  in  werewolves 
(Vlkodlak,  etc.)  is  wide-spread,  as  is  that  in  Vampires, 
and  the  "Uttle  folk"  (Ludki). 

V.  The  Soul. — The  soul  can  leave  the  body  in 
sleep  and  enter  another  person,  called  Mora  or 
Kikimora;  and  the  soul  (Sjen)  often  acts  as  a 
household  spirit.  In  Serbia  these  souls  {Zduh, 
Zduhacz)  battle  for  the  welfare  of  their  owners. 
After  death  the  soul  remains  on  earth  till  the  corpse 
decays,  and  during  this  time  food  and  drink  should 
be  offered  it.  The  only  malevolent  souls  are  those 
of  sorcerers,  the  unbaptized,  etc.,  who  become 
Navky,  Rusalky,  etc. 

VI.  Worship  of  the  Elements. — ^We  are  told 
that  the  Slavs  worshiped  not  only  water,  fire,  moun- 
tains, and  trees,  but  also  sun,  moon,  and  stars; 
although  no  details  are  given  regarding  these 
cults.  ,    ,.  r 

VII.  Eschatology. — Testimony  as  to  belief 
in  immortaUty  among  the  Slavs  is  conflicting,  but 
the  funeral  feasts  {tryzna)  celebrated  in  honor  of 
the  dead,  and  the  evidence  of  the  strong  Baltic 
belief  in  a  future  fife,  render  it  practically  certain 
that  the  Slavs  shared  this  conviction. 

VIII.  Cult. — The  presence  of  temples,  idols, 
sacrifices   (sometimes  human),  and  priesthoods  is 


amply  demonstrated  for  the  Elbe  Slavs;  for  the 
Russians,  Czechs,  and  Poles  we  have  definite 
information  only  for  idols  and  sacrifices.  Feasts 
of  the  gods  were  celebrated  among  the  Elbe  Slavs, 
and  oracles  were  sought  at  their  temples.  The 
place  of  a  special  priesthood  among  the  Elbe  Slavs 
seems  to  have  been  filled  by  magicians  and  sorcerers 
among  the  Russians,  Festivals  with  pagan  sur- 
vivals are  still  observed  in  Russia,  especially  in 
connection  with  agricultural  interests  (Koleda, 
Rusalye,  Kwpalo).  Louis  H.  Gray 

SMITH,    JOSEPH.— Founder   of   Mormonism 

(q.v.). 

SMITH,  WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  (1846- 
1894). — Scottish  philologist,  orientaUst  and  Biblical 
scholar,  who  did  much  to  introduce  more  scientific 
historical  methods  into  biblical  scholarship.  His 
outstanding  works  were  The  Prophets  of  Israel, 
Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia,  and  The 
Religion  of  the  Semites. 

SMRITI. — ^Tradition  or  the  post- Vedic  reUgious 
literature  of  India  of  less  authority  than  the  shruti 
(q.v.).  It  consists  of  the  law  books,  books  of 
science,  the  Purdnas,  the  great  epics  and  the 
Tantras. 

SOCIAL  BRETHREN.— A  small  Christian 
sect,  existing  in  Arkansas  and  lUinois,  U.S.A., 
since  1867,  holding  to  orthodox  doctrines,  the 
polity  being  a  fusion  of  Baptist  and  Methodist 
customs.  They  have  (1919)  19  congregations 
and  950  communicants. 

SOCIAL  ETHICS.— In  a  broad  sense,  the  ethics 
of  the  various  relations  in  which  man  stands  to  his 
fellows  and  to  society  as  a  whole.  More  specifically, 
the  ethics  of  those  more  general  and  organized 
types  of  relation  found  in  institutions  (e.g.,  educa- 
tion, property,  the  family,  the  competitive  system) 
or  in  concerted  action  demanded  by  widespread 
conditions  (e.g.,  treatment  of  crime,  poverty, 
vice,  class  conflict,  urban  fife).  The  ethics  of  the 
poHtical  group  as  such  is  usually  given  a  separate 
treatment  as  pohtical  ethics.  Some  movements, 
such  as  socialism,  which  have  political,  social, 
and  economic  aspects  cannot  be  said  to  belong 
exclusively  to  either  social  or  political  ethics,  and 
similarly  there  are  few  actions  of  the  individual 
which  cannot  be  regarded  as  belonging  either  to 
individual  or  to  social  ethics  according  to  the 
point  of  view  from  which  we  wish  to  regard  them. 

The  problems  of  social  ethics  include,  on  the 
one  hand,  (1)  facts  as  to  growth  or  change  in 
social  institutions  and  the  ideas  of  justice,  benevo- 
lence, liberty,  social  welfare,  which  these  embody 
or  express;  (2)  facts  as  to  prevalence,  increase,  or 
decrease  of  conditions  such  as  poverty,  dependency, 
prostitution,  juvenile  delinquency,  divorce,  class 
consciousness,  with  reference  especially  to  their 
causes;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  best  methods  of 
deahng  with  these  institutions  and  conditions.  _ 

The  fundamental  question  is:  Do  institutions 
shape  men  and  events,  or  is  the  institution  less 
important  than  the  individual  character  as  deter- 
mined by  heredity  or  by  the  individual's  own 
choices?  Social  reformers  of  one  type  aim  at 
changing  institutions;  of  another  type,  at  promoting 
eugenics;  of  another  type,  at  effecting  a  change  of 
individual  character. 

Plato,  in  his  Republic  and  Laws,  laid  the  founda- 
tions for  social  ethics.  He  held  to  the  paramount 
importance  of  social  institutions  in  shaping  the 
life  of  the  individuals.  Aristotle,  in  his  Politics, 
while  holding  to  the  great  importance  of  institutions, 


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416 


set  forth,  as  partially  limiting  this,  the  opposing 
doctrine  that  evils  come  in  part  at  least  from  the 
bad  character  of  individuals  who  make  an  injurious 
.  use  of  the  institution.  Plato  would  abohsh  private 
property  and  the  private  family  among  the  ruUng 
class,  because  they  tended  to  interfere  with  harmony 
and  devotion  to  the  interest  of  the  whole  state; 
Aristotle  would  not. 

This  difference  still  remains  the  most  funda- 
mental in  social  ethics:  are  the  causes  of  evil 
fundamentally  institutional,  or  are  they  due  to  such 
non-institutional  factors  as  physical  environment, 
inborn  instincts,  passions,  inevitable  "set"  or 
"drive"  of  mental  tendencies? 

Broadly  speaking,  questions  of  social  ethics  up 
to  the  time  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  were 
more  immediately  connected  with  the  institutions 
of  family,  church,  and  state,  whereas  since  the 
Industrial  Revolution  the  new  conditions  of  industry 
and  business  have  forced  problems  relating  to  the 
economic  field  increasingly  to  the  front.  A  further 
broad  tendency  in  recent  times  in  the  treatment  of 
all  problems  of  social  ethics  is  to  look  to  causes  of 
evils  with  a  view  to  prevention  rather  than  to  centei 
attention  upon  the  more  immediate  rehef,  as  was 
earher  frequently  the  case.  The  appUcation  of 
scientific  methods  of  study  to  problems  of  poverty, 
distribution  of  wealth,  causes  of  divorce  and  of 
vice  and  crime,  has  had  a  strong  influence  upon  the 
method  of  approaching  these,  even  if  it  has  not, 
as  yet,  effected  its  purpose.         James  H.  Tufts 

SOCIAL  GOSPEL.— The  application  of  the 
teaching  of  Jesus  and  the  total  message  of  the 
Christian  salvation  to  society,  the  economic  life, 
and  social  institutions  such  as  the  state,  the  family, 
as  well  as  to  individuals. 

Strictly  speaking,  there  is  only  one  gospel  of 
salvation.  See  Gospel.  The  appUcation  of  its 
message,  however,  can  be  to  both  individuals  and 
social  groups.  In  New  Testament  times,  the 
gospel  promised  membership  in  a  social  order, 
i.e.,  the  Kingdom  of  God,  which  although  trans- 
cendental was  none  the  less  real.  _  According  to 
Jesus,  one  prerequisite  of  joining  this  Kingdom  of 
God  was  the  possession  of  the  social  attitude  of 
love.  As  Christianity  developed,  however,  it  did 
not  follow  this  thought  so  central  in  the  teaching 
of  Jesus,  but  preached  a  salvation  largely  compre- 
hended in  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  the 
rescue  of  the  soul  from  hell  and  its  entrance  into 
heaven.  The  social  ideahsm  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God  was  transformed  into  ecclesiasticism  and 
pictures  of  heaven.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that 
practically  the  only  purpose  of  the  gospel  should 
be  regarded  as  that  of  the  rescue  of  the  individual 
from  original  and  actual  sin  as  well  as  the  miseries  of 
life. 

Perhaps  in  no  period  has  the  appUcation  of  the 
gospel  been  more  individuaUstic  than  during  the 
dominance  of  the  philosophy  of  the  18th.  and  early 
19th,  centuries,  with  its  emphasis  upon  natural 
rights  and  its  minimizing  of  social  structure.  The 
theology  in  which  these  views  were  embodied 
emphasized  strongly  the  doctrine  of  a  substitution- 
ary atonement.  The  effect  of  such  theology  was 
twofold.  On  the  one  side  it  begot  the  indifference 
to  the  social  needs  of  the  masses  which  Wilberforce 
so  laments  and  on  the  other  hand  it  stimulated  a 
comparatively  smaU  group  of  reUgious  leaders  to 
undertake  the  mitigation  of  economic  and  other 
social  ills.  Much  in  the  spirit  of  Ambrose  and 
Chrysostom,  these  leaders,  most  of  whom  were 
Christian  sociaUsts  (see  Socialism,  Christian), 
brought  home  to  the  people  of  England  the  wretched 
condition  of  the  working  classes,  their  need  of  educa- 
tion and  of  better  interests  and  conditions  in  Ufe. 


They  were  not  philosophical  adherents  of  socialism 
in  the  technical  sense  of  the  term  but  they  were 
Christian  socialists  in  the  sense  that  they  beUeved 
that  Christianity  had  a  social  message  and  power, 
and  that,  therefore,  Christians  should  improve  the 
conditions  of  Ufe  of  workingmen  and  assure  them 
larger  justice.  Their  spirit  has  lived  on  in  the 
church  of  England  and  has  extended  far  beyond  its 
limits. 

An  entirely  new  interest  in  the  social  signifi- 
cance of  Christianity  developed  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  19th.  century.  It  was  due  largely  to  the 
new  emphasis  laid  upon  the  teaching  of  Jesus, 
the  historical  study  of  the  Bible  and  Christianity, 
the  rapid  spread  of  sociological  study  and  interest ;  m 
a  word,  the  conjunction  of  the  modem  spirit  with 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  himself.  Sociological  studies 
made  it  apparent  that  the  individual  could  not  be 
dissociated  from  his  social  surroundings  or  from  their 
influence;  that  group  interests  and  social  inheritance 
had  moral  effects  on  the  individual;  that,  primary  as 
the  individual  might  be,  his  welfare,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal,  were  conditioned  by  social  forces  and 
customs,  particularly  those  which  are  econoiruc. 
PubUcations  in  this  bibUco-sociological  field  in- 
creased rapidly.^  Social  preaching  in  churches  as 
well  as  social  instruction  in  colleges  and  theo- 
logical seminaries  emphasized  the  work  of  the 
church  as  both  ameliorating  and  transforming 
social  conditions.  From  its  beginning,  the  Federal 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America  has 
emphasized  the  social  bearing  of  Christianity  and 
has  published  what  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Social  Creed  of  the  Churches,  i.e.,  a  statement  of 
principles  and  social  ideals  to  which  the  church 
should  devote  itself.  Among  these  are  the  aboli- 
tion of  poverty,  the  curbing  of  divorce,  the  right  of 
laboring  men  to  share  in  determining  working 
conditions,  the  abolition  of  child-labor,  and  other 
evils,  arbitration,  and  in  general  the  application  of 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  to  family,  state,  international 
affairs  and  all  other  aspects  of  social  life.  Christian 
activity  is  not,  however,  to  be  restricte'd  to  social 
service  and  the  ameUo ration  of  evil  conditions; 
it  must  seek  to  remove  the  causes  of  social  injustice 
and  evils;  though  opposed  to  revolution  it  must 
be  interested  in  social  reconstruction. 

Insistence  upon  this  appUcation  of  Christianity 
has  not  been  without  opposition.  On  the  one  side 
are  those  who  hold  that  any  attempt  at  Christian- 
izing the  social  order  is  contrary  to  the  beUef  in 
the  second  coming  of  Christ.  On  the  other  hand 
there  are  those  who  insist  that  the  church  should 
keep  itself  aloof  from  social  and  particularly  eco- 
nomic questions,  preaching  the  religion^  which  is 
essentially  concerned  in  abstract  virtue,  individual 
morality,  the  atonement  and  the  salvation  into 
heaven.  Notwithstanding  misinterpretation  and 
opposition,  however,  the  spread  of  real  confidence 
in  the  ability  of  the  gospel  to  present  a  way  to 
social  as  well  as  individual  salvation  is  rapidly 
increasing  among  not  only  Protestant  but  also 
Roman  CathoUc  churchmen.  .JThe  heart  of  the 
social  gospel  is  to  be  seen  in  the  teachings  of  Jesus 
as  to  the  fatherUness  of  God,  the  brotherhobd  of 
men  and  the  supreme  worth  of  personality.  It 
holds  to  the  practicabiUty  as  well  as  the  necessity  of 
putting  these  truths  into  operation  for  the  purpose 
of  destroying  or  reconstructing  social  forces  and 
institutions  and  establishing  those  of  a  truly  Chris- 
tian character.  Sit  is,  thus,  a  message  of  courage 
and  hope  as  well  as  of  ideals  and  social  responsi- 
biUty.^  It  believes  God  is  working  in  human  history. 
It  does  not  forget  that  society  is  made  up  of  folks 
and  that  individuals  need  God's  saving  power, 
but  it  holds  that  the  gospel  is  equally  needed  and 
appUcable  to  group-activities.    Farthest  possible 


417 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS       Social  Service  of  Church 


is  it  from  a  merely  sociological  presentation  of  a 
humanitarian  principle.  For  it  is  the  social  appli- 
cation of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Shailer  Matbdbws 

SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  THE  CHURCH.— 
Organized  charity  characterized.  Christian  com- 
munities from  the  beginning  and  was  one  of  the 
teaits  favorably  regarded  by  the  heathen  world. 
The  lavish  presents,  subsidies  and  legacies  of  the 
powerful  Romans  were  not  based  primarily  upon 
need  or  administered  according  to  need  alone. 
They  aimed  at  splendor  of  hberality  and  were  for 
citizens  only,  the  more  prominent  usually  receiving 
the  larger  bonus.  The  early  Christian  society  was 
dedicated  to  the  welfare  of  the  poor  and  needy. 
However  Athens  at  its  best  had  succeeded  in  organ- 
izing state  reUef  for  the  poor,  the  crippled  and  the 
orphans  of  fallen  soldiers  and  prior  to  the  squandering 
of  state  revenues  in  spectacles  for  political  effect 
maintained  a  worthy  record.  Ultimately  the 
Roman  distribution  of  grain  and  spoils  demoralized 
the  citizenry.  In  the  meanwhile  the  guilds  and 
collegia  were  the  nearest  approach  to  the  standards 
of  a  Christian  community  and  perhaps  paved  the 
way  for  the  communism  and  family-like  soUdarity 
of  the  earhest  Christian  groups.  In  such  groups 
one  must  be  "given  to  hospitality,"  and  great 
importance  attached  to  the  common  meal,  "the 
serving  of  tables"  and  almsgiving.  Since  there  was 
no  thought  of  reforming  the  world,  material  goods, 
government,  industry,  caste  were  indifferent  mat- 
ters, for  the  "end  of  the  age"  drew  near. 

According  to  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  the 
bishops  "are  to  supply  to  orphans  the  care  of 
parents,  to  widows  that  of  husbands,  to  help  to 
marriage  those  ready  for  marriage,  to  procure 
work  for  those  out  of  work,  to  show  compassion 
to  those  incapable  of  work,  to  provide  a  shelter  for 
strangers,  food  for  the  hungry,  drink  for  the  thirsty, 
visits  for  the  sick  and  help  for  the  prisoners" 
(IV,  2.)  Purity  and  simplicity  of  living  and  the 
equahty  of  all  beUevers  before  God  functioned 
indirectly  as  social  service  while,  naturally,  the 
conscious  aim  was  to  make  converts.  After 
Constantine  the  double  standard  involving  ceUbacy, 
poverty  and  works  of  merit  for  the  ecclesiastical 
Christian  broke  up  this  simpUcity,  although  very 
extensive  works  of  charity  continued,  centering 
finally  about  great  monasteries  and  hospitals. 
Congregational  rehef  subsided  because  of  the 
expansion  of  Christianity  and  the  concurrent 
increase  of  misery  and  pauperism.  Ecclesiasticism 
turned  gifts  into  future  salvation  for  the  donors 
and  in  the  5th.  century  the  church  was  the  largest 
landowner  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Bishops  took 
the  place  of  nobles  in  distributing  benefits.  Insti- 
tutionahsm  ruled  the  day  and  bulked  large  in 
fostering  learning,  reheving  distress  and  developing 
abuses  through  the  Dark  Ages. 

With  the  Protestant  Reformation  decentraliza- 
tion set  in,  which,  followed  by  the  spread  of  com- 
mon rights,  democracy  and  separation  of  the 
church  and  state,  resulted  in  throwing  into  civil 
government  the  greater  part  of  the  ameliorative 
work  of  Christian  bodies.  At  the  present  time  in 
the  United  States  the  Boards  of  County  Com- 
missioners perform  the  relief  work  formerly  done 
by  the  church;  school  boards  have  charge  of  educa- 
tion and  in  the  great  cities  United  Charities  and 
various  specialized  associations  fiU  in  the  gaps  left 
by  the  state,  county  or  municipal  government. 
It  may  be  held  that  the  church  leavened  the  whole 
lump  but  it  is  equally  true  that  sound  scientific 
research  (often  opposed  by  the  church)  made 
possible  the  effective  application  of  the  normal 
altruism  of  the  general  pubUc.  Voluntary  sup- 
port for  the  speciaUzed  agencies  not  yet  carried 


by  taxation  comes  largely  from  church  members  as 
does  also  the  spirit  and  personnel  directing  such 
enterprises  but  pubUc  consciousness  of  these  facts 
is  sUght  because  the  church  as  such  does  not  make 
the  gifts  and  usually  does  not  incorporate  in  her 
program  of  meetings  and  education  adequate 
recognition  of  this  extension  work. 

The  trend  from  autocracy  to  democracy  neces- 
sarily shifted  the  emphasis  of  social  service  from 
rehef  to  prevention  while  the  church  as  such  remained 
predisposed  to  mercy  rather  than  to  justice.  The 
divided  character  of  protestantism  and  the  shifting 
of  power  almost  wholly  from  clergy  to  laity  retarded 
the  free  proclamation  of  social  justice  and  con- 
signed the  church  to  a  rear-end  position  in  major 
social  reforms.  Her  care  for  personal  deportment 
was  more  conscious  and  effective  than  her  concern 
for  the  social  conditions  in  which  personal  character 
was  largerly  determined.  Individual  members 
have  wrought  well  in  this  field  but  not  churches  as 
such. 

Institutional  churches  were  designed  to  supple- 
ment the  domestic,  educational  and  recreative 
needs  of  depressed  communities.  Their  methods 
have  been  those  of  the  social  settlements  together 
with  a  frank  appeal  to  the  religious  interest.  The 
best  description  of  such  work  on  a  large  scale  is  that 
of  St.  George's  Parish,  New  York,  as  set  forth  by 
Hodges  and  Reichert  in  The  Institutional  Church, 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  institutional  or  settle- 
ment method  has  become  a  standard  for  successful 
missionary  endeavor  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
It  is  perhaps  the  modern  way  of  expressing  the 
spirit  of  the  earhest  Christians. 

Within  protestantism  the  rise  of  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  and  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  represented  a 
co-ordination  for  social  service  quite  beyond  the 
rea,ch  of  the  separate  denominations;  but  these, 
quite  like  the  various  orders  within  the  Roman 
Cathohc  Church,  were  for  service  and  not  for  social 
reform.  The  service  rendered  in  peace  and  in  war 
and  throughout  the  world  has  been  great  but  the 
grave  questions  of  social  structure  have  been 
avoided  and  the  hardest  problems  of  the  most 
needy  have  hardly  been  attacked.  Working 
among  the  depressed  but  with  a  like  aim  is  the 
Salvation  Army  and  its  more  recent  offshoots. 
Similarly  the  Young  Peoples'  Movements  more 
strictly  within  the  church  had  their  heyday  prior 
to  the  dawn  of  community  responsibility  within 
the  religious  groups  and  so  spent  their  enthusiasm 
largely  in  personal  Christian  culture.  It  is  prob- 
ably true,  however,  that  the  urgent  social  evolution 
accelerated  by  the  great  war  is  already  quickening 
and  broadening  the  church's  conception  of  social 
service.  But  in  the  meantime  one  result  of  her 
past  course  is  a  certain  coldness  on  the  part  of  the 
self-conscious  struggling  classes,  especially  in  the 
great  industrial  centers,  who  are  demanding  what 
they  regard  as  their  rights  and  not  "social  service." 

Therefore  the  most  pressing  problem  of  the 
church  in  this  field  is  not  that  of  organizing  and 
financing  the  fragmentary  share  of  charity  still 
remaining  to  her,  nor  yet  that  of  pioneering  experi- 
ments in  ameHoration,  but  rather  that  of  making  a 
coherent  and  convincing  contribution  to  the 
democratic  movement  in  politics  and  industry. 
If  only  her  connection  with  the  "proletariat"  were 
sound  and  vahd  she  might  do  much  in  the  major 
social  service  of  defining  "rights"  and  more  in 
urging  "duties."  Answering  to  some  such  need  as 
this  many  churches  have  espoused  the  Open  Forum 
Movement  and  have  made  possible  free  and  frank 
discussion  of  vital  reforms  in  a  rather  ideal  atmos- 
phere. Furthermore  the  adoption  of  a  social 
creed  for  the  churches  on  the  part  of  the  Federal 


Socialism 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


418 


Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America 
together  with  the  proclamations  of  American 
bishops  within  the  Roman  Catholic  church — all 
favoring  the  reforms  agitated  for  years  by  organ- 
ized labor — indicates  a  slow  but  sure  acceptance 
of  that  virile  social  service  which  struggles  for 
justice  while  continuing  the  rehef  and  welfare 
work  which  anciently  were  the  glory  of  the  church. 

Allan  Hoben 

SOCIALISM. — ^A  social-economic  ^  movement 
aiming  at  the  destruction  of  the  capitalistic  system 
together  with  all  contributing  institutions  and  the 
estabUshment  of  a  new  social  order  based  upon  the 
collective  ownership  and  administration  of  capital 
and  the  products  of  labor  by  a  democracy. 

I.  General  Characteristics  op  Socialism.— 
The  definition  here  given  is  intended  to  make  plain 
the  distinction  between  economic^  theories  proposed 
by  various  sociahsts  and  the  significance  of  the 
movement  as  a  whole.  Economics  _may  be  basal 
but  they  are  not  identical  with  sociaUsm.  As  an 
economic  theory  it  is  held  by  many  sociologists 
who  do  not  desire  the  destruction  of  the  existing 
social  order  but  rather  its  transformation  by  the 
collective  ownership  of  the  larger  means  of  pro- 
duction and  the  abolition  of  competition  and  of  the 
wage  system.  Such  institutions  as  the  family  and 
religion  are  by  these  sociahsts  held  to  be  matters  of 
private  concern  and  the  state  is  not  to  be  destroyed 
(as  is  the  proposal  of  communism  and  anarchy) 
but  more  or  less  rapidly  brought  into  the  control 
of  the  working  classes.  Many  of  these  socialists 
would  recognize  intellectual  as  well  as  physical  labor. 

The  number  of  schools  into  which  sociahsts  are 
divided  is  considerable.  From  this  fact  it  is  fair 
to  attribute  to  any  group  of  socialists  only  the 
proposals  actually  adopted  and  published  by  them 
officially  in  programs  and  platforms.  All  types 
of  this,  so  to  speak,  confessional  socialism  are, 
however,  at  one  in  professed  sympathy  with  the 
masses,  general  philosophy  and  hopes.  SociaUst 
organizations  are  means  by  which  the  goal  is  to  be 
more  or  less  rapidly  sought.  They  all  base  their 
activity  on  the  class-consciousness.  This,  according 
to  sociahsts  of  the  International  type,  is  to  be 
transformed  into  a  class-hatred  and  ultimately 
class-control.  Many  socialist  groups  look  to  evolu- 
tion to  bring  about  this  end  rather  than  revolution, 
although  since  the  defeat  of  one  such  group  in 
Russia  (the  memsheviks)  by  those  favoring  direct 
and  revolutionary  even  communistic  action  (the 
bolsheviks)  the  alignment  is  being  confused  by  more 
radical  leaders  and  the  influence  of  Russian  propa- 
ganda. 

The  dominance  of  the  Marxian  philosophy  that 
labor  is  the  creator  of  all  wealth  has  been  somewhat 
modified  by  various  schools  of  socialists,  but  Marx's 
treatise  Capital  is  still  properly  to  be  regarded  as 
the  Bible  of  the  movement. 

Socialism  hke  any  world-attitude  has  influence 
outside  of  avowed  socialist  groups.  Before  _  the 
Great  War  this  influence  was  felt  by  many  writers 
on  economic  matters.  Such  writers,  following  the 
Fabian  Society,  endeavored  to  assume  an  oppor- 
tunist attitude  whether  avowed  political  sociahsts 
or  not.  English  and  American  socialists,  further, 
discovered  during  the  war  that  the  German  origin 
and  leadership  of  the  movement  were  incompat- 
ible with  patriotic  action  and  in  some  important 
instances  broke  with  the  socialist  party.  The  full 
effect  of  these  divergent  currents  ranging  from  the 
bolsheviks  of  continental  Europe  to  men  like  Spargo  in 
America  is  not  yet  discernible  beyond  the  growing 
radicahsm  of  all  sociahst  groups  under  continental  in- 
fluence. The  movement  is  thus  ever  more  clearly  dif- 
ferentiated from  the  democratic  development  of  the 
United  States  where  class-consciousness,  as  distinct 


from  the  general  interests  of  different  economic 
groups  (e.g.,  farmers  and  financiers),  has  had  no 
share  in  the  constitutional  organization  of  the 
nation. 

II.  Socialism  and  Religion. — ^Radical  social- 
ism regards  the  Christian  church  and  in  fact  rehgion 
itself  as  a  form  of  capitalistic  control.  Many  of 
the  leading  sociahsts  of  the  continent  of  Europe 
were  never  allied  with  the  Christian  church,  and 
adopted  the  general  philosophy  of  economic  deter- 
minism in  which,  whatever  allowances  might  be 
made  for  ideological  elements  in  human  experience 
(as  by  Marx)  religion  has  no  legitimate  place.  _  It 
is,  however,  true  that  not  a  few  of  the  more  cautious 
advocates  of  the  system  have  been  outspokenly 
Christian.  Such  writers  would  expressly  agree  with 
the  opinion  of  Professor  Kirkup  that  "the  ethics 
of  sociahsm  are  closely  akin  to  the  ethics  of  Chris- 
tianity, if  not  identical  with  them."  See  Chris- 
tian Socialism.  But  such  sympathies  are  not 
characteristic  of  the  movement  as  a  whole  and 
may  fairly  be  criticized  as  confusing  moral  ends 
with  proposed  methods  of  attainment. 

Further,  although  socialist  programs  and  plat- 
forms may  be  carefully  limited  to  economic  matters, 
the  literature  of  the  movement  is  one  of  antagonism 
to  many  existing  social  institutions.  Marriage 
as  an  indispensable  institution  is  freely  questioned 
and  the  position  of  women  is  a  matter  of  variant 
opinion.  Whether  or  not  the  socialist  movement 
among  the  masses,  if  at  once  victorious,  would 
reorganize  sex-morality,  can  hardly  be  a  matter  of 
doubt.  Yet  it  is  also  probable  that,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  bolshevik  regime,  the  actual  experiment  of 
recasting  a  social  order  would  greatly  modify 
extreme  views. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  is  well  to  distmguish 
socialism  as  an  economic  theory  looking  to  collective 
and  democratic  ownership  of  capital,  and  socialism 
as  a  revolutionary  social  movement.  It  is  too 
soon  to  forecast  its  final  influence,  but  the  growth  in 
numbers  of  its  adherents,  its  effect  on  the  labor 
movement,  the  gradual  recognition  of  working 
men  as  persons  rather  than  as  mere  factors  in 
production,  the  growing  criticism  of  the  morals  of 
competition,  and  the  increase  of  economic  activity 
on  the  part  of  states  and  municipalities,  make  it 
evident  that  socialism  is  already  a  force  in  social 
evolution.  That  it  wiU  engender  a  larger  liberty 
than  is  possible  under  a  better  adjusted  competitive 
system  may  well  be  questioned.  _  Social  ethics  is 
becoming  of  ever  increasing  importance,  and 
religious  and  moral  teachers  cannot  ignore  the 
new  conditions.  As  an  economic  theory  it  may 
not  be  hostile  to  Christianity;  as  an  all-embracing 
theory  of  society  looking  to  the  recasting  of  morality 
it  bids  fair  to  be  a  rival  to  Christianity  and  rehgion 
generally.  Shailer  Mathews 

SOCIETY  OF  JESUS.— See  Jesus,  Society  of. 

SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING  CHRISTIAN 
KNOWLEDGE. — See  Christian  Knowledge, 
Society  for  Promoting. 

SOCIETY  FOR  THE  PROPAGATION  OF  THE 
GOSPEL  IN  FOREIGN  PARTS.— A  missionary 
society  of  the  Church  of  England,  which  is  repre- 
sentative of  the  High  Church  branch  of  the  Church, 
and  carries  on  extensive,  aggressive  missionary 
work  in  various  foreign  countries. 

SOCINIANISM.— A  rationahstic  type  of  Chris- 
tianity originating  in  the  16th.  century.  Socinus 
(Latinized  form  of  Sozini  or  Sozzini),  Laehus 
(1525-1562),  and  Faustus  (153&-1604),  uncle  and 
nephew,   founders   of   the   sect   that   bears   their 


419 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sociology 


name,  were  members  of  an  Italian  patrician  family 
noted  for  its  advocacy  of  freedom  of  thought. 
This  gained  for  them  access  to  high  poUtical  circles 
and  to  the  friendship  of  leading  humanist  scholars 
of  their  time.  LaeUus  was  the  more  deeply  reUgious 
of  the  two  men.  Going  to  Poland,  wher&  the 
intellectual  and  religious  tolerance  of  the  ruUng 
nobihty  gave  free  scope  to  an  antitrinitarian 
movement  there  represented  by  such  men  as 
Peter  Gonesius,  Martin  Czechowitz,  George  Bian- 
drata  and  Gregorius  Paulus  of  Cracow,  he  became 
a  vigorous  supporter  of  it.  Faustus  came  deeply 
under  his  uncle's  influence  but  his  interests  were 
more  strictly  ethical  and  intellectual  than  religious, 
and  he  concerned  himself  greatly  with  the  rational 
basis  for  the  ethical  teachings  of  Christianity.  He 
too  went  to  Poland  and  became  the  most  noted 
theologian  of  the  antitrinitarians  there;  but  his 
repudiation  of  all  sacraments  and  even  of  the 
Baptist  view  of  the  obhgation  to  be  baptized  as 
weU  as  of  the  Supper  as  a  memorial  feast — it  was  a 
form  of  thanksgiving  to  him — prevented  him  from 
formally  joining  the  very  body  that  bore  his  name. 
He  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  Racovian 
Catechism,  which  is  the  best  presentation  of  the 
Socinian  doctrines. 

Through  its  influence  in  the  University  of 
Racov,  Socinianism  spread  widely  in  Poland  and 
Hungary  and  somewhat  in  Germany  and  Holland 
where  it  was  much  feared  by  orthodoxy,  Catholic 
and  Protestant,  till  Jesuitism,  through  the  con- 
version of  many  Polish  princes,  brought  about  its 
suppression.  Thenceforward  it  became  known  as  a 
doctrine  rather  than  a  sect.  It  spread  into  England 
and  deeply  affected  the  views  of  many  English 
Protestants,  both  Conformists  and  Non-conformists. 
Its  presence  is  chiefly  marked  by  the  number  of 
controversial  works  published  against  it.  It  was 
transplanted  to  New  England  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  18th.  century  and  began  quietly  to  leaven  liberal 
rehgious  thought  there. 

Socinianism  may  be  regarded  as  a  simplified  and 
rationaUzed  ethical  Protestantism.  For  a  brief 
statement  of  its  theological  method  and  its  doctrinal 
tenets  we  turn  to  the  Racovian  Catechism.  It 
begins  with  an  attempted  definition  of  the  Christian 
religion,  which  is  as  follows:  "The  Christian 
religion  is  the  way  of  attaining  eternal  life,  which 
God  has  pointed  out  by  Jesus  Christ;  or,  in  other 
words,  it  is  the  method  of  serving  God,  which 
he  has  himself  deUvered  by  Jesus  Christ."  The 
main  points  are  here  clearly  suggested:  Chris- 
tianity is  practice,  conduct,  morals;  it  rests  upon 
definite  teaching,  positive  instruction,  given  authori- 
tatively by  Jesus  Christ;  the  source  of  the  teaching 
is  God  himself  and  the  reward  of  believing  obedi- 
ence is  salvation,  everlasting  Ufe.  It  is  then 
rationally  demonstrated  that  the  Scriptures  are  an 
authentic  statement,  proved  by  their  inner  rational 
character  and  by  the  miracles  that  attested  the 
teaching,  of  the  revelation  of  truth  which  Jesus 
uttered  directly  or  indirectly  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  inferentially,  by  his  approval,  in  the 
Old  Testament;  that  they  are  sufficient  for  our 
needs  and  that  they  are  capable  of  clear  inter- 
pretation by  the  human  reason.  Thus  revelation 
and  rationaUty  concide.  The  outcome  is  a  system 
of  "rational"  morality  supported  by  doctrines 
authenticated  as  divine  in  origin.  These  doctrines 
differ  considerably  from  orthodoxy. 

God  is  one  person  only,  revealed  in  Christ,  who, 
as  a  human  being,  not  a  God  incarnate,  was  super- 
natiu"ally  born  and  endowed  to  teach  final  truth, 
and  elevated  after  his  exemplary  death  to  divinity, 
but  not  to  essential  equality  with  God.  Christ 
is  "the  person  by  whose  instrumentality  God  oper- 
ates" in  salvation,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  is  "the 


virtue  or  energy  of  God,  by  the  communication 
of  which  all  these  operations  are  performed."  The 
Gospel  is  to  be  viewed  as  the  teachings  of  Christ 
in  addition  to  the  law.  Christ's  death  was  not  a 
substitutionary  satisfactution  for  sins,  though  he  died 
on  account  of  them.  His  redemption  of  men  is 
his  liberation  of  men  from  the  service  of  sins,  and, 
consequently  from  their  punishment.  Men  are 
not  inherently  immortal,  neither  have  they  original 
sin,  but  they  are  rational,  free  and  responsible, 
and  by  faith,  that  is,  trust  and  obedience,  they  will 
be  saved  from  punishment  (annihilation  finally) 
and  become  immortal.  Augustinianism  is  repudi- 
ated in  general.  The  institutionahsm  of  the 
CathoUc  faith  is  entirely  repudiated.  "The  visible 
church  is  a  society  of  such  men  as  hold  and  profess 
saving  doctrine,"  and  the  term  may  be  used  of  a 
single  local  society  or  of  such  men  considered  as  a 
whole.  Baptism  (immersion)  of  beUevers  is  the  rite 
of  initiation  to  the  church,  but  it  is  not  saving,  being 
but  a  symbol  and  sign  and  infants  are  not  proper 
subjects.  The  celebration  of  the  Supper — purely 
a  memorial — is  limited  to  these  baptized  believers. 
The  order  and  discipline  of  the  church  come  under 
the  direction  of  chosen  elders  and  rulers.  The  "in- 
visible church"  is  made  up  of  all  those  who  beUeve 
and  obey  Christ,  but  there  can  be  no  assemblage  of 
it  until  the  coming  of  Christ.  Socinianism  appears 
throughout  as  an  attempt  to  restore  the  primitive 
Christian  church  and  its  doctrine  as  a  truly  rational 
faith.  George  Cross 

SOCIOLOGY. — The  general  science  of  social 
life.  More  elaborately,  sociology  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  science  of  social  evolution  and 
social  organization;  or,  of  the  origin  and  develot>- 
ment,  structure  and  functioning,  of  the  reciprocal 
relations  of  individuals. 

I.  History. — Speculations  regarding  social 
organization  and  social  origins  began  very  early 
and  are  conspicuous  elements  in  all  early  religions. 
Like  primitive  philosophy  in  general,  early  social 
philosophy  was  undifferentiated  from  religion. 
Thus  in  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  social 
questions  are  almost  invariably  looked  at  theo- 
logically and  viewed  exclusively  from  a  religious 
standpoint. 

The  first  social  philosophy  to  be  formulated 
independent  of  religious  beliefs  was  that  of  the 
Greeks,  especially  that  of  Plato  and  Aristotle. 
Plato's  social  philosophy  was  idealistic  and  ethical, 
scarcely  conforming  in  its  a  priori  method  to  any 
of  the  canons  of  modern  science.  Aristotle,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  reaUstic,  objective,  and  inductive. 
Hence  Aristotle  is  almost  universally  regarded  as 
the  father  of  the  modern  social  sciences.  His 
Politics  contains  the  rudiments  not  only  of  political 
science,  but  of  economics,  sociology,  and  social 
ethics. 

This  emergence  of  social  philosophy  from  the 
"theological  stage"  was,  however,  but  temporary. 
Under  the  influence  of  Augustine  and  other  fathers 
of  the  Church  social  philosophy  again  became  a 
part  of  theology  and  remained  so  during  the  entire 
Middle  Ages.  Even  in  the  early  modern  period, 
despite  the  efforts  of  such  men  as  Bodin,  Vico, 
and  Montesquieu  in  certain  directions,  social 
thinking  continued  under  the  domination  of  the- 
ology and  metaphysics.  It  was  only  the  advent  of 
the  French  Revolution  which  put  an  end  to  such 
domination.  In  its  midst  Condorcet  proposed  that 
the  methods  of  study  which  had  been  used  success- 
fully in  other  sciences  should  be  employed  in  the 
social  sciences.  But  it  remained  for  Auguste 
Comte  in  his  Course  of  Positive  Philosophy  (pub- 
lished 1830-1842)  to  outline  clearly  these 
methods  and  show  how  they  might  be  applied 


Sociology 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


420 


in  the  study  of  social  phenomena.  In  this  work 
Comte  used  the  word  "sociology"  for  the  first  time 
as  the  name  of  the  general  science  of  society. 
For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  his  insistence  upon 
the  use  of  scientific  methods,  Comte  is  usually 
recognized  as  the  founder  of  modern  scientific  soci- 
ology. His  own  contributions  to  sociological 
theory  were  not  insignificant,  and  may  be  found 
best  stated,  perhaps,  in  his  System  of  Positive 
Polity,  a  Treatise  on  Applied  Sociology  (1851- 
1854). 

Comte's  chief  successors  in  the  19th.  centmy 
were  Herbert  Spencer  in  England  {Principles  of 
Sociology,  3  vols.,  1876-1896).  Lester  F.  Ward 
in  America  {Dynamic  Sociology,  2  vols.,  1883), 
Albert  Schaeffle  in  Germany  {Bau  und  Leben  des 
Socialen  Korpers,  4  vols.,  1875-1878),  and  Gabriel 
Tarde  in  France  {Laivs  of  Imitation,  1890).  None 
of  these  writers,  however,  succeeded  in  making 
sociology  an  inductive  science.  They  all  remained 
dominantly  speculative  social  philosophers.  The 
heavy  task  of  establishing  sociology  upon  a  secure 
basis  of  demonstrated  facts  thus  remained  for  the 
20th.  century.  This  task  is  yet  far  from  completed, 
but  the  outlines  of  a  scientific  theory  of  social 
development  and  social  organization  are  now 
becoming  evident. 

II.  Present  Tendencies. — The  most  pro- 
nounced tendencies  of  present  day  sociology  are: 
(1)  to  stress  the  importance  of  the  mental  side  of 
social  life  and  so  the  close  interdependence  of 
psychology  and  sociology;  (2)  to  overcome  "par- 
ticularism" by  an  organic,  or  synthetic,  view  of 
the  social  life;  (3)  to  develop  a  composite  method 
which  shall  synthesize  all  minor  methods  of  social 
investigation  and  research. 

1.  Earlier  sociologists  often  strove  to  assimilate 
the  methods  of  sociology  to  those  of  physical 
science.  Carrying  out  this  idea,  a  number  of 
recent  sociologists  have  championed  what  is  known 
as  "objectivism"  in  both  psychology  and  sociology — 
the  study  of  the  behavior  of  men  and  of  groups 
without  any  reference  to  mental  processes.  Objec- 
tivism has,  however,  made  but  Uttle  progress,  as 
it  is  generally  recognized  that  the  type  of  adaptation 
in  human  society  is  mental.  Mental  processes, 
especially  mental  interstimulation  and  response, 
largely  constitute  the  social  process.  Especially 
have  the  "mores,"  that  is,  the  sanctioned  standards 
of  groups,  come  to  be  recognized  as  the  chief 
determinants  not  only  of  group  behavior,  but 
even  of  the  social  behavior  of  individuals.  Thus 
have  sociology  and  social  psychology  become 
practically  indistinguishable.  This  is  particularly 
manifest  in  such  recent  writers  as  Sumner,  Giddings, 
Baldwin,  Ross,  Cooley,  and  Wallas. 

2.  Comte  stressed  the  organic,  synthetic  view 
of  human  relations;  but  many  of  his  successors 
have  developed  what  may  be  called  particularistic, 
or  unilateral,  views  of  the  social  fife.  _  Thus  sociology 
has  had  its  schools  of  geographical,  biological, 
economic,  and  ideological  determinists.  The  most 
prominent  of  these  particularistic  schools  has  been 
that  of  the  economic  determinists,  whose  dominantly 
economic  philosophy  of  the  social  life  has  furnished, 
as  is  well  known,  the  basis  for  the  revolutionary 
propaganda  of  Marxian  socialism.  While  socio- 
logical particularism  still  holds  sway  in  popular 
beUefs  and  even  divides  men  into  antagonistic 
parties,  it  has  now  little  standing  among  sociolo- 
gists of  repute.  The  tendency  in  sociology  is  now 
to  replace  these  various  particularisms  by  an 
organic  view  which  synthesizes  the  elements  of 
value  in  each.  Thus  scientific  sociology  is  gradu- 
ally attaining  to  a  balanced  view  of  the  social  Ufe, 
and  so  no  longer  lends  itself  readily  to  the  social 
faddist  or  revolutionist. 


3.  Accompanying  these  tendencies  of  recent 
sociology  to  escape  from  particularism  and  become 
more  psychological  has  been  a  demand  for  a  com- 
posite method  which  shall  synthesize  particular 
inductive  methods  of  research,  such  as  the  statistical, 
the  historical,  and  the  anthropo-geographical. 
Such  a  method  may  perhaps  develop  out  of  the 
"social  survey,"  which  has  recently  become  popular 
as  a  method  of  studying  local  conditions.  Started 
by  social  workers  as  a  mere  local  study  of  local 
conditions,  the  social  survey  is  now  seen  to  be  ca- 
pable of  universal  apphcation  and  is  rapidly  passing 
into  the  hands  of  scientific  experts.  At  first 
the  survey  method  concerned  itself  only  with  the 
material  conditions  of  social  life,  but  it  is  gradually 
coming  to  include  studies  of  social  traditions, 
social  standards,  and  social  values.  It  more  and 
more  makes  use  of  the  exact  measurements  of 
statistics  and  of  the  insight  into  processes  of  social 
origin  and  development  which  history  affords. 
Some  such  composite  inductive  method,  covering 
the  whole  social  life  of  hiunanity,  must  be  the 
instrument  which  sociology  must  use  to  perfect 
itself;  and  scientific  sociologists  increasingly  strive 
to  employ  such  a  method. 

III.  Bearing  upon  Ethics  and  Religion. — ■ 
It  is  evident  that  the  development  of  a  scientific 
sociology  upon  a  matter-of-fact,  inductive  basis 
must  have  a  profound  influence  upon  ethics  and 
religion.  The  modern  spirit  demands  for  ethics 
something  more  than  a  basis  in  revealed  religion 
or  even  in  abstract  metaphysical  principles.  Con- 
cerning the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  for  example, 
we  ask  what  their  near  and  remote  social  effects 
are,  and  upon  the  basis  of  this  knowledge  we 
decide  largely  what  the  social  ideal  regarding 
their  use  should  be.  Social  knowledge,  we  now 
see,  is  indispensable  for  the  construction  of  sound 
social  ideals,  whether  these  concern  the  family  life, 
community  life,  economic  fife,  political  life,  inter- 
national, or  interracial  relations.  Thus  modern 
ethics  tends  to  seek  a  scientific  basis,  which,  since 
moraUty  is  a  social  matter,  means  largely  a  socio- 
logical basis.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  the 
overturning  of  long  accepted  general  principles  of 
morahty.  On  the  contrary,  it  may  be  safely 
affirmed  that  the  general  trend  of  scientific  social 
research  thus  far  has  been  to  establish  the  funda- 
mental correctness  of  Christian  ideals  of  Ufe. 

In  a  similar  way  rehgion  must  also  be  affected 
by  the  development  of  a  scientific  sociology.  Reli- 
gion is  now  seen  also  to  be  a  social  matter  and  to 
get  its  fundamental  significance  from  its  relation 
to  social  values.  Its  origin  and  development  as 
a  phase  of  human  culture,  its  functioning  as  a 
means  of  social  control  and  as  an  agency  of  social 
progress,  are  all  within  the  scope  of  sociological 
investigation.  Here  again,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  latest  results,  the  indications  are  that  whatever 
religion  may  lose  in  other-worldly  significance  from 
such  studies,  it  will  more  than  gain  in  significance 
for  the  present  world;  and  even  that  some  form  of 
Christianity  will  ultimately  be  endorsed  by  social 
science  as  the  religion  demanded  for  the  highest 
development  of  human  society. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 

SOCRATES  (ca.  470-399  b.c.).— An  Athenian 
philosopher,  chief  founder  of  ethics. 

Socrates  taught  young  men  somewhat  as  the 
Sophists  (q.v.)  did,  but  without  charge,  without 
professional  pretense,  and  without  formal  disciple- 
ship.  His  zeal  for  arousing  thought  on  ethical 
matters  attained  the  consciousness  of  a  divine 
mission.  He  showed  consummate  genius  in  the 
power  to  arouse  reflection  and  moral  purpose.  He 
left  no  writings,  but,  through  his  personal  influence 
on  several  men,  his  dialectic  method  of  inquiry,  and 


421 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Son  of  Man 


the  problems  he  raised,  he  largely  determined  the 
direction  of  later  ethical  speculations. 

He  held  that  good  conduct  follows  necessarily 
from  rational  insight;  evil  is  due  to  ignorance  of 
what  is  good.  He  aimed  to  secure  this  insight  by 
the  method  of  inductive  definition,  which  by 
questions  and  answers  should  clarify  the  meaning 
of  the  predicates  appUed  in  propositions  about 
conduct.  Thus,  while  maintaming  the  right  of 
inquiry,  he  avoided  the  negatively  critical  results 
of  the  Sophists,  and  re-established  confidence  in 
rational  knowledge.  As  all  the  virtues  ah ke  flow 
from  rational  insight,  he  held  them  to  constitute 
one  goodness,  whicli  for  the  same  reason  can  be 
taught. 

These  rational  predicates,  the  clarifying  of 
which  constitutes  knowledge,  are  not  for  Socrates 
mere  concepts,  but  have  an  eternal  reahty  independ- 
ent of  the  changing  things  of  sense.  From  this 
is  developed  the  doctrine  of  forms  or  ideas,  usually 
attributed  to  Plato  (q.v.),  but  recently  attributed 
by  Burnet  to  Socrates  himself. 

On  charges  of  introducing  new  divinities  and  of 
corrupting  youth,  but  probably  in  fact  because 
the  effect  of  his  work  was  unfavorable  to  the  democ- 
racy, Socrates  was  condemned  and  executed.  His 
martyrdom  greatly  increased  his  influence  as 
thinker  and  sage. 

Several  of  Socrates'  pupils,  the  greatest  of  whom 
was  Plato,  established  schools  in  which  various 
aspects  of  his  philosophy,  sometimes  very  one- 
sided, were  further  developed  or  mixed  with  other 
speculations.  J.  F.  Crawford 

SOCRATES  (ca.  380-444)  .—Church  historian, 
who  gathered  material  from  existing  histories  and 
the  writings  of  the  fathers,  giving  a  series  of  chronicles 
and  episodes  with  honest  intent  but  without  much 
critical  historical  sense.  Theologically,  he  was  an 
admirer  and  disciple  of  Origen. 

SODALITY. — In  the  R.C.  church  a  brotherhood 
or  confraternity,  organized  for  philanthropic  or 
pious  purposes.     See  Catholic  Societies. 

SOL  INVICTUS. — A  name  for  Mithra  when 
his  cult  received  the  support  of  the  Roman  Emperors 
and  the  religion  was  interpreted  in  terms  of  a  solar 
pantheism. 

SOLEMN    LEAGUE    AND     COVENANT.— 

See  League  and  Covenant,  Solemn. 

SOLIFIDIANISM. — A  term  employed,  often 
in  a  disparaging  sense,  to  indicate  the  doctrine  that 
one  is  saved  by  faith  alone  without  any  contributing 
element  of  good  works. 

SOLOMON,  ODES  OF.— A  pseudepigraphical 
collection  of  42  hymns,  many  of  them  Christian, 
dating  from  the  latter  part  of  the  1st.  century. 

SOLOMON,  PSALMS  OF.— A  pseudepigraphal 
group  of  18  psalms  of  Pharisaic  origin,  written 
between  70  and  40  B.C.,  and  used  extensively  in  the 
Jewish    synagogues    of    the    Christian    era.     See 

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA. 

SOLOMON,  WISDOM  OF.— An  apocryphal 
work  probably  of  Greco-Egyptian  Jewish  origin, 
dating  between  150  b.c.  and  40  a.d.,  the  purport 
of    which    is    to    admonish    heathen    rulers. 

SOMA. — One  of  the  three  chief  gods  of  Vedic 
religion.  The  whole  of  the  ninth  book  of  the 
Rig- Veda  is  devoted  to  him.  He  is  the  deified 
intoxicating  drink  made  from  the  plant  bearing  the 


name  (cf.  Iranian  Haoma).  The  use  of  this  liquor 
in  the  sacrifices  together  with  the  natural  effect 
of  drinking  it  gave  it  a  supernatural  character. 

SON  OF  GOD.— A  term  of  varying  content 
indicative  of  God's  regard,  delegated  power  or 
incarnate  nature. 

1.  In  non-bibical  religions  the  term  is  used 
generally  as  the  explanation  of  outstanding  qualities 
of  some  person.  They  are  said  to  be  sons  of  a  god 
or  a  goddess.  In  Roman  usage  it  was  applied  to  an 
emperor  whose  predecessor  had  been  deified. 

2.  In  the  O.T.  the  term  is  never  one  of  essence 
or  nature  except  in  the  rare  case  of  its  application 
to  angels,  where  it  indicates  superhuman,  spiritual 
quahty.  In  all  other  cases  it  indicates  that  a  nation 
or  a  king  is  in  especially  close  relations  with  Yahweh 
and  the  chosen  recipient  of  his  love  and  delegated 
power.  In  such  cases  no  article  is  used  either  with 
"Son"  or  "God." 

3.  In  Jewish  usage  the  same  is  true,  but  in  the 
apocalyptic  writers  it  occasionally  becomes  a 
description  or  synonym  of  "Messiah"  as  God's 
royal  representative.  The  usage,  however,  is  not 
sufficiently  common  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
a  claim  to  be  the  son  of  God  would  be  interpreted 
as  a  claim  to  Messiahship. 

4.  In  the  N.T.  the  term  when  used  in  the  singu- 
lar, except  in  Luke  1:35,  38,  where  the  reference 
is  to  the  birth  of  Jesus,  is  always  theocratic,  equiva- 
lent to  the  "Messiah."  Such  sonship  is  conceived 
of  as  pre-  as  well  as  post-incarnate  and  as  evidenced 
by  the  resurrection.  As  distinguished  from  "Mes- 
siah" it  is  ethical  and  religious  rather  than  official, 
and  indicates  the  dignity  and  authority  resulting 
from  intimate  relations  with  God.  Both  "Son" 
and  "God"  usually  have  the  article  ("the  son  of 
the  God")  when  the  reference  is  to  Jesus  Christ.  In 
the  plural  (without  the  article)  it  refers  to  those  who 
are  members  of  the  messianic  kingdom  and  so 
the  special  objects  of  God's  love. 

5.  Under  Hellenistic  influence  the  term  was 
associated  with  the  Logos  (q.v.)  and  gained  a 
metaphysical  quality.  The  narratives  of  the 
Virgin  Birth  familiarized  the  church  with  a  divine 
paternity  of  the  Christ,  and  this  in  the  2nd.  and 
3rd.  centuries  was  almost  exclusively  transferred 
to  the  Logos  as  begotten  before  time.  Thus  a 
basis  was  laid  for  the  theological  findings  of  the 
4th.  century.  The  issue  between  Athanasians  and 
Arians  concerned  the  metaphysical  relation  of  the 
Son  and  the  Father  in  the  Godhead  and  not  the 
person  of  the  historical  Jesus.  By  the  decision 
of  the  Council  at  Nicea  the  Son  was  said  to  have  been 
"begotten  not  made,  of  the  same  substance  with 
the  Father."  See  Trinity;  Nicbne  Creed.  In 
theology  thereafter  the  term  accordingly  had  a 
double  meaning,  the  one  referring  to  Jesus  as  con- 
ceived by  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  other  to  the 
eternal  Son  begotten  before  time  by  the  Father. 
The  confusion  of  these  two  usages  was  unfortunately 
frequent,  giving  rise  to  serious  misinterpretations  of 
the  orthodox  position.  This  is  stated  with  precision 
in  the  Creed  of  Chalcedon  (q.v.). 

Shailer  Mathews 
SON  OF  MAN. — A  term  used  in  the  gospels  to 
indicate  Jesus  as  the  type  of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
The  origin  of  such  usage  is  Dan.  7:13,  where 
one  like  a  son  of  man,  i.e.,  a  man,  is  the  type  of  the 
triumphant  kingdom  of  the  saints.  In  Enoch  it  is 
several  times  used  as  the  synonym  of  the  Messiah. 
Previously,  however,  in  Ezelael  the  term  was 
frequently  employed  to  represent  the  prophet,  with 
possible  reference  to  his  human  weakness.  The 
synoptic  usage  has  been  traced  to  both  these  con- 
ceptions. The  problem  is  comphcated  by  the  lack 
of   evidence   contemporary   with   Jesus,    and   the 


Soothsaying 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


422 


further  critical  question  as  to  whether  the  term  was 
used  by  Jesus  himself  or  applied  to  him  by  the  N.T. 
writers.  On  the  whole  the  decision  seems  in  favor 
of  the  definition  given  above.  It  should,  however, 
be  remembered  that  the  term  had  no  distinct 
messianic  reference  in  popular  usage  in  N.T.  times. 
For  that  reason,  it  could  be  used  by  Jesus  as  indicat- 
ing his  own  conception  of  the  revelatory  quahty 
of  his  mission  without  exposing  himself  to  the 
difficulties  involved  in  a  definite  messianic  self- 
disclosure. 

In  later  theological  usage  the  term  expressed 
the  humanity  of  Jesus  Christ  as  contrasted  with 
the  Son  of  God  (q.v.)  which  expressed  his  deity. 

Shailer  Mathews 

SOOTHSAYING.— Refers  to  world-wide  super- 
stitious practices,  persisting  even  in  the  higher 
levels  of  culture,  which  are  designed  to  obtain 
knowledge  of  future  events  or  of  things  or  hap- 
penings otherwise  hidden  from  ordinary  perception. 

In  a  narrower  sense,  the  term  applies  to  the 
diviners  of  ancient  Chaldea,  Greece  and  Rome, 
where  the  soothsayer  was  more  or  less  of  a  public 
functionary  and  gave  advice  with  reference  to  the 
affairs  of  state.  In  its  simplest  form,  the  assump- 
tion of  divination  is  that  hidden  information  may 
be  obtained  from  the  observation  of  the  positions 
and  movements  of  animate  and  inanimate  things 
entirely  aside  from  supernatural  agencies  of  any 
sort.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  diviner  assumes 
that  superhuman  or  non-human  agencies  are  opera- 
tive in  producing  the  effects  noted. 

It  is  not  possible  to  enumerate  all  the  varieties 
of  means  used.  They  all  seem  to  depend  on  the 
assumption  that  chance  events  and  fancied  resem- 
blances are  genuinely  hnked,  either  causally  or 
sympathetically  to  the  processes  of  the  natural  world. 

Dreams,  presentiments;  bodily  movements  such 
as  sneezing;  frenzy,  or  "possession";  natural 
phenomena  such  as  the  wind,  the  movements  of 
branches  of  trees,  the  rusthng  of  their  leaves, 
flashes  of  lightening,  the  varying  positions  of  the 
planets;  clairvoyance;  invoking  the  spirits  of  the 
dead;  movements  of  suspended  objects,  the  falling 
of  dice  and  the  drawing  of  lots  are  typical  of  the 
methods  used.  The  modern  as  well  as  the  ancient 
behef  in  signs  and  omens  belongs  in  this  class  of 
beUefs.  Accidents,  such  as  the  spilling  of  salt, 
the  appearance  of  a  black  cat  on  a  joyous  occasion, 
the  flight  of  a  bird  through  the  house,  the  common 
superstition  regarding  "ground-hog  day"  as  a 
means  of  forecasting  the  advent  of  spring,  rain  on 
Easter  Sunday,  are  famihar  illustrations  of  a  wide 
range  of  beUefs  still  current.  Divination  through 
books  as  the  random  opening  of  the  Bible  and 
reading  the  first  words  that  catch  the  eye,  the 
throwing  up  of  some  object  as  a  stone  or  stick, 
and  noting  which  way  it  falls,  often  with  an  accom- 
panying prayer  to  render  the  accident  significant, 
are  also  familiar.    See  Divination. 

Irving  King 

SOPHISTS. — A  number  of  traveUng  teachers 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  5th.  century  B.C.,  not 
related  to  each  other  as  a  school,  nor  founders  of 
permanent  societies,  but  instructors  for  pay 
of  temporary  classes  of  young  men  in  the  art  of 
citizenship. 

The  increasing  but  unstable  democracies  of  the 
Greek  cities,  especially  Athens,  made  it  important 
for  a  citizen  to  be  prepared  to  defend  himself  in  the 
courts,  and  to  advance  his  interests  in  political 
contests.  This  created  a  demand  for  practical 
instruction  in  the  information  needed  for  pubhc 
life,  and  in  the  arts  of  oratory  and  disputation. 
This  instruction  was  supphed  by  the  Sophists,  the 
best  known  of  whom  were  Protagoras,  Gorgias, 
Hippias,  and  Prodicus. 


While  individual  Sophists  differed  in  range  of 
instruction  and  in  tenets,  they  all  reacted  against 
the  metaphysical  and  scientific  speculations  of  the 
Greek  schools  in  Ionia  and  Italy  as  being  uncertain 
and  useless.  A  principle  common  to  them  was  the 
distinction  between  nature  and  convention.  Cus- 
toms and  beliefs  which  had  once  seemed  unchange- 
able and  universal  were  now  seen  to  have  had  a 
varied  history  and  to  differ  among  different  peoples. 
The  Sophists  therefore  repudiated  the  effort  to 
find  a  rational  basis  for  them  in  nature;  their  value 
lay  in  the  practical  utility  of  convention.  Protago- 
ras was  the  first  to  propound  the  social  contract 
(q.v.)  theory  of  the  origin  of  institutions. 

While  skeptical  of  any  rational  grounds  of  law 
or  cult,  the  Sophists  aimed  to  produce  individual 
efficiency  (goodness,  "excellence")  and  consequent 
success  within  the  obtaining  system  of  conventions. 
They  were  accordingly  conservative  or  even  reac- 
tionary in  their  support  of  existing  poUtical  and 
rehgious  institutions. 

The  indirect  effect  of  such  teaching,  however, 
was  to  undermine  authority,  to  foster  disputation, 
and  to  render  conventions  subject  to  caprice  or 
selfishness.  This,  with  their  professionalism,  made 
the  Sophists  objects  of  bitter  attack,  so  that  the 
term  "sophist"  soon  became  one  of  opprobrium. 
Accordingly  the  term  "sophistry"  denotes  reasoning 
that  is  designedly  deceptive. 

Positively  the  Sophists  greatly  aided  in  stimulat- 
ing the  intellectual  vitaUty  of  their  generation,  and 
laid  important  scientific  foundations  in  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  logic.  Their  work  raised  for  discussion 
by  Socrates  and  Plato  (q.v.)  the  ethical  problems  of 
whether  goodness  can  be  taught,  and  whether  the 
virtues  constitute  one  good  or  several  goods; 
and  the  epistemological  problems  of  the  nature 
and  standard  of  knowledge.         J.  F.  Crawford 

SORCERY.— See  Witchcraft. 

SOTER.— Bishop  of  Rome,  ca.  167-174;  named 
in  the  CathoUc  hst  of  popes. 

SOTERIOLOGY.— That  section  of  systematic 
theology  deaUng  with  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
(q.v.). 

SOUL.— The  English  word  "soul"  (of  Teutonic 
origin  and  uncertain  original  meaning)  is  the  com- 
mon equivalent  for  the  multitude  of  analogous  terms 
which  in  various  tongues  represent  an  animating 
entity  conjoined  with  the  body  in  a  living  man,  and 
which  is  generally  conceived  to  be  capable  of  a  non- 
bodily  existence.  The  tropes  which  underlie  the 
great  majority  of  primitive  words  for  soul  are: 

(1)  Breath,  wind,  and  the  Uke.   See  Breath;  Spirit. 

(2)  Shade,  shadow,  as  in  Latin  umbra,  Greek  skia. 

(3)  A  phantasm,  or  visual  shape,  usually  manhke 
in    form,    as    Latin    simulacrum,    Greek    eidolon. 

(4)  A  flame,  vapor,  smoke,  or  the  like,  as  in  repre- 
sentations of  a  nimbus  or  flammule.  (5)  Bird  and 
other  winged  symbols,  typifying  the  volatile  powers 
of  the  soul.  (6)  The  life,  closely  associated  with 
the  ideas  of  life-blood  and  breath  of  life. 

The  conception  of  an  immaterial  soul  first 
appears  in  Plato  and  Aristotle,  where  the  higher 
soul,  as  distinguished  from  the  animal  and  nutritive 
spirits,  is  regarded  as  identical  with  the  rational 
and  contemplative  mind,  while  its  beatitude  is 
freedom  from  bodily  enchainments  and  entrance  into 
a  state  of  intuition  of  things  divine.  This  idea  is 
seized  upon  and  made  precise  with  St.  Augustine, 
who  taught  that  the  soul  is  a  simple,  immaterial 
entity,  independent  of  space  and  all  quantitative 
definition,  endowed  with  spiritual  qualities.  This 
idea  remained  as  the  essential  one  of  mediaeval 


423 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


South  Sea  Islands 


Christian  philosophy  and  was  not  seriously  chal- 
lenged until  Descartes  raised  the  problem  of  the 
locus  of  the  soul  in  the  body,  and  of  the  nature  of  the 
relation  of  the  soul  as  an  entity  to  the  body  as  a 
machine.  This  Cartesian  problem  has  been  the 
chief  source  of  the  speculations  of  modern  philo- 
sophic thinking,  profoundly  reflected  in  modern 
theology.  _  The  philosophic  and  psychological 
answers  given  have  been  of  three  main  types: 
(1)  The  soul  has  been  regarded  as  the  source  of 
man's  mental  and  spiritual  hfe,  primarily  as  the 
agent  of  thought  and  voUtion.  (2)  The  soul 
has  been  identified  with  consciousness,  and  as  a 
consequence  as  being  in  the  nature  of  an  epiphe- 
nomenon,  or  accompaniment  of  bodily  life,  depend- 
ent upon  the  latter,  but  not  conditioning  the  body 
in  its  turn — a  point  of  view  which  is  essentially 
a  reversal  of  the  traditional  conception.  (3)  In 
another  group  of  views  the  idea  of  the  soul  is  either 
i^ored,  as  of  no  scientific  value,  or  is  bound  up 
with  conceptions  of  the  whole  structure  of  nature, 
the  human  soul  being,  as  it  were,  the  structural  or 
cosmic  raison  d'etre  of  man,  that  is,  the  real  basis 
or  truth  of  human  nature.  In  this  latter  sense  the 
idea  of  soul  is  closely  bound  up  with  that  of  person- 
ahty.    See  Body;  Personality;  Spirit. 

H.  B.  Alexander 
SOUTH    AMERICA,  RELIGIONS    OF.— See 
Latin  America,  Religions  of. 

SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDS,  MISSIONS  TO  AND 
RELIGIONS  OF.— I.  Missions.— The  South  Sea 
Islands  have  been  occupied  by  a  large  number  of 
different  missionary  organizations,  since  the  Islands 
are  widely  scattered  and  constitute  a  considerable 
number  of  separate  language  groups.  There  are 
few  missionary  fields  where  the  response  has  been 
more  general  and  the  results  more  widely  manifest, 
in  many  cases  the  entire  social  order  being  com- 
pletely revolutionized  almost  within  a  single  genera^ 
tion.  The  languages  of  the  various  groups  have 
largely  been  reduced  to  writing,  the  Bible  translated 
in  whole  or  in  part  into  that  language,  and  in  some 
places  a  widely  extended  educational  and  general 
literature  has  been  created. 

Missionary  work  was  begun  at  Ponape  and 
Kusaie  in  the  Marshall  and  Gilbert  groups  in  the 
fifties  by  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions.  Before  the  end  of  that 
century  the  social  ideas  of  the  people  of  the  groups 
had  been  largely  Christianized,  the  family  stabilized, 
while  industry  and  cleanliness  were  almost  natural- 
ized. Native  missionaries  trained  in  mission 
schools  are  now  pushing  the  work  among  the  more 
remote  islands. 

The  Society  Islands  were  occupied  by  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  at  the  very  close  of  the 
18th.  century.  Their  work  was  remarkably  suc- 
cessful until  the  arrival  of  the  French  in  1844. 
At  that  time  the  king  had  espoused  Christianity 
and  the  Islands  had  the  name  of  being  more  civilized 
than  any  of  the  other  Islands  of  the  South  Seas. 
The  Paris  Evangelical  Society  took  over  the  work 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society  upon  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  French. 

The  Fiji  Islands  are  occupied  by  the  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society  of  London  and  present  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  compeUing  illustrations  of  the 
transforming  power  of  the  Gospel.  There  are  at 
the  present  time  some  three  thousand  trained 
native  preachers  with  a  church  membership 
approaching  50,000 — nearly  one-half  of  the  total 
population  of  the  Islands.  There  is  also  a  Roman 
Catholic  Mission  with  nearly  10,000  members. 

The  Tonga,  or  Friendly  Islands,  are  practically 
Christianized  by  the  efforts  of  the  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society.    A  Christian  king  rules  over  his 


people,  nearly  every  one  of  whom  can  read.  Many 
trained  Christian  natives  of  these  Islands  have  been 
effective  pioneers  and  Christian  workers  in  adjoining 
groups.  An  extensive  school  system,  culminating 
in  the  college  and  theological  training  school,  has 
been  established. 

The  Melanesian  Islands  occupied  since  1851 
frona  New  Zealand  attempted  the  plan  of  Ceris 
tianizing  the  Islands  almost  wholly  through  native 
teachers  and  a  native  ministry.  The  Presbyterians 
came  into  the  New  Hebrides  where  many  schools 
were  estabhshed  widely  throughout  these  and  the 
Solomon  and  Banks  Islands. 

In  a  word,  the  lowest  form  of  paganism  which 
existed  throughout  the  South  Sea  Islands  a  century 
or  more  ago  has  been  turned  into  a  substantial 
beginning  of  a  Christian  society  with  schools, 
churches,  and  a  Christian  literature,  and  an  orderly 
law-abiding  people. 

II.  Religion. — ^There  was  an  entire  absence  of 
any  religious  system  in  the  islands.  Animism  and 
fetishism,  mingled  with  a  general  beUef  in  spirits 
and  ghosts,  with  traces  of  idolatry,  were  widely 
prevalent.  There  were  no  common  religious 
ceremonies  in_  any  group,  and  but  few  places  of 
worship.  Religion  to  the  mass  of  islanders  was 
little  more  than  a  superstitious  tradition  crystal- 
hzed  into  practices  that  were  widely  variant  in 
different  groups  and  often  upon  different  islands  in 
the  same  group. 

1.  Belief  in  a  supreme  God. — ^A  clear  conception 
of  a  supreme  Being  with  attributes  of  deity  was 
found  only  in  narrow  areas.  The  Fijians  worshiped 
Ndgendi,  or  Engei,  who  appeared  to  have  some  of 
the  attributes  of  a  supreme  deity,  the  creator  of  all 
things,  to  whom  temples  of  humble  construction 
were  erected  and  sacrifices,  often  of  human  beings, 
were  offered.  Maui  was  the  chief  of  the  gods  oi 
the  Tongans.  There  was  in  addition  to  the  chief 
god  of  the  Fijis  a  variety  of  deities  which  appeared 
throughout  the  Pacific  Islands  in  the  form  of  fish, 
birds,  reptiles,  sharks,  land-crabs,  and  all  kinds  of 
fowls,  but  especially  the  serpent.  In  many  places 
the  serpent  was  held  in  high  regard,  and  was  often 
carried  to  a  rude  temple,  annointed,  fed,  and 
worshiped.  Even  the  supreme  god  Ndgendi  was 
often  worshiped  in  the  form  of  a  serpent.  There 
is  a  trace  of  unity  in  the  god  Mburota  of  the  Fijis, 
Bulota  of  the  Tongan  Islands,  and  Pulotu  of 
Samoa.  In  eastern  Polynesia,  Atua,  or  Akua,  was 
the  name  for  the  supreme  deity. 

2.  Lesser  deities. — ^Among  the  untaught  islanders 
generally  it  was  difficult  to  detect  any  serious 
belief  in  a  supreme  being  or  in  a  spiritual  order  of 
intelligence  sufficiently  exalted  to  merit  the  title  of 
deity,  and  yet  there  was  a  general  almost  unbroken 
conviction  of  the  reahty  of  the  unseen  world.  The 
lesser  gods,  appearing  m  multitudinous  forms  both 
animate  and  inanimate,  seemed  to  the  Pacific 
Islanders  to  be  omnipresent.  In  some  islands 
there  were  gods  of  the  crops,  of  the  weather,  of 
different  trades  and  occupations,  and  of  war.  In 
the  Fiji  Islands  the  god  Nangga  was  a  deadly  foe 
to  bachelors  and  unmarried  women. 

3.  Belief  in  spirits  or  gJiosts. — ^To  the  Pacific 
Islander  the  world  was  full  of  spirits  emanating 
from  persons  who  had  died,  as  well  as  spirits  which 
were  supernatural.  It  was  possible  to  make  these 
spirits  friendly  allies,  while  all  might  become  mortal 
enemies.  In  the  northern  islands  the  spirits  of 
persons  predominated,  while  in  the  southern  islands 
the  unhuman  ghosts  prevailed,  and  in  the  central 
islands  these  two  classes  were  more  equally  divided. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  Society  Islands  were  perhaps 
among  the  most  spirit-ridden  and  never  seemed 
free  from  blighting  fear  of  them. 


Sozomen 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


424 


4.  Doctrine  of  sin. — Sin  was  a  failure  to  perform 
the  necessary  ceremonies  and  make  the  proper 
offerings  to  appease  the  threatening  spirit,  ghost, 
or  deity.  There  was  httle  or  no  conception  of 
moral  wrong.  A  failure  to  placate  the  overshadow- 
ing deities  or  spirits  produced  dire  consequences 
from  which  the  islanders  shrank.  The  penalties 
thus  incurred  were  the  result  of  the  sin  of  omission 
in  placating  the  avenging  spirits. 

5.  Future  existence. — There  was  general  belief 
in  some  form  of  a  continuation  of  hfe  after  death. 
In  some  islands  this  was  self-terminative,  but 
generally  the  spirit  of  the  departed  long  continued 
as  a  ghost  or  deity  with  certain  powers  of  reaction 
on  friends  and  enemies  who  still  Uved.  The 
Samoans  pictured  to  themselves  a  heaven,  earth, 
a,nd  sea  where  the  departed  spirits  carried  on  their 
life  as  when  on  earth.  In  many  of  the  groups  the 
abode  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead  was  upon  a  barren 
island  or  in  the  crater  of  some  extinct  volcano 
or  within  an  unexplored  cave.  A  general  belief 
prevailed  that  the  spirits  of  the  departed  took 
up  their  abode  in  some  living  thing,  or  sometimes 
in  an  inanimate  object,  the  animal  or  object, 
thus  becoming  taboo,  was  held  in  great  reverence, 
which  in  some  islands  amounted  almost  to  worship. 

III.  Religious  Practices.— Cannibalism,  pre- 
vailing in  many  of  the  groups,  especially  in  the 
Fijis,  was  due  partly  to  a  desire  for  revenge,  partly 
to  a  vitiated  appetite,  but  also,  in  many  regions  at 
least,  the  practice  sprang  from  the  purpose  of  the 
captor  to  win  to  himself  the  strength  of  his  enemy, 
with  the  expectation  that  thus  the  spirit  of  the 
vanquished^  would  be  absorbed  by  the  conqueror. 
In  Polynesia  the  red  feather  of  a  small  bird  was 
widely  used  for  imparting  supernatural  power. 
The  behef  in  taboo  put  a  premium  upon  a  priest- 
hood which  exercised  almost  supreme  power  over 
the  common  people.  Death  and  disease  were 
attributed  to  the  operations  of  malicious  spirits, 
which  the  priests  or  medicine  men  claimed,  if 
suitably  awarded,  they  were  able  to  divert.  In 
some  islands  the  priesthood  was  an  hereditary 
office.  James  L.  Barton 

SOZOMEN  (ca.  400-443).— Hermias  Salamanes 
Sozomenus,  church  historian,  was  reared  in  an 
atmosphere  of  monasticism.  His  history  is  derived 
largely  from  the  Christian  historian,  Socrates,  and 
somewhat  from  oral  traditions  and  other  available 
sources.  It  is  more  ecclesiastical  and  less  historical 
in  sense  than  the  work  of  Socrates. 

SPANGENBERG,  AUGUST  GOTTLIEB  (1704- 
1792). — ^The  son  of  a  court  preacher,  left  as  a  poor 
orphan  at  the  age  of  13,  Spangenburg  trained  for  and 
taught  law  at  the  University  of  Jena  where  he  inter- 
ested himself  in  free  schools  for  the  poor  and  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Count  Zinzendorf.  Invited 
to  Halle  as  Professor  of  Theology  and  Superintend- 
ent of  schools,  but  becoming  uncomfortable  in 
pietistic  environment,  he  subsequently  associated 
himself  with  Zinzendorf  among  the  Moravians  at 
Herrnhut.  As  the  organizer  and  superintendent 
of  Moravian  missionary  enterprise  for  more  than 
30  years,  he  influenced  John  Wesley,  fathered  the 
Moravian  colony  in  America,  collected  funds  for  and 
defended  the  Moravians  against  the  misinterpre- 
tations of  their  enemies.  Upon  the  death  of 
Zinzendorf  he  was  called  to  devote  the  last  30  years 
of  his  life  to  perfecting  the  European  organization 
of  Moravianism,  formulating  for  it  a  doctrinal 
statement,  writing  several  apologetic  works  and  a 
standard  me  of  Coimt  Zinzendorf. 

I*BTER  G.  Mode 

SPELL. — ^The  spell,  or  incantation,  is  a  form  of 
words  which,  when  correctly  pronounced,  secures 


by  magic  power  a  certain  result.  In  primitive 
thought  the  power  of  the  word  is  very  great  and 
ranks  in  efficacy  with  the  manual  acts  (often 
symbolic  or  imitative  in  nature)  which,  with  the 
spoken  word,  constitute  magic  (q.v.).  The  spell 
differs  from  prayer  (q.v.)_  in  that,  while  the  latter  is 
precatory,  the  former  is  obUgatory;  i.e.,  if  the 
spell  is  properly  spoken,  the  desired  result  must 
follow,  whether  or  not  the  superhuman  beings  so 
desire.  The  spell  must,  however,  be  uttered 
exactly,  or  it  will  be  without  effect  and  may  even 
bring  into  grave  danger  him  who  speaks  it. 

Spells  are  often  couched  in  archaic  dialects 
and  may  degenerate,  as  these  dialects  become  in- 
creasingly unintelligible,  into  gibberish  devoid  of 
meaning  to  the  person  pronouncing  them.  Fre- 
quently they  reveal  belief  in  the  power  of  the  name 
(see  Name),  and  hence  often  contain  the  appella- 
tions of  divinities,  especially  of  foreign  cults. 
The  purely  mechanical  nature  of  the  spell  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  intention  is  not  necessary  to  make 
the  incantation  effective;  and  folk-tales  show  many 
instances  in  which  inadvertent  utterance  of  a 
spell_  causes  results  quite  unexpected  by  the  person 
reciting  it,  and  sometimes  the  reverse  of  desirable 
to  him.  Louis  H.  Gray 

SPENCER,  HERBERT  (1820-1903).— English 
philosopher,  and  interpreter  of  the  scientific  move- 
ment that  was  current,  especially  the  doctrine  of 
evolution.  He  held  that  bqth  science  and  reUgion 
must  recognize  an  inscrutable  Power  behind  phe- 
nomena, the  Unknowable.  While  science  cannot 
affirm  anything  concerning  this  Unknowable,  reli- 
gion consists  in  an  emotional  reverence  toward  it. 
Spencer  made  a  fruitful  use  of  biological  analogies 
in  the  unfolding  of  his  social  and  ethical  theories. 

SPENER,  PHILIP  JAKOB  (1635-1705).— Ger- 
man theologian,  "the  father  of  Pietism"  (q.v.);  a 
mystic  in  his  interpretation  of  Christianity,  founder 
of  the  University  of  Halle,  and  a  vigorous  advocate 
of  reform  in  theological  education  in  the  interests  of 
reUgious  efficiency. 

SPENTA  MAINYU.— "The  Holy  Spirit,"  one 
of  the  names  of  Ahura  Mazda  (Ormazd)  in  early 
Zoroastrianism.  Since  the  supreme  God  acts 
through  his  Holy  Spirit  the  latter  appears  at  times 
to  be^  a  separate  personaUty.  In  the  later  religion 
this  is  really  the  case.  Original  Zoroastrianism, 
however,  seems  to  have  thought  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
as  a  term  for  Ahura  Mazda  when  set  over  against 
his  cosmic  rival  the  Evil  Spirit,  Angra  Mainyu 
(Ahriman). 

SPERMATIC  WORD.— A  phase  of  the  Stoic 
doctrine  of  the  Logos,  which  declared  that  the 
Logos  is  manifest,  seminally,  in  all  natural  phe- 
nomena.   See  Logos. 

SPEYER,  DIETS  OF.— In  the  history  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation,  four  imperial  diets,  called 
by  Charles  V.  to  deal  with  special  problems  but 
involving  a  definite  policy  regarding  Protestantism. 
(1)  The  Diet  of  1526  proclaimed  freedom  for  each 
state  to  adopt  the  religion  of  its  prince.  (2)  The 
Diet  of  1529  abrogated  the  freedom  granted  in 
1526  and  renewed  the  demands  of  the  Edict  of 
Worms  (q.v.).  (3)  The  Diet  of  1542  reaffirmed  the 
ReUgious  Peace  of  Nuremberg  (q.v.).  (4)  The 
Diet  of  1544  made  concessions  to  the  Protestants  in 
retiu-n  for  their  help  against  France. 

SPINOZA,  BENEDICT  (1632-1677).— Driven 
from  the  Jewish  synagogue  in  Amsterdam  when  a 
young  man,  he  Uved  as  an  exile  from  his  own  people, 


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Spiritualism 


and  earned  a  livelihood  by  grinding  lenses.  A 
pantheist,  he  held  that  one  substance,  God  or 
nature,  alone  is  real.  Finite  things  are  expressions 
(modes)  of  this  one  reality.  Substance  appears 
to  us  under  two  aspects,  thought  and  extension. 
These  are  everywhere  coexistent  and  parallel  attri- 
butes, extending  even  to  inorganic  nature.  This 
is  Spinoza's  doctrine  of  psycho-physical  paralleUsm. 
Spinoza,  besides  being  a  metaphysician,  was  one 
of  the  world's  spiritual  seers,  and  in  his  ethics  has 
given  a  profound  interpretation  of  the  meaning  of 
human  life.  A  strict  determinist,  he  still  finds 
man  a  center  of  spiritual  energy.  Counted  a 
rationalist,  he  has  yet  dealt  more  adequately  with 
human  passions  and  emotions  than  has  any  other 
classical  philosopher. 

Walter  Goodnow  Everett 
SPIRE. — A  tower  with  a  high  tapering  top  which 
gives  a  distinctive  dignity  to  a  place  of  worship. 
A  common  feature  of  Christian  churches. 

SPIRIT.— The  breath  of  life  (Latin  spiritus, 
from  spirare,  to  breathe,  blow).  The  conception 
of  spirit  has  two  distinct  developments,  physio- 
logical and  rehgious.  (1)  The  physiological  notion, 
Greek  and  Mediaeval,  conceived  the  spirit  as  a 
Ufe  principle,  that  which  the  Uving  body  has  as 
distinguished  from  the  corpse.  As  the  natural 
spirit  it  was  beUeved  to  have  its  seat  in  the  liver, 
and  to  be  especially  concerned  with  processes  of 
nutrition  and  growth;  as  the  vital  spirit  it  was 
believed  to  be  aerated  through  the  heart  and 
blood  vessels  and  to  be  the  agency  of  bodily  warmth ; 
as  the  animal  spirit  it  was  regarded  as  subject  to 
brain  action  and  as  directive  of  motion  and  feehng 
through  the  nerves.  Medicine  was  long  based  upon 
the  conception  of  a  due  equiUbration  of  the  functions 
of  such  spirits.  (2)  In  religion  and  philosophy, 
the  conception  of  spirit  is  appUed,  first,  to  one  of  the 
hfe  principles  in  man,  sometimes  beUeved  to  be 
inferior  to  the  soul,  sometimes  identified  with  the 
soul;  more  frequently  designating  a  disembodied 
soul,  and  secondly,  to  the  conception  of  a  principle  or 
motive  in  the  direction  of  hfe,  whether  in  man,  in 
God,  or  in  nature.  It  is  in  this  latter  sense,  of  a 
moving  spirit,  that  the  adjective  "spiritual"  is  most 
commonly  employed,  contrasted  with  "physical" 
or  "bodily."     See  Body;  Soul;  Holy  Spirit. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

SPIRITS. — ^A  general  term  for  certain  beings 
lower  in  rank  than  the  supreme  god  or  gods  but  of  a 
higher  order  than  living  men. 

Spirits  proper  include  both  angels  (q.v.)  and 
demons  (q.v.).  The  distinction  between  good  and 
evil  (demonic)  spirits  is  drawn  more  sharply  in 
the  Persian,  Jewish  and  Christian  religions  than  in 
most  other  faiths.  Often  spirits  and  demons  are 
virtually  identical  terms  for  beings  capable  of 
beneficent  or  maleficent  action  according  as  they 
are  granted  or  denied  their  desires.  Hence  in 
actual  practice,  and  sometimes  even  in  theory, 
spirits  are  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  deities.  Among 
some  peoples  the  souls  of  dead  men  are  raised  to  the 
superhuman  plane,  thus  making  impossible  any 
sharp  demarkation  between  spirits  and  ghost  (q.v.). 

The  religion  of  savages  is  very  largely  con- 
cerned with  the  activity  of  spirits.  A  belief  in 
their  power  seems  to  lie  at  the  basis  of  those  forms  of 
religion  known  as  animism  (q.v.),  fetishism  (q.v.) 
and  totemism  (q.v.).  All  sorts  of  mysterious 
displays  of  power  in  nature — eclipses,  floods,  earth- 
quakes, thunder  storms — and  even  the  more 
ordinary  phenomena  of  daily  experience  are 
ascribed  to  the  action  of  spirits.  Sickness  and 
death  are  traced  to  this  same  supernatural  source. 
Where  these  behefs  dominate,  the  chief  function 
of  religion  is  to  institute  rites  that  will  appease. 


withstand,  or  elicit  the  aid  of  spirits.     See  Exor- 
cism; Magic. 

With  advancement  in  culture  the  shadowy 
spirits  of  primitive  man's  faith  take  on  more  con- 
crete form.  They  are  given  distinctive  character- 
istics, they  receive  definite  names,  they  are  assigned 
more  specific  functions,  they  are  grouped  in  sepa- 
rate classes,  and  they  are  graded  according  to 
degrees  of  power.  This  process  of  development 
produced  a  well  established  belief  in  spirits  among 
the  ancients,  as  amply  illustrated  in  the  religion 
of  the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Persians, 
the  Jews,  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.  In  modern 
times  this  belief  still  survives,  not  only  in  India, 
China  and  Japan,  but  also  among  Mohammedans 
and  Christians.  S.  J.  Case 

SPIRITUAL.— (1)  One  of  a  party  within  the 
disciples  of  Francis  of  Assisi  which  advocated  the 
most  rigorous  form  of  asceticism  and  poverty,  later 
called  the  Observan tines.  (2)  An  ecclesiastic,  so 
called  from  the  character  of  his  office. 

SPIRITUALISM.— The  behef  in  the  existence 
of  things,  actions  and  forces,  which  it  is  claimed  are 
incapable  of  being  controlled  or  known  in  the  same 
way  as  natural  phenomena. 

In  a  practical  way  spiritualism  refers  to  super- 
natural happenings  of  all  sorts;  consequently  its 
believers  are  convinced  of  the  existence  of  the  super- 
natural whenever  they  discover  any  event  which 
they  presume  to  be  incapable  of  explanation  in 
natural  terms.  The  name  spiritualism,  which 
properly  belongs  to  a  type  of  philosophical  view- 
point is  almost  universally  but  incorrectly  apphed 
to  supernatural  happenings,  because  they  are  pre- 
sumed to  be  controlled  by  spirits.  The  name 
spiritism  is  logically  preferable  and  much  better 
adapted  to  the  things  named,  but  custom  has  already 
sanctioned  the  less  useful  term.  Another  name 
applied  to  spiritistic  phenomena  which  is  especially 
used  by  investigators,  is  psychic  phenomena,  an 
appelation  supposed  to  distinguish  such  happenings 
from  the  types  of  natural  phenomena  which  are 
assumed  to  be  material. 

I.  Classification  of  Spiritistic  Phenomena. 
—The  occurrences  which  bear  this  name  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  supernormal  events, 
which  are  brought  about  by  spiritistic  agency,  and 
(2)  direct  communication  with  the  dead. 

1.  Among  the  many  phenomena  in  the  first 
division  are  found  the  following:  (a)  Raps  or 
sounds  of  all  sorts,  reported  to  occur  without  any 
mechanical  or  known  means  of  production.  (6) 
Slate  writing  of  various  kinds  are  produced  upon 
slates  when  apparently  no  natural  means  are 
employed  for  the  purpose,  (c)  The  materialization 
of  spirits  in  the  form  of  a  visual  presentation  of  a 
hand  or  face  or  other  part  of  the  body. 

2.  Communication  with  the  dead  is  brought 
about  through  a  medium,  generally  a  woman,  who 
is  sometimes  though  not  always  in  a  trance.  The 
medium  offers  replies  purporting  to  come  from  the 
dead  which  will  identify  the  spirit  and  furnish  all  sorts 
of  information  desired  by  the  questioner  or  sitter. 

II.  Development  op  Spiritism. — Spiritism  has 
a  continuous  hneage  with  all  the  occultism  of  the 
ages,  but  in  its  present  forms  it  began  to  be  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  1847.  In  that  year  the  self- 
confessed  fraudulent  Fox  sisters  began  their  famous 
rapping  seances.  In  1882  was  founded  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research,  an  organization  including 
many  prominent  men  in  its  membership,  and 
which  attempted  to  give  a  "scientific"  turn  to  the 
investigations  of  spiritistic  phenomena.  A  remark- 
able fact  about  the  entire  movement  is  the  persist- 
ence with  which  the  society  seeks  for  proofs  of 


Sponsor 


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426 


survival  after  death  through  all  the  hopeless  mass 
of  fraud  and  deceit.  The  only  result  which  scien- 
tific non-members  of  the  society  have  ever  been 
able  to  obtain  was  that  the  mediums  when  genuine 
are  dissociated  personaUties  who  can  furnish  such 
utterances  as  can  be  interpreted  by  the  staunch 
beUever  as  being  what  he  wants  to  hear.  Favorable 
views  of  spiritistic  commmiication  have  been 
given  wide  currency  by  F.  W.  H.  Myers,  Sir  OUver 
Lodge,  and  others;  but  their  inferences  from  the 
undoubted  data  are  open  to  question  at  crucial 
points.  Jacob  Kantor 

SPONSOR. — The  person  who  assumes  the 
obligations  for  an  infant  at  baptism  by  making  the 
prescribed  responses  and  pledges  and  undertaking 
the  child's  religious  training,  also  called  god-father 
or  god-mother  (q.v.). 

SPRITE. — In  German  mythology  a  fairy,  elf 
or  spirit  of  water,  air,  earth  or  fire. 

SPURGEON,  CHARLES  HADDON  (1834- 
1892). — English  Baptist  preacher  remarkable  for 
his  platform  abihty.  His  printed  sermons  have 
been  sold  in  enormous  quantities.  Theologically 
he  was  a  conservative  Calvinist. 

SRADDHAS.— See  Shraddhas. 

SRAOSHA. — ^The  personification  of  obedience 
in  early  Zoroastrian  religion.  In  the  developed 
religion  he  is  one  of  the  Yazatas  (q.v.)  who  is 
constantly  at  war  with  the  powers  of  evil  and  untir- 
ing in  spreading  the  truth.  He,  with  Mithra  and 
Rashnu,  presides  at  the  judgment  of  souls.  During 
the  period  of  three  days  after  death  before  the  soul 
begins  its  journey  to  the  Chinvat  bridge  Sraosha 
guards  the  souls  of  the  good  and  finally  leads  them 
safely  over  the  dangerous  passage. 

SRUTL— See  Shruti. 

STABAT  MATER.— A  famous  Latin  hymn 
setting  forth  the  agony  of  the  Mother  of  Jesus  at 
the  Cross;  used  especially  in  the  R.C.  church 
during  Holy  Week.  Another  hymn  depicting  the 
joy  of  the  Virgin  over  Jesus'  birth  is  called  Stabat 
Mater  Glaudiosa. 

STALLS. — In  ecclesiastical  terminology  beauti- 
fully adorned  seats  in  a  choir,  usually  built  against 
a  partition  or  screen,  separated  from  one  another 
by  elaborately  carved  sides.  These  seats  are  in 
cathedrals  assigned  to  the  clergy,  and  in  chapels  to 
members  of  various  orders. 

STANLEY,  ARTHUR  PENRHYN  (1815-1881). 
— AngUcau  clergyman  and  theologian,  a  man  of 
broad  interests  and  accomplishments,  who  won 
distinction  in  the  field  of  Uterature  and  educational 
administration,  as  well  as  in  religion.  He  was  a 
man  of  toleration  and  a  leading  supporter  of  liberal 
theology.  His  outstanding  works  were  historical, 
including  his  Lectures  on  the  Eastern  Church,  and 
History  of  the  Jewish  Church. 

STARS.— See  Astrology. 

STATE  AND  CHURCH.— See  Church;  Estab- 
lishment; Dissent  and  Dissenters. 

STATES    OF    THE    CHURCH.— See    Papal 

States. 

STATION.— (1)  In  the  Methodist  denomina- 
tion, a  church  in  charge  of  a  settled  minister,  in 


distinction  from  the  circuit  over  which  an  itinerating 
minister  has  the  oversight.  (2)  A  stated  fast  of 
the  CathoUc  church,  observed  on  Friday  in  the 
West,  and  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  in  the  East. 
(3)  One  of  the  several  pictures  or  representations  of 
the  passion  of  Christ  so  arranged  in  a  church  that 
a  complete  cycle  of  devotions  is  accomphshed  by 
stopping  successively  before  each.  The  series  is 
called  "Stations  of  the  Cross." 

STAUPITZ,  JOHANN  VON  (died  1524).— 
Vicar-general  of  the  German  Augustinian  order  in 
which  Luther  took  monastic  vows.  His  vital 
conception  of  rehgious  experience  greatly  influ- 
enced Luther  and  led  to  the  religious  development 
which  eventuated  in  the  Protestant  doctrine  of 
Justification  by  Faith. 

STEPHEN.— One  of  "the  seven"  leaders  in  the 
primitive  church,  and  the  first  recorded  martyr. 

STEPHEN. — The  name  of  nine  popes,  none  of 
them  historically  important. 

Stephen  I. — Bishop  of  Rome,  ca.  254-257. 

Stephen  //.—Pope,  752-757. 

Stephen  ///.—Pope,  768-772. 

Stephen  /F.— Pope,  816-817. 

Stephen  F.— Pope,  885-891. 

Stephen  F/.— Pope,  896-897. 

Stephen  F//.— Pope,  929-931. 

Stephen  F///.— Pope,  939-949. 

Stephen  /Z.— Pope,  1057-1058. 

STIGMATA. — In  R.C.  terminology,  marks  on 
the  bodies  of  certain  people  similar  to  the  scars 
from  the  wounds  in  Jesus'  body,  regarded  as 
miraculous  tokens  of  God's  favor. 

STIGMATIZATION.— The  production  of  stig- 
mata (q.v.)  on  the  body,  such  as  the  appearance  of 
red  or  bleeding  spots  upon  the  body  under  the 
influence  of  strong  religious  emotion. 

STOECKER,  ADOLF  (1835-1909).— An  ener- 
getic German  preacher,  for  a  time  court  preacher 
at  BerUn,  who  became  greatly  interested  in  social 
problems.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Christian 
Socialist  movement  in  Germany,  which  was  designed 
to  furnish  a  Christian  substitute  for  the  Social 
Democratic  movement.  He  also  organized  the 
EvangeHcal-Social  Congress  in  1890,  and  in  1896 
created  an  independent  Christian  Social  political 
party. 

STOICISM.— A  school  of  philosophy  founded 
at  Athens  near  the  end  of  the  4th.  century  B.C. 
by  Zeno,  a  native  of  Citium  in  Crypus.  The 
school  takes  its  name  from  the  portico  {sloa)  in 
which  Zeno  first  taught. 

Stoicism  owed  most  to  the  Cynic  school,  which 
had  made  virtuous  action  the  aim  of  life;  but 
from  the  beginning  Stoicism  was  an  eclectic  phi- 
losophy, drawing  also  on  Heraclitan  and  Academic 
systems  and  from  the  Hippocratean  schools  of 
medicine.  Like  other  philosophies  it  distinguished 
between  physics,  logic,  and  ethics. 

I.  Physics. — In  physics,  which  included  cos- 
mology and  theology,  the  Stoics  followed  a  doctrine 
of  complete  materiaUsm,  recognizing,  however, 
that  there  is  inherent  in  all  matter  a  stress  or 
tension  which  makes  it  dynamic,  not  inert.  So  in 
aU  things  there  is  an  active  and  passive  principle, 
the  former  acting  on  the  latter  and  shaping  it. 
This  active  principle  is  sometimes  figured  as  fire, 
again  as  spirit,  breath  (pneuma);  it  causes  and 
pervades  all  things ;  it  is  the  reason  of  the  universe, 
God.    The  individual  man  has  as  his  soul  a  spark 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Student  Organizations 


of  the  world-soul,  or,  in  the  words  of  Epictetus,  is  a 
fragment  of  God.  This  belief  in  humanity's 
common  possession  of  a  portion  of  the  world- 
reason  became  the  basis  for  a  doctrine  of  cosmopoli- 
tanism, which  has  had  a  profound  influence  on 
poUtical  and  social  history. 

The  individual  soul  is  at  first  a  blank,  on  which 
impressions  are  made  by  things  through  the 
senses,  so  that  gradually  through  experience  and 
reflection  man  arrives  at  knowledge.  The  sub- 
jective concepts  which  arise  within  man's  mind, 
by  their  compelling  force,  show  their  vaUdity. 

II.  Logic  and  Ethics. — Stoic  logic  included 
rhetoric,  grammar,  and  dialectic;  this  last  was 
chiefly  concerned  with  establishing  criteria  of  truth. 
But  Ethics  were  the  Stoic's  chief  concern,  for  from 
Zeno  to  Marcus  AureUus  the  school  regarded  as 
worthy  only  such  knowledge  as  could  be  realized 
in  action,  i.e.,  their  philosophy  was  to  be  a  practical 
guide  of  life.  It  taught  that  since  the  guiding 
principle  of  man,  the  source  of  his  life,  and  his  reason, 
is  a  portion  of  the  universal  reason,  man  must  not 
let  himself  be  the  slave  of  his  passions,  but  must 
Uve  a  life  in  which  the  passions  are  absolutely 
controlled  by  his  reasoning  will;  in  this  way  he  will 
obey  the  injunction  "to  live  in  accord  with  nature," 
i.e.,  in  harmony  with  the  universal  reason.  By 
such  a  life  man  can  rise  above  pleasures,  and  pains, 
which  depend  on  the  accidents  of  life,  and  attain 
to  complete  happiness.  Virtue  then  consists  in 
perfect  resistance  to  the  passions  and  in  complete 
control  of  self  by  means  of  the  rational  will.  The 
earhest  Stoics,  like  strict  Calvinists,  held  that 
between  virtue  and  vice  there  was  a  fixed  gulf, 
and  that  there  were  no  degrees  of  either;  but  from 
the  2nd.  century  B.C.,  as  Stoicism  was  modified  by 
other  schools  and  adapted — especially  by  Panaetius 
and  Poseidonius — to  influence  great  numbers  under 
the  growing  power  of  Rome,  the  older  view  was  re- 
placed by  one  of  progress  in  virtue,  which  finds  its 
best  ejcpression  in  Seneca.  Epictetus  was  essentially 
a  missionary  to  the  masses.  With  Marcus  Aurelius 
Stoicism  practically  ceased  to  exist  as  a  separate 
school,  but  its  ethics  have  been  carried  on  in  law  and 
Christianity  to  our  own  time. 

Clifford  H.  Moore 

STOLE. — A  band  or  scarf  with  fringed  ends, 
one  of  the  vestments  of  the  Roman,  Greek,  and 
AngUcan  clergy.  It  is  also  worn  by  the  monarchs 
of  England  at  coronation,  in  the  latter  case  a 
survival  of  the  days  when  the  King  exercised 
ecclesiastical  functions. 

STONES. — On  account  of  their  qualities  and 
utiUty,  stones  are  important  for  the  history  of 
religions.  Their  rigidity,  size,  strange  shapes  and 
inexplicable  phenomena  connected  with  them 
caused  primitive  man  to  associate  deity  with 
certain  stones.  Their  permanence  made  them 
useful  for  images,  buildings  and  inscriptions. 
Certain  inscriptions  on  stones  afford  excellent 
source  material  for  a  knowledge  of  the  reUgions 
of  antiquity,  as  e.g.,  the  Moabite  Stone  (q.v.)  and 
the  Rosetta  Stone  (q.v.).  In  phallic  and  other 
minetic  rites,  stones  have  been  used  extensively 
for  symboUc  purposes,  such  as  the  linga  in  Hinduism. 
In  folk-lore  magical  qualities  were  deemed  to  pertain 
to  certain  stones,  as  the  Blarney  Stone  of  Ireland, 
by  kissing  which  a  flattering  tongue  was  thought 
to  be  imparted.  The  Black  Stone  of  Mecca 
which  Muslim  pilgrims  kiss  is  perhaps  a  fetish 
survival  of  pre-Mohammedan  Arabic  paganism. 
The  Old  Testament  affords  evidence  of  the  use  of 
stone  pillars  in  the  old  Canaanitish  reUgion  as 
symbohzing  the  deity's  presence,  such  as  the  one 
at  Bethel.  In  modern  Christian  usage  the  dedica- 
tion in  connection  with  places  of  worship  is  observed 


by  a  ceremonial  laying  of  the  corner-stone,  in  which 
case  a  frequent  custom  is  to  place  historical  records 
of  the  institution  in  a  niche  behind  the  corner-stone. 

STRAUSS,  DAVID  FRIEDRICH  (1808-1874). 
— German  theologian  of  the  radical  wing  of  the 
HegeUan  schools.  His  chief  work  was  his  Life 
of  Jesus  (1835)  which  was  so  destructive  of  the 
traditional  beliefs  that  it  provoked  a  storm  of 
criticism.  Strauss  eventually  abandoned  Chris- 
tian faith  for  a  pantheistic  interpretation  of  evolu- 
tionary philosophy. 

STUDENT  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS.— 

L  The  World's  Student  Christian  Federation 
is  an  interdenominational  organization  uniting 
the  student  Christian  movements  throughout  the 
world.  It  was  founded  at  Wadstena,  Sweden,  in 
1895  by  leaders  of  national  student  Christian 
movements  from  the  Scandinavian  countries, 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  general  committee  is  composed  of 
fifty-seven  members  representing  thirteen  distinct 
national  or  international  movements;  by  this 
body  a  Chairman,  two  Vice-Chairmen,  and  Treas- 
m-er  are  elected  and  five  Secretaries  are  appointed. 
A  quarterly  periodical,  The  Student  World,  is  pub- 
lished at  the  office  of  the  Chairman,  347  Madison 
Avenue,  New  York. 

The  aims  of  the  movement  are:  (1)  To  unite 
Student  Christian  Movements  or  organizations 
throughout  the  world;  (2)  To  collect  information 
regarding  the  rehgious  condition  of  the  students  of 
all  lands;  (3)  To  promote  the  active  Christian 
life  of  students;  Each  national  organization  through 
its  secretaries,  conferences  and  literature  brings 
together  the  students  of  different  races;  and  every 
two  years  a  Federation  Conference  is  held. 
Through  extensive  correspondence,  visits  of  secre- 
taries, evangelists  and  lecturers,  the  publication 
and  distribution  of  books,  magazines  and  pamphlets 
and  annual  report,  the  aims  of  the  Federation  are 
realized.  The  total  membership  is  now  over  200,000, 
representing  fifty  different  coimtries  and  over  2,000 
universities. 

II.  The  Intercollegiate  Menorah  Associa- 
tion is  an  organization  for  the  study  and  advance- 
ment of  Jewish  culture  and  ideals.  In  over  fifty 
universities  there  are  active  Menorah  societies. 
Lectures  and  receptions  are  frequently  given; 
study  circles  are  organized  and  conferences  con- 
ducted. The  Menorah  Journal  is  published  at 
the  New  York  office  of  the  Intercollegiate  Menorah 
Association,  600  Madison  Avenue  (bi-monthly 
during  the  academic  year). 

III.  Church  Student  Societies. — These  are 
organizations  within  a  university  of  students  belong- 
ing to  the  same  communion,  as,  e.g.,  Protestant 
Episcopal,  Lutheran,  Roman  Catholic,  etc.  Under 
the  auspices  of  these  societies,  meetings  of  a  social, 
educational  and  rehgious  character  are  arranged. 
The  various  denominations  are  increasingly  making 
provision  for  efficient  leadership  and  organization 
of  these  denominational  groups. 

IV.  Student  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciations.— These  are  voluntary  interdenomina- 
tional organizations  of  men  students  in  colleges, 
universities  and  schools  for  the  purpose  of  building 
up  Christian  faith  and  character.  There  are  780 
separate  Associations  with  a  total  membership  of 
about  80,000;  134  local  secretaries,  31  state 
secretaries  and  10  National  secretaries  are  employed 
to  supervise  this  work.  The  offices  for  the  National 
secretaries  are  located  at  347  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  publication 
of  books  and  pamphlets  for  Bible  and  social  study; 
on    conferences    conducted    annually    in    various 


Student  Volunteer 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


428 


sections  of  the  country,  the  first  conference  haAdng 
been  held  at  Mt.  Hermon,  Massachusetts,  in  1886 
(over  3,000  delegates  attended  these  conferences  in 
1920) ;  and  on  apologetic  and  evangehstic  addresses 
aiming  at  decisions  for  the  Christian  life. 

V.  Student  Young  Women's  Christian 
Associations  are  similar  voluntary  interdenomina- 
tional organizations  of  women  students  in  colleges, 
universities  and  schools  for  the  development  of 
Christian  faith  and  character.  There  are  773 
Associations  having  a  total  membership  of  nearly 
90,000;  78  Local  student  secretaries  are  employed 
and  30  National  secretaries;  the  headquarters  of 
the  National  Movement  is  at  600  Lexington  Avenue, 
New  York. 

Eleven  annual  student  conferences  are  conducted 
enrolling  over  3,895  delegates;  Bible  and  Social 
Study  textbooks  are  issued  and  discussion  groups 
are  organized  in  each  institution ;  unselfish  service  is 
promoted  and  religious  addresses  are  given  with 
a  view  to  winning  students  to  Christian  decision. 

VI.  Chinese  Students'  Christian  Associa- 
tion.— A  national  organization  of  Chinese  students 
for  the  promotion  of  Christian  life  and  service, 
numbering  about  800.  A  General  Secretary  is 
employed,  with  oflBce  at  347  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York,  and  a  bi-monthly  magazine  is  pubUshed. 

VII.  Japanese  Students'  Christian  Associa- 
tion.— An  organization  of  Japanese  students  within 
a  university  for  the  development  of_  Christian 
faith  and  character.  A  monthly  magazine  is  pub- 
lished and  a  traveUng  Japanese  secretary  employed 
with  headquarters  at  5553  Drexel  Avenue,  Chicago, 
lUinois. 

VIII.  The  Union  of  Christian  Students  op 
India  in  America. — An  organization  of  Christian 
Indian  students  in  America  for  the  development  of 
Christian  Ufe  and  character.  Headquarters,  care 
of  Mr.  J.  D.  S.  Paul,  Yale  Station,  New  Haven, 
Connecticut. 

IX.  The  Filipino  Students'  Federation  in 
America.  An  organization  for  promoting  Christian 
character  among  the  Filipino  students  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  _  Headquarters,  347  Madison 
Avenue,  New  York  City.  General  Secretary,  H.  A. 
Aguiling.  A  monthly  magazine,  the  Philippine 
Herald,  is  published. 

X.  The  Russian  Students'  Christian  Asso- 
ciation. An  organization  for  the  promotion  of 
Christian  character  among  the  Russian  students  in 
the  United  States  of  America.  Headquarters,  347 
Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  General  Secre- 
tary, Alexis  R.  Wiren.  Charles  D.  Hurrey 

STUDENT  VOLUNTEER  MOVEMENT  FOR 
FOREIGN  MISSIONS.— An  agency  for  recruiting 
student  candidates  for  appointment  as  foreign 
missionaries. 

1.  Origin. — ^The  movement  originated  at  the 
first  international  conference  of  Christian  college 
students  at  Mount  Hermon,  Mass.,  in  1886,  when 
100  of  the  250  delegates  present  recorded  their 
purpose,  if  God  permit,  to  become  foreign  mis- 
sionaries. A  deputation  of  four  students  was 
appointed  to  visit  among  the  colleges;  only  one  of 
the  four,  Robert  P.  Wilder  of  Princeton,  was  able 
to  go;  he  was  accompanied  by  another  Princeton 
student.  John  N.  Forman,  and  they  visited  176 
institutions  including  many  leading  colleges  and 
divinity  schools  of  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

2.  Organization. — In  the  summer  of  1888  about 
fifty  volunteers  met  at  Northfield  and  a  conmiittee 
was  appointed,  which  the  following  December  organ- 
ized the  Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign 
Missions.  It  is  incorporated,  and  there  is  an  Execu- 
tive Committee,  a  Board  of  Trustees  and  an 
Advisory  Committee. 


3.  Purpose. — The  purpose  of  the  Movement  is: 

(1)  to  awaken  and  maintain  among  all  Christian 
students  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  inteUi- 
gent   and    active   interests   in    foreign    missions; 

(2)  to  enroll  a  sufficient  number  of  properly  quaU- 
fied  student  volunteers  to  meet  the  successive 
demands  of  the  various  missionary  boards  of 
North  America;  (3)  to  help  all  such  intending 
missionaries  to  prepare  for  their  Ufe-work  and  to 
enUst  their  co-operation  in  developing  the  mis- 
sionary life  of  home  churches;  (4)  to  lay  an  equal 
burden  of  responsibihty  on  all  students  who  are  to 
remain  as  ministers  and  lay  workers  at  home,  that 
they  may  actively  promote  the  missionary  enter- 
prise by  their  intelligent  advocacy,  by  their  gifts 
and  by  their  prayers. 

4.  Methods. — In  order  to  influence  the  250,000 
college  and  university  students  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  a  staff  of  secretaries  is 
employed;  offices  are  maintained  in  New  York 
and  conferences  and  conventions  are  held.  The 
travehng  secretaries  visit  the  colleges,  deUver 
addresses  on  missions,  meet  with  missionary  com- 
mittees and  volunteer  bands,  organize  mission 
study  classes,  and  in  every  way  possible  promote 
the  missionary  activities  of  the  colleges;  but  the 
chief  object  of  their  work  is  to  lead  students  to 
give  their  lives  ^  to  missionary  service.  Once  in 
four  years  an  international  convention  is  held. 
Eight  such  conventions  have  been  held.  At  the 
convention  held  in  1920  there  were  present  6,890 
students  and  professors  representing  949  institutions. 

5.  Results. — '(1).  Missionaries. — Over  8,500  vol- 
unteers have  reached  (1919)  mission  fields  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  having  been  sent  out  by  55  dHerent 
missionary  boards. 

(2)  Mission  study. — In  1894,  when  the  Move- 
ment began  promoting  mission  study,  there  were 
less  than  thirty  classes  in  such  study  among  all 
students  of  North  America;  during  1918-19, 
38,819  students  were  enrolled  in  mission  study. 
At  the  beginning  no  text-books  were  available; 
now  the  annual  sales  of  mission  study  books  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  exceed  100,000. 

(3)  Missionary  giving. — Oifts  to  missions  by 
students  have  been  greatly  stimulated;  over  $303,- 
000  were  contributed  in  1918-19  through  student 
reUgious  organizations  for  the  work  of  foreign 
missions.  Many  colleges  and  seminaries  now  sup- 
port wholly  or  in  part  their  own  missionary  abroad. 

(4)  Higher  standard  of  qualification. — 'Students 
in  preparation  for  missionary  service  are  urged 
to  take  graduate  studies  in  addition  to  a  regular 
college  course;  they  are  guided  in  the  formation  of 
right  habits  of  prayer,  Bible  study  and  meditation 
and  are  encouraged  to  engage  in  personal  Chris- 
tian service  with  a  view  to  winning  men  to  the 
discipleship  of  Christ.  Charles  D.  Hurrey 

STUNDISTS. — A  Russian  sect,  so  named  from 
their  meeting  at  certain  hours  {Stunden)  for  Bible 
study.    See  Russian  Sects. 

STUPA. — In  Buddhistic  architecture,  a  mound- 
like shrine,  indicating  a  sacred  spot,  commemorative 
of  a  historical  event,  containing  a  relic,  or  serving 
both  ends.    Also  called  tope  and  dagoba. 

S T YL I TES.— Pillar  saints;  ascetics  who 
passed  their  days  mounted  on  pillars  in  the  most 
rigorous  mortifications  of  the  body.  The  first 
and  best  known  was  Simeon  Stylites  (q.v.)  whence 
the  designation.  The  latest  known  pillar  saint 
were  certain  Ruthenian  monks  of  the  16th.  century. 

SUAREZ,  FRANCISCO  (1548-1589).— An  able 
R.C.  theologian,  member  of  the  Jesuit  order,  whose 


429 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Sun,  Sun  Worship 


expositions  of  Aristotelian  dialectic  were  used  as 
standard  textbooks  in  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic 
universities,  and  whose  theological  treatises  were 
widely  influential. 

SUB  DEACON. — In  the  Greek  and  Roman 
chvirches,  one  in  holy  orders  (q.v.)  next  inferior  in 
rank  to  the  deacon.  Among  his  duties  are  the 
preparation  of  the  utensils  for  the  Mass  and  the 
singing  of  the  epistle. 

SUBLAPSARIANISM.— The  moderate  Calvin- 
istic  position  which  conceives  the  decree  of  election 
as  a  provision  made  subsequent  to  the  fall  of 
man;  the  view  commonly  held  in  the  Reformed 
churches.    See  Supralapsarianism. 

SUBLIMINAL  SELF  or  CONSCIOUSNESS.— 

The  technical  term  for  mental  activity  taking  place 
"beneath  the  threshold"  of  consciousness,  _  That 
this  unobservable  activity  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  total  psychological  complex  is  a  well 
recognized  fact.  Certain  interpreters  of  religious 
experience  have  attached  great  significance  to  this 
realm,  seeking  thereby  to  find  psychological  support 
for  a  profoundly  mystical  independence  on  the  part 
of  religion.  Careful  criticism,  however,  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  subUminal  realm  is  neither  inde- 
pendent of  the  realm  of  consciousness  nor  is  it  of 
more  primary  significance.  Religion  is  therefore 
to  be  explained  primarily  in  terms  of  our  observable 
social  relationships  rather  than  in  reference  to  an 
occult  phase  of  mental  life.  See  Mysticism;  Psy- 
chology OF  Religion. 

SUBORDINATIONISM.— In  theology,  that 
interpretation  of  the  Trinitarian  doctrine  which 
makes  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit  inferior  to  the 
Father,  either  in  function  or  in  essence.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  subordination  of  the  Son  was  empha- 
sized by  Origen,  and  is  prominent  in  all  Greek  the- 
ology.    It  received  classical  expression  in  Arianism. 

SUBSTANCE. — For  use  of  the  term  in  trini- 
tarian  theology,  see  Ousia.  In  modern  philosophy 
substance  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  ultimate  logical 
subject  (Leibnitz),  and  of  that  which  is  permanent 
through  change  (Kant). 

SUCCESSION,  APOSTOLIC— See  Apostolic 

Succession. 

STJDRAS. — ^The  lowest  or  servile  caste  of 
early  Indo- Aryan  society  made  up  of  the  con- 
quered aborigines.  They  were  granted  no  reUgious 
privileges  save  that  of  service  to  the  three  higher 
castes.  In  later  times  this  rule  was  relaxed  in 
special  cases  since  Sudra  ascetics  are  found  in  the 
Yoga,  Sdnkhya  and  Buddhist  rehgious  orders. 

SUFFERING. — Pain  or  distress,  more  or  less 
prolonged,  due  to  conditions  which  limit  or  thwart 
the  attainment  of  pleasure.  An  instinctive  aversion 
to  suffering  makes  it  one  of  the  most  immediate 
evils  in  human  experience;  and  the  relief  of  suffer- 
ing is  universally  commended  as  a  rehgious  and 
moral  duty.  The  fact  of  so  much  apparently 
irremediable  suffering  in  the  world  creates  for 
theology  a  serious  problem.  Why  does  a  good 
God  permit  sviffering?  While  certain  considera- 
tions, such  as  discipUne,  "gr9wing  pains,"  etc., 
can  be  urged,  a  complete  rationaUzation  of  this 
evil  has  never  been  successfully  accomplished. 
See  Pain;  Theodicy. 

SUFFRAGAN. — ^Literally  an  assistant.  Used 
to  denote  any  bishop  who  is  subordinate  to  another 
bishop. 


SUFIISM. — A  Moslem  designation '  for  mysti- 
cism, so  called  from  the  Arabic  word,  Sufi,  used  from 
the  2nd.  century  of  Moslem  history  of  ascetics,  and 
probably  derived  from  suf  (wool),  having  reference 
to  the  woolen  clothes  used  by  them.  In  the  begin- 
ning it  was  practical  and  quietistic,  but  in  the  3rd. 
century  speculative  pantheistic  elements  were 
introduced.  In  later  Persian  thought  a  "sufi"  was 
synonymous  with  "freethinker. ' '  Sufiism  represents 
a  movement  rather  than  a  sect  with  distinctive 
tenets.    See  Mohammedanism. 

SUGGESTION.— The  tendency  of  the  mind  to 
accept  without  reason  beliefs  presented  to  it  by 
some  external  authority.  ^  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  sympathy  and  imitation  (in  the  technical 
sense)  in  that  it  refers  to  the  adoption  of  beUefs  and 
ideas,  ^  whereas  sympathy  refers  to  feehngs  and 
imitation  to  acts. 

Suggestibility  is  most  clearly  seen  in  children, 
the  simple  minded,  and  the  abnormal.  The  child 
naturally  accepts  as  real  whatever  is  presented  to 
him.  This  "primitive  creduhty"  would  be  the 
condition  of  all  minds  but  for  the  presence  of 
inhibiting  ideas.  The  greater  one's  knowledge  and 
the  better  one's  ideas  are  systematized,  the  less 
suggestible  one  wiU  be.  All  men,  however  (accord- 
ing to  the  view  accepted  by  the  majority  of  psy- 
chologists) are  to  some  extent  suggestible.  The 
influence  of  suggestion  in  the  spread  of  rehgions  and 
in  the  handing  down  of  rehgicn  through  successive 
generations  has,  obviously,  been  exceedingly  great. 

Suggestion  assumes  its  most  striking  form  in 
hysteria  and  in  hypnosis.  In  both  the  hysteric  and 
the  hypnotized  subject  a  dissociation  has  been 
produced  in  the  brain  of  such  a  nature  that  the 
normal  inhibitions  coming  from  conflicting  ideas 
do  not  function,  and  the  beUef  suggested  by  the 
hypnotist  is  at  once  adopted.      James  B.  Pratt 

SUICIDE. — Self-kiUing,  especially  when  in- 
tentional, whatever  be  the  cause  or  motive.  In  com- 
mon law  attempted  suicide  is  punishable.  In  most 
ethical  systems  it  is  reprehensible,  although  in 
some  instances  e.g.,  among  certain  Stoic  writers, 
it  was  defended  as  evincing  a  praiseworthy  indiffer- 
ence to  the  externals  of  life  and  death,  and  in 
Japan  has  been  considered  an  act  indispensable 
to  honor  in  case  one's  reputation  has  been  destroyed. 
Among  Christian  writers  it  has  been  condemned  as 
negligent  of  God's  grace  and  God's  judgment. 

SULPICIANS.— A  R.C.  congregation,  not  bound 
by  religious  vows,  founded  in  1642  in  France  by 
Jean  Jacques  Olier  to  promote  a  thorough  educa- 
tion of  priests  for  their  reUgious  duties;  prominent 
in  the  work  of  theological  education  in  France  and 
the  U.S.A. 

SUMMA  THEOLOGIAE  or  THEOLOGICA.— 

The  title  of  the  treatises  of  certain  schoolmen 
embodying  their  theological  or  philosophical  sys- 
tems, e.g.,  that  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  which  is  the 
accepted  basis  of  R.C.  theology  to  this  day. 

SUMMUM  BONUM. — A  Latm  term  meaning 
the  Supreme  Good. 

Morahty  consists  in  valuing  the  various  goods 
which  men  may  seek  so  as  to  subordinate  the  less 
worthy  to  the  more  worthy  ends.  The  Summum 
Bonum  is  that  good  to  which  all  other  goods  must 
be  subordinated.  This  has  been  variously  defined, 
happiness,  perfection,  and  harmony  with  God  being 
the  common  conceptions. 

SUN,  SUN  WORSHIP.— This  most  striking 
object,  the  sun,  "has  received  homage  in  probably 


Sunday 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


430 


every  inhabited  land,  either  as  himself  a  divinity, 
as  the  seat  of  deity,  or  as  in  some  other  way  con- 
nected with  the  gods." 

Among  primitive  peoples  he  is  considered  the 
most  splendid  of  the  great  animated  beings  of 
nature  (of.  the  Liberian  Chieng,  or  the  Asista  of  the 
African  Nandi,  who  is  Creator);  or  as  definitely 
personaUzed  (Greek  Helios);  or,  in  still  higher 
stages,  as  an  ethical  or  spiritual  power  (Babylonian 
Shamash),  or  its  instrument — the  eye  of  heaven 
which  sees  aU  (cf.  the  Egyptian  eye  of  Osiris,  in 
Greece  the  eye  of  Ouranos,  and  in  India  of  Varuna) . 
In  his  journeyings  he  may  travel  on  foot  (Vishnu 
in  India),  on  horseback  (some  of  the  baals  in  Syria), 
in  a  chariot  variously  drawn  (Apollo  in  Greece, 
Shamash  in  Babylonia),  or  in  a  boat  (the  sun  gods 
of  Egypt).  At  different  times  (of  day,  season,  or 
cycle)  he  may  receive  different  names  (in  Egypt 
Ra  and  the  other  sun  gods),  is  even  conceived  as 
duplex  or  multiplex,  with  varying  quahties  and 
powers  (so  the  sun  gods  of  Babylonia  and 
India). 

He  is  endowed  with  attributes  benign  (Egyp- 
tian Amen  is  a  notable  example)  and  maUgn  (Shiva 
in  India,  in  some  aspects,  and  so  some  deities  of 
Babylonia).  Among  the  former,  besides  hght  and 
comfort-giving  heat,  are  fertility  (notably  Osiris, 
and  Tammuz  in  Babylonia),  Ufe,  heaUng  (Syria), 
wealth  (India),  truth  (cf.  the  introduction  to  Ham- 
murapi's  Code),  and  ethics  (Babylonian  Marduk). 
As  a  culture  deity  he  teaches  agriculture  (Tammuz) 
and  law  (Shamash,  Ninib),  bestows  grain  and 
fruits  (Osiris),  and  deUvers  oracles  (Marduk, 
Apollo).  As  fertiUtj^  god  he  is  connected  with 
trees,  grain  and  fruits  (and  streams  throughout 
Syria,  Babylonia,  and  India).  As  an  ethical 
power  he  is  the  witness  and  judge  of  men's  deeds 
(Osiris).  He  (or  she,  for  the  sun  is  sometimes 
feminine)  may  be  the  reputed  ancestor  of  a  dynasty, 
which  is  then  divine  (Amaterasu  in  Japan).  As  a 
mahgn  power  he  is  the  cause  of  pestilence  and 
death  (Babylonian  Nergal,  and  the  sun  in  Southern 
India — "Yon  burning  sun  is  death").  His  weapons 
are  arrows  (Apollo),  the  serrated  sword  or  battle 
ax  (Mediterranean  peoples),  or  club  (Mithra). 
The  animals  most  associated  with  him,  or  employed 
as  his  symbols,  are  the  bull  (Syria),  serpent  (India), 
hawk  and  perhaps  eagle  (Egypt). 

His  worship  is  often  connected  with  the  tops  of 
mountains  and  hills,  where  his  rays  first  strike  (a 
general  feature,  notably  in  prehistoric  Palestine, 
Syria  and  America);  also  with  streams,  springs, 
and  trees  (particularly  in  Syria).  Normal  expres- 
sions of  his  worship  are  adoration  in  prayer  and 
song  (nobly  expressed  in  the  cuneiform),  dance 
(prehistoric  Greece);  sacrifices,  sometimes  human 
(the  latter  prehistoric).  But  symbohc  acts  may 
serve,  as  smoking  towards  him  or  naming  a  dance  in 
his  honor  (American  Indians.) 

His  usual  symbol  is  the  disc  (Egypt),  which  may 
be  winged  (?Persia,  Babylonia),  surmounted  by  a 
human  figure  (was  Asshur  originally  a  sun  god?), 
or  human  head  and  shoulders,  sometimes  armed. 

PhaUicism  seems  at  times  to  be  connected  with 
his  worship,  and  piUars,  blunt  or  conical,  are  fre- 
quently foimd  at  his  sanctuaries  (Dra vidian  India; 
the  hngam  is  a  constant  feature  of  the  Shiva 
shrines  and  cult:  in  Babylonia  small  conical  objects 
are  found  by  thousands  in  temples).  The  human 
figure  representing  him  is  youthful,  and  often  wears 
a  rayed  crown  (Apollo,  Mithra). 

George  W.  Gilmore 

SUNDAY.— See  Sabbath. 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS.— Private  schools  usually 
conducted  by  churches,  meeting  on  Sunday  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  rehgion  to  the  young. 


1.  The  Development  of  the  School. — 
1.  The  English  Sunday  school  came  into  prominence 
through  the  work  of  Robert  Raikes  (1736  to  1811) 
who  founded  many  schools  for  the  elementary 
instruction  of  destitute  children  and  organized 
societies  to  maintain  the  schools.  These  institutions 
were  not  especially  related  to  churches. 

2.  In  the  United  Stales  in  the  early  Colonial 
days  many  churches  made  provision  for  the  rehgious 
instruction  of  their  children  on  Sundays,  and  in 
every  church  communion  this  institution  came, 
to  an  increasing  degree,  under  the  charge  of  the 
church.  The  American  form  of  Sunday  school, 
that  is  a  school  of  the  church,  has  been  adopted  all 
over  the  world.  The  work  of  the  schools  is  pro- 
moted by  general  agencies  and  by  special  boards  and 
secretaries  in  the  various  denominational  organi- 
zations. 

3.  Statistics. — In  the  United  States,  estimate  for 
1920,  based  on  census  of  churches:  Protestant, 
schools  167,000;  pupils  15,291,658;  Roman  Catho- 
lic (for  1918),  schools  12,761;  pupils  1,853,245— 
also,  in  parochial  schools,  1,667,945;  Jewish, 
schools  700,  pupils  87,065.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  nearly  300,000  Christian  Sunday  schools 
in  the  world  with  over  twenty-seven  milhon  pupils 
enrolled. 

II.  Function. — 1.  In  the  scheme  of  general 
education. — -The  tendency  is  toward  the  seculariza- 
tion of  public  education.  This  has  been  completely 
accomplished  so  far  as  the  content  of  curricula 
is  concerned  in  the  United  States.  PubHc  schools 
do  not  teach  religion,  therefore  the  responsibility 
is  laid  upon  churches  to  provide  a  teaching  agency 
in  this  field. 

2.  To  meet  social  changes. — The  family  is  no 
longer  the  teacher  of  religion  and  in  the  pressure 
of  modern  fife  children  grow  up  without  instruction 
in  religion. 

3.  In  the  organization  and  work  of  the  church. — 
The  function  of  the  church  is  to  develop  religious 
persons  in  a  rehgious  society.  The  most  important 
time  of  growth  is  in  childhood  and  the  normal 
method  of  growth  is  that  of  education.  Therefore, 
the  churches  train  their  future  constituency  in  their 
own  schools. 

III.  Typical  School  of  the  Last  Century. — 
Although  Sunday  schools  merited  serious  criticism 
as  schools,  showing  scarcely  any  traces  of  educa- 
tional influences  and  none  of  improvement  parallel 
to  the  advance  in  educational  method  prior  to  the 
20th.  century,  yet  they  developed  somewhat  unique 
methods  of  their  own. 

1.  Organization. — ^A  standard  school  of  the 
period  before  the  educational  reconstruction,  a 
type  still  found  in  many  places,  was  organized  as 
follows:  Pupils  (then  always  called  "scholars") 
divided  roughly  according  to  age  into  small  classes, 
usually  of  from  four  to  twelve  children,  in  charge  of 
teachers  who  were  such  volunteer  workers  as  could 
be  secured,  the  whole  in  charge  of  a  superintendent,  f 
whose  principal  fimction  was  that  of  conducting  the 
exercises  of  worship,  a  secretary  to  keep  records  of 
attendance,  a  librarian  to  distribute  weekly  periodi- 
cals and  conduct  a  loan  hbrary. 

2.  Session. — The  school  assembled  either  before 
or  after  the  morning  period  of  worship.  In  Engand 
and  some  colonies  an  extra  session  was  held  in  the 
afternoon.  The  session  opened  with  "worship," 
lasting  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  minutes,  followed 
by  a  lesson  period  of  thirty  minutes,  concluding 
with  closing  worship,  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes  in 
length. 

3.  Lessons. — ^The  classes  all  studied  the  same 
lesson  which  was  selected  by  a  central  committee 
for  all  evangeUcal  schools  throughout  the  world. 
The  lessons  were  arranged  in  six-year  cycles  through 


431 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Supernatural,  The 


the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments.  Each  pupil 
was  expected  to  memorize  one  verse  of  the  Bible 
every  Sunday.  In  some  communions,  the  Lutheran 
and  such  Roman  parishes  as  had  schools,  the 
work  was  largely  catechetical.  During  this  period, 
the  Jewish  schools,  which  were  also  few  in  num- 
ber, taught  Hebrew  as  a  rule,  though  some  had 
other  Old  Testament  lessons. 

IV.  The  Modern  Type. — The  school  of  the 
educational  reconstruction.  The  school  is  organized 
in  accordance  with  educational  principles;  it 
attempts  a  definite  program  for  the  lives  of  pupils. 
It  has  been  reorganized  under  two  tendencies. 

1.  The  school  has  been  thoroughly  adopted  by 
the  church. — ^The  churches,  therefore,  provide 
(1)  suitable  physical  equipment:  (a)  buildings 
especially  designed  to  serve  educational  ends,  with 
class  rooms,  and  also  to  serve  the  wider  educational 
program  of  the  social  and  recreational  Ufe  of  the 
young,  (6)  equipped  with  desks  and  tables  designed 
according  to  the  age  of  pupils  and  the  work  to  be 
done  in  a  room;  maps,  pictures  and  other  school 
apparatus.  (Of.  The  Sunday  School  Building  and 
Its  Equipment  by  H.  F.  Evans,  1914.)  (2)  Trained 
workers,  usually  men  and  women  prepared  for  the 
special  profession  of  religious  education,  graduates 
of  courses  in  the  psychology  of  religion,  methods  of 
reUgious  education  and  the  materials  of  religion. 
They  are  known  as  "Directors  of  Religious  Educa- 
tion," receive  regular  appointments  under  salary, 
are  on  a  parity  with  the  pastor  in  his  work  and  are 
responsible  for  all  the  educational  work  of  the 
church.  (Work  described  in  Religious  Education, 
Oct.,  1915.)  (3)  General  direction  under  special 
boards  and  committees  in  the  church.  The  Board 
of  ReUgious  Education  is  appointed  for  abilities  in 
the  educational  field  and  is  the  special  body  of  the 
church  membership  assigned  to  the  general  responsi- 
biUty  for  the  school.  (4)  Budget  provision  for  the 
needs  of  the  school.  Instead  of  being  supported  by 
the  pennies  of  the  children  this  budget  provision 
from  the  church  permits  the  children's  offerings  to 
go  to  outside  benevolent  purposes.  The  total 
result  of  adoption  by  the  church  and  of  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  special  function  of  this  school  is  seen 
in  the  tendency  to  apply  to  it  the  name  "Church 
School." 

2.  Sunday  schools  have  been  reconstructed'  under 
the  influence  of  the  educational  revival  of  the  20th. 
century. — Closely  following  on  the  general  develop- 
ment of  the  science  of  education  and  its  applicaton 
to  popular  elementary  education  came  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  educational  task  of  this  school  of  religion 
and  the  attempt  to  apply  to  its  work  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  education.  This  resulted  in: 
(1)  The  organization  of  pupils  into  (a)  classes 
selected  according  to  the  stage  of  the  pupil's 
development;  (b)  classes  grouped,  on  the  basis 
of  broad  life  divisions,  in  "Departments"  or 
"Divisions,"  each  under  a  Principal.  _  (c)  All 
pupil  activities  conducted  in  these  groups,  including 
separate  worship,  according  to  the  diffejent  needs 
of  groups,  (d)  Pupils  advanced  from  grade  to 
grade  usually  each  year.  (2)  Material  of  study 
determined  by  the  needs  of  pupils,  so  that  each 
year  new  material,  suitable  to  the  needs  of  the 
pupil's  life,  is  studied.  There  are  now,  1917, 
four  fairly  complete  systems,  with  texts  for  each 
grade  (International,  University  of  Chicago  Con- 
structive, Beacon,  and  Scribner  Series)  and  several 
other  systems  in  the  process  of  making  (Unitarian, 
Episcopal,  National  [English]  Jewish).  _  (3)  Teach- 
ers especially  prepared  for  their  particular  work; 
the  standard  is  that  each  teacher  shall  have  followed 
a  course  of  at  least  eighty  short  lessons  on  methods 
and  materials,  to  be  followed  by  a  course  of  similar 
length  on  the  special  grade  of  work  to  be  done. 


(4)  Preparation  of  a  special  literature  on  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  school  with  text-books  for  the 
training  of  teachers  and  on  method  in  different 
departments.  (5)  Attention  to  the  work  of  the 
school  in  institutions  of  higher  education,  courses  in 
colleges  preparing  for  lay  service  in  the  schools, 
and  courses  in  divinity  schools  and  schools  of 
rehgion  preparing  pastors  for  general  educational 
supervision,  and  also  preparing  the  professional 
leaders,  "Directors"  (cf.  IV,  2,  above.)  See 
Religious  Education.  Henry  F.  Cope 

SUNNA. — ^The  religious  tradition  in  Islam, 
ranking  among  orthodox  Mohammedans  as  of 
divine  authority  alongside  the  Koran. 

SUIfNITES.— One  of  the  two  main  divisions  of 
the  Moslem  world.  They  are  the  orthodox  party, 
hold  to  the  Koran  and  Sunna  (whence  the  name) 
as  the  _  authoritative  sources  of  doctrines.  They 
predominate  in  Arabia,  Turkey,  N.  Africa,  Afghanis- 
tan, Turkestan  and  among  the  Moslems  of  India. 
See  Mohammedanism;  Shi  ites. 

SUPEREROGATION,  WORKS  OF.— In  R.C, 

theology,  good  works  performed  in  excess  of  what  is 
required  for  salvation.  Such  good  works  have 
been  performed  by  saints  and  the  merit  accruing 
to  them  is  transferable  to  the  faithful  on  the  basis 
of  the  church's  indivisibility.  See  Communion  of 
Saints. 

SUPERINTENDENT.— (1)  The  officer  who 
presides  over  and  has  the  oversight  of  a  Sunday 
School.  (2)  In  certain  Protestant  denominations  as 
the  German  EvangeKcal,  German  Reformed,  English 
Wesleyan,  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal,  a  minister 
having  the  official  oversight  of  the  churches  and 
congregations  within  a  certain  territory. 

SUPERNATURAL,  THE.— A  realm  of  spiritual 
realities  existing  above  or  beyond  the  world  of 
ordinary  sense-perception. 

That  behind  the  experiences  of  ordinary  life 
there  is  a  realm  of  mystery  is  universally  recognized. 
This  realm  may  be  simply  dismissed  from  attention 
on  the  ground  of  its  inherent  unknowableness 
(see  Agnosticism);  or  it  may  be  regarded  as  an 
indefinable  spiritual  backgroimd  of  all  reaUty 
(see  Mysticism;  Pantheism);  or  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  actively  making  itself  known  in  definite 
ways  in  the  "natural"  order.  In  this  latter  case 
we  have  what  is  known  as  a  doctrine  of  the  super- 
natural. 

1.  Conceptions  of  the  supernatural. — The  super- 
natural may  manifest  itself  in  various  ways.  It  may 
be  a  realm  of  spirits  and  demons  who  engage  in 
capricious  activities.  At  the  other  extreme  it  may 
be  conceived  as  so  completely  ordered  by  God  as  to 
be  capable  of  rational  interpretation  (Deism).  In 
Christianity  the  conception  of  the  supernatural  is 
organized  aroimd  the  doctrine  of  redemption.  All 
manifestations  of  the  supernatural  have  a  definite 
redemptive  purpose.  Caprice  and  magic  are  thus 
eliminated. 

2.  The  supernatural  in  Christianity. — The  chief 
items  in  the  supernatural  order,  according  to  Catholic 
theology,  are  the  divine  foundation  of  the  church, 
the  divine  character  of  Christ,  the  divinely  inspired 
Scriptures,  and  the  divinely  efficacious  sacraments. 
The  creation  of  the  world,  the  miracles  of  history, 
and  the  eventual  catastrophic  end  of  the  world  show 
the  complete  subordination  of  the  present  world  to 
supernatural  power.  Protestantism  rejected  the 
Cathohc  interpretation  of  the  church,  though  retain- 
ing the  conception  of  its  supernatural  character, 
and  reduced  the  number  of  sacraments  to  two. 


Superstition 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


432 


Protestaxit  emphasis  has  rested  principally  on  the 
divinely  inspired  Scriptures  authenticated  by 
miracle,  the  divine  Christ,  and  divinely  effected 
regeneration. 

3.  Modern  discussion. — ^The  conception  of  the 
supernatural  in  traditional  theology  involves  a 
dualistic  world-view.  _  Science,  which  deals  with 
the  "natural"  realm,  is  admittedly  incompetent  to 
deal  with  the  supernatural.  But  in  our  day  there  is 
increasingly  fruitful  investigation  of  the  entire  realm 
of  reHgion  by  science  and  philosophy.  To  withdraw 
rehgion  from  such  investigation  is  likely  to  arouse 
suspicion  that  its  case  is  weak.  But  in  so  far  as 
religion  is  discussed  scientifically,  it  is  located  in 
the  world  which  science  knows — the  natural.  There 
is  therefore  a  tendency  to  shift  emphasis  from 
supernatural  origins  to  spiritual  values,  and  instead 
of  defending  a  definite  series  of  supernatural  inter- 
ventions to  think  of  a  more  general,  undefined 
spiritual  world  continuous  with  the  natural  world, 
but  containing  potencies  which  actually  come  to 
expression  only  through  religious  experience.  For 
this  way  of  interpreting  the  activity  of  God  the 
word  supernatural  is  hardly  adequate;  for  the 
reahn  of  spiritual  realities  is  just  as  "natural"  as  is 
any  realm  of  human  experience.  In  so  far,  however, 
as  scientific  treatment  of  reHgion  tends  to  reduce  it  to 
a  purely  human  function,  there  is  need  of  some 
term  to  express  the  reahty  of  a  superhuman  realm 
from  which  human  life  is  enriched  and  transformed. 
In  this  sense  the  affirmation  of  the  supernatural  is 
indispensable  to  religion.    See  Miracles. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

SUPERSTITION. — Ignorant,  grotesque,  credu- 
lous, or  ill-regulated  belief,  commonly  associated 
with  fear. 

Superstition  is  often  associated  with  magical 
rites,  though  it  may  exist  without  any  organized 
system  of  expression.  Examples  of  superstitions 
are:  beUef  that  an  encounter  with  the  number 
thirteen  is  unlucky;  that  ill-fortune  will  attend 
any  enterprise  begun  on  Friday;  that  phases  of  the 
moon  influence  the  weather,  etc. 

Among  primitive  peoples  irrational  beliefs 
are  intermingled  with  rehgious  practices.  As 
rehgion  becomes  more  orderly  and  ethical,  these 
primitive  emotional  reactions  are  classed  as  super- 
stitions. Even  the  highly  organized  fonns  of 
religion  do  not  completely  eliminate  superstitious 
ideas  from  the  common  consciousness. 

Herbert  A.  Yoxttz 

SUPPER,  THE  LAST.— The  last  meal  of  which 
Jesus  partook  with  his  disciples  before  his  passion; 
a  frequent  subject  in  Christian  art,  the  best  known 
painting  being  that  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  in  Milan. 

SUPRALAPSARIANISM.— The  hyper-Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  that  the  decrees  of  predestination 
and  election  are  antecedent  to  all  other  decrees, 
hence  that  the  decisions  of  divine  election  preceded 
the  creation  and  the  fall  of  man. 

SUPREMACY,  ACTS  OF.— Enactments 
designed  to  place  the  ecclesiastical  organization  of 
England  under  the  control  of  the  sovereign. 

The  first  act  (Nov.  1534)  enacted  that  the 
king  "shall  be  taken,  accepted,  and  reputed  the 
only  supreme  head  on  earth  of  the  church  in  Eng- 
land, with  power  to  visit,  redress — and  amend  all 
such  errors,  heresies,  and  abuses  .  ...  as  need 
correction."  In  the  papal  reaction  of  Mary's 
regime  this  statute  was  repealed.  With  EUzabeth's 
accession  it  was  declared  (Jan.  1559)  that  the 
"queen's  highness  is  the  only  supreme  governor 
of  the  realm  as  well  in  all  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical 
things  or  causes  as  temporal,  and  that  no  foreign 
prince,   person,   or  prelate,   has  any  jurisdiction. 


ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  within  this  realm." 
Ecclesiastics  or  lay  officers  refusing  to  conform  to 
this  assertion  of  royal  authority,  were  disqualified 
for  office.  Such  as  maintained  the  authority  of  a 
potentate  (the  Pope)  outside  the  realm  forfeited 
his  property,  or  failing  to  have  such,  was  imprisoned 
for  a  year.  A  third  offense  incurred  the  penalty  of 
high  treason.  The  majority  of  the  clergy  sub- 
scribed readily  to  this  new  ecclesiastical  order. 
The  bishops,  however,  having  been  for  the  most 
part  appointed  by  Mary,  refused  and  forfeited 
their  office.  EUzabeth's  second  ParUament  (1563) 
imposed  the  oath  upon  schoolmasters,  pubhc 
and  private  teachers  of  children,  barristers,  officers 
of  the  law,  and  members  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Peter  G.  Mode 
SURAS. — ^The  chapters  or  sections  into  which 
the  sacred  book  of  Islam,  the  Koran,  is  divided. 

SURPLICE. — A  white  ecclesiastical  garment 
loosely  fitting  and  with  broad  open  sleeves  worn 
over  the  ordinary  clerical  costume  at  almost  all 
regular  church  service  by  the  officiating  minister 
and  the  choristers  in  the  Catholic  and  Anghcan 
churches. 

SURYA. — One  of  the  names  of  the  sun-god  in 
Vedic  religion. 

SUSA-NO-O. — God  of  the  sea  and  of  storm  in 
the  primitive  nature-reUgion  of  ancient  Japan.  His 
boisterous  activities  enter  largely  into  the  mythology 
of  the  Shinto  records. 

StJTRAS. — The  general  name  for  an  early 
group  of  Hindu  prose  writings  intended  to  present 
in  concise  form  the  essentials  of  the  religious 
requirements  of  Vedic  religion.    They  consist  of 

(1)  the  Shrauta-sutras,  a  very  abbreviated  collection 
of  precepts  for  the  use  of  the  mantras  and  Brdhmanas 
of  the    Vedas  in  connection  with  the  sacrifices, 

(2)  the  Grihya-sutras  giving  instruction  regarding 
the  family  cult,  _  (3)  the  Dliarma-sutras,  a  group  of 
manuals  on  social  duties,  (4)  sutras  dealing  with 
magical  practice,  grammar,  philology  and  astron- 
omy. Such  works  written  in  verse  are  called 
shdstras. 

SUTTEE.— The  burning  of  the  widow  on  the 
funeral  pile  of  her  husband,  practiced  in  India  imtil 
the  British  forbade  it  in  their  territory  in  1829. 
It  was  usually  a  voluntary  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the 
woman  and  the  name,  sati,  indicates  that  it  was 
considered  a  mark  of  ideal  womanly  devotion. 

SVASTIKA. — The  Hindu  name  for  the  gammate 
cross  which  is  found  in  practically  every  division 
of  the  ancient  world — Greece,  China,  India,  Scandi- 
navia and  America.  Usually  it  is  a  symbol  of 
prosperity  and  good-luck.  In  origin  it  probably 
represents  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  and  the 
motion  of  the  sun  and  heavens  as  a  wheel,  thus 
becoming  a  sign  of  sun,  winds  and  the  four  regions 
and  secondarily  of  plenty  and  prosperity. 

SWEDENBORG,  EMANUEL  (1688-1772).— 
Born  at  Stockholm  from  a  father,  a  theological 
professor  suspected  of  heterodoxy,  trained  in  the 
University  of  Upsala,  widely  traveled,  promoted 
to  the  nobiUty  by  Charles  XII.  for  war  inventions, 
well  versed  in  matters  affecting  currency,  trade, 
and  mines,  he  pubUshed  (1734)  his  three  volume 
Opera  Philosophica  et  Mineralia  which  contained 
many  striking  anticipations  of  modern  science  in 
the  fields  of  geology  and  science.  A  later  work 
(1740),  Economia  Regni  Animalis,  is  equally  signifi- 
cant   for    its    physiological    conclusions.    Subse- 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Symbols,  Religious 


quently  (1745)  a  revelation  from  the  Lord  led  to  his 
resignation  as  a  mining  expert.  Thenceforth  his 
time  was  given  to  scriptural  study  and  the  volumi- 
nous elaboration  of  his  theological  ideas.  He  believed 
that  the  essence  of  God  is  love,  that  nature  and 
spirit  are  absolutely  distinct,  that  man's  function 
is  to  image  his  creator,  that  man  fell  through  the 
influence  of  spirits  of  darkness,  and  that  through  the 
incarnation  reveahng  God's  love,  man  may  be 
restored.  In  the  Scriptures,  with  a  natural, 
spiritual,  and  celestial  sense,  God  reveals  himself 
through  the  divinely  commissioned  exposition  of 
Swedenborg.  Hence  the  revelations  through  which 
Swedenborg  claimed  to  have  seen  conditions  pre- 
vaiUng  in  the  future  Ufe.  On  the  basis  of  his 
teachings,  a  chxirch  has  been  established  with  impor- 
tant extensions  in  European  lands  and  America. 
See  New  Jerusalem,  Church  of. 

Peter  G.  Mode 
SWEDISH  EVANGELICAL  MISSION  COVE- 
NANT OF  AMERICA.— A  sect  of  Swedish  Evangeh- 
cal  churches  in  the  United  States  springing  from 
the  free  church  of  Sweden,  dating  from  1868  and 
reporting,  in  1919, 324  churches  and  29,164  members. 

SYLLABUS  OF  ERRORS,  PAPAL.— An  in- 
ventory or  register  of  eighty  heresies  placed  under 
papal  condemnation  by  Pius  IX.  in  1864,  and 
divided  into  ten  sections  including  pantheism, 
naturaUsm,  rationalism,  sociahsm,  Bible  societies, 
modern  HberaHsm,  and  heresies  regarding  the 
authority  of  the  Church  and  Pope. 

SYLPH. — An  air-sprite.     See  Kobold. 

SYLVESTER.— See  Silvester. 

SYMBOLICS.— The  name  given  to  that  branch 
of  general  theology  which  interprets  the  official 
creeds  (symbols)  of  Christianity.  The  scope  of 
symboHcs  is  strictly  limited  by  the  fact  that  it 
deals  only  with  what  is  expressed  in  the  creeds. 
It  thus  differs  from  a  history  of  doctrine  or  from 
systematic  theology  in  that  it  does  not,  as  these  do, 
consider  general  movements  of  reUgious  thinking. 
Symbolics  may  be  purely  objective  and  compara- 
tive; or  it  may  be  in  the  interests  of  some  one 
type  of  Christianity.  The  latter  ideal  has  usually 
been  followed,  so  that  the  exposition  has  constituted 
an  apology  for  the  chosen  type.  The  demands  of 
objective  historical  interpretation,  however,  have 
made  themselves  felt  so  definitely  in  present-day 
theological  scholarship  that  the  aim  of  modern 
symbohcs  is  to  furnish  a  sympathetic  exposition  of 
the  various  creeds  of  Christendom  with  an  irenic 
rather  than  a  polemic  aim. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

SYMBOLS,  RELIGIOUS.— (Greek:  symbolon, 
"a  sign.")  Objects,  or  representations  of  objects, 
used  to  suggest  to  the  mind,  by  association  or 
analogy,  things  or  ideas  of  a  religious  nature  other 
than  those  directly  presented. 

Early  Christian  symbols  especially  borrowed 
their  aptness  from  references  in  Holy  Scripture, 
and  Uke  other  pictorial  representations,  both  gave 
pleasurable  stimulus  to  the  mind  through  the  exer- 
cise of  the  associative  faculty,  and  had  a  decorative 
value,  while  also  obviating  the  need  of  language 
to  suggest  ideas.  Objective  symbols  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  use  of  symbolism  in  litera- 
ture as  by  simile  and  metaphor.  Representations 
of  actual  objects  suggestive  of  religious  conceptions 
may  be,  however,  rather  memorials  than  symbols. 
A  symbol  may  be  termed  a  metaphor  expressed  in 
object  instead  of  language,  while  a  memorial 
corresponds  to  a  simile.  Thus  a  pictured  chalice  is 
not  strictly  a  symbol  of  the  eucharist,  while  the 


pelican  feeding  her  young  with  the  blood  from 
her  self-riven  breast  (according  to  ancient  fable)  is. 
Even  the  cross  is  not  a  symbol  of  the  Passion,  but 
a  memorial;  it  is,  however,  a  symbol  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  Yet  symbol  is  popularly  used  to 
include  memorial. 

Christian  symbols  are  mentioned  in  the  early 
church  fathers,  and  are  found  in  connection  with 
paintings  and  inscriptions  in  the  catacombs,  on 
ancient  vessels  of  various  sorts  (often  eucharistic), 
and  on  sarcophagi.  Within  the  first  six  or  seven 
centuries  symboUsm  was  much  developed.  Some 
early  Christian  symbols  are  directly  borrowed  from 
pagan  art.  Thus  the  Hermes  carrying  a  goat,  or 
Phoebus  tending  the  flocks  of  Admetus,  becomes  a 
symbol  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  Even  Orpheus 
charming  the  wild  beasts  is  pictured  as  a  symt3ol  of 
Christ,  and  the  chariot-race  on  the  sarcophagus  is 
made  to  typify  the  course  of  human  fife,  with  the 
palm  of  victory  awaiting  the  faithful  at  the  end. 
Other  symbols  are  taken  from  common  Hfe,  as  the 
fish,  an  article  of  daily  food,  becomes  (possibly 
with  some  suggestion  of  the  eucharistic  feast)  an 
acrostic  symbol  of  Christ,  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
word  for  "fish"  being  the  initials  of  the  Greek  words 
for  "Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour."  Similarly 
the  ordinary  hght-giving  candle  is  used  on  the 
Christian  altar  to  recall  Him  who  is  the  Light  of 
the  World,  or  to  signify  the  Divine  Presence,  as  in 
the  Pentecostal  fire.  The  triangle  and  trefoil  as 
symbols  of  the  Trinity  in  Unity  are  well-known. 

Symbols  of  Christ  are  of  course  various.  Besides 
those  just  mentioned,  he  is  represented  as  the  Vine, 
according  to  his  own  words,  and  because  of  the  wine 
which  is  his  Blood.  He  is  a  Lion  (of  the  tribe  of 
Judah);  but  he  is  also  a  Lamb,  as  proclaimed  in 
St.  John's  gospel.  The  four  Evangelists  acquire 
their  winged  symbols  from  Ezekiel  and  Revelation: 
St.  Matthew  is  the  Man,  St.  Mark  the  Lion,  St. 
Luke  the  Ox,  St.  John  the  Eagle;  and  later  devo- 
tion pointed  out  the  characteristics  of  their  respect- 
ive gospels  that  justified  the  imagery.  The 
Church  is  pictured  as  a  ship  (sometimes  with 
Christ  or  St.  Peter  as  helmsman)  in  which  the 
faithful  are  carried  safely,  like  Noah  and  his  family 
in  the  ark,  over  the  raging  floods  of  wickedness  of 
this  world  to  their  desired  haven :  or  she  is  a  draped 
figure  standing  with  outstretched  hands  in  the 
primitive  attitude  of  prayer,  an  attitude  still  pre- 
served in  that  of  the  celebrant  in  the  eucharist. 
Incense  is  the  Scriptural  accompaniment  of  the 
prayers  of  saints,  and  thus  acquires  a  symbolic 
value.  The  serpent,  or  dragon,  is  a  Scriptural 
figure  for  Satan,  as  the  dove  is  for  the  Holy  Spirit; 
but  the  self-reviving  phoenix  for  the  resurrection 
is  another  adaptation  from  pagan  fable. 

The  progress  of  art,  and  the  cult  of  apostles, 
saints,  and  martyrs  led  to  other  devices  in  symbol- 
ism, which  stood  for,  or  more  often  (as  memorial 
attributes)  accompanied,  representations  of  the 
venerated  persons.  Thus  St.  Paul  is  distinguished 
by  a  sword,  St.  Peter  by  the  keys  of  the  Lord's 
commission,  St.  Andrew  by  the  X-cross  on  which 
he  suffered,  and  other  martyrs  by  the  instruments 
of  their  fate.  The  symbolism  of  the  cock,  which, 
like  the  gospel  of  the  Day-spring  from  on  high, 
rouses  souls  from  the  darkness  of  night  and  the 
sleep  of  sloth  and  sin,  led  to  the  frequent  placing 
of  cocks  on  church-towers  as  weather-vanes. 
Others  make  the  cock  the  symbol  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, because  Christ  was  believed  to  have  risen 
from  the  dead  at  early  cock-crowing;  others  yet 
declare  the  crowing  of  the  cock  had  power  to 
banish  the  evil  spirits  which  wander  abroad  at 
night,  and  lie  in  wait  for  the  faithful,  as  the  spirit 
of  denial  forsook  St.  Peter  at  the  crowing  of  the 
cock.    The  mention  of  such  variant  views  may  serve 


Symeon  Metaphrastes  A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


434 


as  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  homiletic  inter- 
pretation of  symbols  was  fancifully  elaborated  and 
developed.  Symbolism  has  also  been  arbitrarily 
attributed  to  ecclesiastical  vestments  and  other 
furnishings  in  quite  fantastic  and  unauthorized 
fashion.  Mediaeval  symboUsm  in  church  archi- 
tecture is  exhaustively  treated  by  Durandus.  The 
eastward  orientation  of  churches  is  mentioned  as 
early  as  the  Apostohc  Constitutions  (4th.  century), 
and  prevailed  throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  halo,  aureole,  or  nimbus  (usually  round,  but 
later  square  in  the  denotation  of  persons  yet  living) 
surrounding  the  head  is  a  sign  of  authority  or 
sanctity.  It  seems  to  have  been  of  pagan  origin. 
In  the  East  rulers  are  thus  distinguished  in  early 
centuries,  as  are  divine  or  holy  persons;  in  the 
West,  to  which  the  use  of  the  halo  in  art  spread, 
it  is  prevaiUngly  limited  to  the  latter  class. 

E.  T.  Merrill 

SYMEON  METAPHRASTES.— A  Byzantine 
chronicler  who  probably  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
10th.  century;  the  most  famous  of  the  biographers 
of  the  saints.  He  is  venerated  as  a  saint  by  the 
Eastern  church  on  Nov.  28. 

SYMMACHUS.— Pope,  498-514. 

SYMPATHY. — An  emotional  experience,  excited 
by  the  experiences  of  another,  and  inducing  in  the 
beholder  or  auditor  feelings  of  a  corresponding 
quaUty  or  kind.  It  is  an  evidence  of  social  soUdar- 
ity,  and  frequently  is  experienced  before  the 
reflective  stage.  In  ethical  theory  it  is  the  founda- 
tion of  altruism  and  all  social  ethics,  since  sympathy 
is  a  powerful  motive  for  promoting  the  good  of  the 
person  for  whom  sympathy  is  aroused.  In  Budd- 
hism sympathy  is  a  primary  virtue. 

SYNAGOGUE.— The  one  local  institution,  and 
the  most  important  social  organization,  among  the 
Jews  in  and  out  of  Palestine  from  the  6th.  century 
B.C.  to  the  present.  When  ritual  sacrifice  became 
confined  to  Jerusalem,  the  Jews  required  everywhere 
a  new  local  organization  for  reUgious  education 
and  worship.  They  needed  also  a  center  of  com- 
munity administration.  The  synagogue  served 
these  purposes,  functioning  socially  as  church, 
school,  courthouse  and  public  hall.  One  board  of 
elders  governed  the  whole  cormnunity  life  through 
this  institution,  for  which  a  suitable  building  was 
maintained.  The  chief  religious  service  was  held 
regularly  on  Sabbath  mornings. 

C.  W.  VOTAW 

SYNCRETISM.— An  intentional  or  uninten- 
tional fusion  of  two  or  more  philosophical  or  religious 
systems  on  the  basis  of  their  common  tenets,  as  in 
the  union  of  Hellenic  and  Hebraic^  elements  in 
Christianity.  Specifically  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  irenic  movement  of  the  17th.  century,  designed 
to  unite  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches, 
the  leading  advocate  of  which  was  Georg  Calixtus 
(q.v.). 

SYNCRETISTIC  CONTROVERSY.— The  name 
given  to  a  controversy  which  arose  in  1645  when  a 
conference  of  Lutheran,  Reformed  and  CathoUc 
theologians  was  called  at  Thorn,  Poland,  with  a 
view  to  reaching  unity.  The  controversy  lasted 
until  1686.  Lutheran  theologians  attach  the 
controversy  to  the  name  of  Georg  Calixtus  (q.v.). 

SYNDERESIS. — See  Conscience. 

SYNERGISM. — A  16th.  century  theological 
doctrine  that  regeneration  is  due  to  a  co-ordination 
of  human  effort  with  divine  grace,  It  was  opposed 
to  the  Augustinian  position  maintained  by  Luther 


of  the  exclusively  divine  origin  of  salvation,  called 
monergism.  The  doctrine  has  been  regarded  as  a 
recrudescence  of  Semi-Pelagianism  (q.v.). 

SYNOD.— An  ecclesiastical  council,  whether  of 
regular  standing  or  appointed  for  a  specific  purpose. 
Examples  of  stated  synods  are  that  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church  which  functions  between  the  General 
Assembly  and  the  local  presbyteries,  the  General 
and  District  Synods  of  the  Dutch  Reformed, 
German  Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches  of  the 
U.S.A.,  the  Holy  Synod  of  the  Russian  church,  the 
Holy  Governing  Synod  of  the  Roumanian  church 
and  the  governing  body  of  the  Greek  established 
church.  The  Synod  of  Dort  (q.v.)  is  an  instance 
of  a  synod  called  for  a  specific  end. 

SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS.— A  designation  for 
the  gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark  and  Luke  taken 
together,  in  contrast  with  the  gospel  of  John. 

The  first  three  gospels  are  termed  "synoptic" 
because  in  the  main  they  follow  a  common  outline 
of  events  in  narrating  the  career  of  Jesus.  This 
striking  similarity  in  their  content  has  given  rise 
to  the  so-called  Synoptic  Problem.  By  arranging 
Matthew,  Mark  and  Luke  in  parallel  columns  the 
following  facts  become  apparent:  (1)  Matthew 
and  Luke  each  contains  the  main  bulk  of  the 
Markan  narrative  in  practically  identical  phrase- 
ology; (2)  Matthew  and  Luke  also  have  certain 
paragraphs  in  common,  more  or  less  closely  similar 
both  in  content  and  language,  for  which  Mark 
offers  no  parallels;  (3)  still  other  portions  of 
Matthew  are  wholly  peculiar  to  that  gospel; 
(4)  Luke  also  contains  several  sections  not  paral- 
leled in  any  of  the  others. 

Various  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain 
how  these  similarities  and  differences  in  the  first 
three  gospels  arose.  The  general  solution  now 
commonly  accepted  is:  (1)  The  writers  of  Matthew 
and  Luke,  working  independently,  used  Mark, 
which  they  sometimes  copied  almost  verbatim  and 
at  other  times  slightly  altered  or  abbreviated. 
(2)  When  Matthew  and  Luke  agree  closely  in 
sections  where  Mark  offers  no  parallel,  they  are 
assumed  to  have  used  a  common  source  now  lost. 
This  hypothetical  document  has  been  termed 
variously  "Logia,"  "Sayings,"  "Q"  (q.v.).  Whether 
it  was  a  single  document  or  a  group  of  two  or  more 
is  still  a  matter  of  dispute.  (3)  Sections  pecuUar 
to  Matthew,  and  to  Luke,  may  be  derived  in  some 
instances  from  earUer  documents  or  may  be  the 
first-hand  composition  of  these  authors. 

S.  J.  Case 

SYNOPTIC  PROBLEM.— See  Synoptic 
Gospels. 

SYRIAN  CHURCH.— The  native  (non-Greek) 
church  of  Syria,  using  Syriac  and  having  its  chief 
seat  at  Edessa.  While  Christianity  reached  Antioch 
only  a  few  years  after  Jesus'  death,  it  made  little 
impression  upon  the  interior  of  Syria  until  the 
last  quarter  of  the  2nd.  century  when  Tatian  and 
Bardesanes  carried  the  gospel  among  the  native 
Syriac-speaking  population.  Tatian's  Diatessaron, 
or  interweaving  of  the  four  gospels  into  one,  was 
long  the  gospel  of  the  Syrians,  and  Syriao  Chris- 
tianity produced  eminent  leaders  in  Aphraates  and 
Ephrem  in  the  4th.  century.  Early  in  the  5th., 
it  produced  the  Peshitto  or  Vulgate  version  of  the 
New  Testament  (lacking  four  cathoUc  epistles  and 
Revelation).  The  5th.  century  was  marked  by 
the  conflict  between  the  Monophysite  doctrine  of 
the  single  composite  nature  of  Christ  and  the  views 
of  Nestorius,  which  resulted  in  dividing  the  Syrian 
church  into  the  Monophysites  (later  called  Jacob- 
ites) or  West  Syrians  and  the  Nestorians  or  East 


435 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Taboo  or  Tabu 


Syrians.  Both  bodies  were  active  in  missionary 
work  in  later  centuries,  that  of  the  Nestorians 
especially  reaching  far  into  China  and  India,  and 
enduring  for  many  centuries.  The  Jacobites  are 
now  much  reduced  in  numbers  and  influence, 
but  the  Nestorians  are  still  active  in  the  regions 
about  Urmia.  Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

SYSTEMATIC  THEOLOGY.— That  branch  of 
theological  study  which  organizes  and  expounds 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  so  as  to  constitute  a 
well-ordered  system  of  thought.  It  is  often  called 
dogmatic  theology,  or  dogmatics,  because  the  subject 
matter  is  found  in  the  dogmas  of  the  church. 

Strictly  speaking,  systematic  theology  is  a  form 
of  expounding  rehgious  beliefs  characteristic  of 
Christianity  alone.  The  common  method  in  other 
reUgions  is  either  the  unsystematized  collection 
of  interpretations  and  applications  of  specific 
precepts  (as  in  the  Jewish  Talmud);  or  a  free 
speculative  philosophy  (as  in  Indian  systems). 
The  peculiar  characteristic  of  Christian  theology 
is  the  combination  of  a  systematic  philosophical 
aim  with  a  recognition  of  the  supreme  authority 
of  fundamental  doctrines  derived  from  the  Christian 
revelation. 

The  first  systematic  theologian  in  Christian 
history  was  Origen  (q.v.),  who  sought  to  present 
Christian  faith  in  philosophical  form,  so  that  all 
human  inquiries  might  be  answered  by  Christian 
doctrines.  While  occasional  compendiums,  hke 
the  Enchiridion  of  Augustine,  were  written,  theo- 
logical discussion  during  the  first  thousand  years  of 
church  history  was  usually  occasional  or  polemic  or 
apologetic  in  character.  Not  until  the  12th. 
century  {Tractatvs  theologicus  of  Hildebert,  arch- 
bishop of  Tours,  d.  1134;  and  the  famous  Sentences 
of  Peter  Lombard,  d.  1160)  did  the  systematic 
presentation  of  the  entire  system  of  Christian 
behef  become  common. 

Roman  CathoHc  theology  is  constructed  on  the 
basis  of  a  faithful  acceptance  of  the  divine  revelation 
in  Scripture  supplemented  by  the  tradition  of 
the  Church,  and  interpreted  by  the  aid  of  the 
decisions  of  councils  and  the  writings  of  the  Fathers. 


This  exposition  of  supernatural  truth  is  so  related 
to  the  deliverances  of  natural  reason  as  to  constitute 
a  consistent  and  all-inclusive  system. 

Protestant  theologians  rejected  the  authority 
of  the  Cathohc  Church,  restricting  the  source 
of  revealed  doctrine  to  the  Scriptures  alone.  In 
theory,  the  Scriptures  were  supposed  to  be  self- 
interpreting  when  read  with  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  various 
branches  of  Protestantism  differed  in  their  inter- 
pretations, even  though  all  were  appealing  to  the 
same  Bible.  The  content  of  doctrine  was  actually 
determined  by  the  accepted  beUefs  of  the  denominar 
tion  to  which  the  theologian  belonged. 

The  19th.  century  brought  earnest  efforts  to 
eliminate  dogmatic  preconceptions  from  the  inter- 
pretation of  Scripture.  The  development  of  bibUcal 
theology  on  the  basis  of  exact  exegesis  was  expected 
to  correct  the  errors  of  systematic  theologians. 
But  as  bibhcal  interpretation  became  more  exactly 
historical,  it  was  seen  that  doctrines  found  in  the 
Bible  are  colored  by  ancient  conceptions  which  in 
many  cases  have  been  outgrown.  A  complete 
reproduction  of  biblical  thought  thus  involves 
anachronisms  when  judged  by  modern  standards. 
The  RitschUan  theology  (q.v.)  endeavored  to 
surmount  this  difficulty  by  making  the  spiritual 
authority  of  Jesus  rather  than  the  Bible  the  norm 
for  theology.  A  more  common  attempt  was  to 
"harmonize  bibUcal  statements  with  modem 
ideals  by  a  free  use  of  speculative  interpretation. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  historical  and  psycho- 
logical analysis  of  the  nature  of  religious  behef, 
theologians  today  are  increasingly  coming  to  see 
that  doctrines  are  social  creations,  propagated 
and  developed  by  rehgious  groups  as  the  expression 
of  their  common  religious  interests.  The  task 
of  the  theologian,  therefore,  is  to  understand  the 
social  origins  of  the  inherited  doctrines,  and  to 
reinterpret  the  social  inheritance  of  his  church  so 
as  to  meet  the  rehgious  needs  of  men  in  his  own  day. 

The  standard  doctrines  treated  in  all  Christian 
theologies  are:  Revelation,  God,  Man,  Sin,  Christ, 
Salvation,  the  Church  and  its  Sacraments,  and  the 
Future  Life.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 


TABERNACLE.— The  movable  sanctuary  de- 
scribed in  Exodus,  chaps.  25-27,  36-38,  as  having 
been  carried  by  the  Hebrews  during  their  40  years 
in  the  wilderness.  In  modern  times  the  word  is  used 
for  a  place  of  worship,  especially  where  it  is  imusually 
large  or  does  not  comply  with  the  usual  types  of 
church  architecture,  e.g.,  the  Metropolitan  Taber- 
nacle erected  under  Spurgeon  in  London,  England. 
The  Mormon  tabernacle  in  Salt  Lake  City  is  a 
famous  building  of  this  type.  The  term  is  also 
used  of  small  receptacles  for  sacred  objects,  especi- 
ally of  a  repository  for  the  elements  of  the  eucharist. 

TABERNACLES,  FEAST  OF.— A  Jewish  holi- 
day observed  for  eight  days,  beginning  with  the  fif- 
teenth of  Tishri,  the  month  corresponding  approxi- 
mately with  October.  It  celebrates  the  ingathering 
of  the  crops,  and  is  a  day  of  thanksgiving  and  joyful 
praise  to  God  for  the  bounties  of  nature;  and  also 
for  His  protection  of  Israel  through  their  history. 
It  is  celebrated  with  a  special  ritual,  by  carrying 
the  lulab  as  a  symbol  of  God's  bounty,  and  by 
sitting  in  tabernacles — frail  booths  open  to  the 
sky — symbolic  of  God's  protection  in  spite  of  physi- 
cal weakness. 

TABLES  OF  THE  LAW.— The  two  stone 
tablets,  containing  the  ten  commandments,  which 


Moses  brought  down  from  Mount  Sinai.  Repre- 
sentations of  the  Tablets  inscribed  with  the  Deca- 
logue are  placed  in  synagogs  as  symbols  of  God's  law. 

TABOO  or  TABU.— As  a  noun  the  word  taboo 
(Polynesian  tabu,  tapu)  may  be  broadly  defined  as 
any  prohibition  supported  by  a  supernatural 
sanction;  as  a  verb  it  means  to  "prohibit";  used 
adjectively,  it  refers  to  something  prohibited  to 
common  use,  as  being  either  sacred  and  inviolable 
or  polluted  and  accursed. 

1.  Diffusion  of  taboo. — The  taboo  system 
reached  its  most  elaborate  development  in 
Polynesia,  particularly  in  Hawaii,  Tahiti,  and 
New  Zealand.  It  has  been  found  among  the 
Micronesians,  Melanesians,  and  Malays.  It  is 
not  unknown  in  Australia,  Asia,  especially  among 
the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India  and  Siberia,  Africa, 
together  with  Madagascar,  and  various  parts  of 
America.  Such  expressions  as  the  Greek  hagios, 
the  Latin  sacer,  or  the  Hebrew  tame,  must  be 
translated  as  "taboo,"  since  each  conveys  the  twin 
ideas  of  sanctity  and  pollution.  In  fact,  regulations 
similar  or  analogous  to  the  Polynesian  taboos  either 
exist  or  have  existed  in  a  great  part  of  the  world. 

2.  Classification  of  taboos. — Some  taboos  are 
artificially  imposed,  for  example,  those  which  pro- 
tect growing  crops  until  harvest  time  or  safeguard 


Taboo  or  Tabu 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


436 


grivate  property  against  intrusion.  On  the  other 
and,  there  are  many  taboos  which  regularly  attach 
to  corpses,  human  blood,  sacrificial  offerings,  newly 
bom  children  and  their  mothers,  boys  and  girls  at 
puberty,  menstruating  women,  strangers,  man- 
slayers,  the  sick,  mourners,  undertakers,  magicians, 
priests,  and  chiefs. 

3.  Taboo  and  magico-spiritual  power. — It  would 
seem  that  originally  persons  or  things  are  tabooed 
because  for  some  reason  they  are  considered 
mysterious  or  abnormal  and  hence  sources  of 
potential  injury.  The  notion  of  taboo,  at  first 
vague  and  indeterminate,  tends  to  differentiate 
into  the  opposite  though  related  ideas  of  impurity 
and  holiness.  This  differentiation  is  never  perfectly 
accomplished  by  primitive  peoples,  who  find  it 
hard  enough  to  distinguish  between  what  is  danger- 
ous, because  polluted,  and  what  is  dangerous, 
because  sacred.  The  "unclean"  thing  and  the 
"holy"  thing  alike  possess  magico-spiritual  power. 
Se6  Mana.  Supernatural  energy,  force,  or  in- 
fluence is  transmissible  and  is  therefore  capable 
of  infecting  with  its  injurious  qualities  whatever 
comes  into  contact  with  it.  The  taboo  infection 
may  thus  spread  indefinitely,  unless  various  pre- 
cautions are  taken.  Since  a  corpse  is  a  strange, 
uncanny  object,  all  who  handle  a  corpse  or  assist 
at  a  funeral  are  subjected  to  a  rigid  quarantine 
imtil  the  pollution  of  death  has  been  removed  by 
purificatory  ceremonies.  Sometimes  the  house 
in  which  a  death  occurs  is  destroyed,  together  with 
its  contents,  or  it  is  sealed  up  and  abandoned. 
Widows  and  widowers  may  have  to  go  into  seclusion, 
and  often  the  name  of  the  deceased  may  not  be 
mentioned.  The  practice  of  secluding  or  even 
abandoning  those  dangerously  ill  rests  on  the  notion 
that  they  are  temporarily  taboo.  The  restrictions 
on  manslayers  are  connected  with  fimerary  taboos, 
or  perhaps  more  directly  with  those  having  to  do 
with  the  shedding  of  human  blood.    Again,  the 

Ehysiological  processes  of  menstruation,  pregnancy, 
irth,  and  the  attainment  of  puberty  are  thoroughly 
mysterious  to  the  savage  mind  and  give  rise  to 
many  protective  regulations,  including  seclusion, 
fasting,  abstinence  from  various  activities,  and 
avoidance  of  the  opposite  sex,  as  well  as  to  various 
rites  of  purification.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
scale  are  the  taboos  which  surround  the  persons  of 
priests,  chiefs,  and,  in  the  higher  culture,  kings. 
Such  individuals,  as  belonging  to  a  superior  order 
of  beings,  are  believed  to  possess  a  special  store  of 
magico-spiritual  power:  their  holiness  must  not  be 
contaminated  by  contact  with  the  secular  and  the 
profane;  conversely,  it  must  not  be  discharged 
into  the  bodies  of  common  folk  to  blast  and  destroy. 
The  infectious  quality  of  sanctity  explains,  also, 
the  regulations  relating  to  idols,  altars,  sacred 
shrines  and  places,  and  even  holy  days. 

4.  Religious  interdictions  and  taboo.  —  It  is 
difficult  to  separate  taboos,  properly  so  called,  the 
violation  of  which  is  punished  directly  by  an 
automatic  discharge  of  magico-spiritual  power, 
from  interdictions  whose  sanction  is  the  wrath 
of  offended  spirits  or  deities.  Such  interdictions, 
indeed,  form  a  natural  extension  of  the  idea  of  taboo 
and  are  found  in  all  religions.  In  Polynesia,  the 
atiM,  or  spirits,  were  supposed  to  enter  the  Dody 
of  one  who  had  broken  a  taboo,  causing  disease 
and  death.  The  same  demonic  beings,  if  offended, 
might  visit  entire  tribes  with  an  epidemic,  or  send 
down  lightning  and  fire  from  heaven,  or  bring 
about  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  a  war.  Ultimately, 
the  punishment  of  the  taboo-breaker  may  come  to 
be  regarded  as  an  important  function  of  the  tribal 
or  national  god,  whose  chief  concern  is  the  main- 
tenance of  the  customary  moral  rules.  Thus  taboos 
gradually  become  merged  into  the  great  body  of 


anonymous  customs,  to  be  retained  if  experience 
demonstrates  their  usefulness,  or  to  be  silently 
abrogated  if  they  prove  to  be  unnecessary  and 
oppressive.  Hutton  Webster 

TABORITES.— The  radical  party  of  Hussites, 
uncompromisingly  opposed  to  ecclesiastical  tyranny, 
and  thus  resisting  all  attempts  at  compromise,  in 
contrast  to  the  more  moderate  Utraquists  (q.v.). 
The  name  is  taken  from  the  town  of  Tabor  in 
Bohemia,  where  Huss  preached  when  requested  by 
the  King  to  leave  Prague.    See  Huss;   Hussites. 

TALISMAN. — A  charm  of  an  inanimate  char- 
acter, regarded  as  magically  beneficent,  in  contrast 
with  an  amulet  or  charm  to  counteract  malignant 
influences;  ordinarily  a  metal  or  stone  disk,  con- 
taining magical  formulae  or  astrological  configura- 
tions.   See  Charms  and  Amulets. 

TALLIT. — Hebrew  term  for  a  Jewish  prayer 
shawl,  worn  by  men  while  reciting  the  morning- 
prayer  either  in  their  homes  or  in  the  synagog. 

TALMUD.— The  word  Talmud  is  of  neo- 
Hebraic  origin  and  means  originally  learning  con- 
trasted with  practice.  Inasmuch  as  the  study  of 
the  Torah  is  the  goal  of  all  mental  activity,  the 
word  Talmud  without  any  attribute  is  understood 
as  the  system  of  rabbinic  thought  and  practice 
laid  down  in  the  books  called  by  this  name. 

The  Talmud  is  a  discursive  commentary  and  an 
enlargement  of  the  law  found  in  the  Mishnah 
(q.v.).  Since  the  term  Gemara  has  come  into  use 
the  term  Talmud  means  now  generally  the  Mishnah, 
understood  as  text  and  the  Gemara  as  its  commen- 
tary both  together  being  called  Talmud.  Begin- 
ning with  the  3rd.  century  the  Mishnah  was  the 
textbook  used  in  the  schools  then  flourishing  in 
Palestine  and  Babylonia.  The  Mishnah  with  the 
discussions  of  the  Palestinian  schools  forms  the 
Talmud  Yerushalmi  (Palestinian),  which  was 
closed  about  350;  and  the  Mishnah  with  the 
discussions  of  the  Babylonian  scholars  the  Talmud 
Babli  (Babylonian),  which  was  closed  in  the  5th. 
century.  The  latter  is  much  larger  and  remained 
more  popular  than  the  former. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  give  a  picture  of  the  unique 
literary  form  of  the  Talmud.  The  nearest  approach 
to  it  would  be  a  biblical  book  with  the  commentaries 
arranged  in  chronological  order,  but  often  inter- 
rupted by  discussions  of  the  older  views  by  yoimger 
authors  or  by  explanations  added  to  their  words. 
The  following  specimen  taken  from  the  tractate 
Gittin,  90a,  reflecting  the  controversy  indicated  in 
Matt.  5 :  32,  may  serve  as  an  illustration :  Mishnah: 
The  school  of  Shammai  teaches:  a  man  shall  not 
divorce  his  wife,  unless  he  find  her  to  be  unfaithful, 
for  it  is  written:  he  foimd  in  her  an  unseemly 
thing  (Deut.  24:1).  The  school  of  Hillel  teaches 
he  may  divorce  her,  even  if  she  allowed  his  meal  to 
bum.  Gemara:  Said  the  Hillelites  to  the  Sham- 
maites:  Is  it  not  written:  "Dabar"  (anything)? 
Said  the  Shammaites:  Is  not  it  written  "Erwah" 
(immorality)  ?  Said  the  HilleUtes  to  the  Sham- 
maites: If  it  were  merely  written  '"Erwah"  and 
not  Dabar,"  I  would  say  she  may  be  divorced  on 
the  ground  of  erwah  and  not  on  any  other  ground. 
Therefore  it  says:  "Dabar."  Were  it  again  written 
"dabar"  and  not  "'erwah,"  I  would  say,  if  divorcd 
on  any  other  ground,  she  may  remarry,  if  divorced 
on  the  ground  of  infidelity  she  may  not  remarry. 
Therefore  it  is  written:  '"erwah."  The  Sham- 
maites again  say:  "Dabar"  has  to  be  interpreted 
in  accordance  with  the  analogy  in  Deut.  19,  "on  the 
mouth  of  two  witnesses  or  on  the  mouth  of  three 
witnesses  shall  a  matter  (dabar)  be  established." 
As  in  this  case  two  witnesses  are  required  (to  prove 


437 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Taurobolium 


the  guilt)  so  here  in  case  of  infidelity)  two  witnesses 
are  required.  Said  the  Hillelites:  Is  it  written: 
'"erwah  be-dabar"?  Said  the  Shammaites:  Is  it 
written  "erwah  or  dabar"?  Said  the  HilleUtes: 
Therefore  it  is  written  '"erwah  dabar"  to  allow  both 
interpretations  (namely  that  any  cause  justifies 
divorce,  and  that  infidelity  like  other  charges  must 
be  proven  by  two  witnesses). 

The  specimen  quoted  shows  that  the  main  object 
of  the  Talmud  was  the  interpretation  of  the  Penta- 
teuchal  law.  This  is  called  Midrash  (investiga- 
tion). When  the  Midrash  as  in  this  case,  concerns 
itself  with  the  law,  the  result  is  called  Halakah 
(practice,  literally,  walk).  When  it  concerns  itself 
with  ethical  teachings  or  anything  else  which  is 
not  law  in  the  proper  sense,  it  is  called  Haggadah 
(sajdng).  The  two  subjects  are  never  clearly 
divided,  nor  are  the  codifiers  of  later  times  unani- 
mous in  assigning  statements  to  one  of  the  two 
classes.  There  are  in  both  Talmuds  additions 
from  later  times,  some  apparently  dating  as  late  as 
the  8th.  century. 

The  only  complete  manuscript  of  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  is  found  in  Munich.  It  was  written  in 
1369.  The  first  complete  edition  was  published 
in  Venice,  1520-1523.  We  possess  numerous  later 
editions,  the  most  complete  one  published  in  Wilna, 
1886.  All  editions  have  suffered  severely  from 
church  censorship.  The  first  edition  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Telmud  was  printed  in  1523  in  Venice  from 
a  manuscript  which  is  preserved  in  Leiden.  A 
critical  edition  of  both  Talmuds  is  still  wanting. 
Translations  have  repeatedly  been  attempted, 
but  none  is  so  far  complete. 

The  Talmud  was  often  attacked  partly  on 
account  of  anti-Christian  passages,  partly  from 
the  moral  point  of  view.  The  few  scattered  notes 
on  Christianity  are  of  no  historic  value.  They 
reflect  a  polemical  spirit  against  the  gospels  but 
show  nowhere  an  independent  knowledge  of  the 
beginnings  of  Christianity.  The  attacks  based  on 
moral  grounds  are  without  exception  inspired  by 
fanatical  bias.  They  began  at  an  early  period. 
The  prohibition  against  reading  the  "Deuterosis" 
in  the  synagogs,  issued  by  the  Byzantine  emperor 
Justinian,  was  a  prolog  to  many  similar  persecutions, 
such  as  the  burning  of  cartloads  of  Talmud  copies 
in  Paris  in  1244  due  to  the  calumnies  of  the  convert 
Nicholas  Donin,  the  order  to  seize  all  rabbinic 
works  issued  by  the  German  emperor  Maximilian 
in  1506,  and  the  defamation  of  the  rabbinic  litera- 
ture "by  John  Eisenmenger  in  his  Entdecktes  Juden- 
thum,  in  1701,  which  up  to  this  day  is  the  chief 
repertory  for  antisemitic  writers. 

The  Talmud  is  indeed  characterized  by  a  minute- 
ness in  ritualistic  discussions  which  to  the  modern 
mind  appears  petty,  it  naturally  contains  many 
views  which  to  a  modern  scientist  appear  childish, 
and  gives  occasionally  voice  to  bitter  feelings  against 
the  persecutors  of  the  Jews,  but  it  also  teaches  most 
emphatically  probity  in  business,  moral  purity, 
tenderness  in  family  life  and  civic  virtue. 

GOTTHARD  DeUTSCH 

TAMMUZ. — A  divine  figure  of  Babylonian  reli- 
gion, symbol  of  the  springtime  sun  and  the 
return  of  vegetation.  He  is  associated  with 
Ishtar  who  represents  the  revived  vegetation  of 
the  earth.  Under  the  title  Adon,  "lord,"  he 
passed  to  Greece  and  was  linked  with  Aphrodite. 
The  death  of  the  god  at  the  end  of  summer  and  his 
revival  in  the  springtime  were  the  occasions  of 
ceremonial  weeping  and  rejoicing  respectively.  The 
underworld  realm  of  the  dead  is  sometimes  called 
the  "house  of  Tammuz." 

TANNA. — (Aramaic:  "teacher";  plural,  tan- 
naim)  one  of  the  Jewish  scholars  of  the  first  two 


centuries  whose   teachings   are   contained   in   the 
Mishna  (q.v.)  and  in  the  Baraita  (q.v.) 

TANTRAS.— The  reUgious  literature  of  the 
Saivite  sects  of  India,  called  the  Sdktas,  who  worship 
the  female  energy  of  the  supreme  God  in  his  Sakti 
(q.v.).  _  These  works  contain  theology,  instruction 
in  meditation  and  innumerable  rites  making  use  of 
mantras  (q.v.),  mystical  diagrams  and  gestures. 

TAG. — ^The  Chinese  word  for  Cosmic  Order. 
It  is  the  ultimate  law  expressing  itself  in  the  phe- 
nomenal world,  sometimes  interpreted  in  terms  of 
naturahsm,  sometimes  as  a  spiritual  reahty  under- 
lying the  material  phenomena  of  the  world.  Human 
happiness  is  only  to  be  attained  by  obedience  to  it 
and  human  perfection  is  found  by  living  in  harmony 
with  this  cosmic  order.  The  whole  duty  of  man 
is  to  be  a  willing  instrument  for  the  free  working  of 
the  Tao  of  the  universe. 

TAOISM. — See  China,  Religions  of,  II. 

TAPAS. — ^Austerities,  bodily  tortures  and  suffer- 
ings endured  voluntarily  by  Hindu  devotees  in 
order  to  gain  complete  mastery  of  the  passions 
and  to  secure  spiritual  and  supernatural  powers. 

TAQIYYA.— A  principle  of  Shi'ite  Islam  by 
which  a  Moslem  in  a  hostile  country  is  enjoined  to 
hide  his  own  convictions  and  conform  to  the  alien 
rehgious  practices  for  the  sake  of  his  own  security 
and  that  of  his  fellows.  It  probably  originated  with 
the  Isma'ilis. 

TARGUM. — (Hebrew  word  meaning  interpre- 
tation, translation),  a  paraphrase  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment into  Aramaic  among  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem 
and  Babylonia,  according  to  tradition  originating 
with  Ezra  (Neh.  8:8).  These  interpretations  of 
the  Old  Testament  gradually  crystallized  during 
several  succeeding  centuries  into  the  so-called 
Jewish  Targums.  Those  extant  today  are;  I.  On 
the  Pentateuch:  (1)  Babylonian  Targum  of 
On]j:elos,  (2)  Palestinian  Targum  II.  of  Jerusalem 
of  parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  (3)  a  complete  Targum  I. 
of  Jersualem  called  pseudo-Jonathan.  II.  On  the 
Prophets:  (1)  Babylonian  Targum  of  the  Prophets, 
of  Jonathan  bar  Uzziel,  (2)  Palestinian  Targum  of 
the  Prophets.  III.  On  the  Hagiographa:  (1) 
Psalms,  and  Job,  (2)  Proverbs,  (3)  Song  of  Songs, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  (4) 
Chronicles.  No  Targums  are  known  on  Ezra, 
Nehemiah  and  Daniel.  Ira  M.  Price 

TATIAN. — Christian  apologist  of  the  2nd. 
century.  He  was  an  Assyrian  philosopher  who  was 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  became  a  disciple  of 
Justin  Martyr.  His  Diatessaron  (q.v.)  is  the  first 
known  attempt  at  a  Harmony  of  the  four  Gospels, 
and  was  the  official  gospel  in  the  Syrian  church. 

TAUHID.— The  unity  of  God  in  the  theology 
of  Islam.  Since  the  Sufis  were  reaUy  pantheistic 
the  term  was,  by  them,  extended  to  mean  the 
essential  unity  of  the  soul  with  God.  This  use 
was  condemned  by  orthodoxy. 

TAULER,  JOHANN  (ca.  1300-1361).— German 
mystic  of  wide  influence.  He  came  under  the 
influence  of  Meister  Eckhart  in  Strassburg,  and 
as  preacher  in  Basel  was  intimately  associated  with 
the  "Friends  of  God"  (q.v.).  He  proved  his  fidelity 
in  the  face  of  a  plague  of  black  death  in  Strassburg. 

TAURGBOLIUM.— The  rite  of  blood-baptism 
in  the  mysteries  of  the  Great  Mother,  Cybele,  and 


I'aylor,  James  Hudson 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


438 


Attis.  The  initiate  was  placed  in  a  pit  and  the 
warm  blood  of  a  sacrificed  bull  allowed  to  flow 
through  a  grating  upon  him.  Originally  a  primitive 
way  of  securing  the  magic  potency  of  the  blood  of  a 
powerful  animal  by  contact,  it  was  spiritualized  to 
mean  a  death  to  the  old  life  of  sin  and  guilt  and, 
through  the  blood,  a  rebirth  to  the  new  purified 
immortal  life.  The  blood  not  only  cleansed,  but 
imparted  the  divine  Ufe.  See  Cybele;  Mtstery 
Religions;   Criobolium. 

TAYLOR,  JAMES  HUDSON  (1832-1905).— 
Medical  missionary  to  China,  and  founder  of  the 
China  Inland  Mission;  a  man  of  great  executive 
ability  as  well  as  of  intense  piety  and  devotion. 

TAYLOR,  JEREMY  (1613-1667).— English 
clergyman,  who  in  that  troubled  period  on  account 
of  his  royalist  devotion  led  a  somewhat  precarious 
existence.  He  is  famous  for  his  devotional  books, 
The  Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Living,  and  The 
Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Dying. 

TEACHING  OF  THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES.— 
See  DiDACHE. 

TE  DEUM. — A  famous  ancient  hymn  of  praise 
to  the  Trinity,  traditionally  accredited  to  Ambrose 
of  Milan,  used  in  various  Christian  liturgies,  espe- 
cially the  Roman  and  Anglican,  and  so-called  from 
the  opening  words  of  the  Latin,  Te  deum  lavdamus. 

TEL  EL-AMARNA  TABLETS.— A  collection  of 
over  350  cuneiform  documents  found  in  Egypt  in 
1886  (or  1887).  Most  of  the  tablets  are  letters. 
A  few  of  these  were  exchanged  between  the  Pha- 
raohs Amenhotep  III.  and  Amenhotep  IV.  and  their 
"brothers,"  the  kings  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Mitanni, 
Arzawa,  Cyprus,  and  Hatti  (the  Hittite  land). 
The  majority  form  the  correspondence  between  the 
Pharaohs  and  their  vassals  in  Syria-Palestine. 
The  main  theme  of  the  royal  letters  is  the  amount 
of  Egyptian  gold  the  kings  of  Babylonia  and 
Mitanni  will  accept  in  exchange  for  their  daughters 
who  are  to  grace  the  Pharaonic  harem.  The 
burden  of  the  letters  of  the  vassals  of  the  Pharaoh 
is  the  danger  threatening  Egj-ptian  rule  in  Syria. 
The  Hittites  were  pushing  into  the  country  from  the 
north,  the  Sutu  and  Habiri  (nomads  and  semi- 
nomads)  from  the  east.  Appeals  for  aid  came  from 
the  governors  of  such  cities  as  Byblos,  Tyre, 
Sidon,  Megiddo,  Gezer,  Lachish  and  Jerusalem. 

The  tablets  vividly  picture  the  conditions  in 
Canaan  at  the  time  the  Israelites  were  entering 
that  land  (roughly  1400  B.C.),  They  also  throw 
light  on  the  diplomatic  and  commercial  relations 
of  the  Near  East  during  the  latter  half  of  the  2nd. 
millennium  B.C.  D.  D.  Luckenbill 

TELEOLOGY.— The  doctrine  that  the  principle 
of  design  runs  through  the  structure  of  the  world 
and  can  be  employed  as  -a  principle  of  explanation. 

Teleology  is  best  understood  in  contrast  with 
mechanical  or  scientific  explanations  in  terms  of 
cause  and  effect.  Teleology  is  the  doctrine  that 
in  an  explanation  of  the  world  that  really  accounts 
for  the  total  outcome,  design  or  purpose  is  needed 
to  supplement  cause  and  effect. 

Theistic  evidence  has  always  rested  rather 
heavily  upon  the  argument  from  design  (teleological 
argument)  as  one  of  its  "proofs"  of  the  existence  of 
God.  The  substance  of  this  argument  consists 
in  showing  that  world  processes  seem  to  co-operate 
to  produce  intelligent  results,  which  satisfy  our 
understanding  only  as  we  allege  a  directing  purpose 
analogous  to  our  own  purposing  activities.  The 
argument  has  changed  form  from  its  early  formula- 


tion by  Paley,  to  more  developed  forms  to  meet  the 
scientfec  advance  and  especially  the  evolutionary 
principle.  (Cf.  Janet's  Final  Causes,  and  James 
Ward's  Realm  of  Ends.) 

In  some  developed  form  teleology  is  still  a 
vital  concern  for  religious  thinking.  ReUgious 
explanation  always  involves  some  conception  of 
the  divine  purpose  and  of  the  relation  of  human 
activity  to  that  purpose.  All  Christian  doctrines  of 
prayer  and  the  meaning  and  values  of  life  rest 
upon  a  teleological  conviction. 

Herbert  A.  Youtz 

TELEPATHY.— The  alleged  transference  of 
thoughts  or  emotions  from  one  mind  to  another 
without  the  employment  of  the  customary  channels 
of  sense.  Telepathy  is  one  of  the  possible  explana- 
tions of  occult  mental  phenomena. 

TEMPERANCE  MOVEMENTS.— Movements 
to  limit  or  abolish  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages. 

I.  Early  History. — Practically  all  peoples 
above  the  level  of  barbarism  know  something 
of  the  manufacture  and  use  of  alcoholic  beverages. 
The  earliest  liquors  were  fermented  or  malt  liquors; 
yet  the  common  observation  of  the  evils  of  their 
use  led  early  to  counsels  of  temperance  and  even 
to  temperance  movements.  Such  movements 
occurred  in  early  China,  India,  Persia,  and  Egypt. 
Hence  the  more  ethical  religions  came  to  inculcate 
temperance.  The  early  Buddhists  were  total 
abstainers,  while  Mohammed  forbade  the  use  of 
wine  to  his  followers.  Not  much  progress  beyond 
the  teachings  of  the  Old  Testament  with  respect 
to  temperance,  however,  was  realized  in  Christian 
countries  till  the  19th.  century. 

Modern  temperance  movements  in  Western 
civilization  have  a  number  of  new  factors  connected 
with  them,  which  no  doubt  account  sociologically 
for  their  appearance.  The  peoples  of  northern 
Europe  are,  in  the  first  place,  less  immvmized 
physiologically  to  alcohol,  while  at  the  same  time 
their  climatic  conditions  favor  the  craving  for  and 
even  the  abuse  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  Secondly, 
the  popularization  of  the  use  of  distilled  or  spirituous 
Uquors  (previously  largely  unknown)  in  the  17th. 
and  18th.  centuries  made  the  abuse  of  alcoholic 
beverages  more  easy  and  intoxication  more  com- 
mon. Thirdly,  the  complexity  and  high  standards 
of  efficiency  of  modern  society  have  rendered  strict 
sobriety  more  necessary.  Lastly,  the  progress  of 
science  in  demonstrating  that  alcohol  under  all 
circumstances  acts  as  a  poison  of  protoplasm,  or 
unprotected  living  tissue,  has  aided  not  a  little  in 
the  progress  of  temperance  movements. 

The  first  considerable  efforts  at  legislative  restric- 
tion of  the  liquor  traffic  date  from  the  early  18th. 
century.  In  1728-36  the  English  Parliament  passed 
the  first  laws  designed  to  limit  the  sale  of  liquors. 
These  have  been  followed  in  all  civilized  countries 
by  a  constant  succession  of  laws  directed  to  the 
same  general  end.  Much  of  this  early  legislation 
was  ineffective  and  often  served  only  to  intensify 
the  evil.  Indeed,  the  height  of  intemperance 
seems  to  have  been  reached  in  the  period  1750- 
1825,  when  drunkenness  became  frightfully  com- 
mon in  all  classes  of_  society,  the  clergy  being 
scarcely  less  free  from  it  than  other  classes. 

As  a  result,  many  popular  scientific  and  religious 
movements  against  the  evil  started  early  in  the 
19th  century.  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  a  prominent 
American  physician,  in  1804  published  a  paper 
pointing  out  the  physiological  evils  which  resulted 
from  alcoholic  beverages.  In  1808  Dr.  J.  B. 
Clark  organized  a  pioneer  temperance  society  at 
Saratoga,  N.Y.  Following  are  the  dates  of  the 
starting  of  some  of  the  chief  early  temperance 
societies  and  movements:    Massachusetts  Society 


439 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Temples 


for  the  Suppression  of  Intemperance,  1813;  Swedish 
Temperance  Movement  (Per  Wieselgren),  1819; 
American  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Temper- 
ance, 1826;  Ulster  Temperance  Society  (Ireland), 
1829;  British  and  Foreign  Temperance  Society, 
1831;  Irish  Temperance  Movement  (Father  Theo- 
bald Mathew),  1838;  Washingtoniau  Temperance 
Society,  1840;  Order  of  Good  Templars,  1851. 

As  a  result  of  these  and  many  other  movements 
millions  of  people  in  English-speaking  countries 
in  the  decades  1840-1860  signed  the  pledge  of 
personal  abstinence.  All  branches  of  the  church 
were  won  over  to  the  support,  if  not  of  total  absti- 
nence, at  least  of  the  temperance  movement  in 
general.  Politically  the  movement  expressed  itself 
in  the  enactment  of  many  restrictive  measures,  and 
especially  of  prohibition  laws  in  several  American 
states.  Beginning  with  Maine,  which  in  1846 
passed  the  Neal  Dow  law  and  became  the  first 
prohibition  state,  a  dozen  American  states  enacted 
prohibition  laws  between  that  date  and  1855. 
Only  Maine,  however,  stood  steadfast  by  her  pro- 
hibition law,  finally  incorporating  it  in  her  consti- 
tution in  1884,  though  even  in  Maine  for  a  long 
number  of  years  the  law  was  not  strictly  enforced. 

II.  Recent  History. — ^After  the  Civil  War  in 
the  United  States  the  temperance  movement  took 
on  new  vitality.  Its  hygienic  and  social  aspects 
became  more  emphasized,  and  the  movement 
became  more  definitely  organized  politically. 
The  National  Prohibition  Party  was  organized  in 
1869.  This  party  had  few  political  triumphs  of  its 
own,  but  it  had  a  great  influence  on  other  parties. 
Even  more  significant  was  the  organization  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1874  of  the  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union.  Under  the  leadership  of 
Miss  Frances  E.  Willard  this  became  in  1883  an 
international  organization  with  branches  in  every 
civilized  country.  In  1879  this  organization  began 
a  propaganda  for  the  compulsory  teaching  of 
temperance  in  the  public  schools.  In  1884  New 
York  passed  such  a  law.  Similar  laws  were  later 
enacted  by  all  the  states  and  some  European 
countries.  From  this  single  measure  more  of  the 
success  of  the  recent  temperance  movement  has 
probably  come  than  from  any  other  source.  An 
adjunct  in  the  United  States,  however,  was  the 
work  of  the  Anti-Saloon  League,  founded  in  1893, 
which  became  the  main  non-partisan  political 
organization  agitating  for  restrictive  legislation, 
and  especially  for  a  prohibitory  amendment  to  the 
federal  constitution. 

In  Europe  the  most  noteworthy  developments 
during  this  period  were  in  Scandinavia,  which  had 
long  suffered  from  excessive  intemperance.  In 
1865  the  city  of  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  taking  advan- 
tage of  a  law  of  1855,  established  a  restrictive 
monopoly  over  the  sale  of  spirituous  liquors  through 
what  is  known  as  the  Company  System.  A  com- 
pany of  twenty  respected  citizens  and  firms  was 
formed  and  the  _  right  to  sell  spirituous  liquors 
was  placed  exclusively  in  their  hands.  The  object 
was  to  lessen  the  consumption  of  liquor  and  to  elimi- 
nate the  element  of  private  profit.  In  1871  Norway 
adopted  this  system  and  developed  it  with  certain 
modifications,  so  that  it  is  now  generally  known  as 
the  "Norwegian  Company  System."  In  Norway 
it  is  accompanied  by  local  option  in  the  country 
districts,  and  the  profits  of  sales  in  the  cities  go 
largely  to  provide  "substitutes  for  the  saloon." 
Since  1902  in  Norway  the  open  bar  has  been 
abolished  and  sales  are  only  for  home  consumption, 
while  the  sale  of  beer  and  wine  has  also  been  brought 
under  control.  Thus  Norway  has  reduced  its  per 
capita  consumption  of  alcohol  to  the  lowest  of  any 
country  in  Europe.  But  the  system  has  not  been 
copied  outside  of  Norway,  the  nearest  approach 


being  the  "Dispensary  System"  conducted  by 
South  Carolina  from  1893  to  1915. 

In  English-speaking  countries,  while  high 
license,  local  option,  and  state  monopoly  have  at 
times  been  advocated,  the  undoubted  trend  of  the 
temperance  movement  has  been  in  the  direction 
of  the  total  legal  prohibition  of  the  liquor  traflSc. 
In  the  United  States  this  trend,  first  manifest  in 
the  fifties,  as  we  have  seen,  showed  itself  again  in 
the  eighties.  But  a  reaction  followed,  and  it  was 
not  until  1907  that  the  movement  for  prohibition 
became  strong  again.  The  Great  War  greatly 
accelerated  the  movement,  and  even  carried  it  to 
other  countries.  By  January  1919,  thirty-six 
states  and  territories  of  the  United  States  had 
enacted  state  prohibition  laws.  In  December  1917, 
however.  Congress  had  submitted  to  the  states 
an  amendment  (the  eighteenth)  to  the  federal 
constitution  providing  for  national  prohibition. 
This  amendment  was  ratified  by  thirty-six  states, 
the  necessary  three-fourths  majority,  by  January  16, 
1919.  It  provided  that  the  prohibition  of  the 
traffic  should  go  into  effect  one  year  from  the 
date  of  the  ratification  of  the  amendment.  But  in 
the  meantime,  in  1918,  Congress  had  passed  a 
War  Time  Prohibition  measure,  providing  for  the 
suppression  of  the  traffic  from  July  1,  1919,  till 
demobilization  was  effected.  On  that  date  accord- 
ingly the  whole  of  the  United  States  became  "dry." 

The  effect  of  the  Great  War  on  the  temperance 
movement  in  other  countries  was  scarcely  less 
striking.  Soon  after  its  outbreak  Russia  prohibited 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  vodka  and  the  French 
government  that  of  absinthe.  France,  Great 
Britain,  and  even  Germany  found  it  necessary  to 
place  stringent  regulations  upon  the  liquor  traffic 
as  war  measures.  Canada  adopted  prohibition 
in  all  its  provinces  except  Quebec  and  the  Yukon. 
Norway  enacted  a  prohibition  law  in  1915,  but 
in  1918  repealed  it.  Whether  all  the  war-time 
temperance  legislation  proves  permanent  or  not, 
it  would  seem  probable  that  in  the  near  future  the 
prohibition  of  the  manufacture  and  sale,  if  not  of 
all,  at  least  of  the  stronger,  alcoholic  liquors  for 
beverage  purposes  would  become  general  m  Chris- 
tian countries.  Charles  A.  Ellwood 

TEMPLARS,  KNIGHTS.— The  "Poor  Soldiers 
of  Jesus  Christ,"  a  military  company  under  monastic 
vows,  called  Templars  as  their  house  in  Jerusalem 
was  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  temple,  was  formed 
in  1119,  given  (Council  of  Troyes,  1128)  a  rule 
composed  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  finally 
organized  by  Pope  Innocent  II.  in  1139,  after 
which,  beside  the  knights  of  noble  birth  and  the 
serving  brothers,  the  order  had  priests  as  chaplains. 
They  wore  a  white  mantle  with  a  red  cross  ("Red 
Cross  Knights").  This  order  charged  with  the 
defence  of  pilgrims  and  the  holy  places  of  Palestine 
was  the  high  expression  of  chivalry  and  obtained 
enormous  wealth  throughout  Europe,  enjoying 
many  immunities  and  acting  in  negotiations  between 
kings.  After  heroic  warfare  the  order  was  dis- 
credited by  the  final  loss  of  Jerusalem  and  popular 
rumors  against  them  were  used  by  rulers  who 
coveted  their  wealth.  In  1307  Philip  the  Fair  of 
France,  aided  by  Pope  Clement  V.,  arrested  all 
in  France  on  a  charge  of  apostasy  and  licentious 
idolatry.  Torture  secured  confessions  from  some 
who  then  repudiating  the  confession  were  burned 
as  relapsed  heretics.  The  Council  of  Vienne 
(1312)  abolished  the  order,  assigning  their  wealth 
to  the  Hospitallers,  but  in  France  and  other  lands 
kings  and  courtiers  profited  most. 

F.  A.  Christie 

TEMPLES,  EGYPTIAN  AND  SEMITIC— 
I.  EGYPTI4N. — 1.    Function.    The  regular  term  for 


Temples 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


440 


an  Egyptian  or  Semitic  temple  is  "house"  or 
"palace."  This  function  of  housing  the  presiding 
deity  was  served  in  Egypt  equally  by  the  prehistoric 
wattle  hut  and  by  the  magnificent  stone  structure 
of  the  Empire.  The  normal  Egyptian  temple  was 
approached  by  a  long,  sphinx-bordered  avenue  and 
set  apart  from  the  surrounding  town  by  a  high 
girdle-wall.  Behind  the  massive  pylon  entrance 
came  lofty  columned  courts  where  the  public 
might  participate  in  religious  festivals.  At  the 
rear  lay  the  sanctuary  where  dwelt  the  divine 
image  in  its  shrine,  and  around  it  the  store-rooms 
which  held  the  god's  wardrobe  and  his  household 
equipment  and  supplies.  The  sanctuary,  low- 
ceiled  and  remote  from  the  bright  Egyptian  sun- 
light, shrouded  in  fitting  gloom  the  divine  mystery. 

2.  Beneficiaries.— Two  classes  of  temples  are 
found:  one  for  the  gods  proper,  the  other  primarily 
for  the  benefit  of  the  dead.  Of  the  former  class 
the  great  Empire  temples  at  Thebes  and  the 
Ptolemaic  structures  at  Dendera  and  Edfu  are 
examples.  Of  the  second  class  ("mortuary 
temples")  the  most  notable  were  associated  with 
royal  tombs;  analogous  were  the  humbler  tomb- 
chapels  of  the  non-royal,  where  likewise  offerings 
were  brought  for  use  by  the  deceased  in  the  Other 
World.  Queen  Hatshepsut's  mortuary  temple  in 
western  Thebes,  dedicated  also  to  Amon,  illustrates 
normal  and  mortuary  purposes  combined. 

3.  Maintenance,  organization,  and  activities. — 
The  temples  were  the  special  care  and  glorification 
of  royalty,  to  which  they  regularly  owed  their 
erection  and  endowment.  Their  walls  were  gay 
with  painted  relief  scenes  of  the  ruler's  conquests 
(from  which  the  slaves  who  tilled  the  temple  lands 
were  often  drawn),  his  pleasures,  and  his  ministra- 
tions to  the  god.  For  the  pharaoh  officiated 
nominally  in  each  act  of  worship;  though  prac- 
tically, of  course,  both  ritual  and  administration 
were  commonly  performed  by  priests  as  his  repre- 
sentatives. In  early  times  high  nobles  held  the 
chief  offices,  while  humbler  posts  were  filled  by 
townsmen  serving  periodically  in  established  relays. 
Later  the  priests  formed  a  definite  social  group, 
trained  in  the  temple  itself.  Their  work,  summed 
up,  consisted  of  body-service  to  the  god's  image, 
celebration  of  his  festivals,  and  care  of  his  estate. 
Such  temporal  power,  wielded  over  vast  domains 
augmented  from  reign  to  reign,  enabled  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Amon  at  Thebes  to  rival,  and  even,  at 
the  end  of  the  Empire,  to  supplant  the  royal  house., 

II.  Semitic. — A.  Eastern. — 1.  Architectural 
origin.  In  the  Tigro-Euphrates  region  the  gods 
dwelt  in  massive  square  brick  "houses"  set  on  a 
lofty  brick  base  (for  stone,  abundant  in  Egypt, 
was  lacking  in  the  Babylonian  plain).  _  Non- 
Semitic  Sumerian  mountaineers  blended  in  the 
population  contributed  to  these  temples  their 
most  characteristic  feature,  mountain-like  stage- 
towers  (among  them  the  biblical  "Tower  of  Babel '), 
ancestors  of  modern  steeples. 

2.  Organization  and  activities. — Great  temples 
often  contained  sanctuaries  for  numerous  sub- 
sidiary deities  beside  the  chief  god.  The  ruler 
himself  had  once  served  as  high  priest,  but  soon 
even  he  required  a  professional  priest  as  mediator. 
Besides  serving  the  god's  images  and  property,  the 
Babylonian  priesthood  was  especially  occupied 
religiously  with  processes  of  divination  (by  hepatos- 
copy,  astrology,  prodigies,  etc.)  and  incantation 
(by  magic  formulae  accompanied  by  rites  of 
sympathetic  magic)  in  behalf  of  both  state  and 
individual.  To  insure  correct  performance  of 
these  rites,  a  reference  library  of  hymns,  formulae, 
astronomical  data,  lists  of  omens,  etc.,  was  provided; 
and  the  priests  and  priestesses  became  a  highly 
differentiated  group  of  specialists. 


Store-rooms  and  offices  were  very  numerous,  for 
Babylonian  priests  controlled  both  the  learning 
and  much  of  the  business  of  their  world.  Since  they 
alone  were  masters  of  the  cumbrous  cuneiform 
writing,  they  served  as  teachers,  public  scribes, 
and  judges.  Administration  of  enlarging  temple 
estates  led  into  wider  business  channels  rather 
than  into  politics  as  in  Egypt,  so  that  Babylonian 
temples  became  not  only  religious  but  great  banking 
and  mercantile  houses. 

B.  Western. — 1.  Origin. — In  Syria-Palestine  and 
Arabia  appear  most  clearly  the  origins  of  Semitic 
worship  in  general.  Divinity  was  associated  with 
prominent  or  unusual  manifestations  in  nature, 
such  as  hill-tops,  caves,  springs,  and  the  trees  that 
flourished  beside  them.  Sites  hallowed  thus  inher- 
ently or,  in  other  cases,  by  special  visions  of  the 
deity,  became  the  earUest  Semitic  sanctuaries. 
Such  already  holy  spots  would  be  chosen  for  temples. 

2.  Hebrew  temples. — -When  the  Hebrew  nomads 
occupied  Palestine,  they  took  over  the  "high  places," 
etc.,  of  their  Canaanite  predecessors.  Yet  they 
thought  of  Yahweh  as  still  dwelling  in  Sinai  (I  Kings 
19)  and  again  as  in  their  midst,  in  the  ark  of  the 
covenant;  they  could  also  represent  him  by  images, 
which  might  be  served  by  a  hired  priest  in  one's 
own  home,  making  it  a  quasi-temple  (Judges  17). 
The  shrine  of  the  ark  at  Shiloh  must  be  classed  as 
a  temple  proper,  for  the  terms  "house"  and  "palace" 
of  Yahweh  are  both  applied  to  it.  Solomon's 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  somewhat  Egyptian  in  plan, 
was  built  later  as  a  permanent  home  for  the  ark. 
Destroyed  in  587  B.C.,  it  was  rebuilt  on  a  humbler 
scale  under  Zerubbabel  after  the  Captivity,  then 
replaced  more  sumptuously  by  Herod.  During 
the_  Babylonian  Captivity,  Jews  in  Egypt  built 
an  independent  temple  at  Elephantine. 

Temple  income  included  both  taxes  ("tithes") 
and  gifts.  The  offerings  comprised  burnt  offerings, 
incense,  and  agricultural  products.  Descendants 
of  Aaron  constituted  the  official  priesthood,  while 
the  rest  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  set  apart  for  supple- 
mentary duties.  T.  George  Allen 

TEMPLES,  FAR  EASTERN.— China,  Japan 
and  Korea  all  have  innumerable  Buddhist  temples. 
China  and  Korea  have  also  many  temples  to  Con- 
fucius and  the  other  Sages.  China  has  in  nearly  all 
of  its  larger  cities  temples  similar  to  those  of  Con- 
fucius dedicated  to  Wen  Chang,  the  god  of  Litera- 
ture, and  everywhere  it  has  Taoist  temples  which 
are  not  found  in  either  of  the  two  other  countries. 
Japan  has  its  peculiar  Shinto  shrines  in  every 
village  and  hamlet,  varying  in  size  from  tiny  wayside 
cubicles  to  the  famous  memorial  temple  at  Ise 
where  a  virgin  Princess  of  the  realm  guards  the 
sacred  Mirror,  symbol  of  Amaterasu  and  of  royalty. 
In  all  three  countries,  there  are  myriads  of  tiny 
worshiping  places  and  shrines  in  the  forests  and 
mountains  and  by  the  wayside  where  spirits  of 
every  kind  are  invoked. 

1.  Buddhist  Temples  in  all  three  countries  are 
largely  similar  as  to  architecture,  erected  with 
wooden  posts  and  lofty  curved  roofs  covered  with 
tile.  In  China  and  Thibet  they  sometimes  have 
stone  walls.  The  majority  of  the  ancient  temples 
are  located  far  back  in  the  quiet  places  in  the 
mountains,  but  in  Japan,  and  to  some  extent  in 
China,  there  are  many  important  temples  right  in 
the  heart  of  the  populated  centers.  Korea's 
temples  look  different  from  the  others  at  first  sight, 
for  their  walls  are  covered  inside  and  out  with 
great  numbers  of  pictures  of  Buddhas,  the  Paradises 
and  other  scenes.  In  Japan,  probably  due  to 
Shinto  influence,  one  always  finds  a  long  row  of  the 
iorii,  double  linteled,  "bird  perch,"  gateways 
spanning  the  approaches  to  the  temple.    Because 


441 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS    Temples,  Greek  and  Roman 


of  the  aggressive  spirit  of  Japanese  Buddhism,  the 
temples  in  Japan,  at  least  those  erected  within  the  last 
century,  average  larger  in  size  than  those  in  the 
other  two  countries,  and  they  are  better  kept  up. 

As  to  images,  some  temples  have  many,  some 
have  none.  It  all  depends  upon  which  particular 
sect  controls  the  temple.  In  Japan,  there  are 
twelve  main  types  of  sects  divided  into  over  fifty 
large  and  important  independent  denominations, 
each  with  its  distinctive  temples.  Some  of  these 
sects  in  each  country  worship  Sakamuni  and  his 
associates  only;  others  worship  the  Amida  group; 
others  favor  only  Vairochana;  the  Zen  sect  and  its 
counterparts  in  the  other  lands  have  no  images  at  all. 

Usually  the  idols  shown  are  in  trinities  sitting 
together  upon  the  altars,  although  single  statues 
are  not  uncommon.  Usually  in  all  three  countries, 
but  particularly  so  in  Korea,  a  "temple"  consists  of 
a  whole  assembly  of  "Main  Halls"  witTi  some  par- 
ticular Buddha  or  Trinity  supreme  in  each.  In  the 
Main  Halls  of  some  of  the  Japanese  temples,  in 
recent  years,  the  custom  of  preaching  sermons 
similar  to  those  in  Christian  churches  has  grown 
up.  Usually,  however,  the  priests  go  through 
a  regular  routine  of  offering  cooked  food  or  flowers 
and  incense  with  prayer  at  stated  intervals  whether 
anyone  is  present  or  not.  The  devotees  come  in, 
prostrate  themselves,  offer  silent  prayer,  put  their 
offerings  in  the  grid-ironed  box  in  front  of  the  image 
and  depart. 

2.  Taoist  Temples  and  idols  and  services  in 
China  differ  little  from  the  Buddhist  ones.  Only  the 
names  of  the  idols  differ.  They  even  have  the 
trinity  of  images.  There  are  none  of  these  temples 
in  Korea  or  Japan. 

3.  Confucian  Temples  in  China  and  Korea, 
and  those  erected  to  the  god  of  Literature  in  China 
(not  in  Korea)  are  all  very  much  alike.  In  each 
country,  they  are  massive  structures  built  up  high 
on  foundations  of  white  cut  stone,  vying  in  grandeur 
with  the  finest  palaces  of  the  Kings.  As  to  decora- 
tions, inside  and  out,  they  have  none.  They  stand 
in  beautiful  spacious  grounds  surrounded  by  massive 
shade  trees.  Nearby  are  the  apartments  of  the 
Doctors  of  Letters  who  used  to  manage  the  great 
Examinations,  and  the  Lecture  Hall  where  they 
used  to  gather. 

Inside  the  Temple,  the  only  furniture  is  a  row 
of  lacquered  chairs  arranged  along  the  wall,  each 
having  upon  it  a  tablet  of  wood  bearing  the  name 
of  one  of  the  Sages.  Confucius'  chair  is  slightly 
larger  than  the  others.  On  the  two  sides  of  him 
are  the  tablets  of  his  greatest  disciples — Mencius 
and  the  others.  In  Peking,  there  are  but  seventy- 
two  of  these  tablets  in  all.  In  Korea,  there  are 
140  in  all,  124  to  Sages  of  China  and  16  to  Literati 
of  Chosen.  Twice  a  year,  in  the  second  and  tenth 
lunar  months,  flowers,  raw  meat,  grains,  silk  and 
other  things  are  offered  before  the  tablets,  the 
King  in  person  or  his  representative  offering  the 
worship.  Since  the  aboUtion  of  the  great  Examina- 
tions in  the  two  countries,  these  temples  have  lost 
their  former  glory,  and  are  largely  deserted,  but 
the  larger  ones  are  still  worth  seeing.  There  are 
no  Confucian  temples  in  Japan. 

4.  Shinto  Shrines  in  Japan  are  everywhere — 
in  the  parks,  in  the  crowded  streets  of  the  cities,  in 
the  mountains  and  by  the  waysides.  Usually  they 
are  Uttle  thatched  buildings  raised  on  high  founda- 
tions, and  approached  by  flights  of  stairs  or  by 
narrow  lanes.  Always  in  front  of  them  are  one  or 
more  of  the  torii  gateways.  Usually  the  shrine 
is  not  over  ten  feet  square,  often  it  is  not  six.  Inside 
is  usually  nothing  but  a  tablet  or  banner  or  mirror 
or  vase  of  flowers.  In  front  of  it,  hanging  from 
the  eaves  or  from  one  of  the  torii,  is  a  rope  (some- 
times  made   of   human   hair   given   as   offerings) 


leading  up  to  a  bell.  Worshipers  take  off  their 
hats,  pull  the  rope,  clap  their  hands,  bow  a  moment 
in  silent  prayer  and  then  go  about  their  business. 
The  worshiper  seldom  goes  inside  a  Shinto  shrine, 
probably  because  they  are  so  smaU.  He  worships 
from  the  yard  outside. 

In  none  of  these  three  countries  are  there  any 
great  temples  of  marble  and  other  precious  materials 
such  as  they  have  in  India.  The  materials  used 
are  more  largely  wood  and  rougher  stone,  but  the 
idols  in  the  temples  will  bear  comparison  with 
those  of  any  land.  Charles  Allen  Clark 

TEMPLES,  GREEK  AND  ROMAN.— I.  Pur- 
pose.— The  Greek  name  for  temple  (naos)  implies 
that  the  underlying  idea  was  that  of  a  dwelling- 
place  for  a  divinity.  The  principal  form  of  worship 
being  sacrifice,  there  was  regularly  an  altar  for 
burnt  offerings  outside  the  temple,  and  an  altar  for 
bloodless  offerings  within.  A  statue  of  the  divinity 
was  not  indispensable  and  in  the  earliest  traceable 
stage  of  Greek  religion — that  represented  by  the 
Homeric  poems — such  statues  seem  to  have  been 
almost  or  quite  unknown.  But  in  the  historical 
period  a  Greek  or  Roman  temple  regularly  housed 
a  statue  or  statues  of  the  divinity  or  divinities  to 
whom  the  temple  was  dedicated.  There  was  no  pro- 
vision within  the  temple  for  any  form  of  congre- 
gational worship. 

II.  History. — Temples  are  mentioned  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  but  with  little  indication  of  their 
architectural  character.  The  earliest  extant 
remains  of  temples  of  developed  Greek  type  may 
date  from  the  7th.  century  B.C.  From  that  time 
on  temples  increased  in  number.  Ultimately 
every  city-state  had  many  temples,  some  within 
the  city  walls,  others  in  the  surrounding  territory. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  artistic  perfection  the 
5th.  century  B.C.  was  the  great  age  of  Greek  temple- 
building.  To  that  century  belong  the  Parthenon, 
the  so-called  Theseum,  the  Temple  of  Wingless 
Victory  and  the  Greek  theum  at  Athens,  and 
many  other  noble  structures. 

Of  the  earliest  Roman  temples,  belonging  to  the 
period  in  which  Rome  was  under  Etruscan  influence, 
only  scanty  traces  exist.  Remains  do  not  begin 
to  be  abundant  until  the  1st.  century  B.C.  Fairly 
well  preserved  temples  exist  in  considerable  num- 
bers, not  only  in  Rome  and  elsewhere  in  Italy,  but 
also  in  other  parts  of  the  Roman  dominions, 
especially  Southern  France,  Northern  Africa  and 
Asiatic  Turkey. 

III.  Architecture. — The  normal  Greek  temple 
was  of  stone  or  marble.  It  was  an  oblong  rectangle 
in  plan.  Its  essential  part  was  an  enclosed  chamber 
in  which  was  the  statue  of  the  divinity.  A  large 
temple  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  colonnade 
of  the  Doric  or  Ionic  order,  or,  at  a  late  date,  the 
Corinthian  order.  The  edifice  rested  upon  a  visible 
stepped  base  and  was  covered  by  a  gable  roof. 
Sculpture  was  extensively  used  for  exterior  adorn- 
ment. 

The  normal  Roman  temple  was  an  adaptation 
of  the  Greek,  but  with  some  modifications.  It 
rested  upon  a  comparatively  high  vertical-sided 
base,  with  a  flight  of  steps  only  in  front.  A  com- 
plete colonnade  on  all  four  sides  was  unusual. 
Circular  edifices,  not  unknown  in  Greece,  were  com- 
mon. The  Corinthian  was  the  favorite  architectural 
order.  The  Pantheon,  the  most  remarkable  of 
extant  Roman  buildings,  was  a  temple  from  the 
beginning — the  existing  structure  dates  from  about 
120-125  A.D. — but  a  temple  of  unique  design.  It 
consists  of  a  concrete  rotunda  covered  by  a  con- 
crete dome  and  of  a  rectangular  portico  with 
granite  columns  supporting  a  gable  roof. 

F.  B.  Tarbell 


Temples,  Indian 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


442 


TEMPLES,     INDIAN.— The    earliest    Indian 
temples  date  from  the  3rd.  century  b.c.     These 
are  Buddhist  stupas,  tumuli  to  contain  relics  or 
commemorate  some  event  in  the  life  of  the  Buddha. 
Then  in  the  place  of  independent  stupas  came  struc- 
tures in  which  the  stupa  was  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
quadrangular  chamber  (divided  by  pillars),  cut  in 
cliffs  or  built  of  brick.    Images  took  the  place  of 
relics,  and  the  shrine  was  marked  by  a  pointed  dome. 
In  the  temples  of  Vishnu  is  found  (in  the  inner 
shrine)  an  image  into  which  the  essence  of  the  god 
has   been   installed   by   ceremonies.    Subordinate 
or  related  gods,  and   avatars,  are  represented  by 
images.    The   temple   is   a   replica   of   the   god's 
heaven.     Musicians   take   the   place   of   heavenly 
singers;    temple-girls  take  the  place  of  heavenly 
nymphs.     Priests  and  worhipers  wait  upon  the  god 
as  servants  would  wait  upon  a  king.     He  is  awak- 
ened, bathed,  dressed  and  ornamented,  fed,  put  to 
bed,  and   the  shrine  closed.    Incense  is  burned 
before  him,  lamps  are  kept  burning  and  are  waved 
before  him,  flowers  and  perfumes  are  offered,  and  he 
is  taken  on  his  car  in  procession  through  the  city. 
Sacred  texts  are  repeated  before  him,  dances  and 
dramas,  enacting  myths  connected  with  him,  are 
performed.     The  worshiper  circumambulates  the 
shrine  keeping  his  right  side  toward  it,  goes  to  the 
threshold,   presents  offerings  of  fruits,  flowers,  or 
food  (which  is  received  by  the  priests),  prostrates 
himself  or  raises  his  hollowed  hands  to  his  fore- 
head,  mutters  a  prayer,  and  departs.     Bells  are 
rung  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  god  to  the  offer- 
ing.    A  portion  of  the  offered  food  is  eaten  (often 
sold  at  a  good  price).     It  is  efficacious  because 
something   of  the   essence   of   the   god  has  been 
instilled  into  it. 

In  the  temples  of  C'iva  is  found  only  the  linga, 
a  plain  conical  stone  symbolizing  the  male  repro- 
ductive organ.  This  is  in  a  constant  state  of 
heat.  Sacred  Bilva  leaves  are  jjlaced  on  it,  and 
Ganges  water  is  sprinkled  over  it.  As  a  rule  no 
food  is  offered.  The  ritual  is  one  of  prayers  and 
obeisance.  Carvings  and  statues  (representing 
myths  about  the  god,  and  subordinate  or  attendant 
gods)  are  found.  In  the  temples  of  his  wife  Kali 
or  Durga,  who  represents  the  female  creative 
principle  as  distinguished  from  the  absolute  Being 
of  the  male,  animals  are  offered. 

Only  the  lower  Brahmans  officiate  at  the 
temples,  and  these  are  looked  down  upon  by  the 
higher  Brahman  castes.  The  more  educated 
rarely  visit  the  temples.  There  is  no  congrega- 
tional worship.  All  four  castes  are  admitted  to 
temples,  but  outcastes  are  excluded. 

The  temple  worship  seems  to  be  largely  non- 
Aryan;  to  have  been  developed  from  the  fetish 
worship  of  Dravidian  tribes  as  the  religion  of  the 
Cudras  was  incorporated  into  the  Aryan  worship. 
In  the  old  Brahman  ritual  only  the  three  upper  castes 
had  a  part  in  the  worship.  W.  E.  Clark 

TEMPORAL  POWER.— Political  or  secular 
power  in  distinction  from  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual 
authority,  used  specifically  to  indicate  the  power 
exercised  by  the  pope  of  Rome  as  ruler  of  the 
States  of  the  Church  before  1870,  a  right  regarded 
as  inalienable  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

TEMPTATION.— The  allurement  of  an  object 
which  solicits  the  will,  usually  with  evil  implications. 
Temptation  indicates  either  the  object  which 
tempts,  the  process  of  being  tempted,  or  the  act  of 
enticing  to  evil. 

Temptation  describes  any  sinful  solicitation  of 
the  will,  the  impulse  to  make  an  evil  instead  of  a 
good  choice.  Traditionally,  temptation  is  pic- 
tui;ed  as  the  work  of  a  personal  tempter,  the  devil. 


Modern  ethics  finds  in  a  psychological  analysis  of 
the  growing  spiritual  nature  of  men  a  scientific  basis 
of  explanation.  The  wisdom  acquired  by  man- 
kind in  the  course  of  its  long  history  establishes 
certain  courses  of  conduct  as  valuable,  or  right. 
The  individual,  however,  discovers  that  native 
instincts  or  selfish  interests  strongly  engage  his 
emotions,  and  when  these  conflict  with  what  is 
known  to  be  right,  temptation  exists. 

TEMPUS  CLAUSUM.— (Latin:  "closed  time.") 
The  periods  during  which  nuptial  celebrations  or 
other  festive  ceremonies  are  forbidden.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  ruled  that  these  periods  should  be 
from  Christmas  until  Epiphany  Day,  and  from 
Ash  Wednesday  until  the  octave  of  Easter.  The 
German  Evangelical  church  perpetuates  the  Catho- 
lic custom. 

TEN  ARTICLES.— The  first  Anglican  Con- 
fession of  faith  after  the  revolt  against  Rome^  pro- 
mulgated in  1536  by  Henry  VIII.  It  substitutes 
for  the  authority  of  the  pope  the  authority  of  the 
Bible  and  the  ancient  creeds,  and  affirms  a  some- 
what modified  conception  of  justification.  Other- 
wise it  departs  very  slightly  from  Catholic  positions. 

TENDAI. — A  system  of  philosophical  Buddhism 
founded  on  the  "Lotus  of  the  True  Law"  (q.v.)  by 
a  Chinese  teacher  of  the  6th.  century.  In  the  8th. 
century  a  Japanese  student,  Saicho  (Dengyo), 
made  it  the  most  powerful  Buddhist  teaching  in 
Japan  with  headquarters  at  Hiei.  It  tried  to 
unify  the  various  forms  of  Buddhism  and  the  mani- 
fold of  the  phenomenal  world  of  existences  by 
viewing  them  as  phases  of  the  one  truth  and 
grounded  in  the  one  universal  Reality.  The  his- 
torical evidence  of  this  unity  of  the  universal  and 
the  particular  is  given  in  the  person  of  the  Buddha 
who  embodied  the  universal  in  a  concrete  human 
manifestation  by  attaining  Buddhahood. 

TENEBRAE.— (Latin:  "darkness.")  The  matins 
and  lauds  sung  in  the  R.C.  church  on  Wednes- 
day, Thursday  and  Friday  of  Holy  Week,  so 
designated  from  the  gradual  darkening  of  the 
church  by  the  extinguishing  of  candles,  in  symbol 
of  the  darkness  accompanying  the  death  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

TERAPHIM. — In  the  ancient  Hebrew  religion 
certain  objects,  details  concerning  which  are  lacking, 
which  appear  to  have  been  used  in  idolatrous  rites. 
Cf.  Gen.  31:19  and  30. 

TERCE. — In  the  Roman  liturgy  the  office  for 
the  third  hour  in  the  breviary,  ordinarily  recited 
about  9  A.M. 

TERMINISM.— A  theological  hypothesis  which 
assumed  importance  among  some  Pietistic  writers 
that  there  is  a  limited  term  or  period  of  grace  within 
which  man  must  accept  the  opportunity  to  repent 
or  be  saved.  Beyond  the  limits  of  tms  term  no 
salvation  is  possible. 

TERRITORIALISM.— The  theory  which  arose 
in  the  period  of  the  Reformation  that  the  religion 
of  a  people  should  be  that  of  its  ruler. 

TERTIARIES. — Members  of  a  spiritual  congre- 
gation within  various  R.C.  orders,  who  live  in 
accordance  with  "the  third  rule"  of  such  orders. 
See  Third  Order. 

TERTULLIAN  (ca.  a.d.  155-222.)— The  founder 
of  Latin  Christian  literature,  the  "African  Cicero." 


443 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Teutonic  Religion 


Tertullian  was  educated  for  the  law  and  practised 
for  a  time  at  Rome,  where  he  was  converted,  prob- 
ably about  A.D.  190-195.  He  had  removed  to 
Carthage  by  a.d.  197,  when  he  wrote  his  brilliant 
defence  of  Christianity,  the  Apologeticum.  About 
202-3  he  became  devoted  to  the  Montanist  move- 
ment, and  for  five  years  he  strove  to  win  the  church 
to  the  Montanist  side.  Failing  in  this,  about 
207-8  he  withdrew  from  the  Catholic  church  and 
became  the  head  of  a  small  Montanist  group  at 
Carthage.  His  numerous  writings,  apologetic, 
polemic  and  practical,  fall  into  three  groups: 
those  written  before  his  acceptance  of  Montanism, 
those  from  the  five  years  during  which  though  a 
Montanist  he  remained  within  the  church,  and 
those  written  after  his  break  with  Catholic  Chris- 
tianity, He  wrote  with  extraordinary  brilliance 
and  often  bitterness.  The  works  of  his  orthodox 
period  continued  to  be  influential  (especially  because 
of  theological  terms  he  originated).  He  deeply 
influenced  Cyprian  and  Augustine,  and  through 
them  all  western  Christianity. 

Edgar  J.  Goodspeed 

TEST  ACT,  THE.— To  provide  a  test  which 
no  ecclesiastical  authority  could  elude  by  dispensa- 
tion. Parliament  (March,  1673)  enacted  that  all 
civil  and  military  office  holders,  the  Duke  of 
York,  and  members  of  the  royal  household,  were 
to  take  the  Oaths  of  Allegiance  and  Supremacy, 
forswear  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and 
receive  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
accordance  with  the  usage  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Dissenters  and  Papists  alike  suffered  disability  and 
endured  great  hardship.  Persistent  protests  issuing 
in  amendments,  partial  repeals,  and  acts  of  indem- 
nity protecting  individuals  from  the  penalties 
incurred  under  this  act,  finally  in  1829  led  to  its 
complete  repeal.  Peter  G.  Mode 

TETRAPOLITAN  CONFESSION.— The  first 
confession  of  faith  of  the  Reformed  church,  so 
called  because  presented  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
in  1530  by  four  cities,  Strassburg,  Lindau,  Con- 
stance, and  Wemmingen. 

TETZEL,  JOHANN  (1465-1519).— His  fame 
rests  exclusively  on  the  fact  that  it  was  his  preach- 
ing of  indulgences  as  a  means  of  raising  revenue 
for  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  church  in  Rome  which 
aroused  the  indignation  of  Luther  and  led  to  the 
writing  of  the  95  theses  which  are  now  considered 
as  the  beginning  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER.— A  German  religious 
order  dating  from  1189;  originally  devoted  to 
hospitaler  services  in  connection  with  the  Crusades. 
It  gradually  became  a  military  order,  and  in  the 
13th.  and  14th.  centuries  was  instrumental  in 
the  conquest  of  Prussia.  After  varied  fortunes  the 
order  was  suppressed  in  1809,  but  was  revived  in 
Austria  in  1834  with  its  original  purpose  of  caring 
for  sick  and  wounded. 

TEUTONIC  RELIGION.— Teutonic  religion 
comprises  the  beliefs  and  practices  in  regard  to 
the  supernatural  among  the  ancient  Teutonic 
peoples. 

I.  Religion  (i.e.,  in  the  narrower  sense,  the 
beliefs  only).; — Our  information  as  to  the  oldest 

Eeriod  is  derived  from  the  remains  these  peoples 
ave  left,  chiefly  from  their  burial  places.  From 
these  sources  it  is  known  that  in  prehistoric  times 
there  were  Teutons  who  believed  in  a  life  after 
death,  in  an  abode  of  spirits,  in  gods  to  be  placated 
and  feared.  They  worshiped  the  Thunderer  and 
the  sun.  The  evidences  of  this  begin  some  four 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.    During 


this  long  period  a  stream  of  varying  burial  cuctoms 
passed  slowly  from  the  South  of  Europe  to  the 
North.  These  changes  in  custom  are  so  radical 
that  they  indicate  changes  in  the  conception  of  life 
after  death.  It  is  then  evident  that  Teutonic 
religion  is  but  a  series  of  strata  from  vastly  different 
times  and  places,  representing  many  religions  and 
stages  of  belief. 

1.  The  lesser  mythology. — ^There  is  a  multitude 
of  religious  phenomena  not  connected  with  the 
great  gods,  but  belonging  largely  to  animism  (q.v.) 
and  manaism  (q.v.).  These  two  forces  people  man's 
invisible  world  with  a  miscellaneous  supernatural 
host.  Thus  the  spirit  of  the  mountain  or  the 
frost  may  by  reason  of  its  baleful  power  be  figured 
as  a  giant  or  giantess.  But  small  and  delicate 
things  must  be  otherwise  explained;  jewelry, 
good  swords,  all  dainty  heirlooms  were  made  by 
small  beings  that  could  fetch  the  ores  from  the 
bellies  of  the  mountains  and  fashion  them  well. 
These  were  the  dwarfs.  The  elf  is  another  such 
being;  its  arts  are  fine;  it  may  moreover  love  a 
mortal  and  seek  to  carry  him  or  her  to  elfin  land. 
Like  the  dwarf  and  the  giant  and  all  monsters  it  is 
often  found  by  the  waterside.  Most  giants  are 
ugly,  but  some  are  fair.  Most  dwarves  are  mali- 
cious, but  some  are  kind.  The  dark  elves  are  evil, 
but  the  light  elves  are  good.  There  were  also 
mortals  whose  spirits  availed  more  than  the  com- 
mon man's;  wise  women  who  spun  the  thread  of 
fate,  called  norns  in  Scandinavia;  maidens  who 
hovered  over  the  field  of  battle  to  choose  those 
who  should  die,  called  valkyries  in  Scandinavia; 
swan  maidens,  women  who  could  put  on  the  garb 
of  swans  and  fly  to  distant  parts;  and  then  the 
ruck  of  wizards  and  witches. 

When  the  spirit  has  permanently  left  the  body 
it  must  be  somewhere  else,  therefore  there  is  a  region 
of  spirits.  There  were  various  spirit  lands  in 
Teutonic  belief;  in  the  earth  where  the  body  was 
placed,  in  the  North,  in  the  sea,  in  the  air,  in  Hel  in 
the  center  of  the  earth,  in  the  mountains  where  the 
spirits  dwelt  in  a  goodly  company  as  in  Valholl,  or 
where  chosen  heroes  occupied  selected  mountains. 
The  multitudinous  beings  that  dwelt  so  close  at 
hand  were  much  nearer  to  mankind  than  the  great 
gods  whose  defeat  by  Christianity  they  survived. 
The  lesser  mythology  provided  men  with  their 
real  religion. 

2.  The  greater  mythology. — The  greater  myth- 
ology deals  with  the  gods.  There  were  three  gods 
and  one  goddess  known  to  nearly  all  the  Teutonic 
tribes;  Tiw,  Thor,  Woden,  and  the  latter's  wife, 
Frig.     The  three  did  not  form  a  trinity. 

The  name  Tiw  (Old  English  Tlw,  Old  High 
German  Ziu,  Old  Icelandic  Tyr)  is  the  same  word  as 
Greek  theos,  Latin  divus,  deus.  The  root  means 
"to  shine."  Tiw  was  once  god  of  the  sky,  but  he 
had  lost  that  character  by  the  beginning  oi  history 
and  become  the  god  of  war.  He  was  the  chief 
god  of  the  Teutons  during  the  first  centuries  of 
our  era  but  was  later  overshadowed  by  the  rising 
Woden  cult.  The  Roman  writers  called  him  Mars 
and  the  Teutons  named  the  dies  Mortis  after  him 
(Old  English  Tiwesdaeg).  Latin  inscriptions  by 
Frisian  legionaries  call  him  Mars  thingsvs,  whence 
German  Dienstag.  In  the  Scandinavian  coimtries 
he  was  eclipsed  by  Thor  and  Woden. 

Thor's  name  is  best  known  in  this,  its  Scandi- 
navian form  (O.E.  ^unor,  O.H.G.  Donar,  O.Icel. 
Mrr).  Early  Roman  writers  called  him  Jupiter, 
later  ones  Hercules.  The  dies  Jovis  became  O.E. 
punresdaeg,  O.H.G.  donarestag.  O.Icel.  pdrsdagr, 
from  which  latter  English  Thursday  is  borrowed. 
Originally  the  god  of  thunder,  with  the  decline  on 
Tiw  he  became  the  god  of  war,  a  position  which  in 
Scandinavia  he  had  to  contest  with  Woden.    If 


Teutonic  Religion 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


444 


that  land  he  was  the  most  popular  of  the  gods,  the 
chief  god  of  the  common  man.  He  was  youthful, 
fair  of  face,  red  of  beard,  strong,  good-natured, 
rather  simple,  a  peasant  god.  He  drove  a  wagon 
drawn  by  goats.  His  hammer  consecrated  agree- 
ments, vows,  and  marriages. 

Roman  writers  refer  to  Woden  (O.E.  Woden, 
O.H.G.  Wodan,  O.Icel.  Odinn)  as  Mercury.  The 
dies  Mercurii  became  O.E,  wodnesdaeg.  All  except- 
ing the  most  southern  tribes  knew  Woden.  He 
was  the  god  of  the  wind.  But  in  northern  and 
western  Germany  he  became  the  chief  figure  in  the 
cult  and  was  brought  in  that  capacity  to  England 
by  the  Angles  and  Saxons  and  to  the  South  by  the 
Langobards.  This  added  feature  also  migrated 
to  Scandinavia  where  it  flourished  among  the 
aristocracy  only  but  where  it  found  distinguished 
literary  expression.  As  god  of  the  wind  he  was 
the  leader  of  the  troop  of  souls  that  inhabit  the 
air,  and  thus  of  the  wild  hunt,  and  so  becarne  god 
of  the  dead.  In  the  cult  that  came  to  Scandinavia 
from  the  South  he  inspired  all  higher  activity  of  the 
mind;  he  taught  shape-i^anging,  magic,  runes, 
improvements  in  war,  the  'art  of  verse.  Woden 
is  an  old  man  with  a  grey  beard  and  but  one  eye. 
He  wears  a  grey  cloak  and  a  wide-brimmed  hat 
pulled  down  over  his  forehead.  He  was  a  great 
traveller  and  was  called  in  Latin  Mercurius  viator 
and  Mercurius  indefessus.  He  rode  a  grey  steed 
upon  which  he  fared  through  the  air  as  well  as 
upon  the  land.  His  wife.  Frig  (O.E.  Frig,  O.H.G. 
Frlja,  O.Icel.  Frigg)  was  known  by  the  same 
tribes  which  worshiped  Woden.  But  he  was  no 
monogamist,  for  he  was  given  to  boasting  of  his 
gallant  adventures.  He  is  cunning,  bold,  calcu- 
lating. 

The  following  divinities  were  not  so  widely 
known.  Freyr  was  worshiped  only  in  Scandinavian 
countries.  In  the  plains  about  Upsala  he  was 
even  the  chief  god.  He  was  similar  to  Tiw,  and 
may  have  been  developed  from  one  of  the  latter's 
attributes.  His  wife,  Freyja,  was  known,  so 
far  as  we  can  tell,  only  in  Norway  and  Iceland. 
After  Woden  and  Thor,  Freyr  was  the  most  popular 
god  in  Scandinavia.  He  gave  sunshine  and  rain, 
rich  harvests  and  wealth.  He  has  a  son  NojrtSr 
who  was  hke  him  and  exercises  the  same  functions, 
with  the  addition  of  ruling  over  storms  at  sea. 
Tacitus  tells  of  a  goddess  Nerthus  who  was  vener- 
ated in  the  North,  probably  meaning  Denmark. 
This  name  is  the  exact  equivalent  of  Scandinavian 
NjorSr.  Tacitus  compares  her  to  the  Roman 
terra  mater.  From  what  he  further  tells  it  is  evi- 
dent that  she  was  a  goddess  of  fertility.  Heimdalk 
was  a  Norwegian-Icelandic  deity  of  whom  we  hear 
only  through  the  poets.  He  is  like  Freyr  and 
NjorSr  and  Tiw.  He  was  the  heavenly  watchman, 
roughly  equivalent  to  St.  Peter.  Balder  was  known 
in  all  the  Scandinavian  countries.  He  was  bright 
and  shining,  beloved  of  all.  At  his  tragic  death 
all  wept  but  the  spirit  of  evil.  After  many  Ul 
days,  Balder  will  come  again,  the  poet  says,  all 
evil  will  be  bettered,  fields  will  grow  vmsown,  and 
the  gods  will  meet  once  more  at  the  ancient  places. 
His  resemblance  to  Christ  is  striking  and  Christian 
influence  has  been  assumed.  Whether  the  sup- 
posed evidences  of  a  Balder  myth  in  England  and 
Germany  are  real  or  apparent  is  unsettled.  For- 
seti  was  called  the  son  of  Balder  by  the  Scandi- 
navians. He  was  similar  to  the  latter,  and  in 
addition  was  the  best  of  all  judges.  He  was 
probably  the  same  as  the  Foseti  who  was  worshiped 
by  the  Frisians,  whence  his  cult  came  north. 
Loki  is  known  only  in  Scandinavia.  _  He  was 
originally  a  fire  elf,  and  continued  as  such  in  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  the  Faroes.  Among  a  small  num- 
ber of  Norwegian  and  Icelandic  poets  he  figures 


as  an  evil  and  mischievous  but  amusing  god.  Like 
so  many  of  the  elves,  he  is  usually  malevolent, 
but  sometimes  does  good.  At  times  he  rises  to 
the  dignity  of  a  real  spirit  of  evil.  The  sagas  do 
not  refer  to  him.  Hoenir  is  mentioned  in  company 
with  Woden  and  Loki,  but  we  know  little  of  him. 
Ullr  is  a  Scandinavian  god,  counterpart  of  Woden, 
in  whose  absence  he  rules,  but  he  is  driven  away  at 
Woden's  return.  Bragi  was  a  poet  who  lived  in 
southern  Norway  in  the  first  half  of  the  9th.  century, 
the  earliest  Scandinavian  poet  whose  name  and 
works  we  know.  Later  poetry  elevated  him  to  be 
god  of  poetry  and  gave  him  ISunn  to  wife.  She  is 
known  only  to  Norwegian-Icelandic  poets.  She 
has  the  golden  apples  of  fertility  and  regeneration. 
The  mother  of  Thor  is  sometimes  given  as  Jord, 
the  earth,  and  sometimes  as  HloSjm.  The  latter 
word  in  its  southern  form,  Hludana,  occurs  in  five 
German-Latin  votive  inscriptions  on  the  lower 
Rhine.  Gefjon  is  a  virgin  goddess,  to  whom  all 
virgins  go  at  death.  Hel  was  in  all  Teutonic 
languages  the  dwelling  of  the  dead  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth.  Later  Icelandic  imagery  made  a  goddess 
of  the  dead  with  this  name,  a  cannibal,  horrible 
to  see,  Scandinavian  lore  tells  of  many  other 
divine  beings,  some  of  which  were  worshiped 
locally  and  others  of  which  were  but  the  creation 
of  poets  and  mythologs.  This  same  lore  tells  that 
the  gods  are  divided  into  two  races,  the  Msir  and 
the  Vanir.  The  ^sir  were  originally  the  spirits 
of  the  venerated  dead  (so  in  Gothic)  and  members 
of  the  troop  of  Woden.  When  the  religion  of  the 
Scandinavian  aristocracy  elevated  him  to  the 
chief  place  the  other  gods  were  subordinated  to 
him,  placed  in  his  train,  and  also  called  .^Esir. 
We  know  little  of  the  Vanir,  aside  from  faint 
tales  of  their  defeat  by  the  .^sir.  There  are 
many  other  deities  mentioned  on  votive  stones  set 
up  by  Teutonic  legionaries  in  Roman  service. 
We  know  little  about  them. 

II.  Cult. — 1.  Temples. — Tacitus  insists  that 
there  were  no  temples.  From  the  6th.  century  on 
we  have  evidence  of  their  existence.  Remains  of 
Icelandic  temples  show  that  each  consisted  of  two 
separate  buildings  placed  end  to  end  but  not  con- 
nected. The  longer  of  the  two  was  for  sacrificial 
feasts,  the  shorter  was  for  the  priests  and  the  images. 
The  dimensions  in  feet  of  three  Icelandic  temples 
were  as  follows:   120x60,  88X51,  60X20. 

2.  Idols. — Tacitus  is  wrong  in  denying  that 
there  were  idols.  From  the  stone  age  there  is  pre- 
served a  hollow  block  of  wood  found  on  an  altar 
of  rude  stones.  From  a  still  very  early  period  we 
have  a  number  of  crude  wooden  figures  of  male 
human  beings  ornamented  with  a  phallus,  emblem 
of  fertility.  The  images  of  Thor  and  Freyr  are 
most  often  mentioned  in  the  Icelandic  sagas, 
Woden's  only  rarely.  In  the  temple  at  Upsala, 
Adam  of  Bremen  saw  Thor  with  his  hammer, 
Woden  armed,  Freyr  with  a  large  phallus.  The 
elevation  on  which  the  image  stood  was  a  sort  of 
altar.  Upon  it  lay  the  sacred  ring  upon  which 
oaths  were  taken  and  which  the  priest  wore  on  his 
arm  at  the  sacrifice.  The  sacred  fire  burned  on  this 
altar,  and  here  also  was  the  vessel  that  received  the 
blood  of  the  sacrifice.  In  it  lay  the  twigs  with 
which  the  priest  sprinkled  blood  on  the  idols  and 
walls. 

3.  Priests. — There  was  no  priestly  caste;  the 
priest  was  an  official  with  duties  aside  from  the 
sacerdotal,  but  a  man  did  not  have  to  be  a  priest 
in  order  to  perform  sacred  offices.  The  head  of  a 
house  conducted  them  for  his  household.  Priest- 
esses are  mentioned  by  the  early  historians  and  in 
the  sagas. 

4.  Rites. — The  individual  made  his  offering 
when  and  where  he  would.    Communities  met  for 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Theocracy 


religious  acts,  sometimes  a  small  group,  sometimes 
a  federation  of  tribes.  Often  the  divinity  was 
conducted  about  the  countryside  in  a  conveyance. 
The  Semnones  held  their  autumn  sacrifices  in  a 
sacred  wood;  all  entered  the  wood  fettered,  symbol- 
izing their  subjection  to  the  god;  if  one  fell,  he 
could  not  be  raised  up,  but  had  to  crawl  out.  A 
human  sacrifice  was  offered.  Our  other  accounts 
of  sacrifices  are  from  Scandinavian  sources.  They 
were  conducted  by  the  priest,  the  blood  of  the 
animal  was  sprinkled  on  the  images  and  the  outer 
and  inner  walls.  The  flesh  was  boiled,  the  meat, 
broth,  and  fat  were  consumed,  beer  was  drunk. 
The  chief,  king  or  jarl,  from  his  highseat  opened 
the  ceremonies  and  directed  the  toasts;  the  first 
was  in  honor  of  the  gods  and  the  second  to  the 
dead.  Songs  were  sung  in  honor  of  both.  Other 
forms  of  entertainment  might  occur. 

5.  Magic. — The  burial  places  of  two  magicians 
from  about  the  13th.  and  11th.  centuries  B.C. 
have  been  found  on  the  Danish  island  of  Zealand. 
There  was  a  sort  of  medicine  bag  in  each  grave. 
That  from  the  older  was  a  leather  case  containing 
an  amber  bead,  a  small  snail  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, a  die  of  fir  wood,  the  tail  of  a  snake,  a 
birdclaw,  the  lower  jaw  of  a  young  squirrel,  a  few 
pebbles,  a  pair  of  small  pincers,  two  bronze  knives, 
a  flint  lancehead  sewed  up  in  a  piece  of  gut.  The 
later  grave  contained  a  similar  and  equally  mis- 
cellaneous collection.  Everywhere  there  are  reports 
of  female  magicians  from  early  times,  among  the 
Goths,  in  England,  and  on  the  Rhine.  There  is  a 
long  list  of  charms  in  a  Franconian  source  of  the 
7th.  or  8th.  century.  Texts  of  charms,  some  of 
which  are  still  heathen  in  content,  have  been  pre- 
served from  early  England,  Germany,  and  Scandi- 
navia. Tacitus  tells  of  divination  by  lot  and  from 
the  blood  of  sacrifices  among  the  Germans,  and 
many  sources  tell  of  women  who  read  dreams. 

6.  Calendar  and  festivals. — ^A  festival  was  held 
at  the  beginning  of  winter,  i.e.,  about  the  middle  of 
October,  to  sacrifice  for  the  coming  year;  one  at 
midwinter,  the  Yule  feast,  originally  a  memorial  for 
the  dead,  one  in  February  to  celebrate  the  lengthen- 
ing of  the  days,  the  return  of  the  sun,  in  Scandi- 
navia devoted  to  Freyr.  It  was  perpetuated  in 
the  Shrovetide  mummery.  _  A  fourth  was  held  at 
the  beginning  of  summer,  in  the  middle  of  April, 
continued  in  the  St.  John's  day  celebrations. 

III.  Myths. — The  myths  that  have  been  pre- 
served are  a  Scandinavian  development  and  were 
not  recorded  before  the  13th.  century.  They  con- 
tain some  old  matter,  mixed  with  a  great  deal  that 
is  late.  They  can  best  be  read  in  Brodeur's  trans- 
lation of  the  Edda  of  Snorri  Sturluson,  and  in  Vigfus- 
son  and  Powell's  Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale. 

Chester  Nathan  Gould 

TEZCATLIPOCA.— An  Aztec  god  of  the  upper 
air  who  watched  over  the  doings  of  men.  As  a 
wind-god  he  was  the  giver  of  Ufe  as  well  as  a  tempes- 
tuous destroyer.  Human  sacrifices  were  made  to 
him  in  which  the  victim  was  identified  with  the 
god  and  eaten  by  his  worshipers. 

THAGS. — A  secret  organization  of  India  whose 
members  committed  murder  by  stranghng  as  a 
part  of  their  religious  duty.  They  were  usually 
highly  respected  and  worthy  citizens  in  their  daily 
lives  and  felt  that  they  were  performing  an  act  of 
devotion  to  their  goddess  Kali  or  Durga  in  taking 
the  lives  of  their  victims.  They  traced  their  order 
to  the  beginning  of  time  when  their  ancestors 
assisted  in  the  creation  of  man  by  stranghng  the 
demons  which  devoured  the  race  as  quickly  as  men 
were  created.  In  return  for  this  service  in  making 
human  life  possible  they  were  granted  the  fives  of 
one  third  oi  mankind.    The  sect  had  an  elaborate 


ceremonial  and  grades  of  initiation.  The  murder 
was  always  done  in  secret  without  leaving  any  trace 
and  without  bloodshed.  The  British  government 
suppressed  them  in  the  19th.  century. 

THANKSGIVING.— The  act  of  expressing  grati- 
tude or  acknowledging  the  beneficence  of  God 
for  blessings  enjoyed;  specifically  a  formal  prayer 
of  gratitude  used  in  various  liturgies,  as  e.g.,  the 
General  Thanksgiving  of  the  Anglican  liturgy. 

THANKSGIVING  DAY.— A  day  formallv 
appointed  by  the  state  for  the  purpose  of  acknowl- 
edging the  divine  source  of  blessings  experienced. 
It  originated  in  New  England  when  the  Pilgrims 
in  1621  appointed  a  day  of  thanksgiving  for  assured 
harvests.  It  is  now  regularly  celebrated  on  the 
fourth  Thursday  in  November. 

THEATINES.— A  R.C.  order  founded  in  1524, 
so-called  from  the  city  in  Italy  in  which  one  or 
the  founders  fived  {Chiate,  or  Tlieate).  The  pur- 
pose of  the  order  was  to  induce  greater  purity  of 
fife  and  seriousness  of  purpose  among  the  clergyj 
and  also  to  counteract  the  influence  of  Lutheran 
ideas.  A  very  strict  regime  of  discipline  and 
devotion  is  inculcated.  There  are  two  female 
organizations,  the  Theatine  nuns,  and  the  Theatine 
hermitesses,  both  dedicated  to  a  rigorous  reUgious 
discipHne.    The  order  is  mainly  confined  to  Italy. 

THEFT.— The  wrongful  acquisition  of  the 
property  of  another  by  any  means.  Known 
legally  as  larceny,  a  practice  almost  vmiversally 
condemned,  though  among  certain  primitive  peoples 
it  is  sanctioned  under  certain  circumstances,  and 
in  the  robber  caste  of  the  Hindus  is  considered  a 
proper  means  to  a  Livelihood. 

THEISM. — A  word  used  in  a  vague  sense  to 
denote  belief  in  one  supreme  God;  but  more  exactly 
employed  to  indicate  a  type  of  inonotheism  which 
affirms  the  existence  of  God  as  a  personal  being 
who  is  both  creator  of  the  world  and  the  immanent 
power  controlUng  the  course  of  natureN 

Theism  in  this  more  technical  sense  is  contrasted 
with  Deism  (q.v.)  which  overemphasizes  the 
transcendence  of  God,  and  with  Pantheism  (q.v.) 
which  virtually  identifies  God  with  the  worlcft 
As  contrasted  with  pictorial  forms  of  monotheism 
which  involve  anthropomorphism  (q.v.),  theism 
interprets  the  nature  of  God  in  terms  of  a  moral 
purpose  actively  controlling  processes  of  growth 
and  development  in  the  universe.  It  is  thus  a 
definitely  philosophical  form  of  religious  beUef, 
and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  popular  form  of 
theology  which  employs  political  analogies.  Theism 
gives  a  rational  explanation  of  the  universe  which 
accounts  for  the  spiritual  as  well  as  for  the  material 
aspects  of  reality.  On  account  of  its  emphasis  on 
the  personality  of  God  (in  terms  of  moral  will)  it 
is  the  type  of  religious  philosophy  best  adapted  to 
serve  as  the  framework  of  the  Christian  conception 
of  God.  It  is  therefore  widely  employed  in  modem 
theological  and  apologetic  works.     See  God. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

THEMIS.— A  Greek  goddess,  symbol  of  the 
authority  of  the  social  conscience  and  so  of  Justice 
and  Law. 

THEOCRACY. — ^A  conception  of  political  organi- 
zation in  which  God  is  the  supreme  ruler,  so  that 
political  laws  must  be  derived  from  the  divine 
command  and  earthly  rulers  must  receive  authority 
from  God. 

A  theocracy  recognizes  no  such  thing  as  secular 
government,    and    consequently    no    distinction 


Theodicy 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


446 


between  church  and  state.  All  human  organiza- 
tions must  be  religiously  sanctioned  and  controlled. 
The  Hebrew  prophets  insisted  on  a  theocratic 
ideal,  and  the  history  of  Israel  as  interpreted  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  the  story  of  divine  discipline  in 
order  to  secure  a  perfect  theocracy.  Mohammedism 
also  sets  forth  a  theocratic  conception  of  politics. 
Calvin  at  Geneva,  and  Cromwell  in  England 
attempted  to  establish  theocracy,  as  did  the 
Puritans  in  New  England. 

THEODICY.— In  theology  or  philosophy,  a 
defence  of  the  justice  and  goodness  of  God  in  the 
face  of  the  existence  of  evil  in  the  universe.  See 
Evil. 

THEODORE. — The  name  of  two  popes.  Theo- 
dore I.,  Pope,  642-649  and  Theodore  II.,  Pope  for 
twenty  days,  897. 

THEODORE  OF  MOPSUESTIA  (ca.  350-428). 
— Foremost  representative  of  the  Antiochian 
school  (q.v.).  He  was  a  prolific  author,  though 
only  a  few  commentaries  are  extant.  As  an 
exegete,  he  employed  the  historical  method  in 
opposition  to  the  allegorical  method  of  Origen. 
After  his  death  he  was  accused  of  Nestorianism 
and  anathematized  by  the  coimcil  of  553. 

THEODORET  (ca.  386-457).— Bishop  of  Cyr- 
rhus  and  theologian  of  the  Antiochian  school  (q.v.). 
He  was  prominent  in  the  Nestorian  controversy, 
claiming  that  in  Christ  the  two  natures  were 
united  in  one  person,  but  not  fused  into  a  single 
essense.  His  views  were  condemned  by  Justinian  I. 
See  Three-Chapter  Controversy.  He  con- 
tributed considerable  biographical  matter  to  the 
history  of  early  monasticism. 

THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPAEDIA.— The 

systematic  presentation  of  the  aims  and  methods 
of  the  various  branches  of  theological  study  so  as 
to  indicate  their  organization  and  mutual  relation- 
ships in  a  comprehensive  whole. 

The  specialization  of  theological  scholarship 
has  created  various  "departments,  such  as  textual 
criticism,  historical  criticism,  philological  investiga- 
tion, exegesis,  church  history,  doctrinal  construction, 
homiletics,  pastoral  care,  etc.  Theological  encyclo- 
paedia undertakes  to  exhibit  the  scientific  method 
and  aim  of  each  branch  of  study  and  to  correlate 
them  all.  The  term  occurs  first  in  the  18th.  century 
although  the  discipline  itself  dates  back  to  scholasti- 
cism. The  important  development  due  to  the 
application  of  historical  method  makes  the  re-writing 
of  encyclopaedia  a  much  needed  task  today. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 

THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARIES.— Institutions 
organized  for  the  vocational  education  of  ministers 
of  the  Christian  religion. 

The  educational  institutions  of  Christianity 
are  probably  derived  from  the  rabbinical  schools  of 
Judaism  and  the  philosophical  schools  and  universi- 
ties of  the  Hellenistic  world.  The  earUest  of  such 
institutions,  the  catechetical  schools,  were  not 
intended  for  the  ministry  alone,  but  the  demands 
for  educated  expounders  and  defenders  of  the  new 
faith  early  led  to  development  of  schools  intended 
primarily  for  their  instruction.  These  were  distinct 
from  independent  teachers  like  Justin  and  The- 
odotus  and  reflect  the  influence  of  the  Greek  system 
of  education.  Chief  among  these  early  schools 
were  those  of  Alexandria,  Caesarea,  Edessa,  Antioch. 
In  some  of  these  the  instruction  was  general  as 
well  as  bibUcal,  and  this  practice  continued  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  until  the  universities  expanded 
into  groups  of  professional  schools  or  speciaUzed 


in  some  one  of  the  chief  subjects  of  intellectual 
interest — law,  medicine,  and  theology.  Paris  was 
easily  first  as  a  school  of  theology.  The  subjects 
taught  were  bibUcal  origins,  homiletics  and  church 
law,  theology  and  morals. 

I.  Roman  Catholic  Seminaries. — In  the  mod- 
em period  the  tendency  is  more  distinct  to  separate 
cultural  studies  and  ministerial  preparation  proper. 
For  this  latter  purpose  special  schools  have  been 
established  by  Roman  CathoHcs,  although  prepara- 
tion for  the  R.  C.  priesthood  includes  the  disci- 
pUne  of  young  boys.  It  is  noteworthy,  however, 
that  the  R.  C.  system  is  by  no  means  uniform 
in  that  many  candidates  for  the  priesthood  receive 
their  earher  education  in  colleges  and  universities 
not  under  the  control  of  the  R.C.  Church. 

In  the  R.C.  seminary  proper  the  candidates  for 
the  priesthood  are  trained  for  six  years  chiefly  in 
philosophy,  exegesis,  Hebrtiw  and  Greek  languages, 
various  branches  of  theology,  church  history, 
pastoral  theology,  and  church  practices  and  law. 
Advanced  studies  are  pursued  by  graduates  of  the 
seminaries  at  universities  and  other  more  advanced 
institutions,  especially  in  Rome.  (CoUege  of 
Propaganda,  Dominican  College  and  Roman 
Seminary.)  The  Dominican  Franciscan,  Ora- 
torian,  and  Jesuit  Orders  (qq.v.)  are  active  in 
educational  affairs. 

II.  Protestant  Seminaries. — 1.  On  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe  theological  faculties  are  found  in 
universities  (in  Germany  17  are  Protestant). 
Instruction  is  given  in  the  traditional  fields  of  the 
Bible  (O.T.  and  N.T.)  church  history,  theplogy  and 
practical  theology,  although  the  courses  in  the 
last  are  less  numerous  than  in  the  leading  seminaries 
of  America.  In  Germany  graduates  of  these  uni- 
versities are  trained  further  in  a  seminary  {Prediger- 
seminar).  After  completing  these  courses  the 
student  passes  a  second  examination.  In  countries 
where  there  are  free  churches  (as  in  Holland  and 
France)  each  religious  body  maintains  one  or  more 
seminaries  or  theological  faculties. 

2.  In  Great  Britain  theological  instruction  is 
of  various  lands.  The  universities  have  theo- 
logical faculties  while  most  religious  bodies  have 
their  own  colleges  in  which  both  general  and  theo- 
logical instruction  is  given  (e.g..  Clergy  Training 
School,  King's  College,  of  the  Church  of  England; 
Mansfield  CoUege,  Hackney  College,  New  CoUege, 
of  the  CongregationaUsts;  Wesley  College,  of  the 
Methodists;  Manchester,  of  the  Unitarians).  These 
institutions  are  numerous  and  of  different  scholastic 
standing. 

The  theological  course  is  three  years  in  length 
and  includes  the  traditional  subjects  with  a  tendency 
to  lessen  language  requirements  and  add  others. 

3.  In  America  theological  seminaries  are  as 
a  rule  denominational,  intended  to  educate  ministers 
for  their  respective  bodies.  ^  These  institutions  are 
supplemented  by  theological  instruction  given 
in  denominational  colleges,  Bible  Schools,  Institutes 
and  Training  Schools.  The  total  number  of  insti- 
tutions giving  theological  training  is  considerable 
although  there  are  probably  not  more  than  60  of 
high  standing.  "^ 

Entrance  requirements  in  American  seminaries 
vary  but  there  is  a  noticeable  tendency  to  require 
full  coUege  training  as  a  prerequisite  in  the  case  of 
leading  institutions.  There  is  also  an  increasing 
number  of  schools  interdenominational  (or  non- 
denominational)  in  character,  connected  either 
organically  or  intimately  (although  not  always 
technicaUy)  with  a  universixy  (Andover,  Divinity 
School  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Harvard, 
Oberlin,  Pacific,  Union,  Vanderbilt,  Yale).  The 
same  is  true  of  certain  denominational  seminaries 
(Boston,    Cambridge,    Candler,    Chicago    Crozer, 


447 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Theses 


Garrett,  Newton,  Ryder,  Southern  Methodist). 
In  such  schools  the  prerequisites  for  matriculation 
are  essentially  the  same  as  for  Graduate  Schools  of 
Arts,  Literature  and  Science.  The  degrees-  given 
are  not  uniform  (D.B.,  Th.B.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 
D.D.)  but  it  is  usual  for  denominational  seminaries 
to  'give  no  degrees.  Of  late  there  ha*  developed 
the  tendency  to  enrich  the  traditional  curriculum 
by  the  addition  of  courses  in  reUgious  education, 
sociology,  and  missions.  In  several  of  the  semina- 
ries it  is  now  possible  for  students  to  select  special 
curricula  in  preparation  for  the  pastorate,  social 
service,  religious  education,  and  missions.  There 
is  also  increased  emphasis  laid  upon  practical 
training,  several  institutions  having  added  to  their 
faculties  Directors  of  Vocational  Training  and 
requiring  a  certain  specified  amount  of  practical 
work  on  the  part  of  their  students.  It  is  also 
becoming  increasingly  common  for  graduates  of 
seminaries  to  take  advanced  work  in  seminaries 
connected  with  large  universities. 

Shailer  Matbtews 
THEOLOGY. — In  the  narrow  sense  of  the 
term,  an  exposition  of  the  nature  of  God.  The 
word  is  ordinarily  used,  however,  with  a  broader 
meaning  to  indicate  the  scientific  study  of  the 
entire  field  of  religion.  The  most  important 
traditional  divisions  of  theology  in  this  larger  sense 
are:  natural  theology  (stating  the  religious  truth^' 
obtainable  by  reason);  revealed  theology  (settinj^ 
forth  the  truths  obtained  by  revelation);  biblical 
theology  (giving  an  exact  interpretation  of  th( 
Scriptures) ;  historical  theology  (now  usually  called! 
church  history) ;  systematic  theology  expounding  the] 
doctrines  held  by  the  church) ;  and  practical  theology 
(dealing  with  the  duties  of  the  pastor  and  preacher^ 

THEOPASCHITES.— Those  in  the  early  church 
who  believed  that  God  suffered  or  was  crucified  in 
the  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  conception  inconsistent 
with  the  current  definition  of  God  as  eternally 
perfect.  The  belief  is  also  reflected  in  such  move- 
ments as  Patripassianism  and  Sabellianism  (q.v.). 

THEOPHAGY.— See  Eating  the  God. 

THEOPHANY. — A  revelation  or  appearance  of 
a  deity  to  human  beings;  such  as  in  the  ancient 
Greek  religion  the  appearances  of  the  god  at  Delphi, 
in  the  Hebrew  religion  the  manifestations  to  Moses 
and  others,  and  in  the  Christian  religion  the  incarna- 
tion in  Jesus. 

THEOPHILANTHROPY,    SOCIETY    OF.— A 

French  religious  society,  organized  during  the 
antitheistic  period  of  the  Revolution,  along  deistic 
lines,  the  main  tenets  of  which  were  belief  in  God, 
virtue  and  immortality.  The  society  was  in 
existence  and  made  some  progress  during  the 
period  1746-1802,  when  the  Catholic  Church  was 
disestablished. 

THEOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY.— See  Theosopht. 

THEOSOPHY. — ^A  term  used  somewhat  am- 
biguously to  mean  (1)  direct  knowledge  of  God 
and  of  divine  things,  as  by  some  special  inspiration; 
(2)  speculative  mysticism;  (3)  a  philosophical 
theory  which  concerns  itself  chiefly  with  the  nature 
of  God  as  a  transcendent  being.  More  specifically 
in  late  years  it  has  been  commonly  applied  to  the 
doctrines  held  by  the  Theosophical  Society. 

The  classical  example  of  theosophy  (in  the 
generic  sense)  is  to  be  found  in  the  speculations  of 
Plotinus,  who  in  the  opinion  of  his  disciples  possessed 

Eeculiar   insight   into   the   nature   of   the    Divine 
ecause    of    certain    supernatural    and    mystical 
experiences,  and  who  constructed  his  philosophy 


downward  from  the  One  to  the  Many  rather  than 
upward  froni  the  Many  to  the  One.  Other  excellent 
exemplifications  of  theosophy  may  be  found  in 
the  works  of  Meister  Eckhart,  Boehme,  and  Schel- 
ling.  A  large  part  of  Indian  philosophical  and 
religious  thought  may  be  classed  under  theosophy. 

The  Theosophical  Society  was  founded  in 
1875,  by  Madame  Blavatsky,  with  the  aim  of 
(1)  forming  "a  nucleus  of  the  Universal  Brotherhood 
of  Humanity,"  (2)  encouraging  the  study  of  com- 
parative religion  and  philosophy,  (3)  investigating 
"the  unexplained  laws  of  nature  and  the  powers 
latent  in  man."  The  Society  defines  theosophy 
(i.e.,  its  official  creed)  as  "the  body  of' truths  which 
forms  the  basis  of  all  religions."  As  a  fact,  how- 
ever, the  Society's  teachings  are  drawn  chiefly 
from  eastern  sources  and  contain  several  doctrines 
(such  as  reincarnation)  which  are  repudiated  by 
Christianity,  Judaism,  and  Islam.  One  of  the  dis- 
tinctive teachings  of  the  Society  is  the  doctrine 
of  the  seven  planes,  of  which  the  three  lowest  are 
the  physical,  astral,  and  heavenly.  Man,  being  a 
microcosm  of  the  universe,  has  (actually  or  poten- 
tially) bodies  belonging  to  all  of  the  planes.  The 
lowest  body  is  the  physical,  which  all  men  con- 
sciously possess.  The  two  next  bodies  in  the  scale 
are  also  actually  possessed  (in  different  degrees  of 
development)  by  all  men — though  not  all  men  are 
conscious  of  them.  Man's  real  task  is  to  develop 
and  organize  these  higher  bodies.  Only  a  few 
have  developed  the  senses  belonging  to  the  astral 
and  heavenly  planes,  but  those  that  have,  possess 
telepathic  powers.  Many  reincarnations  are  re- 
quired for  the  development  of  man's  full  nature, 
and  the  law  of  Karma  holds  throughout  all  rebirths 
until  liberation  is  attained,  and  life  upon  earth  no 
longer  necessary.  Some  adepts,  however,  out  of 
love  for  mankind  continue  to  live  and  teach  here 
below.  These  form  the  Great  White  Brotherhood, 
of  which  the  Founders  of  religions  (Krishna, 
Buddha,  Jesus,  and  others)  were  members. 

The  Theosophical  Society  added  considerably 
to  its  membership  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
during  Madame  Blavatsky's  life,  and  soon  after  her 
death  a  large  part  of  the  American  branch  seceded. 
The  new  society  thus  founded  has  again  divided. 
Most  of  the  British  theosophists  withdrew  in  1909 
and  a  large  number  of  the  continental  theosophists 
followed  their  example  a  little  later.  The  parent 
society,  however,  still  has  many  chapters  and  a 
fair  membership  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  its 
headquarters  being  in  Adyar,  India. 

James  B.  Pbatt 

THEOTOKOS.— See  Mother  of  God. 

THERAPEUTAE.— A  sect  of  ascetics  about 
whom  little  is  known,  some  scholars  connecting 
them  with  the  Essenes,  others  holding  that  they 
were  a  Christian  sect  of  the  3rd.  century,  and  still 
others  (including  Harnack)  that  they  were  a  sect 
of  Jewish  contemplative  ascetics  of  the  1st.  century. 
They  were  located  near  Alexandria. 

THERESA,  SAINT  (1515-1582).— Founder  of 
an  especially  rigorous  division  of  the  Carmelite 
order,  generally  known  as  the 'Barefoot  Carmelites. 
Her  fame  rests  primarily  on  her  intense  mysticism 
which  was  accompanied  by  vivid  visions.  She 
expressed  her  religious  devotion  in  several  influ- 
ential writings,  in  which  she  outlined  the  pathway 
to  a  complete  experience  of  imion  with  God.  She 
was  canonized  in  1622. 

THESES,  NINETY-FIVE  OF  HARMS.— The 

ninety-five  theses  which  Claus  Harms  (q.v.)  pub- 
Ushed[  in  1817  (the  300th  anniversary  of  the  Refor- 
mation) in  protest  against  rationahsm. 


Theses 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


448 


THESES,  NINETY-FIVE,  OF  LUTHER.— The 

ninety-five  theses,  proposing  subjects  for  debate, 
chiefly  concerning  indulgences,  which  Luther  pub- 
lished on  Oct.  31,  1517,  an  act  which  has  usually 
bean  taken  as  the  beginning  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation  (q.v.). 

THESMOPHORIA.— A  Greek  religious  cere- 
mony of  October  performed  by  women  alone  and 
intended  to  promote  fertility.  Pigs,  as  animals 
possessing  great  fertility  powers,  were  placed  in 
xmderground  places  to  be  brought  into  contact  with 
snakes  which  represented  the  mysterious  powers 
of  the  earth.  The  remains  of  the  pigs  were  later 
taken  up  by  specially  consecrated  women  and  used 
as  a  magic  substance  to  be  mixed  with  the  seed 
grain  to  secure  abundant  crops. 

THIRD  ORDER.— An  institution  existing  in 
certain  monastic  organizations,  as  the  Franciscano, 
Dominicans  and  Carmelites,  representing  an  inter- 
mediate stage  between  the  monastery  and  the  world. 
The  members  are  pledged  to  a  high  standard  of  holy 
life,  but  do  not  take  monastic  vows. 

THIRTEEN  ARTICLES.— A  confession  of  faith, 
framed  by  the  leaders  of  the  Anglican  church  in 
consultation  with  Lutheran  divines  in  1538,  and 
which  became  the  basis  of  the  Forty-Two  Articles 
(q.v.). 

THIRTY-NINE  ARTICLES.— The  confession 
of  faith  in  force  in  the  Church  of  England,  first 
published  in  Latin  in  1563  and  in  English  in  1571 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  being  a  reduction  by 
seven  of  the  Forty-Two  articles  (q.v.)  with  the 
addition  of  four  new  articles.  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  of  the  U.S.A.  is  also  committed 
to  this  confessional  statement.  See  Creeds  and 
Articles  of  Faith;  Church  of  England. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.— The  struggle  (mainly 
in  Germany)  between  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics,  growing  out  of  the  Reformation  (q.v.). 

The  war  began  with  a  revolt  in  Bohemia  (May, 
1618)  against  king  Ferdinand,  of  the  House  of 
Austria.  The  Bohemian  people  declared  the  throne 
vacant  and  offered  the  crown  to  Frederick  V., 
count  Palatine,  who  accepted  it.  His  brief  reign 
was  ended  by  the  defeat  of  the  Bohemians  in  1620, 
and  Frederick  was  pursued  into  the  Palatinate, 
which  was  conquered  and  given  to  Duke  MaximiUan, 
of  Bavaria.  In  the  meantime  Ferdinand  had  been 
elected  emperor,  and  he  now  turned  against  the 
Protestant  states  of  Germany.  In  spite  of  aid 
given  by  Denmark,  the  Protestants  were  defeated 
at  Lutter  in  1626.  The  Peace  of  Liibeck  (1629) 
brought  the  first  stage  of  the  war  to  a  close.  The 
emperor  now  issued  an  Edict  of  Restitution,  com- 
manding the  restoration  to  the  Roman  church 
of  all  property  secularized  since  1552,  and  this 
caused  a  renewal  _  of  the  struggle.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  of  Sweden  invaded  Germany  and  defeated 
the  imperial  armies  at  Breitenfeld  (1631),  estab- 
hshing  liis  fame  as  the  great  general  of  his  age  and 
freeing  northern  Germany.  After  an  indecisive 
campaign  in  the  south,  he  returned  to  the  vicinity 
of  Leipzig,  where  he  again  defeated  the  imperial 
army  at  Liitzen  (1632),  but  was  killed  in  the 
battle.  His  death  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the 
Protestants,  who  suffered  a  signal  defeat  at  Nord- 
lingen  in  1634,  and  the  Peace  of  Prag  the  following 
year  ended  the  second  stage  of  the  struggle.  The 
third  stage  was  marked  by  no  such  victories  for 
either  side.  Spain  became  the  ally  of  the  emperor, 
whereupon  the  great  French  minister,  RicheUeu, 
intervened  for  the  Protestants.     Eventually  both 


parties  were  exhausted  and  ready  to  conclude  "the 
Peace  of  WestphaUa,  in  1648.  Germany  is  esti- 
mated to  have  lost  half  her  population  and  three- 
fourths  of  her  wealth  during  the  struggle. 

Henry  C.  Vedder 
THOLUCK,  FRIEDRICH  AUGUST  GOTTREU 
(1799-1877). — German  preacher  and  theological 
teacher,  well  known  as  a  mediating  theologian  who 
combined  some  of  the  positions  of  modern  criticism 
and  philosophy  with  pietistic  elements,  giving  an 
empirical  basis  to  his  interpretation  oi  Christian 
experience.  His  strong  religious  personality  made 
him  unusually  influential  with  his  students. 

THOMAS,  ACTS  OF.— An  apocryphal  writing 
of  Syrian  Gnostic  origin,  probably  dating  from  the 
2nd.  century,  recording  the  tradition  that  the 
apostle  Thomas  journeyed  east  as  far  as  India 
where  he  suffered  martyrdom. 

THOMAS  AQUINAS.— See  Aqtjinas,  Thomas. 

THOMAS  BECKET.— See  Becket,  Thomas. 

THOMAS  CHRISTIANS  OR  CHRISTIANS 
OF  ST.  THOMAS.— A  sect  of  South  Indian  Chris- 
tians who  hold  to  the  tradition  that  the  apostle 
Thomas  visited  the  Malabar  coast  and  Madras 
and  founded  their  church.  The  presence  of  a 
Nestorian  church  can  be  traced  to  the  6th.  century. 
In  1153  the  Thomas  Christians  seceded  from  Rome 
and  have  since  acknowledged  the  Jacobite  patri- 
archate at  Antioch. 

THOMAS,  GOSPEL  OF.— An  apocryphal  gos- 
pel of  Gnostic  origin,  dating  from  the  2nd.  century, 
expressing  docetic  views  of  Christ. 

THOMAS  A  KEMPIS.— See  Kempis,  Thomas  A. 

THOMAS,  ST.— One  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus; 
also  called  Didymus  (twin);  frequently  spoken  of 
as  "the  doubter."  Tradition  states  that  he  became 
a  missionary  to  the  far  East,  traveling  as  far  as 
India.    See  Thomas  Christians. 

THOMISM. — The  philosophical  and  theological 
system  formulated  by  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.v.). 

THOR. — A  god  of  the  upper  air,  of  thunder, 
patron  of  agriculture,  of  fertility  in  field  and  home, 
and  of  law  in  the  Norse  mythology.  He  is  also 
called  Donar.  As  the  heavenly  striker  he  is  akin 
to  the  sky-god  of  Roman  religion.  As  the  champion 
of  the  Aesir  gods  against  the  giants  and  the  giver 
of  fertility  he  was  a  chief  figure  in  the  northern 
pantheon. 

THORN,  CONFERENCE  OF.— A  conference 
of  representatives  of  the  R.C.,  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches  which  assembled  in  Thorn, 
Poland,  1645,  to  try*  to  overcome  the  existing  reli- 
gious strife.  The  King  threw  in  his  influence  with 
the  R.C.  party,  but  the  conference  ended  in  failure, 
widening  the  breach  between  the  Lutherans  and 
Reformed  bhurch  in  Germany. 

THOTH. — An  Egyptian  god  of  wisdom  and  the 
arts.  The  magic  power  of  correctly  spoken  words 
to  create,  to  heal,  to  protect  and  to  justify  seems 
to  have  been  symbolized  in  this  divine  figure.  As 
the  measurer  he  is  associated  with  the  moon.  He 
stands  waiting  with  tablet  and  pen  at  the  weighing 
of  the  heart  in  the  Egyptian  judgment  scenes. 

THREE     CHAPTER     CONTROVERSY.— A 

phase  of  the  Monophysite  Controversy,  originating 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Tokens,  Communion 


when  Justinian  I.  condemned  Three  Chapters  or 
formulated  statements,  viz.,  (a)  those  of  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  (q.v.),  (b)  those  of  Theodoret  of 
Cyrrhus-  (q.v.)  in  defence  of  Nestorius  and  in 
opposition  to  Cyril,  and  (c)  the  letter  of  Ibas  of 
Edessa  (q.v.)  to  the  Persian  Maris.  At  the  2nd. 
council  of  Constantinople,  553,  the  condemnation 
was  ratified.  The  popes  Vigilius  and  Pelagius  I. 
for  a  time  opposed  the  condemnation. 

THREE    CHILDREN,    SONG    OF    THE.— 

An  apocryphal  addition  to  the  story  of  Shadrach, 
Meshach,  and  Abednego  in  the  3rd.  chapter  of 
Daniel. 

THUGS.— See  Thaqs. 

THURIBLE.— See  Censer. 

TIAMAT. — ^The  primeval  chaos,  described  as  a 
raging  monster  of  the  deep,  which  is  overcome  by 
the  gods  before  the  ordered  world  and  man  come 
into  existence  in  the  Babylonian  cosmology.  In 
the  latest  versions  of  the  story  Marduk  is  the 
champion  of  the  Gods. 

TIARA. — The  triple  bee-hive  shaped  crown  of 
the  Roman  pontiff  symbolizing  his  claim  to  the 
threefold  authority,  temporal,  spiritual  and  purga- 
torial. The  use  of  a  papal  crown  can  be  traced 
to  the  8th.  century,  its  form  being  gradually 
modified  until  in  the  14th.  century  the  three  crowned 
tiara  was  adopted. 

TIBET,   RELIGIONS   OF,   AND   MISSIONS 

TO. — Tibet  is  a  region  of  Central  Asia,  until 
1913  owning  allegiance  to  China  (q.v.),  lying 
north  of  the  Himalayas,  south  and  east  of  the 
Kuen-lun  mountains,  and  west  of  China.  Lhasa 
is  the  capital.  The  population  (estimated)  is 
3,500,000,  probably  500,000  being  Buddhist  monks. 
In  part  the  people  are  polyandrous.  Racially 
they  are  of  "Himalayan"  stock,  on  the  borders 
mixed  with  Chinese  and  Indians. 

The  early  rehgion,  known  as  "Bon,"  was  an 
animistic  Shamanism  (q.v.),  still  found  in  Eastern 
Tibet,  with  witchcraft,  magic,  ancestor-worship, 
and  nature  gods  and  spirits. 

In  the  7th.  century  Buddhism  (q.v.)  entered 
through  Chinese  and  Indian  consorts  of  the  king. 
About  900  A.D.,  the  religion  was  proscribed  by  a 
king  jealous  of  its  power,  the  people  revolted,  and 
the  government  fell  into  the  hands  of  monks  and 
abbots,  with  gradual  decadence  toward  Shamanism. 
In  the  15th.  century  the  reformer  Tsong-Kapa 
formulated  Lamaism,  the  present  religion.  The 
essentials  of  this  are  an  eclectic  Buddhism  with  its 
three  "jewels,"  the  pre-eminence  of  the  church, 
ruled  over  by  a  Dalai  Lama  or  chief  abbot,  who  is 
the  continuous  reincarnation  of  the  Buddhist 
Tsong-Kapa,  and  of  the  coming  Buddha  Padmapani. 
A  mechanistic  theory  of  formula  and  prayer  char- 
acterizes the  religion.     The  literature  is  enormous. 

Frequent  attempts  were  made  to  Christianize 
the  country.  In  1330  Odoric  of  Pordenone  led  a 
band  of  monks  to  Lhasa.  In  1624  the  Jesuit 
Antonio  D'Andrada  preached  and  founded  a 
cathedral.  Between  1706  and  1730  several  Roman 
Catholic  endeavors  were  made  and  in  1846  A.bb6 
Hue  reached  Lhasa  for  a  short  stay.  None  of 
these  efforts  left  any  permanent  impress.  About 
1760  the  country  became  self-isolated. 

Protestant  missions  have  been  carried  on  by 
the  "Disciples"  from  Batang  as  a  center  since  1910, 
and  missionaries  and  their  wives  are  in  the  field. 
Other  bodies  (China  Inland  Mission,  Anglicans) 
work  on  the  Chinese  and  Indian  borders. 


TIEN.— "Heaven."  The  term  used  by  the 
intellectuals  of  China  for  the  impersonal  power 
acting  in  the  order  o'f  nature  of  which  human  life 
is  an  integral  part.  It  seems  at  times  to  be  synony- 
mous with  Destiny  or  with  Tao.  The  personal 
term  for  God  is  Shang-ti  (q.v.). 

TIMOTHY. — An  early  Christian  convert  and 
helper  of  Paul  (q.v.).  Timothy,  along  with 
Silas,  assisted  Paul  in  the  operations  of  the  so 
called  "second"  missionary  tour  (I  Thess.  1:1; 
3:2,  6;  II  Thess.  1:1;  II  Cor.  1:19;  Acts  16:1-3; 
17:14f.;  18:5);  he  was  active  also  during  the 
"third"  tour  (I  Cor.  4:17;  16:10;  II  Cor.  1:1; 
Acts  19:22;  20:4);  and  he  appears  to  have  been 
with  Paul  when  the  latter  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome 
(Phil.  1:1;  2: 19;  Col.  1: 1;  Philem.,  vs.  1).  Of  his 
later  activities  practically  nothing  is  known.  The 
alleged  correspondence  between  Paul  and  Timothy, 
comnaonly  known  as  I  and  II  Tim.  (q.v.),  seems 
from  its  style  and  content,  to  be  an  idealized  product 
of  a  subsequent  generation.  S.  J.  Case 

TIPITAKA.— The  Pali  name  for  the  Buddhist 
Scriptures.    See  Canon  (Buddhist). 

TISCHENDORF,    LOBEGOTT    FRIEDRICH 

CONSTANTLN  VON  (1815-1874).— German  theo- 
logian, professor  in  Leipzig.  He  is  famed  for  his 
critical  work  on  the  text  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment, twenty  editions  of  the  Greek  testament 
appearing  in  Germany  under  his  name  during  his  life. 

TITHES. — A  tax  or  assessment,  secular  or 
religious,  amounting  to  one  tenth  of  a  person's 
property  or  income.  Among  ancient  peoples  the 
custom  was  widespread  of  paying  one  tenth  to  the 
King,  the  practise  existing  in  Greece,  Rome, 
Babylonia,  Egypt,  and  among  the  Hebrews. 
In  some  instances  as  among  the  Hebrews  tithes 
were  religious  dues.  The  emphasis  on  tithes  in 
the  Bible  led  to  a  general  assumption  in  the  Middle 
Ages  that  the  system  was  divinely  appointed,  and 
from  the  8th.  to  the  17th.  centuries  tithes  were 
regarded  as  the  property  of  the  church  by  divine 
right.  In  some  countries,  as  England,  the  tithe 
passed  over  from  a  religious  offering  to  a  form  of 
rent  for  the  support  of  the  clergy.  The  custom 
of  giving  a  tithe  of  the  income  to  the  Lord  still 
exists  as  a  pious  practise  among  many  people.  The 
system  has  long  since  been  found  to  be  too  mechani- 
cal for  purposes  of  just 'taxation;  and  its  inadequacy 
as  a  measure  or  religious  contributions  is  being 
increasingly  recognized. 

TITUS.-;-One  of  Paul's  helpers  who  is  never 
mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Acts  but  whose  name 
occasionally  appears  in  the  Pauline  letters.  He 
was  the  Greek  convert  whom  Paul  brought  forward 
at  the  Jerusalem  council  as  a  test  case  for  the 
freedom  of  the  Gospel  (Gal.  2 : 1,  3),  and  he  rendered 
Paul  important  assistance  in  a  later  controversy 
with  the  Corinthians  (II  Cor.  2:13;  7:6-14;  8:6, 
16  f.,  23;  12:18).  It  is  now  thought  that  the 
so-called  "Epistle  to  Titus,"  at  least  in  its  present 
form,  can  hardly  be  a  real  letter  from  Paul  to  his 
fellow-laborer  Titus,  but  is  a  later  composition 
to  which  their  names  have  been  attached. 

S.  J.  Case 

TOBIT.— An  Old  Testament  apocryphal  writing 
probably  originating  within  the  last  two  centuries 
B.C.,  named  for  the  hero  of  the  book,  and  reflecting 
the  strict  Hebrew  orthodoxy  of  the  Pharisaic 
school.     See  Apocrypha. 

TOKENS,  COMMUNION.— SmaU  metal  disks 
bearing  a  device  or  letters  indicative  of  a  place, 


Toland,  John 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


450 


minister,  or  date,  and  given  as  evidence  of  authori- 
tative permission  to  participate  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Such  tokens  were  given  the  initiates  in  the  old 
mystery  rehgions,  and  were  sometimes  used  by 
primitive  Christians.  Their  use  in  modern  times 
is  largely  confined  to  the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland, 
printed  cards  being  employed  instead  of  disks. 

TOLAND,  JOHN  (1670-1772).— Leading  Eng- 
lish deist  and  man  of  letters.  His  most  famous 
work,  Christianity  Not  Mysterious,  was  a  cogent 
argument  for  a  completely  rational  content  in 
religious  belief. 

TOLERATION.— As  contrasted  with  a  policy 
of  compelhng  uniformity  in  religion,  the  term  implies 
a  religious  establishment  with  restricted  privileges 
for  dissenters. 

During  the  2nd.  and  3rd.  centuries  Christian 
apologists  pled  for  toleration  at  the  hands  of  the 
Roman  Emperors  committed  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  state  religion.  Constantine  and  Licinius 
(Edict  of  Milan,  313)  accorded  full  religious  liberty 
to  all  and  insisted  upon  universal  freedom  to 
embrace  and  practice  Christianity.  Divisions 
among  Christians  (Donatist,  Arian,  etc.)  led 
Constantine  himself  to  persecute  irreconcilable 
schismatics  in  the  interest  of  go\«emment.  On 
moral  and  religious  grounds,  at  the  instance  of 
Chi'istian  leaders,  he  sought  to  suppress  offensive 
forms  of  pagan  worship.  From  the  4th.  century 
onward  Christian  leaders  were  almost  unanimous 
in  regarding  heresy  as  diabohcal  and  criminal. 
The  intolerance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy 
reached  its  highest  development  in  the  Inquisi- 
tion. Donatists,  Pauhcians,  Waldenses,  Bohemian 
Brethren,  Anabaptists,  and  Socinians,  as  persecuted 
parties,  pled  for  toleration  on  the  ground  that 
religion  is  a  matter  of  individual  relation  of  the 
soul  to  God  and  cannot  be  coerced.  Luther  used 
the  same  arguments  for  toleration  when  defending 
his  cause  against  Romish  intolerance,  but  was 
absolutely  intolerant  toward  evangelical  dissent. 
Calvin  on  theocratic  grounds,  regarding  his  own 
system  of  doctrine  and  discipline  as  absolutely 
accordant  with  the  divine  will,  was  merciless  in  his 
attitude  toward  heresy.  The  spirit  of  the  Renais- 
sance was  favorable  to  toleration,  and  the  growth 
of  the  scientific  spirit  and  its  application  to  theology 
has  so  far  weakened  the  conviction  of  the  absolute 
and  exclusive  validity  of  any  particular  form  of 
doctrine  and  practice  as  to  make  individuals 
and  churches  more  tolerant  and  persecution  infre- 
quent. It  is  a  generally  accepted  position  with 
enlightened  governments  today  that  liberty  of 
beUef  and  worship  shall  be  recognized  as  a  funda- 
mental right.  A.  H.  Newman 

TOLERATION,  ACT  OF.— An  act  passed  by 
the  English  pariiament  in  1689  removing  previ- 
ously existing  civil  disabilities  fiom  non-conforming 
Protestants  who  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
subscribed  to  the  doctrinal  tenets  of  the  Thirty- 
Nine  articles.  CathoUcs  and  anti-trinitarians  were 
thus  not  included  in  its  provisions. 

TOLSTOY,  LEO  (1828-1910).— Russian  count, 
novelist  and  social  reformer.  Religiously  he 
rejected  the  orthodox  Greek  religion  as  well  as 
Romanism  and  Protestantism.  He  was  an  ardent 
follower  of  Jesus,  aiming  to  follow  literally  his 
teaching.  This  led  to  the  development  of  his 
doctrine  of  non-resistance  which  he  carried  to 
exaggerated  proportions,  including  adherence  to  a 
form  of  anarchism.  His  radical  ideas  concerning 
industrial  and  social  life  led  him  to  wear  the  garb 
of    a    peasant,    and   labor   with    his   hands.     He 


renounced  all  privileges  of  property  and  urged  a 
vigorous  simphcity  as  the  only  moral  way  of  living. 
His  voluminous  writings  have  been  translated  into 
many  languages,  and  his  influence  has  been  very  wide. 

TOMBS  AND  TOMBSTO.NES.— Formal  burial 
of  the  dead  (itself  as  old  as  palaeolithic  times) 
naturally  leads  to  the  erection  of  funeral  monu- 
ments marking  the  place  of  burial.  Cairns,  or 
funeral  mounds,  many  centuries  old  are  to  be 
found  in  western  Europe,  as  also  in  America. 
It  is  probable  that  from  such  models  came  the 
motive  which  developed  the  most  stupendous  of 
all  tombs,  the  great  pyramids  of  Egypt.  Rock- 
cut  or  cave  tombs  are  also  very  ancient,  and  found 
in  many  lands,  while  mortuary  buildings  are  among 
the  most  famous  of  architectural  works:  the 
Mausoleum,  or  tomb  of  Mausolus,  was  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  ancient  world,  while  the  Taj  Mahal 
is.  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  extant  structures. 
Tombstones  also  date  from  remote  times,  and  are 
used  in  modern  times  not  only  by  peoples  of  Chris- 
tendom, but  also  by  Mushms,  Buddhists,  Con- 
fucianists,  and  others.  Probably  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  woild  are  the  ancient  Greek  funeral  stelae 
preserved  in  Athens.  See  Burial;  Catacombs; 
Death  and  Funeral  Practices. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

TONGUES,  GIFT  OF.— An  ecstatic  utterance 
induced  by  religious  excitement. 

Sometimes  among  uncultured  peoples  a  high 
state  of  religious  emotion  so  affects  the  vocal  organs 
that  certain  individuals  give  forth  strange  and 
unintelhgible  sounds  which  are  popularly  regarded 
as  supernatural  in  origin.  This  type  of  phenomenon 
was  not  unknown  in  other  rehgions,  but  it  has 
figured  especially  in  Christianity,  It  was  listed 
by  Paul  among  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit  (I  Cor.  12 ;  28) 
and,  following  Jewish  precedent,  appears  to  have 
been  regarded  as  a  language  of  angels  (I  Cor.  13: 1), 
which  naturally  was  unintelligible  to  mortals 
until  explained  by  one  possessing  the  supernatural 
power  of  "interpretation"  (I  Cor.  14:5,  13,  27  f.). 
In  Acts,  chap.  2,  these  ecstatic  utterances  are  taken 
to  mean  a  speaking  in  foreign  languages.  Through- 
out the  history  of  Christianity  the  phenomenon 
has  recurred  sporadically  and  has  often  been 
regarded  as  a  display  of  supernatural  ability  to 
speak  a  foreign  tongue,  but  under  critical  investiga- 
tion these  ecstatic  utterances  have  never  been 
found  to  consist  of  a  connected  and  intelKgible 
statement  in  any  known  language.        S.  J.  Case 

TONSURE.— The  ritual  act  of  shaving  the 
head  (in  the  Greek  church)  or  the  crown  of  the  head 
(in  the  Latin  church)  when  a  person  is  admitted  to 
holy  orders  or  a  monastic  order.  The  tonsure  was 
a  custom  among  the  priests  of  Isis  and  Serapia 
and  entered  Christianity  through  monasticism. 

TOPE.— See    Stupa. 

TOPHET. — A  place  of  sacrifice  in  the  valley  of 
Hinnom  south  of  Jerusalem.  As  Ge  Hinnom 
(Gehenna)  it  was  the  place  of  burning  and  later  a 
synonym  for  the  fiery  place  of  future  punishment. 

TORAH. — A  Hebrew  word  meaning  primarily 
"instruction,"  "teaching."  It  was  appHed  to  the 
teachings  of  the  prophets,  the  oracles  of  the  priests, 
the  proverbs  of  the  wise  and  last  of  all  to  the  Mosaic 
law  as  a  whole. 

TORGAU  ARTICLES.— A  confessional  state- 
ment drawn  up  by  Luther  and  his  associates  at 
Torgau  in  1530,  which  were  subsequently  the 
foundation  for  the  Augsburg  Confession  (q.v.). 


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Totemisol 


TOSEPHTA.— (Aramaic:  "additions.")  A  book 
of  Jewish  teachings  dating  from  the  3rd.  century. 
It  is  a  collection  of  baraitot  (q.v.). 

TOTAL  ABSTINENCE.— See  Temperance 
Movements. 

TOTEMISM.— (From  an  Ojibwa  Indian  word 
Anghcized  as  totam.)  Broadly  defined  as  "an 
intimate  relation  which  is  supposed  to  exist  between 
a  group  of  kindred  people  on  the  one  side  and  a  species 
of  natural  or  artificial  objects  on  the  other  side, 
which  objects  are  called  the  totems  of  the  human 
group"  (Frazer,  Totemism  and  Exogamy,  iv.  3-4). 

Knowledge  of  totemism  as  an  institution  of 
savage  and  barbarian  society  begins  with  two 
remarkable  essays  on  "The  Worship  of  Animals 
and  Plants"  contributed  by  the  Scotch  anthropolo- 
gist, J.  F.  McLennan,  to  the  Fortnightly  Review,  in 
1869-1870.  The  leading  facts  relating  to  the 
subject  were  first  collected  by  J.  G.  Frazer,  in  an 
article  in  the  9th.  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  (reprinted,  with  fuller  details,  as  a 
separate  work  in  1887).  Since  then  perhaps  no 
topic  in  the  field  of  primitive  sociology  has  aroused 
greater  speculation  and  controversy  than  totemism. 
Practically  all  the  available  evidence  relating  to  it 
will  be  found  in  Frazer's  monumental  work,  from 
which  the  definition  quoted  above  is  taken. 

1.  Essential  Nature. — Totems  are  usually 
species  of  animals  or  plants.  Sometimes  inanimate 
natural  objects  (rain,  cloud,  star,  wind,  sun,  moon) 
and,  very  rarely,  artificial  objects  serve  as  totems. 
As  distinguished  from  a  fetish  (see  Fetishism),  a 
totem  is  never  an  isolated  individual,  but  always  a 
class  or  species.  As  distinguished  from  the  guardian 
spirit  of  a  particular  person  or  family,  it  is  attached 
to  a  social  group,  such  as  a  clan.  The  intimate 
relation  existing  between  the  members  of  a  clan 
(men  and  women)  and  their  totem  appears,  in 
general,  to  be  one  of  friendship  and  alliance. 
As  far  as  possible  they  identify  themselves  with  the 
totem,  whether  it  be  an  animal,  a  plant,  or  what  not. 
Totemism  is  thus  essentially  a  mode  of  association, 
which,  however,  assumes  the  most  diverse  forms 
among  totemistic  peoples. 

II.  Accessory  Features. — 1.  Totemic  names 
and  insignia. — As  a  general  rule  the  members  of  a 
totemic  clan  call  themselves  by  the  name  of  their 
totem.  In  many  cases  they  possess  distinctive 
badges,  emblems,  or  crests,  which  represent  the 
totem  or  some  part  of  it.  These  insignia  are 
drawn  or  tattooed  on  the  body  or  carved  or  painted 
on  weapons,  canoes,  houses,  and  other  personal 
belongings.  Such  practices  may  be  intended  simply 
to  afford  visible  evidence  of  clan  affiliations;  they 
may  also  be  due  to  the  clansman's  desire  to  assimi- 
late himself  more  completely  to  his  totem. 

2.  Descent  from  the  totem. — ^In  some  instances, 
especially  among  the  AustraUans  and  Melanesians, 
the  members  of  a  totemic  clan  believe  themselves 
to  be  actually  descended  from  the  totem.  Myths 
of  totemic  descent  are  often  difficult  to  separate 
from  other  myths  relating  to  non-totemic  animal 
ancestors.  Where  the  belief  prevails,  it  forms  a 
real  social  bond,  since  the  clansmen  will  then 
regard  one  another  as  kinsmen. 

3.  Totemic  taboos. — The  respect  which  a  man 
owes  to  his  totem  often  prevents  him  from  killing 
and  eating  it,  whenever  it  is  an  edible  animal  or 
plant.  There  are  also  cases  where  a  clansman  is 
forbidden  to  touch  the  totem  or  even  to  look  at  it. 
Such  prohibitions  are  true  taboos  (see  Taboo),  the 
violation  of  which  is  supposed  to  result  in  the  sick- 
ness or  death  of  the  culprit.  However,  totemic 
taboos  are  by  no  means  universal.  They  prevail 
very  generally  in  Australia,  but  are  almost  or 


quite  unknown  in  North  America  and  in  some 
other  totemic  areas. 

III.  Totemism  and  Exogamy. — McLennan,  the 
discoverer  of  totemism,  also  has  the  credit  for  the 
discovery  of  exogamy,  which  is  the  name  he  gave 
to  the  common  rule  among  savage  and  barbarous 
peoples  requiring  a  man,  when  he  marries,  to  pro- 
cure his  wife  outside  his  own  tribal  subdivision  or 
group.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  a  totemic 
clan  must  be  necessarily  exogamous,  since  the  union 
of  a  man  and  a  woman  of  the  same  clan  would  consti- 
tute, according  to  primitive  ideas,  the  most  heinous 
form  of  incest.  Later  research  has  shown  that, 
while  totemism  and  exogamy  are  generally  found 
together,  their  association  is  not  invariable.  Even 
within  a  single  area,  such  as  Australia,  there 
are  tribes  which  are  totemic  without  being  exoga- 
mous, and  other  tribes  which  are  exogamous  without 
being  totemic.  The  two  institutions  of  totemism 
and  oxy gamy  appear,  in  fact,  to  be  distinct  both  in 
kind  and  in  origin. 

IV.  General  Significance. — ^1.  Magico- 
religious  aspects. — In  some  parts  of  Australia  and 
in  the  neighboring  islands  of  Torres  Straits  totemism 
combines  with  the  prevailing  system  of  magic. 
Here  the  different  clans  or  other  totemic  groups 
conduct  elaborate  ceremonies  for  the  purpose  of 
multiplying  the  animals  and  plants  which  form 
their  respective  totems.  The  ceremonies  are 
thus  intended  to  ensure  a  supply  of  food  for  the 
entire  community.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that 
they  furnish  perhaps  the  most  primitive  example  of 
a  systematic  division  of  labor,  though  this  division, 
being  based  on  magic,  is  economically  barren. 
Totemism  can  scarcely  be  described  as  a  reUgion, 
if  the  word  religion  be  used  with  its  ordinary  signi- 
fication. A  totem  is  not  a  deity  nor  even  a  spirit; 
and  it  is  not  worshiped.  It  may  inspire  respect 
and  affection  on  the  part  of  the  clansmen,  but 
these  feelings  do  not  differ  in  kind  from  those  which 
the  clansmen  entertain  for  one  another.  There  is 
no  reason  to  believe,  as  McLennan  once  held,  that 
the  widespread  practice  of  animal  worship  was 
inherited  from  an  earlier  totemistic  stage  of  society. 
The  question  whether  a  totem  ever  develops  into 
a  god  may  also  be  decided  in  the  negative,  though 
on  this  point  the  evidence  is  scanty  and  obscure. 

2.  Origin. — Many  theories  of  the  origin  of 
totemism  have  been  propounded.  None  of  them 
accounts  satisfactorily  for  more  than  particular 
features  of  the  institution.  Indeed,  it  seems 
probable  that  totemism,  considered  as  an  intimate 
relation  between  human  groups  and  natural  or 
artificial  objects,  has  arisen  in  different  ways  in 
different  regions.  Fundamentally,  it  is  one  expres- 
sion of  early  man's  sense  of  kinship  with  the  natural 
world :  this  expression  gradually  becomes  socialized 
as  a  system  of  beliefs  and  customs,  partly  original  and 
partly  derivative;  the  resultant  complex  is  totemism. 

3.  Geographical  diffusion. — Totemism  in  one 
form  or  another  appears  to  prevail  among  all  the 
aborigines  of  Australia.  It  is  common  in  Melanesia, 
almost  unknown  in  Polynesia,  and  rare  in  Indonesia. 
It  assumes  much  importance  among  the  non- Aryan 
or  Dra vidian  peoples  of  India,  but  it  has  not  been 
found  in  Central  and  Northern  Asia.  Africa  affords 
some  examples  of  totemic  customs,  especially  among 
the  Bantu  tribes.  The  North  American  Indians, 
with  the  marked  exception  of  the  Californians  ana 
the  Eskimos,  are  or  have  been  often  totemistic. 
The  American  type  of  totemism  presents,  however, 
wide  divergencies  from  that  found  in  the  Old 
World.  Traces  of  totemism  in  Central  America 
and  South  America  are  not  numerous.  It  appears 
from  this  survey  that  totemism  is  a  general,  though 
by  no  means  universal,  institution  of  savage 
and  barbarian  society. 


Tower  of  Babel 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


452 


4.  Alleged  survivals. — Totemism  is  undoubtedly 
a  very  old  institution,  since  it  is  found  among  the 
rudest  peoples,  and  among  them  often  in  a  decadent 
form.  It  is  quite  another  question,  however, 
whether  the  ancestors  of  existing  civilized  peoples 
ever  passed  through  a  totemistic  stage  of  society. 
Efforts  have  been  made  to  discover  survivals  of 
totemism  in  North  Africa,  Arabia,  Western  Asia, 
and  Europe,  among  the  ancient  Semites  and  Indo- 
Europeans.  Thus,  the  animal  worship  of  Egypt, 
by  more  than  one  scholar,  has  been  connected 
with  an  antecedent  totemism.  Traces  of  totemism 
have  also  been  sought  in  the  food  prohibitions  of  the 
Mosaic  law  and  in  the  animal  attendants  of  Greek 
deities  (the  eagle  of  Zeus,  the  owl  of  Athena,  the 
dove  of  Aphrodite,  etc.).  Even  the  legends  and 
superstitions  about  plants  and  animals,  so  numerous 
in  European  folklore,  have  been  searched  for  sup- 
posed vestiges  of  toten^sm.  But  no  facts  emerge 
from  such  inquiries  which  cannot  be  more  simply 
explained  as  due  to  the  general  belief  in  the  sacred- 
ness  of  animals  and  plants,  a  belief  which  does  not 
necessarily  constitute  them  totems.  The  whole 
subject  requires  additional  elucidation. 

5.  Social  influence. — A  large  role  has  sometimes 
been  assigned  to  totemism  on  the  ground  that  it  led 
to  the  domestication  of  totemic  plants  and  to  the 
taming  and  breeding  of  totemic  animals.  As  to  this 
theory,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  no  historical  con- 
nection can  be  traced  between  totemism  and  the 
beginnings  of  agriculture  and  cattle-raising.  The 
two  great  totemic  areas,  Australia  and  North 
America,  had  no  domesticated  animals,  except  the 
dog,  before  the  coming  of  the  whites;  and  the 
Australians  in  their  native  state  were  totally 
ignorant  of  planting.  Totemism  has  doubtless 
contributed  something  to  the  growth  of  pictorial 
and  plastic  art,  as  seen  in  rude  Australian  drawings, 
representing  totems,  and  the  huge,  grotesque 
totem-poles  of  the  Indians  of  Northwest  America. 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  chief  service  of  totemism 
has  been  to  develop  a  sense  of  mutual  obligation 
and  responsibility  on  the  part  of  members  of  a 
totemic  clan.  Even  in  this  respect,  too  much 
importance  is  often  ascribed  to  the  totemic  bond 
in  early  society.  Marriage,  local  proximity,  blood 
relationship,  common  religion,  and  common  occu- 
pations have  been  far  more  influential  than  tot- 
emism in  preserving  the  unity  of  primitive  social 
groups.  HuTTON  Webster 

TOWER  OF  BABEL.— The  tower,  which  is 
associated  in  the  Hebrew  tradition  with  the  multi- 
plication of  languages  (Gen.  chap.  11).  After 
the  population  of  the  world  had  been  reduced  by 
the  flood  to  the  family  of  Noah  only,  it  became 
imperative  to  explain  the  diversity  of  speech  among 
its  descendants  and  this  tradition  grew  up  to  satisfy 
that  need.  It  belongs  to  the  group  of  aetiological 
myths,  such  as  the  story  of  Cain  and  Abel,  the 
story  of  Noah's  drunkenness,  and  the  tale  of  the 
origin  of  giants. 

TRACT  SOCIETIES.— Organizations  for  the 
publication  and  dissemination  of  Christian  literature, 
especially  in  the  form  of  tracts  (q.v.).  Some  of  the 
larger  societies  such  as  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,  the  Rehgious  Tract  Society, 
the  Christian  Literature  Societies  for  India  and 
China,  and  the  American  Tract  Society  are  pub- 
lishing concerns  of  some  magnitude,  and  include 
books  and  magazines  with  tracts  in  their  literature. 
Besides  these  are  a  multitude  of  smaller  associa- 
tions which  confine  their  operations  chiefly  to  the 
tract  form  of  Christian  literature  for  evangelistic, 
apologetic  or  pastoral  purposes. 


TRACTARIANISM.— A  name  given  to  the 
Oxford  Movement  (q.v.)  because  of  the  "Tracts 
for  the  Times"  emanating  from  the  leaders  of  the 
movement. 

TRACTS. — A  short,  easily  read  literary  produc- 
tion, aiming  to  secure  adherents  to  a  doctrine  or  a 
cause.  On  account  of  the  slight  expense  involved 
in  printing,  tracts  can  be  more  widely  circulated  than 
any  other  literature  except  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals. They  are  thus  especially  useful  means  of 
propaganda.  One  of  the  most  famous  collections 
was  the  "Tracts  for  the  Times"  of  the  Tractarian 
or  Oxford  Movement  (q.v.).    See  Tract  Societies. 

TRADITION.— A  body  of  belief  or  a  usage 
handed  on  from  one  generation  to  another. 

In  the  Roman  CathoUc  church  tradition 
embraces  all  those  doctrines  which  it  is  claimed 
Christ  and  his  apostles  delivered  orally  to  their 
disciples,  which  were,  however,  not  recorded  in 
the  New  Testament,  but  have  been  preserved, 
developed,  and  handed  down  by  the  church; 
these  are  embodied  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers, 
in  the  liturgy  and  ritual,  as  the  Mass  and  its  celebra- 
tion, definitions  of  doctrine,  as  the  Nicene  and  other 
creeds,  and  anathemas.  Tradition  is  thus  co- 
ordinate with  the  Scriptures  as  providing  the 
content  and  interpretation  of  faith.  While  Protes- 
tants discard  tradition  as  an  ultimate  source  of 
Christian  truth,  yet  so  far  as  they  acknowledge  that 
the  dogmas  and  usages  of  the  church  whether 
ancient  or  modern  are  authoritative,  they  accept 
the  principle  of  tradition.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

TRADITIONALISM.— An  attitude  which  is 
content  to  find  its  sanction  for  existing  beliefs  in  the 
dogmas,  usages,  and  decrees  of  the  church.  Tra- 
dition thus  dominates  religious  thinking,  and 
bends  all  other  sources  into  conformity  with  itself. 

TRADUCIANISM.— The  hypothesis  that  the 
soul,  as  well  as  the  body,  is  procreated  by  the 
parents  in  the  process  of  propagation.  Other 
theories  as  to  origin  of  the  soul  are  creationism 
and  pre-existence  (qq.v.). 

TRANSCENDENCE.— A  term  indicating  a 
reality  or  being  existing  in  a  realm  beyond  the 
reach  of  human  experience. 

The  transcendence  of  God  indicates  his  existence 
prior  to  and  superior  to  the  world.  It  is  contrasted 
with  immanence  (q.v.).  When  transcendence  is 
over-emphasized  God  is  pictured  as  virtually  out 
of  relation  with  the  world.  His  deeds  are  repre- 
sented as  arbitrary,  and  his  nature  is  defined  in 
opposition  to  the  characteristics  of  the  world  of 
experience.  Modern  religious  thinking  empha- 
sizes immanence  rather  than  transcendence.  See 
God;   Immanence. 

TRANSCENDENTALISM.— The  quaKty  of 
transcending  experience;  by  impUcation,  that 
which  is  exalted  or  sublimated  in  experience  or 
expression. 

In  philosophy,  the  Kantian  transcendentalism 
is  his  philosophic  doctrine  of  a  form  of  knowledge 
that  transcends  all  experience,  consisting  in  a  priori 
principles  that  precede,  transcend,  and  condition  aJl 
human  knowledge. 

More  generally,  transcendentalism  denotes  a 
type  of  philosophy  which  lays  excessive  emphasis 
upon  intuitive  or  subjective  terms,  which  refines 
a  priori  principles  to  the  neglect  of  the  empirical 
tests  of  knowledge.  It  is  thus  opposed  to  empiri- 
cism and  pragmatism. 

The  more  popular  use  of  TranscendentaUsm 
designates  any  exalted,  abstract,  or  vague  phi- 


453 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Trees,  Sacred 


losophy  of  life,  especially  a  moral  philosophy  with 
the  subjective  and  intuitive  emphasis,  a  poetic 
philosophy.  New  England  TranscendentaUsm  is 
a  name  given  to  the  mystical  philosophy  of  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson  and  the  principles  of  those  affiliated 
with  him  in  spirit.  Herbert  A.  Youtz 

TRANSEPT. — 'One  of  the  wings  in  a  cruciform- 
shaped  church  or  cathedral  projecting  at  right 
angles  from  the  main  structure  between  the  nave 
and  choir. 

TRANSFIGURATION.— A  change  in  form  or 
appearance,  specifically  that  change  recorded  in 
the  appearance  of  Jesus  in  Mark  9:2-10  and 
parallel  passages;  it  is  a  frequent  subject  in  Chris- 
tian art.  The  church  festival  of  the  transfigiiration 
is  celebrated  on  Aug,  6. 

TRANSMIGRATION.— The  passing  of  the 
soul  by  rebirth  into  a  new  body.  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  pre-existence  (q.v.)  which  does  not 
imply  a  previous  incarnation;  and  from  meta- 
morphosis (q.v.)  which  is  a  temporary  and  volun- 
tary change  of  bodily  form.  The  three  words, 
metempsychosis,  reincarnation  and  transmigration 
are  practically  sj^nonymous.  There  is  a  tendency, 
however,  to  limit  reincarnation  to  mean  rebirth 
in  human  form  and  to  use  the  other  terms  in  the 
more  general  sense  of  rebirth  in  any  form  of  body, 
plant,  insect,  animal  or  human. 

With  the  rise  of  the  idea  of  a  separable  soul  it 
was  easy  for  primitive  peoples  to  recognize  a 
departed  soul  in  any  form  of  life  that  attracted 
attention  and  in  some  way  called  up  memories  of 
the  former  person.  In  culture  religions  the  idea 
has  not  taken  sohd  root  except  in  India  and  those 
parts  of  the  Far  East  which  have  adopted  the  Hindu 
faiths.  It  was  not  part  of  the  early  Vedic  rehgion 
but  grew  up  in  connection  with  the  idea  of  karma 
(q.v.)  into  a  pliilosophic  justification  of  good  and 
evil  and  a  theory  of  morals.  Pain  and  happiness, 
disease  and  health,  deformity  and  strength,  vice 
and  purity,  the  status  of  the  individual  in  society 
are  aU  explained  as  due  to  the  karma  of  a  previous 
birth.  The  round  of  transmigration  on  the  wheel 
of  Hfe  must  be  endured  until  the  soul  acquires  a 
true  knowledge  of  its  essential  freedom  (Vedanta, 
Sankhya)  or  secures  release,  by  discipUne,  from 
the  bonds  of  karma  (Buddhism,  Jainism,  Ajivikas, 
and  the  great  sects).  Modem  representatives  of 
Hindu  systems  interpret  transmigration  as  a  pro- 
gressive evolution  of  sentient  beings  toward  a 
universal  order  of  perfect  existence,  knowledge  and 
bKss.  Two  Hindu  variants  of  the  theory  should  be 
noted.  In  Buddhism  there  is  no  soul  entity  to  be 
reborn  but  a  self  or  aggregate  of  skandhas  (q.v.) 
which  is  merely  the  bearer  of  the  karma  and  so 
passes  to  another  existence.  In  the  Sankhya  the 
soul  is  never  attached  to  a  material  body  and  so 
cannot  be  said  to  transmigrate  but  the  illumination 
of  the  soul  produces  a  psychical  nature  which 
acquires  karma  and  thus  passes  from  hfe  to  hfe 
until  the  soul  becomes  conscious  of  its  detachment 
when  the  karma-hody  disintegrates  at  death  and  the 
soul  is  eternally  free. 

Outside  of  India  the  doctrine  was  held  in  the 
7th.  century  by  the  Orphics  and  from  them  was 
spread  by  the  later  Greek  thinkers,  Pythagoras, 
Empedocles,  Plato,  Plotinus  and  the  Neo-Platonists. 
Its  appearance  in  Moslem  (Brethren  of  Purity, 
Sufis)  and  Jewish  (Kabbala)  mysticism  is  probably 
due  to  the  influence  of  Neo-Platonism.  Detached 
as  it  was  from  the  doctrine  of  karma  the  transmigra- 
tion theory  of  these  groups  has  the  character  of  a 
purgation  rather  than  of  a  fettering  of  the  soul. 
A.  Eustace  Haydon 


TRANSUBSTANTIATION.— The  Roman 
Catholic  doctrine  that  there  is  present  in  the 
Eucharist  after  consecration  of  the  elements  the 
substantial  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  with  his 
whole  soul  and  divinity.  The  entire  substance 
of  the  bread  and  wine  have  been  converted  into 
his  body  and  blood;  although  the  species  remains 
unchanged. 

TRAPPISTS.— An  order  of  reformed  Cistercian 
monks,  distinguished  by  their  austerity  and  extreme 
ascetic  practises,  and  so  named  from  the  Abbey 
of  La  Trappe  where  the  reform  was  instituted 
in  1664  by  the  Abbot  de  Ranee.  The  order  has 
had  a  strong  appeal  to  those  who  crave  a  regime 
expressing  utter  consecration.  There  are  monas- 
teries in  most  lands  where  Christianity  exists. 

TREASON. — In  criminal  procedure,  any  dis- 
loyal act  attacking,  compromising,  or  betraying 
the  safety  of  a  government  or  its  head.  It  is  a 
crime  in  all  nations,  punishable  in  various  ways,  the 
severity  increasing  with  the  despotism  of  the  state 
or  with  the  danger  to  which  the  government  is 
opposed  in  war  or  in  insurrection. 

TREASURY  OF  THE  CHURCH.— See  Indul- 

GENCES. 

TREASURY  OF  MERITS.— The  supererogatory 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  the  saints,  regarded  by 
the  R.C.  church  as  forming  a  treasury  of  merit 
entrusted  to  the  church  and  available  under  its 
administration  for  the  redemption  of  the  faithful. 

TREES,  SACRED.— These  have  been  con- 
nected with  religious  cults  from  the  remotest 
times.  The  early  Canaanites  of  pre-Israehtish 
times  conducted  their  worship  on  the  high  hills 
protected  and  concealed  by  clumps  of  venerated 
trees,  the  oak,  terebinth,  tamarisk,  palm  tree  and 
pomegranate.  The  patriarchs  are  said  to  have 
cherished  the  same  reverence  for  these  special 
trees  (Gen.  12:18;  14:13).  The  nomadic  Israelites 
crowding  their  way  into  the  populous  land  of 
Canaan  quietly  and  willingly  adopted  the  sacred 
shrines  and  trees  of  their  immediate  predecessors 
(Gen.  35:8;  Josh.  24:26).  Sacred  spots  in  Syria 
and  Palestine  today  are  often  indicated  by  a  tree, 
whose  sanctity  is  recognized  by  the  native  popula- 
tion. 

Frazer  {Folklore  in  the  O.T.,  Vol.  III.,  68ff.) 
relates  that  the  AJdkuyu  of  British  East  Africa 
today  have  the  tops  of  all  their  hills  dotted  with 
clumps  of  trees  held  to  be  sacred,  and  not  to  be 
cut  down.  In  the  case  of  famine  an  elaborate 
sacrifice  is  offered  in  the  midst  of  the  thicket,  and 
the  much-needed  water  pours  from  the  top  of  the 
hill.  Also  the  Mundas  in  Bengal  have  their  high 
places  and  their  sacred  groves  in  the  midst  of  which 
dwell  the  sylvan  deities,  their  local  protectors. 
Again  on  the  borders  of  Afghanistan  and  India  are 
found  sacred  shrines,  either  on  the  moimtain  top 
or  on  a  steep  chff,  near  which  stand  stunted  trees 
of  tamarisk  or  ber,  on  the  branches  of  which,  as  in 
Palestine  and  Syria  today,  are  hung  or  tied  numer- 
ous bits  of  rag  and  pieces  of  cloth,  because  every 
petitioner  is  required  to  do  this  as  an  outward 
symbol  of  his  vow.  Among  the  Cheremiss  of 
Russia,  we  are  told,  isolated  groves  serve  as  places 
of  sacrifice  and  prayer.  In  earUer  days  these 
same  people  sacrificed  in  the  depths  of  the  forests. 
But  as  the  forests  fell  before  the  woodman  these 
clumps  were  preserved  here  and  there  to  shelter  the 
sacred  rites. 

In  the  fight  of  similar  customs  among  many 
peoples  today,  even  the  high  places,  and  the  sacred 


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454 


trees  which  sheltered  them  in  Palestine  in  Israel's 
day,  may  have  been  the  remnant  of  an  ancient 
forest  in  which  divinities  were  worshiped;  and,  as 
Frazer  suggests,  these  clusters  of  sacred  trees, 
against  which  the  prophets  railed,  may  have  been 
the  refuge  of  the  deities  who  formerly  could  roam 
through  their  forests  at  their  will.  The  so-called 
"Asherah"  may  have  been  simply  the  trunk  of  a 
former  sacred  tree — one  of  the  grove  that  has 
passed  away.  Such  a  remnant  is  seen  today 
among  the  natives  of  Borneo.        Ira  M.  Price 

TRENCH, RICHARD  CHENEVIX  (1807-1886). 
— Archbishop  of  the  English  church  in  Dublin; 
a  man  of  broad  sympathies  and  learning.  Besides 
some  volumes  of  religious  poetry,  he  was  the  author 
of  On  the  Parables,  On  the  Miracles  and  of  Lectures 
on  Mediaeval  Church  History. 

TRENT,  THE  COUNCIL  OF.— An  assemblage 
of  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastics  convened  to  deal 
with  schism  and  church  reform. 

1.  Origin  and  procedure. — For  a  score  of  years 
the  Lutheran  reformers  and  Protestant  German 
princes  had  been  insisting  that  the  grievances  of 
the  church  should  be  considered  by  a  Council  con- 
vened on  German  soil.  After  repeated  assurances, 
promises,  and  unsatisfactory  tentative  arrangements 
this  Council  was  convoked  in  Trent  March  15, 1545. 
Its  proceedings  extended  over  eighteen  years  in  three 
sessions,  1545-1547,  1551-1552,  1562-1563.  Its 
work  was  done  through  two  commissions  reporting 
alternately  to  the  full  assembly. 

2.  Doctrinal  decrees. — The  Vulgate  was  declared 
to  be  the  authoritative  text  of  the  Scriptures;  the 
voice  of  tradition  and  unanimous  consensus  of  the 
Fathers  were  accorded  authority  in  the  determina- 
tion of  truth;  justification  was  defined  as  a  dis- 
posing through  grace  of  the  sinner  to  work  out  his 
own  salvation;  the  sacraments  were  set  forth  in 
equally  conservative  fashion  even  to  the  point 
of  refusing  to  the  laity  the  communion  in  two 
kinds. 

3.  Significance. — For  the  Protestants,  this  highly 
conservative  doctrinal  statement  destroyed  all 
possible  hopes  of  conciliation  and  church  reunion. 
For  the  Catholics  this  Council  supplied  a  doctrinal 
statement  resting  firmly  upon  an  intellectual  basis 
and  clearly  defined  in  its  opposition  to  Protestant- 
ism; it  insisted  upon  and  made  provision  for  a 
radical  reform  in  the  education  of  its  clergy;  not 
the  least  service  was  the  invigorated  morale  which 
it  imparted  to  those  who,  struggling  against  the 
encroachments  of  Protestantism,  now  were  able 
through  the  co-operation  and  leadership  of  the 
Jesuits,  to  take  the  offensive.  See  Counter 
Reformation.  Peter  G.  Mode 

TRIADS. — ^The  number  three  is  one  of  the 
commonest  sacred  numbers  especially  among  the 
Aryan  peoples  and  naturally  appears  in  the  triads 
of  Gods.  No  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
grouping  of  gods  in  threes  has  been  given  and  it  is 
probable  that  there  is  no  single  explanation.  The 
natural  rhj^hm  of  counting  may  be  sufficient  to 
account  for  some  triads;  others  are  explained  by 
their  relation  to  the  divisions  of  nature — earth, 
air,  heaven;  or  heaven,  earth  and  underground;  or 
heaven,  earth  and  waters;  still  others  by  the  family 
arrangement  of  father,  mother,  child;  others  by  the 
necessity  of  having  an  intermediary  between  two 
separated  divine  figures;  others,  like  the  Christian 
Trinity,  have  an  historical  explanation. 

The  divine  rulers  of  the  departments  of  nature 
are  common — Anu,  Enlil,  Ea  (Babylonia),  Surya, 
Vayu,  Agni  (Vedic),  Zeus,  Poseidon,  Hades(  Greek), 
the  Three  Rulers  of  the  heaven,  earth  and  waters 


(Chinese  Taoism).  The  family  arrangement  is 
seen  in  Osiris,  Isis,  Horus  (Egypt).  A  functional 
triad  is  sometimes  found,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Shiva 
(India),  as  creator,  _  preserver  and  destroyer; 
Tangaloa,  Mani,  Tiki  as  creator,  preserver  and 
revealer  (Polynesia).  Babylon  has  also  in  incanta- 
tion formulae,  Ea,  Marduk,  Nusku  where  the 
last  or  fire  god  is  an  intermediary.  But  the  same 
reUgion  "presents  Sin,  Shamash,  Ishtar;  Shamash, 
Sin,  Ramman;  Nergal,  Ramman,  Nana  as  triads 
with  no  obvious  explanation.  Such  triads  in 
Egypt  are  Ptah,  Sekhet,  Imhotep  (Memphis), 
Amon,  Mut,  Khensu  (Thebes).  These  may  be 
merely  the  result  of  convergence.  The  Greek 
Zeus,  Hera,  Athena  and  the  Roman  Jupiter,  Juno, 
Minerva  are  parallel  triads. 

In  the  Aryan  groups  the  number  three  is  found 
everywhere  in  myth  and  cult.  The  Celts  have 
groups  of  goddesses  in  threes  and  a  three-headed 
god,  Cernunnos.  In  Greek  religion  appear  3  fates, 
3  graces,  3  furies,  3  hours,  3  muses.  The  Teutons 
have  their  3  norns.  Injndia  the  great  gods  number 
33  divided  into  three  groups  of  equal  size. 

Buddhism  developed  its  own  unique  trinitarian 
theology  in  the  theory  of  the  three  bodies  of  Buddha, 
Nirmanakaya,  Sambhogakaya,  Dharmakaya  (q.v.). 
In  another  form  the  Dharma,  Buddha,  and  Sangha 
form  a  trinity  of  manifestations  of  one  reality, 
the  eternal  truth  in  three  expressions. 

The  Christian  Trinity  of  Father,  Son  and  Holy 
Spirit  is  another  unique  historical  development. 
See  Trinity.  A.  Eustace  Haydon 

TRIBE,  TRIBAL-GOD.— A  tribe  is  an  ethno- 
logical division,  consisting  of  a  group  of  families 
or  small  communities,  usually  bound  together  by 
consanguinity  and  affinity,  and  observing  their 
economic,  political  and  religious  life  in  common. 
They  have  one  leader  or  chief  and  frequently 
trace  their  origin  to  a  common  progenitor.  The 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel  are  an  example,  Israel  itself 
being  a  larger  tribe.  A  belief  peculiar  to  tribal 
history  is  in  a  patron  deity  who  protects  the  tribe 
and  with  whom  the  welfare  of  the  tribe  is  connected. 
Such  was  the  conception  of  Yahweh  in  the  pre- 
prophetic  period  of  the  history  of  Israel. 

TRICHOTOMY.— In  theological  usage  the 
theory  that  man  is  composed  of  three  elements, 
viz.,  body,  soul,  and  spirit. 

TRIDENTIVE  PROFESSION   OF  FAITH.— 

The  most  important  creedal  statement  of  the  R.C. 
church  elaborated  by  a  commission  of  cardinals 
under  the  direction  of  Pius  IV.  in  1564,  and  con- 
sisting of  twelve  articles.  It  gives  clear  definitions 
of  CathoUc  doctrines  as  these  were  determined  by 
the  Council  of  Trent.  See  Creeds;  Articles  op 
Faith;   Roman  Catholic  Church. 

TRIDUUM.— In  the  R.C.  calendar  a  three  days' 
devotion  preceding  the  celebration  of  a  saint's 
day  or  preparatory  to  seeking  the  intercession  of  a 
saint. 

TRIMURTL— The  triad  of  manifestation  of  the 
one  supreme  reality  in  Hinduism.  The  three  gods 
are  named  differently  in  the  sects  but  the  oldest  and 
commonest  doctrine  is  that  the  one  God  manifests 
himself  as  creator  in  Brahma,  as  providence  and  pre- 
server in  Vishnu,  as  destroyer  in  Shiva — one  reaUty 
in  three  forms. 

TRINE  IMMERSION.— A  mode  of  administer- 
ing baptism  by  immersing  the  candidate  in  the  water 
three  times  successively  in  the  names  of  the  Father, 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit.     This  method 


455 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Truth 


is  in  vogue  in  the  Greek,  Russian,  Armenian  and 
other  oriental  churches  as  well  as  among  several 
western  sects,  and  its  use  can  be  traced  to  a  very 
early  date,  several  of  the  Fathers  believing  it  to  be 
the  N.T.  practise.     See  Baptism. 

TRINITARIANS.— A  R.C.  rehgious  order 
founded  by  Jean  de  Matha  and  F6Ux  de  Valois  in 
1198,  and  devoted  to  the  ransom  of  Christians  in 
captivity  to  the  Mohammedans.  The  modem 
so-called  Bare-footed  Trinitarians  are  devoted  to 
the  liberation  of  negro  slaves  by  ransom,  especially 
in  N.  E,  Africa. 

TRINITY.— The  doctrine  that  one  substance 
of  the  Godhead  exists  and  acts  in  three  "persons" 
viz.,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit. 

1.  Development  of  the  doctrine. — Christian  experi- 
ence, from  the  first,  was  religiously  related  to  the 
God  of  Jewish  faith,  to  Jesus  Christ  as  divine 
redeemer,  and  to  the  divine  power  manifest  in 
the  gifts  of  the  Spirit.  No  effort  was  made  to 
organize  these  elements  into  a  rational  theological 
doctrine  until  the  influence  of  Hellenistic  phi- 
losophy became  dominant.  Under  this  influence, 
God  was  defined  as  the  infinite,  immutable  meta- 
physical being,  or  "substance,"  and  Christ  was 
conceived  as  the  metaphysical  Logos  (q.v.).  To 
define  the  relation  between  God  and  the  Logos- 
Christ  so  as  to  preserve  monotheism  was  the 
problem  which  led  to  the  formulation  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  trinity.  Two  opposing  solutions 
divided  the  field.  (1)  The  conception  of  sub- 
ordination, which  made  God  supreme  and  the 
Logos  a  created  or  derived  being.  See  Arianism. 
This  conception  was  rehgiously  unacceptable. 
Salvation  was  interpreted  as  a  deifying  of  man's 
substance  through  regeneration.  This  deification 
would  be  imperfect  unless  the  redeemer  himself 
possessed  complete  deity.  Hence  (2)  the  doctrine 
of  the  absolute  deity  incarnate  in  Jesus  Christ  was 
officially  established  by  the  Nicene  Coimcil.  This 
necessitated  the  making  of  a  distinction  between  the 
Father  and  the  Logos  within  the  Godhead,  whereas 
the  idea  of  subordination  made  it  externally.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  includes  the  Holy  Spirit 
within  the  Godhead,  and  declares  Father,  Son,  and 
Spirit  to  be  consubstantial  (of  identical  substance), 
but  to  differ  in  the  functioning  of  that  essence. 
The  Latin  word  persona,  indicating  a  specific 
character  which  an  active  agent  expresses,  was  used 
to  express  the  distinctions. 

2.  Interpretations  of  the  doctrine. — The  terms 
employed  in  the  Nicene  discussions  are  highly 
speciahzed  metaphysical  concepts,  and  these 
terms  were  given  different  meanings  by  different 
exponents.  Popular  thinking  was  inevitably  pic- 
torial, and  tended  to  conceive  the  "persons  of 
the  trinity  after  the  analogy  of  human  persons. 
This  leads  to  tritheism  either  explicit  or  implied. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  unity  of  God  is  empha- 
sized, the  second  and  third  persons  of  the  trinity 
are  pictured  as  less  than  God,  and  the  religious 
meaning  of  the  doctrine  is  lost.    Theological  inter- 

Eretations  have  sought  to  avoid  these  extremes, 
ut  are  forced  to  employ  technically  abstruse 
distinctions  difficult  for  any  but  trained  theologians 
to  grasp.  Hence  the  doctrine  has  been  generally 
maintained  by  ecclesiastical  authority  rather  than 
by  popular  understanding.  The  so-called  Atha- 
nasian  creed  elaborately  warns  both  against  dimin- 
ishing the  full  deity  of  any  of  the  three  persons, 
and  against  tritheism,  and  characteristically  rein- 
forces this  dictum  by  declaring  the  doctrine  of  the 
creed  indispensable  to  salvation.  It  is  thus  set  as 
a  metaphysical  mystery  which  somehow  contains 
the    sole    saving    truth.     In    Christian    thinking 


it  has  been  generally  accepted  as  an  expression 
of  the  adorable  mystery  of  the  Godhead,  and  has 
served  to  stimulate  mystical  reflections.  Those  who 
have  protested  against  the  doctrine  have  generally 
represented  an  insistence  on  intellectual  exactness 
at  the  expense  of  religious  mysticism.     See  Anti- 

TRINITARIANISM. 

From  a  historical  point  of  view,  the  doctrine 
is  seen  to  be  the  natural  and  effective  way  of 
interpreting  the  redemptive  activity  of  Christ  when 
salvation  is  conceived  as  a  metaphysical  trans- 
formation of  substance.  It  is  strongly  cherished 
wherever  sacramentalism  exists.  When,  however, 
the  metaphysical  presuppositions  of  Hellenistic 
thinking  are  abandoned,  the  doctrine  is  regarded  as 
a  symbol  of  Christian  faith  rather  than  as  a  literally 
exact  description.  Liberal  Protestantism  generally 
takes  this  position.  See  Christology;  Logos. 
Gerald  Birney  Smith 

TRINITY  SUNDAY.— The  first  Sunday  after 
Whit  Sunday,  celebrated  by  the  R.C.  and  Anglican 
churches  as  a  festival  in  honor  of  the  Trinity. 

TRIPITAKA.— The  Sanskrit  form  of  the  name 
for  the  Buddhist  Scriptures.  See  Canon  (Bud- 
dhist). 

TRIRATNA.— The  Buddhist  Triad  or  "three 
Jewels"  consisting  of  Buddha,  the  dharma  (Word  or 
Truth)  and  Sangha  (the  Order  of  Monks).  In 
philosophic  Buddhism  this  is  interpreted  to  mean 
that  eternal  Reality,  expressed  in  Truth,  finds  com- 
plete embodiment  in  the  person  of  Buddha  and  is 
socially  active  in  the  Order. 

TRISAGION.— The  liturgical  designation  of 
Isa.  6:3,  so-called  from  the  first  words,  "Holy, 
holy  holy,  is  the  Lord  of  hosts,"  etc.  The  word 
liter  Uy  means  "thrice  holy." 

TRITHEISM.— That  interpretation  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  which  so  emphasizes  the  dis- 
tinct existence  of  each  of  the  three  "persons"  as  to 
suggest  three  independent  gods. 

TRITON. — In  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of 
Neptune.  In  the  later  classical  mythology,  one  of 
the  inferior  divinities  who  presided  over  the  sea. 

TROLL. — One  of  the  clumsy,  giant  beings  of 
Teutonic  mythology  usually  faithful  to  man  but 
often  dangerous. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD.— An  arrangement  for  miti- 
gating the  evils  of  private  warfare  in  feudal  times, 
under  which  fighting  was  forbidden  by  the  church 
on  certain  days  of  the  week  and  on  the  important 
festival  and  fast  days  in  the  calendar.  It  was 
generally  respected  from  the  9th.  to  the  12th. 
centuries. 

TRUMPETS,  FEAST  OF.— In  the  Hebrew 
calendar,  a  festival  observed  in  commemoration  of 
the  New  Year,  as  prescribed  in  the  Levitical  legisla- 
tion, so  called  from  the  blowing  of  the  trumpets  at 
stated  intervals,  a  signal  of  the  approaching  festival. 

TRUTH. — An  affirmation  or  a  proposition 
strictly  in  accordance  with  the  facts,  and  therefore 
capable  of  serving  as  a  trustworthy  guide  for 
thought  or  for  action. 

The  supreme  value  of  Truth  is  evident.  Errone- 
ous or  misleading  conceptions  of  the  conditions 
which  must  be  faced  defeats  the  successful  conduct 
of  life.  Deliberate  falsifying  is  condemned  by  our 
moral  judgment  as  an  injury  against  the  person 


Tuatha  De  Danann 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


456 


deceived.  See  Lie,  _  Lying.  Imperfect  or  per- 
verted ideas  are  universally  recognized  as  evils 
to  be  removed  by  education.  Truthseeking  is  a 
primary  duty. 

Philosophy  might  be  defined  as  the  critical 
method  of  discovering  truth.  To  a  large  extent 
the  subject  matter  of  philosophy  in  the  western 
world  has  consisted  in  the  attempt  to  analyze 
the  process  of  knowledge  so  as  to  discover  the 
criteria  of  true  conceptions.  It  is  much  more 
difficult  to  ascertain  these  criteria  than  would 
appear  at  first  sight.  A  very  little  reflection  reveals 
the  fact  that  our  ideas  are  the  outcome  of  a  compU- 
cated  process  in  which  physical,  physiological, 
temperamental,  and  social  conditions  are  so  many 
and  so  varied  that  the  relativity  of  human  ideas 
seems  incurable.  The  only  way  in  which  to  correct 
one  idea  is  by  the  use  of  a  second  idea  as  a  basis  of 
comparison.  This  again  must  be  checked  up  by  a 
third,  and  so  on  indefinitely. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  rescue  men  from 
this  relativity  by  both  philosophy  and  theology. 
Philosophical  reaUsm  of  the  Platonic  type  assumes 
the  objective  and  a  priori  existence  of  an  ideal  realm 
of  truth.  Particular  ideas  are  proved  to  be  truth- 
ful by  their  participating  in  this  absolute  truth. 
Theology  has  provided  a  divinely  inspired  com- 
pendium of  truth  in  Scripture  to  which  aU  human 
ideas  must  conform.  See  Infallibility.  To  re- 
fuse to  subject  one's  thinking  to  this  divinely 
authorized  norm  has  been  regarded  as  a  mark  of 
sinful  perversity.  Popularly  the  acquirement  of 
true  ideas  is  still  pictured  as  the  copying  in  our 
minds  of  truths  or  realities  already  existing  in 
perfection. 

Modern  thought,  however,  is  more  and  more 
accepting  the  inescapable  fact  of  the  relativity  of 
human  knowledge,  and  is  working  out  a  different 
method  of  seeking  the  truth.  Carefully  regulated 
observation,  repeated  and  continually  verified, 
together  with  definite  experimentation  in  order 
to  test  hypotheses,  form  the  technique  of  modern 
science.  The  truths  which  are  affirmed  on  the 
basis  of  this  method  are  carefully  restricted  to  the 
precise  field  within  which  the  controlled  and  veri- 
fied investigations  have  been  made.  Beyond  this 
limited  field  ideas  must  be  called  hypotheses  rather 
than  truths.  Pragmatism  substitutes  for  the 
traditional  conception  of  truth  the  conception  of  a 
process  of  progressive  verification.  Truth  is  thus 
always  in  the  making  rather  than  something  already 
fixed  and  complete.  Modern  religious  thinking 
is  more  and  more  using  the  method  of  historical 
study  and  psychological  analysis  as  the  means  of 
arriving  at  conclusions.  The  truths  thus  dis- 
covered are  always  subject  to  revision.  But 
although  this  empirical  attitude  does  not  furnish 
so  imposing  a  doctrine  of  the  nature  of  truth,  it 
none  the  less  emphasizes  the  supreme  importance 
of  seeking  critically  defensible  convictions,  and 
severely  condemns  deliberate  falsifying  or  avoidable 
ignorance.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

TUATHA  DE  DANANN.— The  name  of  a  family 
of  gods  of  the  conquerors  of  Ireland  in  pre-Christian 
times.  They  are  nature  powers  of  crops,  fertiUty 
and  the  sky.  As  on  the  continent  there  are  blended 
with  these  fimctions  those  of  war,  learning  and  the 
arts.  With  the  coming  of  Christianity  these 
divine  beings  become  fairy-folk  hving  underground. 

TUBINGEN  SCHOOL.— Advocates  of  a  par- 
ticular interpretation  of  early  Christianity  as 
expounded  first  by  F.  C.  Baur  who  was  a  professor 
in  the  Protestant  theological  faculty  of  the  univer- 
sity at  Tubingen,  Germany,  during  the  years 
lS2a-60t 


Baur  thought  the  determining  factor  in  the  his- 
tory of  Christianity  during  the  years  immediately 
following  the  death  of  Jesus  to  have  been  a  sharp 
and  persistent  conflict  between  Paul  and  his  con- 
servative Jewish  Christian  contemporaries  under 
the  leadership  of  Peter.  The  age  of  the  apostles  was 
supposed  to  have  been  rent  by  this  conflict,  but  the 
next  generation  began  a  process  of  conciliation 
which  gradually  synthesized  the  Petrine  and  Pauhne 
parties  into  the  ancient  catholic  church.  Judged 
by  this  interpretation  of  the  history,  only  those 
documents  that  betray  the  existence  of  this  early 
conflict,  namely  Galatians,  First  and  Second 
Corinthians,  and  Romans,  can  have  come  from  the 
pen  of  Paul;  while  the  remaining  New  Testament 
books,  which  show  a  conciliatory  tone,  must  have 
been  products  of  the  post-apostolic  age.  Baur 
regarded  the  universalism  and  ethical  ideaUsm 
of  Paul  as  the  essence  of  Christianity.  This  had 
been  the  real  content  of  the  gospel  as  preached  by 
Jesus,  and  it  had  even  been  implicit  in  the  religion 
of  the  Petrine  party,  by  whom  it  was  temporarily 
obscured  through  a  reversion  to  Jewish  particular- 
ism and  legalism.  To  deliver  the  gospel  of  Jesus 
from  this  bondage  to  Judaism  was  Paul's  peculiar 
task. 

While  Baur  gave  a  strong  stimulus  toward  the 
historical  study  of  early  Christianity,  a  more 
thorough  investigation  of  the  various  genetic 
factors  that  contributed  toward  its  rise  has  shown 
the  Tubingen  theory  to  be  indaequate.  Its  solu- 
tion was  far  too  simple  to  account  for  all  the  varied 
facts  in  the  case,  and  the  school  today  has  no 
champion  of  note.  S.  J.  Case 

TUNIC  OR  TUNICLE.— A  vestment  worn  when 
celebrating  Mass  by  a  sub-deacon;  also  called 
dalmatic  (q.v.). 

TUNKERS. — Same  as  Dunkers  or  Dunkards 
(q.v.). 

TURKEY  AND  THE  NEAR  EAST,  MISSIONS 
TO.^— We  here  consider  missions  in  Turkey  as  it 
was  before  the  world  war;  also  in  Persia,  Arabia 
and  Egypt.  The  great  number  of  nationaUties, 
among  many  of  which  there  existed  traditional  antipar 
thies  accompanied  by  diversities  of  language  and 
religion,  rendered  general  missionary  endeavor  in 
those  regions  unusually  slow  and  difficult. 

Missions  in  the  Near  East  were  begun  by  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  of  Boston  in  1819,  when  Rev.  Phny 
Fisk  and  Levi  Parsons  sailed  for  Smyrna  but  with 
Syria  and  Palestine  as  their  objective.  At  that 
time  the  condition  and  needs  of  the  Jews  and  the 
Mohammedans  commanded  chief  attention.  The 
Mission  to  Syria  was  opened  by  them.  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  from  France  had  preceded 
them  and  have  remained  there  and  in  Constanti- 
nople, their  operations  extend  into  the  interior. 
In  1831  Constantinople  was  occupied  by  Rev. 
William  GoddeU  who  had  spent  some  years  in 
Syria  and  at  Malta.  In  1833  the  Rev.  James 
Perkins  sailed  from  Boston  vmder  commission  to 
begin  work  among  the  Nestorians  in  Western 
Persia.  He  went  to  Tabriz  and  in  1835  he  with  his 
associates  moved  to  Urumia.  In  1825  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  of  England  sent  five  missionaries 
to  Egypt  and  their  interest  in  that  country  and  in 
Arabia  has  been  continuous.  In  1854  the  Asso- 
ciate Reformed  Church  of  the  West,  later  merged 
into  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  began  work 
in  Egypt  and  later  the  United  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  and  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  of 
America  began  missions  in  Arabia.  In  1870  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  North,  which  had  been  operating 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Ubiquity 


from  the  first  with  the  American  Board,  formed 
a  missionary  organization  of  its  own  and  the  Persian 
and  Syrian  missions  were  turned  over  to  that  new 
board.  In  recent  years  other  and  less  well  known 
societies  have  participated  in  a  small  way  in  some 
form  of  missionary  work  in  the  Near  East,  but 
the  main  operating  forces  are  those  above  named. 

Attention  and  effort  were  first  directed  to  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  in  whole  or  in  part 
into  the  various  spoken  languages  of  the  country. 
These  included  the  Turkish  written  with  Arabic, 
Armenian  and  Greek  characters,  the  Arabic,  the  Ar- 
menian, the  Greek,  the  Koordish  and  the  Persian,  and 
some  others.  At  the  same  time  an  educational  and.a 
more  general  literature  was  created.  As  there  was 
no  modern  education  in  all  that  country,  schools 
were  opened  in  all  of  the  large  centers  of  population 
as  well  as  in  widely  scattered  outlying  areas.  The 
coimtries  were  fairly  well  occupied  within  the  first 
fifty  years  following  1820.  The  Armenians  were 
the  first  to  accept  modem  learning;  the  Syrians 
came  next  followed  by  the  Greeks,  and  they  have 
held  this  lead  throughout  the  century. 

There  was  no  purpose  to  introduce  schism  into 
the  Eastern  Gregorian,  Nestorian,  Syrian,  Coptic 
and  Greek  churches,  but  the  first  missionaries 
entered  upon  their  work^  instructed  not  to  encour- 
age separation  but  to  aim  at  producing  the  Bible 
in  the  vernaculars  of  the  people,  the  rearing  up  of 
an  educated  and  morally  upright  clergy  for  the 
historic  churches  and  a  place  for  religious  instruc- 
tion in  the  elaborate  rituals  of  the  churches.  Sepa- 
ration that  later  took  place  in  the  Armenian 
Church  was  not  brought  about  by  the  missionaries 
but  by  ecclesiastics  who  disapproved  of  modern 
education  and  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular. 

The  Turks  were  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  the 
country  to  show  interest  in  Christianity.  Viola- 
tion of  this  regulation  was  followed  by  severe 
persecution,  often  by  death.  Comparatively  few 
among  the  Mohammedans  have  accepted  Chris- 
tianity, but  many  are  now  studying  in  Christian 
schools.  Modern  medicine  was  introduced  by  the 
missionaries  and  already  there  are  established  in 
most  of  the  large  centers  of  population  fully 
equipped  hospitals  and  at  Beirut  there  are  two 
excellent  medical  schools.  Many  industries  have 
been  introduced,  including  agriculture,  and  the 
importation  of  new  tools  and  seeds.  These  inno- 
vations have  had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  industrial 
resources  and  outlook  of  the  country. 

As  a  result  of  a  century  of  modern  missions  in 
the  Near  East  the  printing  press  has  become  indige- 
nous, modern  medicine  has  been  accepted  by  the 
great  mass  of  the  people,  new  industries  and  modern 
methods  of  carrying  on  old  ones  are  multiplying, 
Roman  CathoUc  and  Protestant  churches  with 
strong  supporting  communities  are  found  over 
the  country,  and  educational  institutions,  mostly 
American  and  French,  have  won  a  national  and  an 
international  name  for  themselves  and  for  their 
founders.  These  include  Robert  College,  the 
American  College  for  Girls,  and  Roman  Catholic 
Colleges  at  Constantinople,  Beirut  University 
and  a  Roman  CathoUc  University  at  Beirut,  Inter- 
national College  and  the  Smyrna  Collegiate  Insti- 
tute for  Girls  at  Smyrna,  AnatoUa  College  at 
Marsovan,  Euphrates  College  at  Harpoot,  Central 
Turkey  College  at  Aintab,  Cairo  University.  The 
American  CoUeges  are  incorporated  under  United 
States  laws  and  have  separate  boards  of  trustees. 


During  the  century  the  American  missionary 
and  educational  work  carried  on  in  Turkey  has 
cost  for  the  purchase  and  erection  of  plants,  for 
equipment  and  for  conduct,  over  $40,000,000, 
and  in  normal  times  the  work  is  carried  on  in  all 
departments  by  some  500  Americans  in  residence 
with  ten  times  that  number  of  trained  native 
leaders.  These  estabUshments  and  institutions 
have  wrought  great  changes  throughout  all  the 
Near  East.  They  are  today  the  steadying  forces 
in  the  country. 

It  must  be  stated  that  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  in  1914  all  these  educational  and  mission- 
ary operations  severely  suffered  through  military 
operations  and  by  the  inhuman  treatment  of  the 
Christian  minorities  by  the  ruling  Turks.  Some 
$60,000,000  were  contributed  by  Americans  through 
the  Near  East  Relief  which  sum  was  used  for 
relief  purposes  in  the  Near  East  by  the  American 
missionaries,  educators,  doctors  and  volunteer 
workers.  James  L.  Barton 

TUTELARY  GOD. — A  deity  conceived  as 
having  the  guardianship  of  a  person,  community 
or  thing;  frequently  an  animal  so  regarded. 

TWENTY-FIVE  ARTICLES.— The  confession 
of  faith  drawn  up  by  John  Wesley  and  adopted  by 
the  American  Methodist  Church  in  1784,  the  basis 
being  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles  (q.v.)  of  the  Ang- 
lican Church  from  which  certain  articles  were 
omitted.    See  Methodism;  Creeds. 

TYCHE.— See  Fate. 

TYCHISM. — ^A  theory  which  treats  chance  as  a 
real  controlling  power  in  the  evolutionary  process, 
thus  denying  the  universality  of  immutable  law. 
The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  Tyche,  goddess 
of    chance. 

TYNDALE,  WILLIAM  (1484-1536).— English 
divine  and  martyr,  famous  as  a  champion  of  reli- 
gious hberty  and  of  religious  reformation  in 
England,  and  as  a  translator  of  considerable  por- 
tions of  the  Bible  into  the  English  language. 

TYPES. — A  type  is  a  person  or  thing  which  pre- 
figures another  person  or  thing  still  future. 

According  to  the  theory  of  the  Church,  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New  form  a  single  revelation 
and  teach  the  same  lessons.  The  chief  interest  of 
early  expositors  therefore  was  to  discover  predic- 
tions of  Christ  and  his  Church  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Many  things,  however,  in  the  earlier  revelation 
seem  to  have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  Christian 
life.  These  were  interpreted  allegorically — prece- 
dent was  found  in  the  Greek  expositors  of  Homer — • 
or  else  viewed  as  types.  The  New  Testament 
itself  sees  a  type  of  Christ  in  the  brazen  serpent 
made  by  Moses.  Many  expositors  have  discovered 
a  type  m  almost  every  person  or  thing  mentioned 
in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  But  a  more  sober  exegesis 
now  prevails.    See  Allegory.  H.  P.  Smith 

TYRRELL,  GEORGE  (1861-1909).— A  R.C. 
priest  in  England  who  espoused  the  cause  of 
Modernism  (q.v.),  and  was  excommunicated  when 
he  refused  to  submit  to  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
His  ideals  are  set  forth  in  A  Much-  Abused  Letter, 
Mediaevalism,  and  Christianity  at  the  Cross-roads. 


u 


UBIQUITY. — ^A  term  employed  in  Lutheran 
discussions  of  the  Real  Presence  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Luther  held  that  the  qualities  of  the 
divine  nature  in   Christ  were   communicated  to 


his  human  nature.  Hence  the  human  nature 
may  be  omnipresent  (ubiquitous),  and  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  is  really  in  the  eucharist.     See 

COMMUNIGATIO  IdIOMATUM. 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


458 


ULAMA. — ^Learned  men  in  Islam,  scholars  in  the 
tradition  and  canon  law. 

ULFILAS  (ca.  311-383).— Christian  Missionary 
to  the  Gothic  peoples;  a  great  teacher  and  mis- 
sionary, working  among  the  Visigoths  and  Goths 
for  forty  years.  He  was  ordained  by  the  Semi- 
Arians  But  subsequently  went  over  to  the  Arian 
party.  His  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Gothic 
laid  the  f  oxmdation  of  Teutonic  Hterature. 

ULTRAMONTANISM.— The  name  given  to  the 
R.C.  attitude  in  Europe  which  exalts  papal  author- 
ity, so-called  because  the  advocates  of  this  policy 
look  over  (ultra)  the  mountains  (monies),  i.e., 
beyond  the  Alps  to  Rome  for  guidance  in  all  matters. 

The  main  tenets  of  the  Ultramontane  position 
are:  (1)  The  acknowledgement  of  the  supremacy  of 
the  Roman  pontiff  in  matters  of  religion,  so  that  the 
decree  of  the  Vatican  council  1870,  in  declaring  him 
infallible  when  he  speaks  Ex  Cathedra,  was  a  tri- 
umph for  Ultramontanism.  (2)  The  claim  that  the 
church  is  supreme  in  matters  of  religion,  and  cannot 
hand  over  the  regulation  of  religion  to  the  state; 
consequently  individuals  are  not  obliged  to  obey 
legislation  which  contravenes  the  church's  teaching. 
This  position  is  clearly  set  forth  in  the  encyclical 
letters  of  Leo  XIII.  The  result  of  it  is  seen  in  the 
condemnation  of  the  Austrian  constitution  by 
Pius  IX.,  1868,  and  the  Kulturkampf  in  Germany, 
when  the  Pope  declared  the  ecclesiastical  laws  of 
Germany  void,  1875.  (3)  The  maintenance  of 
Cathohc  loyalty  in  all  institutions  of  culture. 
Secularism,  modernism,  untrammelled  criticism 
are  all  to  be  regarded  as  dangerous  to  religion,  and 
an  unceasing  warfare  is  to  be  maintained  against 
them.  (4)  Opposition  to  all  attempts  to  de- 
Romanize  the  church  or  to  ally  it  with  the  interests 
of  other  nations.  The  great  advocates  of  Ultra- 
montanism have  been  the  Jesuits,  the  influence  of 
whom  has  become  more  and  more  dominant  with 
the  papacy  during  the  19th.  and  20th.  centuries. 
The  Syllabus  of  1864,  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870,  and  the  Encychcal  of  Pope  Pius  X. 
against  modernism  are  typical  ultramontanist 
expressions. 

UMA. — ^Wife  of  Shiva  under  her  aspect  of 
beauty  and  light. 

UNAM  SANCTAM.— A  bull  promulgated  by 
Boniface  VIII.  in  1302  declaring  that  submission 
to  the  authority  of  the  pope  is  essential  to  salvation. 
This  principle  was  applied  to  worldly  rulers,  who 
were  to  exercise  their  temporal  power  so  as  never 
to  clash  with  the  purposes  of  the  church. 

UNBELIEF. — Scepticism,  agnosticism,  or  the 
withholding  of  intellectual  assent.  Strictly,  unbelief 
simply  suggests  the  absence  of  belief,  a  negative 
attitude  of  mind.  Practically,  it  inhibits  any  posi- 
tive action,  hence  is  readily  classed  with  disbehef. 
For  this  reason  unbelief  is  usually  classed  as  irre- 
Ugious.    See  Doubt;  Scepticism. 

UNCTION. — A  ceremonial  anointing  with  oil 
or  ointments,  as  in  Extreme  Unction  (q.v.).  The 
rite  is  beheved  to  impart  a  divine  potency;  hence  a 
discourse  with  evident  religious  power  is  said  to  be 
deUvered  with  unction.    See  Anointing. 

UNDINE. — In  mediaeval  folk-lore,  a  female 
water-sprite,  who  could  obtain  a  soul  only  by 
wedding  and  bearing  a  child  for  a  man. 

UNIFORMITY,  ACTS  OF.— See  Acts  of 
Uniformity. 

UNIGENITUS. — A  bull  emanating  from  Pope 
Clement  XI.  in  1713  condemning  101  doctrines 


(q.- 
dence  of  the  victory  of  the  Jesuits  over  Jansenism 
(q.v.). 

UNION,  CHURCH!.— The  churches  of  the 
East  and  West  (Greek  vs.  Latin  Christianity), 
early  developing  divergencies  in  respect  of  doctrine, 
pohty,  hturgy,  and  monastic  pohcy,  influenced  by 
the  succession  of  events  that  gradually  detached 
the  western  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  from  the 
eastern,  at  length  in  the  8th.  century,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  a  violent  controversy  over  the  use  of  images 
in  worship,  severed  fraternal  relations.  Due  to 
the  growing  imperialistic  aspirations  of  the  papacy, 
overtures  were  frequently  made  to  heal  this  breach. 
The  summons  to  provincial  councils  repeatedly 
makes  regretful  mention  of  this  schism  in  Chris- 
tendom. Representatives  of  the  Greek  church 
attended  the  fourth  Lateran  Council  and  negotia- 
tions toward  imion  found  a  place  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Council  of  Basel.  Deep  temperamental 
differences  and  the  patronizing  attitude  of  Rome 
toward  her  eastern  rival  interposed  impenetrable 
barriers.  Meanwhile  the  unity  of  the  Roman 
church  was  seriously  impaired  from  another  quarter, 
by^  various  _  sects — Cathari,  Waldenses,  etc. — 
which  organized  themselves  in  protest  against  the 
sacerdotalism  of  the  papal  system,  and  the  deUn- 
quencies  of  its  clergy.  Toward  these  Rome's 
pohcy  remained  one,  not  of  conciUation,  but  of 
repression  and  extermination.  Resorting  to  ecclesi- 
astical censures,  crusading  warfare,  friar  preaching, 
and  the  Inquisition,  she  succeeded  in  largely 
stamping  out  these  recalcitrant  heretics.  The 
Hussites  alone  gained  recognition  in  the  Compacta 
(q.v.)  formulated  at  Basel.  The  Renaissance  with 
its  historical  spirit  and  its  assertion  of  the  worth 
of  human  personaUty,  the  growth  of  national 
consciousness,  and  the  sensitiveness  of  the  newly 
created  commercial  classes,  raised  new  problems 
for  the  universal  pretensions  of  Rome.  Hence 
the  Reformation,  an  important  result  of  which  was 
the  organization  of  state  churches  which  carried 
away  from  the  papacy  the  allegiance  of  large  areas 
of  its  constituency.  Clearer  views  of  the  spiritual 
character  of  rehgion  making  for  Christian  democ- 
racy, reacted  in  many  quarters  against  the  institu- 
tion of  the  state  church,  and  led  to  the  formation 
of  various  dissenting  groups.  The  fact  that  the 
church  of  Rome  showed  no  disposition  in  the 
Council  of  Trent  to  make  concessions  to  schismatics, 
and  that  government  authorities  proceeded  to  pro- 
tect state  churches  by  persecuting  dissenters,  only 
served  to  perpetuate  and  strengthen  sectarianism, 
especially  when  the  uncolonized  regions  of  America 
provided  not  only  a  refuge  for  the  religiously 
oppressed  but  the  frontier  isolation  conducive  to 
further  sectarian  differentiation.  Since  the  open- 
ing of  the  19th.  century,  several  factors  have  been 
operating  toward  the  unifying  of  Christianity — a 
saner  view  of  the  futility  of  persecution*  and  the 
economic  value  of  the  principle  of  religious  tolerance, 
clearer  insight  into  the  spiritual  nature  and  task  of 
the  Christian  churcji,  multipl5dng  contacts  that 
have  compelled  rival  groups  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  each  other  and  to  the  disclosure  of  the  great 
basic  features-  common  to -all,  the  anomaly  of  a 
divided  Protestantism  endeavoring  to  foist  its 
denominational  differences  upon  the  non-Christian 
civilization,  and  the  manifest  inadequacy  of  dupli- 
cated sectarian  propaganda  to  deal  with  the  urgent 
problems  of  world  Christianization. 

Among  the  earliest  expressions  of  this  tendency 
to  a  more  united  Christendom,  was  the  merging  into 
one  (1817)  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches 
of  Prussia.  In  England  non-conformists,  stimulated 
by  the  emancipating  atmosphere  of  the  French 
Revolution,  took  steps  in  concert  with  each  other 


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A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS     United  Brethren  in  Christ 


to  secure  the  removal  of  disabilities  still  imposed  by 
the  established  church.  Hence  the  organization 
of  the  Congregational  and  Baptist  Unions,  of  the 
National  Council  of  Free  Churches,  and  of  the  com- 
bining of  smaller  Methodist  groups  into  the 
United  Methodist  Free  Churches.  Scotch  Presby- 
terianism  encumbered  by  its  fourfold  divisions 
witnessed  the  merging  (1900)  of  the  United  and 
Free  Church  wings.  In  America  the  19th.  century 
opened  with  the  Plan  of  Union  by  which  Presby- 
terians and  Congregationalists  extended  reciprocal 
courtesies  in  the  settlement  of  their  ministers. 
The  organization  soon  after  of  Missionary,  Bible, 
Tract,  and  Educational  Societies,  along  with  the 
Sunday  School  Union,  greatly  stimulated  inter- 
denominational consciousness.  An  Overture  for 
Union  (1838)  embodying  federated  principles  for 
evangeUcal  churches  disturbed  over  the  immense 

f)robIems  _  of  middle  west  Christianization,  but 
aimched  in  the  atmosphere  of  slavery  and  Old-New 
School  Presbyterian  controversy,  brought  no  fruits 
until  after  the  Civil  War,  the  various  bodies  of 
Presbyterians  consummated  (1894)  a  federation. 
Similar  federation  movements  in  large  eastern 
cities  led  to  the  organization  (1908)  of  the  Federal 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America, 
designed  to  express  the  fellowship  and  catholic 
unity  of  the  Christian  church,  and  without  man- 
datory power  to  act  as  an  agency  for  the  cor- 
relation and  co-ordination  of  existing  Christian 
forces  and  organizations.  Other  series  of  negotia- 
tions have  united  the  old,  new,  and  Cimaberland 
sections  of  Presbyterianism,  the  regular  and  free 
Baptists,  and  the  long  standing  alienation  of  north- 
ern and  southern  Methodists  gives  recent  promise 
of  elimination.  The  Lutherans  have  also  perfected 
(1918)  a  union  among  many  of  their  bodies.  From 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  on  the  basis  of  the 
Lambeth  Articles  emerged  (1910)  the  idea  of  a 
World  Conference  for  the  Consideration  of  Questions 
Touchin:;  Faith  and  Order,  based  upon  the  funda- 
mental principle  that  unity  is  to  be  found  not  in 
the  field  of  common  service,  but  "in  the  clear 
statement  and  full  consideration  of  those  things 
in  which  we  differ  as  well  as  in  those  things  in 
which  we  are  at  one."  A  Preliminary  Meeting, 
with  representatives  from  forty  nations  and  seventy 
autonomous  churches  (not  including  the  Church  of 
Rome),  convened  at  Geneva,  August,  1920,  pro- 
fesses to  have  found  much  to  confirm  the  wisdom  of 
calling  in  the  near  future  a  World  Conference  on 
Unity.  Episcopahans  and  Congregationalists  have 
already  drafted  (1919)  a  Concordat  which  awaits 
the  confirmation  of  their  supreme  deliberative 
bodies.  Impelled  by  the  co-operative  spirit  of  the 
war  time  period,  representatives  from  scores  of 
mission  boards  endorsed  the  organization  (1918) 
of  the  Interchurch  World  Movement,  which  pro- 
posed through  co-operation  to  increase  the  efficiency 
of  the  church  in  her  task  of  world  evangeUzation 
by  means  of  imited  budgets,  a  united  financial 
appeal,  and  a  scientific  survey  of  aU  fields  of  Chris- 
tian enterprise.  While  much  was  effected  in  the 
matter  of  surveys,  the  movement  failed  to  sustain 
the  support  of  the  participating  denominations, 
and  has  ceased  to  function.  The  most  recent  vmion 
movement  (February,  1920)  emanates  from  the 
Presbyterians  in  a  constitution  providing  for 
complete  autonomy  in  denominational  affairs, 
and  a  Council  to  harmonize  and  unify  the  work 
of  the  United  Churches.  Through  the  application 
of  co-operation  it  hopes  eventually  to  usher  in 
organic  unity.  Peter  G.  Mode 

UNITARIANISM.— The  name  given  to  a 
theology  which  insists  on  the  unity  of  God  to  the 
extent  of  repudiating  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 


At  the  opening  of  the  3rd.  century,  as  Tertullian 
and  Origen  indicate,  the  majority  of  behevers  were 
disinchned  to  the  Logos  Christology,  which  was 
adopted  by  philosophic  minds  and  involved  the 
Trinitarian  doctrine  as  a  result.  The  modern 
Unitarian  view  found  expression  in  one  party  of 
the  opponents,  the  Dynamists  or  Adoptionists, 
who  conceived  Christ  as  a  man  adopted  to  the  office 
of  Son  of  God,  empowered  with  the  spirit  and 
exalted  to  rule  over  the  consciences  of  men.  Similar 
views  appear  later  among  the  Paulicians  of  Armenia 
and  the  Spanish  Adoptionists  (8th.  century).  In 
the  16th.  century  this  was  the  conclusion  drawn 
from  Scripture  by  the  Socinians  in  Poland  (1565  ff.) 
and  formulated  on  the  basis  of  works  of  Faustus 
Socinus  in  the  Racovian  Catechism  (1605).  A 
similar  group  in  Hungary  (Franciscus  Davidis, 
bishop  1568)  is  still  represented  by  166  churches. 
The  Socinians  were  expelled  from  Poland  (1658) 
and  as  an  organized  body  disappeared,  but  their 
interpretation  of  Scripture  affected  the  Arminians 
of  Holland  and  England,  giving  rise  to  an  English 
propaganda  (John  Biddle,  Thomas  Firmin)  adher- 
ents to  which  were  threatened  by  the  Act  of  1698 
with  loss  of  civil  rights.  In  the  18th.  century 
Socinian  and  allied  views  spread  among  churchmen 
and  dissenters,  and  on  the  refusal  of  ParUament 
to  relax  the  terms  of  subscription  in  their  favor,  a 
Unitarian  chapel  was  opened  in  London,  1778,  by 
Rev.  Theophilus  Lindsey.  This  with  Presbyterian 
and  Baptist  churches  adhering  made  the  British 
and  Foreign  Unitarian  Association  (1825). [371 
churches.  Colleges:  Manchester  College,  Oxford, 
Home  Missionary  College,  Manchester].  The 
leading  representatives  in  theology  have  been 
Joseph  Priestly  (1733-1804),  Thomas  Belsham 
(1750-1829),  James  Martineau  (1805-1900),  James 
Drummond,  and  J.  Estlin  Carpenter. 

In  America  King's  Chapel  (Episcopal)  in  Boston 
became  Unitarian  in  1785,  and  Priestley  founded  a 
church  in  Northumberland,  Pa.,  in  1794.  The 
division  of  Congregationalism  in  1815  resulted  in  the 
founding  of  the  Unitarian  Berry  Street  Conference 
(1820),  the  American  Unitarian  Association  (1825), 
the  National  Conference  of  Unitarian  and  other 
Christian  Churches  (1865),  the  Meadville  Theo- 
logical School  .(1844),  and  the  Pacific  Unitarian 
School  (1904) .  Prior  to  1878  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  movement.  In 
America  there  are  about  500  churches,  and  82,515 
adherents  (1919).  The  older  Unitarianism  was  a 
non-Trinitarian  Biblicism.  Since  Channing  (1780- 
1842)  and  Theodore  Parker  (1810-1860),  Unitarians 
are  more  concerned  with  the  affirmation  of  a 
natural  religious  capacity  in  man  which,  stimu- 
lated in  experience,  obtains  conscious  communion 
with  God  and  is  impassioned  with  the  spirit  that  was 
in  Jesus.  F.  A.  Christie 

UNITAS  FRATRUM.— See  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren. 

UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST.— An 

evangelical  church  resulting  from  a  spontaneous 
movement  within  several  denominations  in  the 
late  18th.  century,  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia.  Phihp  William  Otter- 
bein  (1726-1813),  a  German  Reformed  minister, 
and  Martin  Boehm  (1725-1812),  a  minister  of  the 
Mennonite  church,  were  its  first  leaders.  United  by 
a  common  evangelical  zeal,  their  preaching  resulted 
in  many  conversions.  Originally  there  was  no 
thought  of  organizing  a  new  denomination .  Preach- 
ing, at  first  in  German  (now  but  4  per  cent),  was 
itinerant.  Converts  were  gathered  in  bands,  after 
the  model  of  Methodism.  The  first  ministerial 
conference    (7)    occurred    1789.     The    movement 


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460 


was  definitely  organized  in  1800  as  "The  United 
Brethren  in  Christ."  It  is  Wesley  an  in  polity,  and 
Arminian  in  doctrine.  Its  first  bishops  were  Otter- 
bein  and  Boehm  (1800).  The  General  Conference, 
a  delegated  body,  half  ministers  and  half  laity, 
meets  quadrenially.  It  elects  the  bishops  (for 
four  years),  legislates  for  the  church,  and  serves  as  a 
court  of  appeal.  Annual  Conferences  (district) 
supervise  the  interests  and  appoint  the  pastors  of 
local  churches.  The  church  has  stood  for  reform 
(slavery;  intemperance),  education  (Otterbein 
University,  Ohio,  1847,  and  seven  other  institutions 
of  learning  besides  Bonebrake  Theological  Semi- 
nary), and  missions  (W.  Africa,  China,  Japan,  etc.). 
In  1919  it  numbered  347,981. 

The  United  Brethren  in  Christ  (Old  Constitu- 
tion) is  a  schismatic  movement  originating  in  1889 
in  protest  against  a  new  constitution  which  was 
adopted  at  that  time.  They  have  (1919)  409 
churches,  and  19,100  members. 

Henry  H.  Walker 

UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH.— See 
Evangelical  Association. 

UNITED  FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.— 

A  Presbyterian  organization  formed  in  1900  by  a 
fusion  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  (q.v.)  and 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  (q.v.),  although 
a  portion  of  the  Free  Church  retained  its  inde- 
pendence under  the  old  name.  See  "Wee  Free" 
Church. 

UNITED  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  IN  AMERI- 
CA.— The  organization  resulting  in  1918  from  the 
union  of  the  Lutheran  General  Synod,  Lutheran 
General  Council,  and  Lutheran  United  Synod, 
South.     See  Lutheranism. 

UNITED  METHODIST  CHURCH.— An  Eng- 
lish Methodist  body,  formed  in  1907  by  the  amalga- 
mation of  the  Methodist  New  Connexion,  the 
Bible  Christians,  and  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Churches. 

UNITED      PRESBYTERIAN      CHURCH.— A 

Scottish  Presbyterian  organization  formed  in  1847 
by  the  amalgamation  of  the  United  Secession  and 
Relief  churches,  and  in  1900  united  with  the  Free 
Church  to  form  the  United  Free  church  of  Scotland. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA.— A  body  formed  (1858)  by 
the  uniting  of  the  Associate,  the  Associate  Reformed, 
and  Covenanter  wings  of  American  Presbyterianism. 
It  accepts  with  sUght  modifications  respecting  the 
civil  magistrate,  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  slave  holding  as  a 
violation  of  the  law  of  God,  the  unscripturalness  of 
secret  societies,  covenanting  as  a  church  duty,  and 
the  use  of  the  Psalms  in  public  and  private  worship. 
It  has  163  churches,  and  155,994  members. 

UNIVERSALISM   AND   UNIVERSALISTS.— 

As  used  here  UniversaUsm  means  the  doctrines  of 
the  religious  denomination  called  UniversaUsts. 
These  doctrines  were  officially  stated  as  follows  at 
the  Convention  in  Boston  in  1899.  (1)  The  Univer- 
sal fatherhood  of  God.  (2)  The  spiritual  authority 
and  leadership  of  His  Son  Jesus  Christ.  (3)  The 
trustworthiness  of  the  Bible  as  containing  a  revela- 
tion of  God.  (4)  The  certainty  of  just  retribution 
for  sin.  (5)  The  final  harmony  of  all  souls  with  God. 
1.  The  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  denomination 
are  the  first  and  the  fifth  of  these  principles.  Uni- 
versaUsts hold  that  these  have  a  sound  scriptural 
basis,  and  that  they  have  been  held  by  many  great 
minds  in  all  ages. 


They  also  claim  support  for  these  principles  in 
that  idea  of  evolution  which  makes  the  end  of  crea- 
tion a  redeemed  human  race;  in  that  view  of  soci- 
ology which  holds  to  the  soUdarity  of  the  human 
race  so  that  when  one  member  suffers  all  suffer; 
in  that  logic  of  theism  instanced  by  George  A. 
Gordon  of  Boston  in  his  phrase,  "If  God  shall 
succeed  universal  salvation  will  be  the  final  result." 

To  UniversaHsts  fife  is  not  a  probation  that 
ends  with  death,  but  a  discipline  for  all,  never  end- 
ing, but  always  moving  toward  a  completer  har- 
mony with  God. 

2.  History. — Universalists  recognize  their  begin- 
ning as  an  organized  body  in  1770,  in  which  year 
John  Murray  (q.v.)  came  from  London  and  preached 
in  a  church  he  found  erected  at  Good  Luck,  N.J. 
by  Thomas  Potter.  From  that  point  Murray 
preached  in  many  places,  dying  in  Boston  in  1815. 

Murray's  theology  was  the  idea  of  a  mystic 
union  of  Christ  and  the  human  race  by  which 
Christ  restored  all  that  was  lost  in  Adam.  Christ 
dying,  not  merely  for  the  elect,  but  for  all  mankind, 
it  follows  that  all  are  redeemed.  All  will  be  saved 
when  they  reaUze  that  they  are  redeemed,  and  live 
the  redeemed  life,  which  all  must  do  when  they 
hear  and  understand  the  good  news.  To  Murray 
it  was  the  task  of  the  preacher  to  tell  every  soul  in 
the  universe  the  good  news. 

Hosea  BaUou  (q.v.)  modified  Murray's  theology 
in  the  direction  of  Unitarianism.  To  Ballon, 
Jesus  was  not  God  but  the  greatest  son  of  God, 
dying  not  to  change  God  and  save  man  from  his 
anger,  but  to  show  man  God's  love  and  so  change 
man.  When  men  know  the  love  of  God  in  Christ 
they  inust  repent  and  so  be  saved.  Ballou  came 
to  believe  that  in  the  great  light  of  death  and 
entrance  into  the  hereafter,  all  would  at  once  see 
and  repent  and  be  saved.  This  idea  was  named  in 
derision,  "Death  and  Glory"  and  was  thought  by 
many  to  be  immoral.  Ballou  stoutly  asserted  that  it 
was  merely  a  theory  as  to  the  time  when  men  would 
see  and  repent,  and  that  no  moral  issue  whatever 
was  involved  in  it.  In  1831,  led  by  Adin  Ballou, 
a  party  seceded  and  took  the  name  "Restoration- 
ists,"  declaring  beHef  in  Hmited  future  punishment. 
This  schism  lasted  about  25  years.  Today  the 
denomination  is  in  entire  unity  on  its  five  principles. 

3.  Organization. — Organizations  of  Universal- 
ists are  mainly  in  America,  with  some  work  begun 
in  Japan. 

The  organization  begins  with  the  local  parish. 
All  parishes  in  any  state  form  a  State  Convention 
which  meets  annually.  All  State  Conventions  and 
parishes  send  delegates  to  form  a  General  Conven- 
tion which  meets  biennially.  Between  Conventions 
a  Board  of  nine  trustees  controls.  The  General 
Convention  keeps  a  National  Superintendent  in  the 
field,  and  the  separate  states  also  keep  State  or 
District  Superintendents.  The  Woman's  National 
Missionary  Association  is  strong.  The  Young 
People's  Christian  Union  has  over  5,000  members. 
The  General  S.  S.  Association  is  a  large  and  efficient 
body.  The  Order  of  UniversaUst  Comrades  enrols 
over  5,000  men. 

4.  Growth. — Universalists  are  a  slowly  growing 
body.  Its  people  are  intensely  individualistic, 
and  slow  to  see  the  value  of  organization.  From 
the  start  they  have  faced  bitter  opposition  from 
those  who  regard  their  doctrines  as  unscriptural 
and  immoral.  Many  churches  today  are  rather 
hospitable  to  Universalists,  who  are  not  infrequently 
accepting  the  proffered  hospitahty .  The  denomina- 
tion is  however  adding  about  3,000  souls  each  year 
to  its  church  membership.  They  have  (1921) 
about  650  parishes,  or  preaching  stations,  with 
about  500  preachers  and  some  60,000  communi- 
cants. 


461 


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Vagantes 


5.  Institutions. — Universalists  have  about  six 
millions  of  doUars  invested  in  schools,  which  are 
Tufts  College,  Mass.,  with  Crane  Divinity  School; 
St.  Lawrence  University  and  Theological  School 
at  Canton,  N.Y.;  Lombard  College  at  Galesburg, 
111.,  with  its  Ryder  Divinity  School  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago;  Goddard  Seminary  at  Barre, 
Yt.;  Dean  Academy  at  FrankUn,  Mass.;  Westbrook 
Seminary  at  Portland,  Maine.  The  Universalist 
Publishing  House  is  at  359  Boylston  St.,  Boston, 
with  Western  Headquarters  at  Ryder  House, 
Chicago,  60th  St.  and  Dorchester  Ave.,  where  all 
denominational  publications  can  always  be  found. 

Lewis  B.  Fisher 

UNLEAVENED  BREAD.— Bread  in  which  no 
yeast  has  been  used  to  produce  fermentation; 
specifically  that  prescribed  and  used  by  the  Hebrews 
in  celebrating  the  feast  of  the  Passover. 

UPANISHADS. — Philosophic  teaching  appended 
to  the  Vedic  texts  and  Brdhmanas  and  forming  part 
of  the  body  of  revealed  Scriptures  of  the  early 
Indo- Aryans.  They  teach  the  way  of  salvation 
by  knowledge  of  the  essential  unity  of  the  human 
soul  with  the  Supreme  Soul.  The  earhest  Upani- 
shads  date  from  before  the  6th.  century  B.C. 

URBAN. — The  name  of  eight  popes. 

Urban  /.—Saint;   Bishop  of  Rome,  222-230. 

Urban  II. — Pope,  108&-1099;  successor  of 
Hildebrand,  continuing  his  poUcies;  preached  the 
First  Crusade. 

Urban  III. — Pope,  1185-1187;  spent  his  ponti- 
ficate in  exile  owing  to  opposition  from  the  Roman 
senate. 

Urban  /F:— Pope,  1261-1262. 

Urban  V. — Pope,  1362-1370;  a  man  of  ethical 
purity  and'reforming  zeal;  beatified  in  1870. 

Urban  VI. — Pope,  1378-1389;  his  tactlessness 
and  harshness  led  to  the  division  known  as  the 
Great  Schism  which  lasted  fifty  years. 

Urban  F//.— Pope  for  12  days  in  1590. 

Urban  VIII.— Fope,  1623-1644.  He  was  con- 
cerned chiefly  to  increase  the  poUtical  power  of  the 
papacy;  he  acquiesced  in  the  condemnation  of 
Galileo,  condemned  Jansenism  and  improved  the 
city  of  Rome  architecturally. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM.— One  of  the  forms  of 
divination  (q.v.)  in  vogue  among  the  ancient 
Hebrews  (cf.  I  Sam.  chaps.  14  and  28) ;  also  regarded 
as  part  of  the  paraphernalia  of  the  high  priest  (cf . 
Ex.  28:30  and  Lev.  8:8). 

URSINUS,  ZACHARIAS  (1534-1583).— Ger- 
man Reformed  theologian,  one  of  the  framers  of 
the  Heidelberg  catechism. 

URSULA,  SAINT.— In  the  Roman  martyrology, 
a  lady  who  with  several  companions  was  martyred 
by  the  Huns  at  Cologne  in  defence  of  their  virginity, 
commemorated  on  Oct.  21.  The  earUest  appear- 
ance of  the  legend  in  extant  Uterature  is  the  9th 
century.  It  is  curiously  complex,  and  is  explained 
in  several  fashions,  one  interpretation  identifying 
Ursula  as  a  Christianized  form  of  the  Teutonic 
deity,  Freya. 

URSULINES.— A  R.C.  female  order,  founded  in 
1535  by  Angela  Merici  at  Brescia  with  St.  Ursula 
as  patron,  whence  the  name.  The  aim  of  the  order 
was  to  educate  girls  and  to  promote  missionary 


work  and  the  succor  of  the  sick  and  poor.  The 
founder  was  beatified  in  1768  and  canonized  in 
1807  as  St.  Agnes  of  Brescia. 

USHAS. — ^The  goddess  Dawn  of  early  Vedic 
religion.  The  morning  Ught  which  gave  release 
from  the  dangers  of  night  was  greeted  with  joy 
by  early  peoples.  The  Vedic  hymns  to  Dawn  are 
especially  fine  examples  of  this  feeling. 

USHEBTIS.— Statuettes  in  human  form  placed 
in  Egyptian  tombs  and  compelled  by  a  written 
spell  to  do  the  work  of  dead  man  in  the  other 
world. 

USSHER  (or  USHER),  JAMES  (1581-1656).— 
AngUcan  archbishop,  a  man  of,  great  learning  who 
wrote  extensively  on  theological  and  ecclesiastical 
themes;  most  renowned  for  the  scheme  of  Biblical 
chronology  which  he  advanced  and  which  for  a  long 
period  has  been  inserted  in  the  margin  of  reference 
editions  of  the  Authorized  Version. 

UTILITARIANISM.— A  system  of  utility.  The 
ethical  doctrine  that  utihty  or  usefulness  is  the 
test  of  moral  action. 

Utilitarianism  represents  the  attempt  to  give 
a  rational  explanation  for  moral  conduct.  This 
is  found  in  the  conception  of  value  or  utility  in 
human  experience,  as  contrasted  with  ethical 
theories  which  appeal  to  a  priori  principles,  either 
in  the  form  of  divine  commands  or  of  unexplained 
intuitions.  Perhaps  the  most  consistent  form  of 
the  theory  is  that  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  who  affirmed 
that  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number  should 
be  the  supreme  controlling  principle  of  social 
ethics.  In  J.  S.  Mill,  the  calculating  utihtarian 
principle  of  Bentham  was  transfigured  into  a  warm, 
sympathetic  utilitarianism  that  has  been  widely 
influential  among  EngHsh  theorists  in  poUtical 
and  social  science. 

While  biological  studies  of  science  and  modern 
pragmatic  methods  in  philosophy  have  done 
much  to  emphasize  the  value  of  empiricism  and 
utilitarianism  as  the  measure  of  both  truth  and  con- 
duct; yet  idealism  and  the  intuitive  emphasis  upon 
subjective  aspects  of  personality  have  emphasized 
other  essential  aspects  of  moral  loyalty;  and  the 
social  conception  of  human  behavior  has  super- 
seded the  individualism  of  original  utilitarianism. 

UTNAPISHTIM.— The  Babylonian  hero  of  the 
deluge,  favorite  of  the  god,  Ea,  on  whose  advice 
he  built  a  ship  and  so  escaped  the  flood.  He 
was  then  granted  immortality  by  Enhl  and  given 
a  residence  in  the  earthly  land  of  the  blest  at  "the 
confluence  of  the  streams." 

UTOPIA. — An  imaginary  island  portrayed  in 
Sir  Thomas  More's  book  of  the  same  name,  embody- 
ing the  author's  social,  religious,  and  poUtical 
ideals  in  a  supposedly  perfect  state.  It  anticipates 
some  ideals  of  poUtical  and  religious  freedom  now 
generally  advocated.  The  term  is  used  of  any 
ideal  vision  regarded  as  purely  imaginary. 

UTRAQUISTS.— The  moderate  wing  of  the 
Hussites,  who  demanded  communion  in  both 
kinds  (whence  the  name)  as  well  as  democratizing 
ideals  for  the  clergy.  Also  caUed  Calixtines. 
See  Hxjss;  Hussites. 


VAC. — Goddess  of  speech,  symbol  of  the  potency 
of  the  magic  word;  wife  of  Brahma  in  later  Vedic 
reUgion, 


VAGANTES.— The  designation  of  clergy  who 
wandered  from  place  to  place  either  because  they 
did  not  possess  a  benefice  or  had  deserted  their 


Vaigesika  Philosophy 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


462 


church.  Their  existence  can  be  traced  from  the 
5th.  to  the  15th.  centuries,  the  mediaeval  type 
being  frequently  roving  minstrels, 

VAigESIKA  PHILOSOPHY.— See  India,  Reli- 
gions OF. 

VAIROCHANA.— The  Buddha  of  infinite  light, 
one  of  the  five  Buddhas  of  contemplation  in  the 
later  Buddhology.  See  Adibuddha.  It  is  more 
than  likely  that  he  is  identified  with  the  sun  in  the 
birth  stories  of  Hindu  Buddhism  as  he  was  actually 
in  the  Buddhism  of  Japan. 

VAISNAVISM.— The  theistic  rehgion  of  India 
in  which  Vishnu  is  the  Supreme  God.  In  origin 
it  seems  to  have  been  a  religious  movement  apart 
from  Brahmanism  consisting  in  devotion  to  a 
personal  God  called  by  the  general  title,  Bhagavan. 
By  assimilation  of  names  a  union  was  made  with 
the  orthodox  groups;  the  Mahabharata  and  Ramay- 
ana  were  transformed  into  epics  of  the  sect  and  the 
cult  of  Vishnu  was,  by  the  4th.  century  a.d.,  an 
aggressive  popular  religion  with  a  gospel  of  salva- 
tion through  devotion  to  God  manifested  in  his 
human  incarnations,  Krishna  and  Rama.  The 
ease  with  wbdch  local  deities  of  importance  might  be 
recognized  as  manifestations  of  Vishnu  has  made  it 
possible  for  Vai§navism  to  extend  its  sway  over  the 
non-Aryan  peoples  of  India.  It  has  ramified  into 
a  large  number  of  sects.  Of  those  which  recognize 
Vishnu-Krishna  the  most  important  are  the 
Ramanuji  founded  by  Ramanuja  in  the  11th. 
century  which  assimilated  Vedantism  to  Vai?navism; 
the  Madhvachari,  founded  in  the  same  century  by 
Madhva  which  is  duaUstic  in  violent  opposition 
to  Vedantism,  and  the  Vallabhacharya,  an  emo- 
tional type,  named  after  its  founder  of  the  15th. 
century  which  emphasizes  the  relations  of  Krishna 
with  the  cow-herd  maidens  and  sinks  to  sensuality. 
The  Rama  sects  are  best  represented  by  the  Rama- 
nandl,  founded  by  Ramananda  in  the  13th.  century. 
His  great  disciples,  Rai  Das,  Kabir,  and  Tulasi 
Das  have  made  this  form  of  Vai§navism  the  religion 
of  scores  of  millions  of  all  classes  of  the  Hindu 
people.    See  Hinduism. 

VAISYAS.— The  third  of  the  higher  castes  of  the 
Indo-Aryans.  They  made  up  the  trading  and 
agriciiltural  class  of  the  social  order,  received  the 
Aryan  education  and  wore  the  sacred  thread  of  the 
twice-born. 

VALENTINE,  ST.,  HIS  DAY.— A  popular  belief, 
originating  doubtless  in  the  observation  of  the 
mating  of  birds  in  early  spring,  that  a  certain  day, 
identified  with  the  feast  of  St.  Valentine,  Feb.  14, 
is  more  favorable  for  sending  letters  and  other 
tokens  of  love,  gave  rise  to  a  custom  traceable  in 
France  and  England  from  the  Middle  Ages. 

VALENTINUS.— The  leader  of  the  most  impor- 
tant school  of  Gnosticism  (q.v.),  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  2nd.  century. 

VALENTINUS.— Pope  for  30  or  40  days  in  827. 

'I 

VALHALLA.— See  Walhalla. 

VALIDATION  OF  MARRIAGE.— A  judicial 
act  of  the  Pope  by  which  a  marriage  contracted 
bona  fide  with  proper  consent  but  invalid  on  account 
of  canonical  impediment  only  is  made  valid  from 
now  on,  "ex  nunc,"  and  the  canonical  effects,  such 
as  the  illegitimacy  of  offspring,  are  removed. 

VALKYRIES.— See  Walkyries. 


VALUE. — The  factor  of  desirability  in  any 
object  or  experience.  That  which  makes  it  an  end 
to  be  sought. 

Values  rest  on  feehng.  Agreeable  experiences 
are  naturally  sought  and  disagreeable  experiences 
avoided  so  far  as  possible.  While  the  ultimate 
value  is  the  happiness  or  satisfaction  due  to  a  given 
situation,  the  means  by  which  happiness  is  secured 
come  to  be  valued  in  relation  to  the  experience 
secured  by  them.  We  soon  learn  that  certain 
kinds  of  satisfaction  are  obtained  at  the  cost  of 
excessive  effort  or  sacrifice,  or  are  followed  by 
unpleasant  consequences.  An  ethical  conception 
of  Hfe  is  obtained  by  careful  study  of  the  total 
implications  of  any  given  experience  of  satisfaction, 
so  as  to  determine  those  which  are  most  permanently 
rewarding.  Inasmuch  as  tastes  may  be  educated, 
values  come  to  be  assigned  to  various  ends  on  the 
basis  of  a  comprehensive  study  of  human  welfare. 
The  science  of  ethics  thus  gives  to  possible  ends 
valuations  resting  on  a  more  defensible  basis  than 
the  mere  feehng  of  any  individual  at  any  time. 

There  are  various  classifications  of  values.  A 
very  suggestive  list  as  given  by  Everett  {Moral 
Values,  p.  182)  includes  economic,  bodily,  recrea- 
tional, social  or  associational,  character,  esthetic, 
intellectual,  and_  rehgious  values.  An  ethical 
interpretation  of  life  must  put  these  values  in  their 
proper  relations  to  one  another  and  to  the  welfare 
of  the  individual  and  of  society. 

Gerald  Birnet  Smith 

VAMPIRE. — Wretched  ghosts  who  return  from 
the  grave  to  suck  the  blood  of  the  hving  while 
they  sleep.  Epidemics  were  attributed  to  them  in 
parts  of  Europe.  The  suspected  grave  was  then 
opened  and  the  body  of  the  dead  impaled. 

VANIR. — A  group  of  Teutonic  gods  who  com- 
pelled the  Aesir  gods  (q.v.)  to  share  their  rule  with 
them.  The  story  of  the  battle  and  later  combina- 
tion of  these  two  groups  of  gods  probably  reflects  a 
unification  of  tribes  through  conquest. 

VARUNA. — The  sky  god  of  early  Vedic  rehgion 
akin  to  Ahura  Mazda  of  Zoroastrianism.  He 
embodies  the  rita  or  cosmic  order  and,  as  a  righteous 
god,  enforces  the  moral  law,  rewarding  the  good  and 
punishing  the  evil.  His  rule  is  over  heaven,  earth 
and  the  waters.  The  moon,  the  hghtning  and  Soma 
are  associated  with  him.  In  the  later  rehgion, 
however,  Indra  and  the  gods  of  the  sacrifice,  Agni 
and  Soma,  took  the  first  rank  and  Varuna  sank  to 
an  insignificant  place. 

VASUDEVA.— One  of  the  names  of  Vishnu  and 
of  Krishna. 

VATICAN. — The  official  residence  of  the  pope 
of  Rome,  a  palace  to  the  north  of  St.  Peter's 
Cathedral,  including  the  Sistine  Chapel,  a  noted 
museum  and  art  gallery,  Hbrary,  and  offices  for 
the  transaction  of  business. 

VATICAN  COUNCIL.— A  R.C.  synod  of  770 
bishops  convened  in  the  Vatican  Dec.  8,  1869,  by 
Pius  IX.,  in  consequence  of  numerous  doctrinal 
and  social  problems  arising  out  of  the  discussion 
provoked  by  the  papal  syllabus  of  1864,  especiaUy 
papal  infallibihty.  In  four  sessions  the  Council 
discussed  and  drew  up  disciplinary  decrees  on  the 
election  of  bishops  and  pastors;  the  education 
of  the  clergy;  rehgious  orders;  social,  ethical 
and  political  problems  of  the  Church;  authorized  a 
new  catechism,  and  defined  the  infalhbihty  of  the 
Pope  (q.v.).  This  question  took  up  much  of  the 
time,  and  was  fiercely  contested  within  and  without 
the  Council,  the  discussion  terminating  July  13, 


463 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Vedic  Religion 


1870,  in  a  ballot  of  451  bishops  for,  88  against,  the 
proposal,  and  62  "juxta  modum."  The  Council 
came  to  a  sudden  end  with  the  occupation  of  Rome 
by  the  ItaUan  army,  Sept.  20,  1870. 

J.  N.  Reagan 
VATICANISM. — Same     as     Ultramontanism 
(q.v.). 

VAYU  (VATA).— Wind  god  of  the  Indo-Iranians. 
In  Vedic  reUgion  he  is  of  more  gentle  nature  than 
Rudra  and  the  Maruts  (qq.  v. ) .  In  Zoroastrianism  the 
good  Vayu  became  a  Yazata,  the  evil  Vayu  a  demon. 

VEDANTA. — The  dominant  religious  philosophy 
of  India  developed  by  the  writers  of  the  Upanishads 
and  continuing  as  the  orthodox  tradition  to  the 
modern  era.  It  claims  to  be  grounded  on  the 
Scriptures.  Brahman  is  the  one,  eternal  Reahty 
all-pervading  and  intelUgent  with  which  the  human 
soul  is  identical.  The  phenomenal  world  and  the 
apparent  separateness  of  selves  are  both  illusory 
appearances — a  play  of  the  desireless  Brahman. 
The  world  of  experience  which  seems  so  real  to 
the  souls  moving  in  the  toils  of  transmigration  is  a 
lower  form  of  reality.  Thus  the  religious  forms 
and  methods  of  salvation  by  works  and  sacrifice 
are  justified.  But  when  the  soul  comes  to  full 
realization  of  the  truth  that  it  is  identical  with  the 
eternally  inactive  Brahman  it  knows  that  the 
phenomenal  world  is  merely  illusion  and  escapes 
into  the  Eternal  One.  The  system  was  expounded 
as  pure  monism  by  Sankara  (q.v.)  and  as  a  modified 
monism  by  Ramanuja  (q.v.).  Its  greatest  modern 
exponent  was  probably  Vivekananda,  a  disciple  of 
Ramakrishna.  Sir  Rabindranath  Tagore  presents 
the  historic  philosophy  in  a  form  adjusted  to  the 
more  practical  demands  of  the  modern  world. 

VEDAS. — The  four  collections  or  samhitas  of 
the  sacred  Scriptures  of  the  Indo- Aryans  consisting 
of  the  Rig-veda,  Sdma-veda,  Yajur-veda  (black  and 
white),  and  Atharva-veda  (qq.v.),  together  with 
their  Brdhmanas  (q.v.)  and  Upanishads  (q.v.). 
See  Vedic  Religion  III;  Sacred  Literatures. 

VEDIC  RELIGION.— The  religious  beUefs  and 
practices  of  the  Aryan  invaders  of  India  during 
the  Rig- Vedic  period. 

'  The  word  Veda,  which  means  "knowledge" 
(i.e.,  "sacred  knowledge"),  is  applied,  in  a  general 
sense,  to  all  the  sacred  texts  belonging  to  the  first 
period  of  Sanskrit  Uterature.  These  texts  are  more 
than  a  hundred  in  number,  and  many  are  of  con- 
siderable size  (the  translation  of  one  of  the  Brah- 
manas  occupies  five  large  volumes).  The  oldest 
and  most  important  text  is  the  Rig-Veda.  The 
other  texts  belong  to  the  period  of  Brahmanism 
(q.v.).  The  later  period  is  clearly  marked  off 
from  the  Rig- Vedic  period  by  a  change  of  abode, 
of  reUgious  beliefs,  and  of  social  customs. 

I.  Historical  Setting  and  Date. — ^The  Rig- 
Veda  is  a  collection  of  reUgious  hymns  composed 
by  the  Aryan  invaders  of  India  after  their  settle- 
ment in  the  Punjab.  The  original  dark-skinned 
inhabitants  were  conquered,  made  slaves,  or  driven 
into  the  forests  and  mountains.  Intermarriage 
took  place  and  gave  rise  to  what  now  forms  the 
bulk  of  the  population  of  northern  India.  The 
period  of  the  Rig- Veda  is  usually  dated  between 
1500  and  1000  b.c,  but  this  date  is  only  a  pro- 
visional and  theoretic  one. 

II.  The  Vedic  Aryans. — The  Aryans  were  a 
sturdy,  war-like  people,  with  none  of  the  passive 
and  pessimistic  traits  which  later  are  characteristic 
of  the  Hindus.  They  came  by  tribes,  in  waves  of 
migration,  across  the  mountains  out  of  Central 
Asia,  settled  here  and  there  in  the  Punjab,  waged 
war  with  one  another  as  well  as  with  the  aborigines. 


and  pressed  slowly  eastward  and  southward  into 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  They  were  no  longer 
merely  nomads,  for  they  dwelt  in  villages,  and 
had  developed  agriculture  (and  work  in  wood  and 
metal)  to  a  considerable  degree;  but  their  wealth 
consisted  chiefly  in  cattle.  The  caste  system  had 
not  yet  been  developed,  and  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration was  not  yet  present.  Women  were  not 
secluded.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna 
the  tribes  consoUdated  and  the  priestly  families, 
which  had  been  attached  each  to  the  chief  of  some 
tribe,  became  a  unified  priesthood.  The  hymns, 
which  had  been  handed  down  orally  for  generations 
in  the  different  families,  were  collected  into  one 
text.  As  the  language  changed  it  became  increas- 
ingly difficult  to  add  new  hymns.  The  collection 
became  a  closed  book,  regarded  as  a  divine  revela- 
tion to  the  inspired  "seers"  who  "saw"  the  hymns. 

III.  The  Text.— The  Rig-Veda  consists  of 
1028  hymns  arranged  in  ten  books.  The  nucleus 
is  formed  by  books  two  to  seven,  each  consisting 
of  hymns  composed  by  one  family  of  priests.  In 
each  book  the  hymns  to  Agni  and  Indra  come  first, 
then  the  hymns  to  other  gods  arranged  according 
to  the  number  of  hymns  to  each.  Further,  in 
each  group  the  hymns  are  arranged  according  to 
the  number  of  verses.  Books  one  and  ten  are  made 
up  of  smaller  family  groups  and  of  later  hymns 
(especially  book  ten).  Book  nine  contains  hymns 
to  Soma  extracted  from  all  the  family  collections. 
The  collection  as  a  whole  is,  therefore,  clearly  a 
historical  one  centering  around  the  Soma  ritual; 
but  the  conditions  under  which  the  collection  was 
made  cannot  be  determined. 

IV.  The  Religion. — •!.  The  general  nature  of 
the  hymns. — ^In  the  first  enthusiasm  of  discovery 
(the  early  19th.  century)  the  hymns  were  hailed  as 
the  spontaneous  outbursts  of  poets  filled  with  rever- 
ence for  the  powers  of  nature,  were  thought  to 
have  come  from  a  period  of  primitive  spirituality 
when  mankind  was  good.  We  now  know  that  the 
Rig-Veda  is  priestly  and  hieratic  in  character, 
practical  and  utilitarian  in  purpose,  rituaUstic  in 
practice.  Happiness,  health,  wealth,  victory,  long 
fife,  and  children  are  sought,  and  rich  presents 
are  bestowed  on  the  priests  for  acting  as  intermedi- 
ators in  securing  such  success.  "I  give  thee  that 
thou  mayst  give  me"  is  the  constantly  recurring 
thought.  The  aim  of  the  religion  is  to  make  the 
relation  between  men  and  gods  a  liveable  one,  and 
to  secure  after  death  a  place  in  paradise  with  the 
departed  ancestors.  This  paradise  is  a  glorified 
world  of  material  joys,  but  it  was  developed  rather 
by  the  mind  of  the  priest  than  by  the  mind  of  the 
warrior. 

2.  The  gods. — These  are,  for  the  most  part, 
personified  powers  of  Nature,  more  or  less  obscured 
by  anthropomorphism  or  abstraction.  The  storm- 
god  Indra  (with  250  hymns)  who  conquers  demons 
and  aids  in  battle  is  the  dominant  figure.  Next  in 
importance  are  the  ritualistic  figures  of  the  fire-god 
Agni  (with  200  hymns)  and  Soma  (with  120  hymns) . 
The»outhnes  of  the  figures  are  vague.  They  are 
not  so  far  detached  from  natural  phenomena  as  the 
figures  of  Greek  mythology.  Their  _  individual 
functions  are  not  clearly  defined;  there  is  no  family 
relationship  among  them;  they  have  no  definite 
abode.  There  is  Uttle  personal  emotion  or  reUgious 
fervor.  With  Varuna  alone  are  more  abstract 
ethical  ideas  connected;  but  the  ethical  implica- 
tions of  rta  have  been  over-emphasized.  The  gods 
are  powerful  persons  whose  favor  it  is  good  and 
necessary  to  secure.  Moral  loftiness  and  hoUness 
are  secondary  attributes.  They  are  easily  roused, 
usuaUy  kindly,  but  not  always  so.  To  win  their 
favor  it  is  not  so  essential  to  be  good  and  moral  as  it 
is  to  offer  them  food  and  drink,  to  flatter  them  by 


Veil 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


464 


means  of  artistic  hymns  recalling  their  beneficent 
deeds  in  the  past  and  the  generosity  of  the  present 
sacrificer,  and  especially  not  to  forget  to  be  generous 
to  their  friends  the  priests.  The  hymns  were  com- 
posed for  definite  ritualistic  occasions.  They 
express  the  ideas  of  only  the  higher  classes,  the 
priests  and  warriors.  From  them  we  learn  almost 
nothing  about  the  popular  thought  and  "religion 
of  the  time.  The  language  is  full  of  stereotyped, 
hieratic  phrases  and  intentional  obscurities.  As  is 
said  later,  "The  Gods  love  that  which  is  secret." 

3.  The  sacrifice. — ^The  sacrifice  was  entirely  an 
individual  affair.  There  was  no  tribal  or  public 
cult.  There  were  no  temples  or  idols.  The 
sacrificial  place  was  a  spot  of  ground,  chosen  for 
the  particular  occasion,  slightly  hoUowed  and 
filled  with  sacred  grass.  Hither  the  gods  came 
unseen  to  partake  of  the  grain,  cakes,  milk,  butter, 
or  the  flesh  of  the  slaughtered  animals,  and  to  drink 
of  the  Soma  libation.  Soma  was  the  juice  of  an 
unknown  plant  which  when  fremented  became 
intoxicating.  It  was  largely  due  to  copious  draughts 
of  Soma  that  Indra  was  able  to  perform  his  heroic 
deeds.  Though  there  was  much  formalism  in  the 
ritual  and  many  magical  elements  it  did  not  become 
an  elaborate  magical  operation  imtil  the  time  of 
Brabmanism. 

4  Tendency  to  unification. — Toward  the  end 
of  the  Rig-Vedic  period  there  was  a  growing  tend- 
ency to  seek  for  a  unity,  for  a  One  behind  the 
many  gods.  Questions  about  the  origin  of  the 
world  became  insistent  and  led  to  the  conception 
of  one  great  force  behind  the  many  forces  of  Nature. 
In  the  succeeding  period  of  the  Brahmanas  Prajapati 
"Lord  of  Creatures"  emerged  as  the  One  from 
whom  the  other  gods  sprang;  Brahman  emerged  as 
the  neuter,  material  substratum  of  the  universe. 
The  two  conceptions  fused  into  a  pantheism. 

W.  E.  Clark 

VEIL. — A  piece  of  cloth  or  other  fabric  used  as 
a  means  of  concealment.  In  the  Hebrew  tabernacle 
veils  concealed  the  Holy  Place  and  Most  Holy 
Place  from  public  view.  A  eucharistic  veil  is  used 
in  the  R.C.  church  at  stated  times  to  cover  the 
chalice .  The  use  of  veils  as  a  head-dress  and  covering 
for  the  face  among  women  is  frequent,  the  practise 
being  especially  characteristic  of  Mohammedan 
peoples.  The  veil  is  used  as  the  distinctive  head- 
dress of  nuns,  so  that  to  "take  the  veil"  signifies 
entering  upon  the  life  of  a  nun. 

VENDIDAD. — A  part  of  the  sacred  literature  of 
Zoroastrianism  consisting  of  22  chapters  dealing 
with  punishment  and  methods  of  expiation  for 
religious  and  social  offences;  civil  law  and  con- 
siderable mythological  material.  It  is  the  work  of 
generations  of  priests. 

VENIAL  SIN. — An  action  on  man's  part  out 
of  harmony  with  the  law  of  God,  but  not  involving 
a  complete  alienation  from  God. 

VENUS. — Originally  a  Roman  goddess  of  the 
garden  she  was  assimilated  to  the  Greek  Aphrodite 
and  so  assumed  the  functions  of  goddess  of  love  and 
fertility  and  the  relationship  with  Adonis. 

VERONICA,  SAINT.— A  legendary  figure, 
identified  in  early  Christian  writings  with  the 
woman  healed  of  an  issue  of  blood  by  Jesus.  In 
gratitude  she  is  said  to  have  provided  for  the 
painting  of  the  portrait  of  Jesus.  The  later  and 
more  famiUar  form  of  the  legend  states  that  Veronica 
gave  her  handkerchief  to  Jesus  that  he  might  wipe 
from  his  face  the  drops  of  agony  as  he  was  on  his 
way  to  Golgotha.  The  features  of  Jesus  were 
miraculously  imprinted  on  the  handkerchief. 


VERSIONS     OF     THE     BIBLE.— These     are 

translations  of  that  book  or  large  portions  of  it  into 
another  tongue.  These  may  have  been  made  either 
from  the  original  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament 
or  from  the  original  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  or 
from  a  translation  of  either  of  those  texts.  A 
translation  of  the  original  text  is  a  primary  version, 
a  translation  of  a  translation  is  a  secondary  version. 
The  term  "versions"  among  scholars  usually  refers 
to  those  ancient  primary  translations  which  are 
employed  today  to  aid  in  determining  the  original 
texts  of  the  Bible. 

The  beginnings  of  the  versions  are  practically 
unknown  although  their  history  yields  many  side- 
lights on  literature,  art,  palaeography  and  language 
as  well  as  on  religious  motives.  Our  first  aim  is  to 
discover,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  place,  time  and 
circumstances  under  which  each  version  was 
prepared.  For  the  earliest  and  most  important 
primary  translations  these  questions  remain  un- 
answered, even  though  there  are  many  indefinite, 
indirect  and  general  references  to  them.  Only 
during  and  after  the  fourth  century  a.d.  do  we 
find  specific  and  reliable  dates  for  the  translations 
of  versions  of  the  Bible. 

Enough  has  been  determined,  however,  from 
linguistic,  rhetorical  and  other  features  of  the  text 
of  any  given  version  to  locate  its  origin  within 
reasonable  approximation. 

I.  Primary  Versions  op  the  Old  Testament. 
— ^The  primary  versions  in  their  approximate 
chronological  order  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  Septuagint  (or  LXX),  the  first  transla- 
tion from  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment into  Greek,  made  at  different  times  and 
(traditionally  by  seventy  scholars)  by  different 
persons,  probably  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  during 
the  3rd.  and  2nd.  centuries  bc.  for  Jews  who  had 
become  residents  of  Greek-speaking  Egypt.  This 
was  the  Old  Testament,  the  Scriptures  used  by  Christ 
and  his  disciples  in  Palestine,  and  also  hy  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  Christian  church  in  the  early 
Christian  centuries. 

2.  The  Syriac  (or  Peshitto),  made  from  the 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic  of  the  Old  Testament  about 
the  close  of  the  first  or  beginning  of  the  2nd.  century 
A,D.  for  Jewish  converts  to  Christianity.  Like  the 
Septuagint  it  was  the  work  of  different  persons  at 
different  times  and  places,  but  probably  made  in 
Asia  Minor  or  Armenia. 

3.  Minor  Greek  Versions  prepared  for  special 
phases  of  belief;  (a)  Aquila's  Version  was  made 
about  130  A.D.  by  Aquila,  a  native  of  Pontus, 
with  the  intention  of  producing  a  faithful  Hteral 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  by  an  orthodox 
Jew.  He  attempted  to  give  every  Hebrew  word 
an  exact  equivalent  in  Greek,  and  so  sometimes 
gives  us  language  that  is  grotesque. 

(6)  Theodotion  of  Pontus  was  probably  a 
Jewish  proselyte,  whose  ambition  led  him  to  revise 
the  Greek  of  the  Septuagint  by  using  the  Hebrew 
and  Aquila's  version,  rather  than  by  producing  a 
new  translation.    His  work  was  done  about  180- 

92  A.D. 

(c)  Symmachus  was  a  Samaritan  who  was  con- 
verted to  Judaism.  He  sought  to  undermine 
Samaritan  doctrines  by  a  free,  almost  paraphrastic 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament  into 
Greek.  His  translation  displays  linguistic  ability, 
hterary  skill,  and  a  fine  conception  of  a  translator's 
duty.  His  work  was  done  during  the  reign  of 
Severus,  193-211  a.d. 

4.  The  Old  Itala  was  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
current  in  Egypt  and  N.  Africa  and  the  Latin- 
speaking  Roman  empire  evidently  produced  for 
the  Latin-speaking  Christians  of  that  empire. 


465 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Versions  of  the  Bible 


5.  The  Latin  Vulgate  was  translated  by  Jerome, 
390-405  A.D.,  from  the  Hebrew  into  Latin,  and  this 
translation  is  now  the  Old  Testament  of  the  Bible 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (except  Psalms, 
which  is  Jerome's  second  revision  of  the  Old  Latin). 

6.  The  Targums  are  free  renderings,  almost 
paraphrases,  into  Aramaic  of  the  Hebrew  Old 
Testament,  which  were  transmitted  orally  down 
through  several  centuries,  and  finally  reduced  to 
writing  after  400  a.d. 

II.  Primary  Versions  op  the  New  Testa- 
ment.— The  early  primary  versions  of  the  New 
Testament  are  evaluated  as  second  only  to  the  New 
Testament  manuscripts. 

1.  Syriac  Versions. — Translations  made  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Armenia,  the  earUest  not  later  than 
200  A.D.,  from  the  New  Testament  Greek  into 
Syriac  for  the  use  of  Syrian  Christians  resident  in 
those  lands.  Of  these  there  are  in  whole  or  in  part 
with  considerable  variations  six  texts.  Incidentally, 
we  should  note  that  the  Armenian  translation  is 
largely  dependent  on  the  Syriac  version. 

2.  Latin  Versions. — (a)  The  Old  I  tola  was 
translated  from  the  New  Testament  Greek  and  used 
in  the  early  part  of  the  3rd.  century,  where  Latin 
was  the  language  of  the  common  people.  Of  that 
version  there  are  extant  about  a  dozen  manuscripts, 
and  also  numerous  quotations  in  the  early  Latin 
Fathers.  (6)  The  Latin  Vulgate  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  a  revision  by  Jerome  (about  360-84) 
of  the  Old  Itala,  made  on  the  basis  of  the  Greek 
text  of  the  New  Testament. 

3.  Coptic  Versions. — In  the  3rd.  century  and 
possibly  at  the  end  of  the  2nd.  Coptic  versions  were 
extant  in  Egypt.  Of  these  (a)  the  Sahidic  transla- 
tion was  current  in  Upper  Egypt;  (b)  the  Bohairie 
version  was  in  use  in  lower  Egypt  between  250 
and  350  a.d.  This  latter  version  at  a  later  time 
became  the  accepted  New  Testament  of  the  Coptic 
church. 

All  the  primary  versions  of  both  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  have  first-rate  value  for  scholars 
in  determining  the  primitive  text.  They,  with  the 
manuscripts,  are  the  indispensable  tools  of  the 
textual  critic  to  whom  we  look  for  the  best  text  of 
both  Testaments. 

III.  The  English  Versions. — ^The  history  of  the 
English  Bible  stretches  back  to  the  beginnings  of 
the  English  nation.  There  are  many  fragments  of 
manuscripts  from  different  epochs  of  those  early 
days.  We  shall  speak,  however,  only  of  those 
translations  which  included  practically  the  entire 
Bible. 

1.  The  first  complete  English  Bible  was  that 
produced  by  John  Wycliffe  and  his  co-workers, 
1380-84,  translated,  however,  from  the  Vulgate, 
itself  a  translation  from  the  original  languages  of  the 
Bible,  thus  producing  a  secondary  version.  This 
Bible  was  never  printed  until  the  19th.  century. 

2.  William  Tyndale  translated  all  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Greek  and  printed  it  in  1525, 
and  most  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew, 
but  before  he  had  finished  it  he  was  treacherously 
entrapped,  killed  and  burnt  at  the  stake  at  Vilvorde, 
near  Brussels  (Oct.  6,  1536). 

3.  Myles  Coverdale  (1535)  edited  the  first  com- 

f)lete  printed  English  Bible  in  small  foho  black 
etter,  with  the  books  arranged  in  the  order  in 
which  we  now  have  them.  This  was  not  a  primary 
version,  but  was  composed  of  the  best  translations 
that  Coverdale  could  command  in  his  day.  _  Several 
editions  followed  in  rapid  succession,  testifying  to  its 
popularity. 

4.  Matthew's  Bible  (1537)  appeared  in  the 
same  year  as  the  second  edition  of  Coverdale's. 
It  is  a  combination  of  Tyndale,  of  Coverdale,  and, 


in  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  of  a 
new  translation,  possibly  also  by  Tyndale. 

5.  Taverner's_  Bible  (1539)  was  based  on 
Matthew's  version,  with  some  verbal  improve- 
ments in  language,  especially  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

6.  The  Great  Bible  (1539-41)  was  issued  by 
Coverdale  with  6clat.  Its  proportions,  large  foho, 
black  letter  and  official  recognition  gave  it  its 
name.  Political  and  ecclesiastical  influence  put 
a  copy  of  it  into  every  parish  church.  Archbishop 
Cranmer  wrote  a  prologue  to  the  second  edition, 
sometimes  called  Cranmer's  Bible.  Its  use  and 
popularity  were  general  until  the  accession  of 
Bloody  Mary.  Biblical  scholars  with  many  others 
fled  to  the  continent  for  refuge  from  the  storm. 

7.  The  Geneva  Bible  (1557-60).  The  quiet 
old  city  of  Geneva  became  the  new  center  of  Bible 
scholars.  In  1557  the  New  Testament  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  a  small  octavo  volume,  printed 
in  Roman  type,  and  divided  into  numbered  verses 
(as  Stephanus  had  done  on  the  margins  of  his 
Greek  Testament  of  1551).  In  1560  the  entire 
Bible  appeared,  based  on  the  Great  Bible  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  on  Matthew's  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  the  assistance  of  other  texts.  Issued  in  a 
small  format  this  Bible  became  the  one  in  common 
use  among  the  people  for  nearly  a  century. 

8.  The  Bishop's  Bible  (1568)  was  a  revision  of 
the  ofiicial  Great  Bible,  made  by  a  large  number 
of  scholars,  there  being  nine  bishops  in  the  list. 
There  was  no  royal  recognition  qf  the  version,  but 
Convocation  decided  (1571)  that  "every  archbishop 
and  bishop  should  have  at  his  house  a  copy  of  the 
Holy  Bible  of  the  largest  volume  as  lately  printed  in 
London."  Every  cathedral  was  to  have  a  copy, 
and  so  were  aU  other  churches,  "as  far  as  it  could 
be  conveniently  done." 

9.  The  Rheims  and  Douai  Bible  (1582-1609) 
was  translated  from  the  Vulgate  by  EngUsh  Roman 
Catholic  refugees  in  France.  The  New  Testament 
appeared  at  Rheims  in  1582  and  the  Old  Testament 
at  Douai  in  1609.  This  was  the  first  Roman 
CathoUc  Bible  in  the  EngUsh  language. 

10.  The  Authorized  Version  (1611)  was  the 
outcome  in  England  of  an  attempt  to  reach  a 
settlement  between  the  Puritan  and  Anglican 
elements  in  the  Church.  Under  the  patronage  of 
James  I.,  forty-seven  leading  scholars  of  England 
took  up  the  task  of  producing  a  new  version  of  the 
Bible.  They  based  their  work  on  all  previous 
versions,  especially  the  Geneva,  and  upon  the 
Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Greek  of  the 
New  Testament.  Their  revision  by  reason  of  its 
excellent  EngHsh  and  choice  renderings  quickly 
superseded  all  earUer  Protestant  Bibles,  and  for 
nearly  three  hundred  years  was  the  Bible  of  the 
EngUsh-speaking  world,  and  even  today  is  the 
favorite  version  except  among  the  educated  classes. 

11.  The  Revised  Version  (1881-85)  was  pre- 
pared by  about  fifty  leading  British  bibUcal  scholars 
of  the  time  beginning  in  1870,  and  thirty-one 
American  scholars  beginning  work  in  1872.  The 
revision  was  based  on  the  Authorized  Version,  the 
Hebrew  _  and  Greek  originals,  and  several  new 
manuscripts  discovered  since  1611.  _  The  New 
Testament  was  completed  and  issued  in  1881,  and 
the  Old  Testament  in  1885.  Members  of  the 
British  Revision  Company  issued  a  revision  of  the 
Apocrypha  in  1895. 

The  translation  printed  was  that  completed 
by  the  British,  and  the  American  preferences  were 
put  into  an  appendix.  By  agreement  between 
the  British  and  American  revisers^  no  separate 
American  edition  should  appear  within  fourteen 
years.  The  American  revisers,  in  the  meantime, 
maintained  their  own  organization,  and  assiduously 


Vespers 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


466 


labored  not  only  to  embody  their  preferences  in 
the  text,  but  to  improve  the  translation  of  the  whole 
work,  by  giving  it  a  touch  of  American  language 
and  expression.  In  1901  their  revision  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title,  "The  American  Standard 
Revised  Version"  by  Thos.  Nelson  &  Sons  of  New 
York.  It  is,  at  the  present  time,  the  most  perfect 
translation — primary  version — of  the  Bible  in 
use,  and  its  adoption  everywhere  would  soon 
dissipate  many  of  the  errors  long  charged  against 
Holy  Scripture.  Ira  M.  Price 

VESPERS.— In  the  Roman  and  Greek  litur- 
gies, the  next  to  the  last  canonical  hour.  In  the 
Roman  church  the  service  comprises  five  psalms 
and  antiphons,  a  brief  chapter,  the  hymn  and  the 
verse,  the  Magnificat  and  its  antiphon  and  the 
collect  for  the  day.  In  the  Greek  church  it  includes 
psalms,  a  hymn,  and  anthem  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis. 
In  the  Anglican  church,  the  evening  service  is  called 
Vespers,  and  in  the  United  States  a  late  afternoon 
service,  usually  with  much  music,  goes  by  that 
name. 

VESTA. — ^In  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
rehgions,  the  goddess  of  fire  and  guardian  of  the 
domestic  hearth. 

VESTAL  VIRGINS.— The  priestesses  of  Vesta 
(q.v.)  whose  duties  consisted  in  keeping  aUve 
the  sacred  fire,  and  in  offering  daily  prayers  for 
the  Roman  State.  They  were  highly  honored  in 
ancient  Rome. 

VESTMENTS.— The  distinctive  garments  worn 
by  clergy  at  the  times  of  their  ministrations  in 
Church  services;  more  specifically,  those  worn  at 
the  Celebration  of  the  Eucharist  ("liturgical 
vestments,"  as  distinguished  from  "choir  vest- 
ments"). The  draperies  of  the  altar  are  also 
termed  vestments. 

In  the  earliest  centuries  of  the  Church  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  clergy  as  such  was  distinguished  in  no 
respect  from  that  of  the  laity,  and  in  Church  services 
the  ordinary  everyday  garments  were  worn  by  the 
officiants  as  by  the  congregation.  In  the  4th. 
and  5th.  centuries  different  classes  of  the  populace 
began  to  be  distinguished  by  custom  and  law  in 
certain  details  of  garb,  and  this  period  initiated 
the  differentiation  of  "clerical  dress"  from  that  of 
lay  people;  but  the  clergy  continued  to  wear  the 
same  costume  at  their  ministrations  as  on  other 
occasions.  But  between  the  6th.  and  9th.  cen- 
turies changes  of  popular  fashion  in  ordinary 
garments  became  marked,  and  were  slowly  fol- 
lowed by  the  clergy  in  their  everyday  vesture,  while 
the  growing  tendency  to  conservatism  and  formahza- 
tion  in  other  matters  of  Church  services  led  them 
to  cling  to  the  older  and  established  fashions  of 
dress  in  their  public  and  official  ministrations. 
From  about  the  9th.  century  is  to  be  dated  the 
accompUshed  differentiation  between  ordinary 
"clerical  dress"  and  clerical  "vestments,"  of  which 
the  former  has  altered  from  time  to  time,  often 
under  the  influence  of  popular  lay  fashions,  while 
the  latter  have  continued  essentially  the  antique 
models  and  uses,  with  some  formaUzation  and  local 
variation  of  details.  In  the  conservative  East 
vestments  are  substantially  the  same  now  as  a 
thousand  years  ago. 

From  the  9th.  century,  scholars  began  elabo- 
rately to  attribute  to  vestments,  and  even  to  minute 
details  and  unessential  ornaments  of  vestments, 
symbohc  meanings  which  are  entirely  foreign  to 
their  origin  and  history.  The  much  greater  develop- 
ment of  liturgical  than  of  choir  vestments  has 
accompanied  the  emphasis  laid  upon  eucharistic 


doctrines.  So-called  academic  costume  is  clerical 
in  source,  the  gown  and  hood  representing  the  same 
original  as  the  monastic  robe  and  cowl;  hence  the 
AngUcan  custom  of  wearing  the  hood  over  the 
surphce.  E.  T.  Merrill 

VESTRY. — ^A  room  in  or  adjoining  a  church 
where  the  vestments  of  the  minister  and  choir  and 
the  ecclesiastical  utensils  are  kept ;  or  a  smaller  hall 
attached  to  a  church  in  which  the  Sunday  school 
and  informal  gatherings  are  held. 

In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  the  adminis- 
trative body  is  called  the  vestry.  It  is  elected  by 
the  congregation,  and  with  the  rector  is  responsible 
for  the  welfare  of  the  church. 

VIATICUM. — Literally  provision  for  a  journey. 
The  term  is  used  to  describe  the  eucharist  adminis- 
tered to  a  person  about  to  die. 

VICAR. — One  who  is  the  authorized  representa- 
tive of  another  in  a  religious  or  ecclesiastical 
office.  Specifically,  in  the  R.C.  church  a  priest  who 
assists  a  bishop  with  certain  delegated  functions; 
in  the  AngUcan  church,  a  parish  incumbent  who 
collects  the  revenues  for  another,  and  receives  only 
a  stated  stipend;  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church,  a  clergyman  who  is  a  deputy  of  the  bishop. 

VICAR-APOSTOLIC— In  the  R.C.  church, 
formerly  a  bishop  or  archbishop  to  whom  the  Pope 
had  delegated  his  own  powers  for  specific  purposes; 
at  present,  a  bishop  who  performs  episcopal  func- 
tions where  there  is  no  canonical  see. 

VICAR  OF  CHRIST.— The  representative  of 
Christ  on  earth;  formerly  a  designation  of  any 
bishop  in  the  R.C.  church,  but  now  confined  to  the 
pope. 

VICAR-GENERAL.— In  the  R.C.  church  a 
priest  who  represents  the  bishop  in  the  exercise  of 
episcopal  functions.  In  the  AngUcan  church  the 
title  was  formerly  given  to  an  ecclesiastical  deputy 
of  the  king;  it  now  signifies  an  official  who  acts  as  a 
deputy  of  a  bishop  or  archbishop. 

VICE. — See  Virtues  and  Vices. 

VICTOR. — The  name  of  three  popes  and  two 
antipopes. 

Victor  I. — Bishop  of  Rome,  ca.  190-198. 

Victor  //.- Pope,  1055-1056. 

Victor  III.— Pope,  1086-1087. 

Victor  IV. — '(l)  Antipope  in  1138  for  two 
months;    (2)  Antipope,  1159-1164. 

VIDHAR. — One  of  the  Aesir  gods  of  Teutonic 
mythology,  slayer  of  the  Fenris  Wolf  (q.v.)  and 
avenger  of  his  father,  Odhin,  at  Ragnarok  (q.v.), 
which  he  survives.  He  is  called  the  "silent  god" 
and  may  signify  boundless  space. 

VIENNE,  COUNCIL  OF.— A  R.C.  synod  of 
114  Bishops  at  Vienne,  France,  in  1311-12,  which 
investigated  the  charges  against  the  Knights 
Templars  and  arranged  crusades  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land,  condemned  the  teaching  that 
the  rational  soul  is  not  per  se  the  "form"  of  the 
human  body,  enacted  disciplinary  decrees  concern- 
ing the  Mendicant  Orders  and  the  Inquisition,  and 
provided  for  the  teaching  of  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
"Chaldaic"  in  the  universities  of  Rome,  Paris, 
Oxford,  Bologna,  and  Salamanca. 

VIGIL. — Watchfulness,  especially  at  a  time 
when  one  would  normally  be  asleep.  ReUgiously 
appUed  to  devotions  on  the  eve  of  a  holy  day. 


467 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Virtues  and  Vices 


VIGILIUS.— Pope,  537-555,  during  the  Three 
Chapter  Controversy  (q.v.),  in  which  he  assumed 
an  evasive  attitude. 

VINCENT  OF  LERINS.— A  church  writer  of 
the  first  half  of  the  5th.  century,  who  belonged  to 
Gaul,  being  priest  and  monk  at  Lerins.  He  formu- 
lated the  test  of  orthodoxy  as  "what  is  everywhere, 
always  and  by  all  beUeved." 

VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  SAINT  (1576-1660).— 
French  R.C.  divine,  founder  of  the  "Congregation 
of  Priests  of  the  Mission"  or  the  Lazarites,  an 
association  to  succor  the  sick  and  poor.  He  was 
beatified  in  1729  and  canonized  in  1737,  his  festival 
being  held  on  July  19.  The  Society  of  St,  Vincent 
de  Paul  founded  in  1833  for  various  humanitarian 
enterprises  perpetuates  his  memory. 

VINCIBLE  IGNORANCE.— See  Ignorance. 

VINET,  ALEXANDRE  RUDOLFE  (1797-1847). 
— Swiss  theologian  eminent  as  an  advocate  of 
vitality  and  freedom  in  religion  over  against  doc- 
trinal rigidity,  and  as  a  persuasive  exponent  of 
evangehcal  religious  warmth  over  against  ration- 
alism. 

VIRGIN  BIRTH.— The  Christian  doctrine  that 
Jesus  was  supernaturaUy  begotten  and  born  while 
his  mother  was  still  a  virgin. 

This  belief  is  not,  at  least  originally,  an  afl&rma- 
tion  of  strict  parthenogenesis.  The  gospels  ascribe 
Mary's  pregnancy  to  a  visitation  of  the  divine 
Spirit  (Matt.  1:18;  Luke  1:35)  and  the  so-called 
Apostles'  Creed  declares  Jesus  to  have  been  "con- 
ceived by  the  Holy  Ghost."  Consequently  the 
term  "supernatural,"  rather  than  "virgin,"  birth 
might  be  a  more  accurate  designation  for  the  idea. 

Many  religions,  whether  of  primitive  peoples 
or  of  races  that  have  reached  a  relatively  high  stage 
of  culture,  entertain  belief  in  supernatural  births, 
as  a  means  of  accounting  for  the  unique  ability 
of  great  men  and  heroes  (q.v.).  Thus  Buddha 
was  said  to  have  been  supernaturaUy  begotten, 
although  his  mother  was  not  a  virgin;  and  the 
expected  savior  of  Persian  faith  was  to  be  born 
of  a  virgin  miraculously  impregnated  by  the  seed 
of  Zoroaster.  The  Egyptians  were  of  the  opinion 
that  a  deity  sometimes  took  a  mortal  as  bride,  who 
consequently  became  mother  to  a  divine  child. 
They  even  speculated  about  the  nature  of  the 
generative  process  under  such  circumstances  and 
explained  it  in  terms  of  the  action  of  the  god's 
spirit  (pneuma).  Supernatural  births  were  com- 
mon in  Greek  tradition,  but  no  particular  emphasis 
was  placed  upon  the  mother's  virginity.  Among 
Romans  it  was  current  belief  that  their  progenitor 
Romulus  had  been  divinely  born  of  a  virgin  mother. 
By  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  reports  of 
the  miraculous  genesis  of  numerous  mythical  and 
historical  persons  of  distinction  were  widely  preva- 
lent throughout  the  Mediterranean  world. 

How  far  Christian  interest  in  claiming  super- 
natural birth  for  Jesus  was  influenced  by  the  cur- 
rency of  similar  beliefs  among  the  Gentiles  of  that 
time  has  been  much  debated.  Sometimes  the 
Old  Testament  phrase,  "a  virgin  shall  conceive" 
(Isa.  7:14)  has  been  regarded  as  furnishing  the 
incentive  for  the  doctrine.  Other  interpreters, 
noting  the  absence  in  Isaiah  of  any  reference  to  a 
miraculous  impregnation  of  the  virgin,  have  been 
of  the  opinion  that  Christian  interest  in  this  subject 
was  first  awakened  by  contact  with  this  character- 
istic method  of  accrediting  revered  persons  among 
Gentiles.  Believing,  as  all  loyal  Christians  did, 
that  Jesus  could  be  furnished  with  credentials  suc- 


cessfully rivaUng  any  gentile  hero's  claims  to  dis«- 
tinction,  some  Christians  were  thus  led  to  see  in 
the  language  of  Isa.  7:14a  specific  prophecy  of 
Jesus'  supernatural  birth.  During  the  2nd.  century 
this  behef  took  firm  root  within  Christianity  and 
henceforth  continued  to  be  a  permanent  feature  of 
the  creeds.  S.  J.  Case 

VIRGIN  MARY.— The  mother  of  Jesus. 
According  to  the  infancy  sections  of  Matthew  and 
Luke,  Jesus  was  born  without  a  human  father,  his 
mother  being  a  virgin.  This  behef,  to  which  no 
reference  is  made  in  other  portions  of  the  N.T.,  was 
widespread  by  the  beginning  of  the  2nd.  century 
and  found  its  way  into  the  earhest  creeds.  In  course 
of  time  it  was  developed  into  the  behef  that  Mary 
was  perpetually  virgin,  even  after  the  birth  of  Jesus, 
and  that  she  herself  was  conceived  without  sin 
and  always  sinless,  because  predestined  to  be  the 
Mother  of  God  before  Adam's  fall.  See  Immacu- 
late Conception.  The  church  of  the  later 
Roman  period  came  to  give  Mary  an  ever  higher 
position  in  Christianity,  and  the  especial  veneration 
Qiyperdulia)  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  prayers  to 
her  became  a  recognized  part  of  the  R.C.  system. 
Her  body  was  also  beUeved  to  have  been  received 
up  into  Heaven  (see  Assumption)  without  having 
suffered  corruption.  The  Ave  Maria  and  other 
devotions  {Rosary,  Ldtany)  addressed  to  Mary 
have  acquired  almost  equal  sanctity  with  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  numerous  festivals  and  miracles 
are  now  associated  with  Mary  in  the  R.C.  Church. 
See  Mother  op  God.  Shailer  Mathews 

VIRTUES  AND  VICES.— A  virtue  is  a  habit  or  a 
type  of  action  meriting  moral  approval.  A  vice  is 
a  trait  of  character  or  a  type  of  action  meriting 
moral  disapproval. 

The  complexity  of  life  makes  it  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  draw  up  any  complete  list  of  virtues 
and  vices.  Actions  are  differently  estimated  in 
different  grades  of  culture;  and  the  determination 
of  what  a  virtue  is  depends  on  the  ethical  criterion 
which  one  holds. 

1.  The     so-called      "cardinal"      virtites. — Plato    \ 
viewed  ethics  as  the  art  of  introducing  harmony  into 
hfe,  both  for  the  individual  and  for  society.     For 
this  harmonious  control  of  life  he  advocated  and 
expounded    four    fundamental    virtues.     Wisdom  < 
inteUigently  surveys  life  in  all  its  relationships  and 
discloses  the  way  in  which  harmony  may  be  secured. 
Courage  supplies  the  positive  energy  necessary  for     ' 
carrying  out  the  program  which  wisdom  ascertains. 
Temperance,  or  self-control,  enables  one  to  sub-     y 
ordinate  feelings  and  selfish  interests  to  the  total 
good^     Justice  organizes  all  virtues  into  a  harmoni-      | 
ous  whole,  and  is  thus  the  highest  virtue.     In  the 
ethics  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  in  many  standard 
systems  x)i  more  recent  times  these  virtues  are 
taken  as  a  starting  point  for  the  analysis  of  morality. 
Christian  ethics  added  to  these  three  "theological 
virtues," /ai//i,  hope,  and  love,  which  were  attainable 
only  with  the  aid  of  grace.     Thus  seven  fundamental 
virtues  were  secured.     For  the  sake  of  symmetry, 

a  similar  number  of  vices  was  adduced,  although 
there  was  never  entire  agreement  as  to  what  these 
were.  Pride,  avarice,  anger,  gluttony,  and  unchastity 
appear  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  other  two  (some- 
times three)  being  selected  from  envy,  vainglory, 
gloominess,  and  indifference. 

2.  Aristotle's  criterion  of  virtues. — Aristotle 
defined  virtue  as  the  right  mean  between  two 
extremes  of  conduct.  Every  virtue  may  have  two 
corresponding  vices,  one  due  to  excess,  the  other 
due  to  deficiency  of  action.  For  example,  generosity 
is  the  right  mean  between  extravagance  on  the  onto 
hand  and  niggardhness  on  the  other.    Following 


Vishnu 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


468 


this  method  of  analysis,  he  drew  up  a  considerable 
list  of  virtues  and  vices,  thus  attempting  a  remark- 
ably complete  ethical  analysis. 

3.  Some  typical  definitions. — Stoicism  set  forth 
the  task  of  ethics  as  living  in  harmony  with  the 
divine  Logos,  or  rational  principle  of  the  cosmos. 
The  important  virtues  were  wisdom  and  "apathy" 
or  self-control  (indifference  to  the  soUcitations  of 
the  senses).  The  various  forms  of  Hedonism, 
making  pleasure  the  supreme  end  of  life,  emphasize 
a  wise  discrimination  in  the  values  of  various 
pleasures.  The  virtues  are  such  types  of  action 
as  will  bring  the  maximum  of  happiness.  Indi- 
vidualistic hedonism  may  emphasize  a  crafty 
prudence.  Social  hedonism  may  emphasize  loyalty 
to  a  social  order  which  will  protect  the  individual 
against  aggression  (Hobbe's  theory  of  subjection 
to  the  State);  or  it  may  set  forth  the  mutual 
dependence  of  men  on  one  another  so  as  to  exalt  a 
system  of  moral  rights  and  duties  (UtiUtarianism). 
Intuitionism  is  a  form  of  ethical  philosophy  which 
conceives  of  good  and  evil  as  eternally  fixed  laws 
in  the  order  of  nature.  The  virtues  consist  in  acts 
of  conformity  to  this  a  priori  good  (Cudworth, 
Samuel  Clarke).  Lists  of  "axiomatic"  virtues 
were  drawn  up  by  some  of  the  British  moralists, 
including  such  ideals  as  the  worship  of  God,  the 
duty  of  wholesome  self-development,  equity  in 
dealings  with  others,  benevolence  toward  our 
fellow-men,  industriousness,  etc.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  discover  some  one  all-inclusive  virtue 
by  which  all  actions  may  be  tested.  Characteristic 
are  benevolence  (Hutcheson),  or  the  attitude  of 
rational  obedience  to  the  categorical  imperative 
(Kant).  Philosophical  Idealism  would  deduce  all 
virtues  from  the  fundamental  attempt  on  the  part 
of  finite  man  to  realize  the  fullness  of  the  Absolute 
in  his  living  (Fichte,  T.  H.  Green). 

4.  Empirical  ethics  seeks  to  ascertain  what 
actions  actually  yield  satisfaction,  and  to  classify 
them  as  good  or  bad.  Hume  distinguished  natural 
virtues,  like  generosity,  equity,  clemency,  etc., 
which  bring  instinctive  pleasure,  from  artificial 
virtues  which  rest  on  the  satisfaction  of  doing  what 
is  conventionally  approved.  _  Modern  scholars, 
recognizing  the  essentially  social  nature  of  man, 
would  define  virtues  in  terms  of  social  relationships, 
and  would  seek  in  the  evolution  of  society  the  key 
to  the  changing  lists  of  virtues.  See  Ethics; 
Utilitarianism;  Right. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
VISHNU. — One  of  the  most  important  gods  in 
the  Hindu  pantheon;   in  Vedic  times  a  minor  god, 
but  in  later  Hinduism  one  of  the  members  of  the 
triad  with  the  fimction  of  preserver. 

VISIONS. — Mental  states  in  which  the  subject 
seems  to  see  objects  and  persons  with  lifelike 
clearness  though  others  present  have  no  such 
experience.  The  visions  of  Ezekiel  and  of  Sweden- 
borg  are  illustrations.  _ 

Throughout  the  history  of  religion  visions  have 
not  been  uncommon  and  they  have  been  considered 
due  to  supernatural  agencies.  Coe  regards  these 
phenomena  as  hallucinations,  in  the  terminology  of 
psychology.  In  illusions  there  is  simply  a  mis- 
interpretation of  the  object  but  in  hallucinations 
there  is  no  object  present  in  reality.  The  stimuU 
are  intraorganic.  They  are  also  of  the  order  of 
automatisms,  that  is,  reactions  of  the  organism 
which  are  involuntary  and  which  seem  to  the  subject 
to  be  induced  from  without.  Visions  are  automat- 
isms of  a  visual  character  but  there  are  also  auto- 
matisms of  hearing  as  when  one  thinks  himself 
spoken  to,  and  automatisms  of  movement  in  which 
one  speaks  or  makes  a  gesture  unconsciously  and 
unintentionally.     ReUgious     revivals     have     been 


very  productive  of  such.  Sight  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  human  senses  and  the  most  intellectual. 
For  most  persons  thinking  goes  on  largely  in  visual 
terms.  It  is  to  be  expected  therefore  that  dreams 
and  visions  will  Jbe  chiefly  of  this  type.  The 
primary  cause  of  visions,  given  a  properly  suggestive 
organism,  is  a  highly  concentrated  emotional  atten- 
tion upon  religious  subjects.  Prolonged  brooding 
upon  the  person  and  character  of  Christ  has  brought 
visions  of  him  to  many  lonely  devotees.  The  isola- 
tion of  hermits  and  holy  men,  together  with  their 
ascetic  practices,  have  prepared  them  to  achieve  the 
experience.  Similar  phenomena  occur  frequently 
in  other  than  reUgious  experience.  For  example, 
the  visions  of  the  absent  lover  or  of  a  dear  one  who 
has  died.  In  Israel,  in  the  later  times,  the  visions 
of  prophets  were  referred  to  the  tests  of  practical 
life  to  determine  their  value  and  that  is  the  only 
means  of  measuring  their  worth  today. 

Edward  S.  Ames 
VISITATIO  LIMINUM  SANCTORUM  APOS- 
TOLORUM.— In  R.C.  practise,  the  visitation  of 
the  churches  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  in  Rome  and 
of  the  pope,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  or  obedience  to  a 
prescription  of  the  church. 

VISITATION,  THE.— The  visit  of  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  to  EUzabeth,  recorded  in  Luke 
1 :  39  fif .     The  feast  of  the  Visitation  occurs  July  2. 

VISITATION,    ORDER    OF    THE.— A    R.C. 

female  order  established  by  St.  Francis  of  Sales  and 
Mme  de  Chantal  in  1607.'  It  is  devoted  especially 
to  the  education  of  girls. 

VISITATION  OF  THE  SICK.— A  mmistration 
of  the  clergy  which  is  expUcitly  prescribed  in  certain 
conciliar  decrees  on  the  basis  of  James  5:14r-15. 
In  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer  an 
occasional  office  is  prescribed  for  the  use  of  minis- 
ters. In  the  Roman  liturgy  it  is  connected  with 
confession  and  absolution,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
dying  with  extreme  unction. 

VITALIANUS.— Pope,  657-672. 

VOCATION,  RELIGIOUS.— The  impulses 
which  men  recognize  as  providential  guidance  are 
often  felt  as  a  call  to  the  priesthood  or  the  ministry, 
and  churches,  Roman  or  Protestant,  have  asked 
assurance  of  such  a  call  (cf .  The  Cambridge  Plat- 
form VIII,  1).  As  Paul  was  called  to  an  apostle's 
work  by  an  act  of  grace,  so,  lest  it  become  hireling 
service,  all  ministry  should  rest  upon  a  sense  of 
divine  constraint,  "the  constraint  of  a  heart  which 
can  do  no  other."  Early  reflections  on  this  matter 
dealt  chiefly  with  the  adoption  of  the  monastic  life. 
Cassian  (Conferences  III^  4)  distinguishes  three 
modes  by  which  a  call  is  made  known;  direct 
inspiration,  the  influence  of  a  kindUng  example, 
and  the  hard  compulsion  of  the  vicissitudes  of  life. 
The  pressure  of  such  questions  ended  when  monas- 
teries became  endowments  for  the  younger  sons  of  the 
nobility,  but  it  was  made  acute  again  by  the  search- 
ing tests  of  Ignatius  Loyola  and  Suarez,  defining  the 
identification  of  such  a  divine  call  in  psychological 
experience  and  the  compatibiUty  of  it  with  freedom 
of  choice.  The  psychological  problem  is  the  same 
as  that  discussed  by  Jonathan  Edwards  in  his  con- 
tention for  a  direct  perception  of  the  action  of  grace 
as  distinguishable  from  the  action  of  the  human 
mind.  Protestantism,  ending  monasticisrn  and 
affirming  the  priesthood  of  all  believers,  applied  the 
discussion  to  the  layman's  life.  Luther  held  that 
each  man's  lot  was  assigned  by  God  and  he  was 
concerned  only  with  the  duty  of  piety  in  a  calling 
passively    accepted.     Calvinism    emphasized    the 


469 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Wake 


religious  duty  of  widsom  in  the  choice  of  a  vocation 
since  callings  are  varied  opportunities  to  work  for 
the  glory  of  God.  This  rationaUzing  of  the  "call" 
and  the  restrictions  imposed  on  choice  by  the 
economic  system  isolate  the  spiritual  problem  again 
to  the  vocations  which  sacrifice  worldly  advantage. 

"P      A       IjTT'RTCl'T'T'IT' 

VOLTAIRE,  FRANCOIS  MARIE  ARONET  DE 

(1694-1778). — French  rationalist  philosopher  and 
man  of  letters.  His  attitude  toward  the  privileged 
and  persecuting  orthodoxy  of  his  day  is  expressed 
in  his  slogan,  "Crush  the  infamous"  (ecrasez 
I'infdme).  While  severely  criticizing  church  reh- 
gion,  he  inclined  toward  deism,  and  built  a  temple 
to  God  on  his  estate. 

VOLUNTARISM.— The  philosophical  concep- 
tion of  reahty  which  interprets  ultimate  reaUty 
in  terms  of  will  rather  than  in  terms  of  intellect. 

Theologically  voluntarism  grounds  moral  and 
even  logical  distinctions  on  the  will  of  God  rather 
than  upon  the  demands  of  reason.  On  this  theory 
that  is  right  or  true  which  God  wills  to  be  so.  The 
opposing  theory  (intellectuaUsm)  represents  God  as 
willing  what  he  does  because  it  is  inherently  rational. 

In  modern  philosophy  the  term  indicates  a  type 
of  interpretation  which  makes  primary  the  active, 
practical  aspects  of  experience  rather  than  the  con- 
templative and  rationaUzing.  Kant  (q.v.),  fol- 
lowed by  Fichte  (q.v.),  made  the  ethical  realm 
where  will  is  all-important  more  primary  than  the 
intellectual  realm  where  considerations  of  logical 
consistency  are  aU-important.  A  radical  develop- 
ment of  this  type  of  interpretation  was  given  by 
Schopenhauer  (q.v.),  who  conceived  the  ultimate 
reahty  as  an  irrational,  irresistible,  blind  will.  A 
modification  of  the  voluntaristie  point  of  view  is 
found  in  pragmatism  which  interprets  all  thinking 
as  a  practical  instrument  for  the  reaUzation  of 
definite  purposes.  Gerald  Birney  Smith 

VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA.— An  Ameri- 
can secession  from  the  Salvation  Army  of  Britain. 

Commander  BaUington  Booth,  in  charge  of  the 
American  Salvation  Army,  having  refused  to  remit 
to  London  headquarters  a  War-Cry  Sustentation 
Fund  demanded  by  his  father,  on  the  ground  that 


this  money  had  been  raised  for  superannuated 
soldiers  of  the  American  Salvation  Army,  was 
deposed  from  his  command.  A  remonstrance  on 
the  part  of  the  American  Salvationists  against  this 
recall  proved  ineffective.  To  conserve  the  useful- 
ness of  many  who  had  withdrawn  from  the  Army, 
BaUington  Booth  organized  a  new  body  incorporated 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  November  9,  1896. 
Chief  features  of  its  principles  are  that  "all  proper- 
ties, real  estate  and  personal,  of  the  Volunteer 
movement  shall  be  held  by  a  body  of  five  to  seven 
weU  known  and  responsible  American  citizens 
....  instead  of  being  handed  over  to  one  man. 
It  is  and  ever  must  be  an  American  institution 
recognizing  the  spirit  and  practice  of  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States."  "The  officer  in  supreme 
miUtary  command  ....  shall  be  elected  by  the 
soldiers.  He  may  be  removed  by  a  three-fourths 
vote  of  the  Grand  Field  Council."  Every  volun- 
teer must  subscribe  to  a  belief  in  one  supreme  God, 
the  Trinity,  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible^  Jesus 
Christ  as  the  Son  of  God,  the  doctrine  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  of  eternal  punishment. 
Woman  is  recognized  as  man's  equal,  and  is  entitled 
to  the  same  privileges  in  the  organization.  In 
addition  to  evangelistic  work,  it  provides  homes  for 
destitute  men,  friendless  young  women,  works 
among  unprotected  children  and  prisoners,  and 
performs  tenement  work  for  the  worthy  poor. 
The  Volunteers  number  10,204  (1919). 

Peter  Ct   ^^odf* 
VOTIVE  MASS.— In  the  R.C.  practice,  a  mass 
not  liturgically  prescribed,  but  the  celebration  of 
which  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  officiating  priest, 

VOTIVE  OFFERING.— In  the  R.C.  church 
an  offering  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  or  as  expression 
of  gratitude,  and  presc^bed  to  a  shrine  or  picture  of 
a  saint. 

VOTIVE  OFFICES.— Services  which  are  peiv 
formed  because  of  a  vow  in  fulfilment  of  such. 

VOWS. — See  Oaths  and  Vows. 

VULGATE.— A  Latin  version  of  the  Bible  used 
in  the  R.C.  church  as  the  authoritative  Scripture. 
See  Versions  of  the  Bible. 


w 


WAFER. — ^A  thin,  unleavened  cake  made  of 
wheaten  flour,  used  as  the  consecrated  bread  of  the 
Eucharist.  The  R.C.  wafer  is  stamped  with  a 
cross  and  the  letters  I.H.S. 

WAHABITES. — A  Protestant,  reforming  sect 
of  Islam  founded  by  Mohammed  ibn  Abd  al'Wahab 
in  the  18th.  century.  He  attempted  to  recaU 
Islam  to  its  original  purity  as  found  in  the  Koran 
and  tradition  of  the  first  centuries  and  in  the 
agreement  of  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet. 
Everything  added  later  was  considered  a  degenera- 
tion. Consequently  the  authority  of  the  canon 
lawyers  was  challenged;  the  worship  of  saints  and 
pilgrimages  to  their  tombs,  even  the  tomb  of 
Mohammed,  were  condemned  as  idolatry.  ^  The 
sect  insisted  on  a  severe  monotheism  and  a  Uteral 
interpretation  of  the  Scripture  and  tradition.  At 
one  time  a  threatening  political  power,  their  rule  is 
now  restricted  to  Central  and  Western  Arabia 
but  the  reUgious  influence  of  the  movement  is 
stiU  considerable  throughout  Islam,  especiaUy  in 
India. 

WAKAN,  WAKONDA.— A  word  used  by  the 
Sioux  Indians  for  the  impersonal  potency  which, 


when  present,  gives  a  super-usual  or  superior 
nature  or  quaUty  to  things  and  persons.  See 
Mana;  Manitu;  Orenda. 

WAKE. — ^The  essence  of  the  wake  is  that  kins- 
men and  friends  of  a  dead  man  shaU,  until  final 
disposition  of  the  corpse  is  made,  remain  in  the 
presence  of  the  body  without  sleeping.  During 
the  interval  between  death  and  interment  or 
cremation,  the  spirit  of  the  dead  is  in  a  most 
unstable  pUght,  and  it  may  very  possibly  seek  to 
return  to  its  earthly  body  or  to  revisit  its  old  home. 
Such  return  would  be  a  great  peril  to  the  Uving, 
especially  in  view  of  the  superhuman  powers 
acquired  by  a  spirit  when  it  becomes  discarnate; 
and  it  is,  therefore,  advisable  for  those  closely 
associated  with  the  deceased  during  his  Ufetime  to 
guard  against  this  danger.  There  is  also  the  even 
greater  peril  that  some  other  discarnate  ghost  or 
maUgnant  spirit,  who  are  ever  wandering  abou1h>. 
in  search  of  a  body  in  whic  h  to  dweU,  may  seek  to 
enter  the  corpse.  The  custom  of  providing  food 
and  drink  for  the  watchers  is  a  later  development 
for  their  comfort,  and  is  scarcely  connected  with 
the  feast  for  the  dead,  which  is  held  at  or  after 
final  disposition  of  the  body.        Louis  H.  Grat 


Waldenses 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


470 


WALDENSES. — A  mediaeval  dissenting  body 
founded  (ca.  1108)  by  Peter  Waldo  of  Lyons,  a 
wealthy  citizen  who  in  the  spirit  of  mediaeval  monas- 
ticism  reached  the  conviction  that  individual  owner- 
ship of  property  was  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity and  that  the  masses  of  the  people  should 
be  evangelized  in  their  own  languages.  Having 
disincumbered  himself  of  property  by  charity  and 
the  ^  expense  of  translating  the  Scriptures,  and 
having  gathered  and  trained  a  body  of  likeminded 
men  and  women,  he  led  a  successful  campaign 
of  evangelism  which  in  a  few  years  almost  covered 
Europe  with  its  influence.  When  his  work  was 
prohibited  by  the  local  authorities  he  appealed  to 
the  pope  disclaiming  any  intention  to  antagonize 
the  Church  but  insisting  on  the  right  to  evan- 
gelize. 

Waldo  began  to  preach  evangeUcal  penance  in 
1176-77.  Forbidden  by  the  Archbishop  o^  Lyons, 
he  continued.  The  Waldenses  were  condemned  by 
the  Third  and  Fourth  Councils  of  the  Lateran 
(1179  and  1215)  for  teaching  doctrines  not  in  accord 
with  Cathohc  faith  on  the  Trinity,  divinity,  and 
incarnation  of  Christ,  inspiration  of  Scripture, 
original  sin  and  the  necessity  of  infant  baptism, 
validity  of  sacraments  conferred  by  sinful  min- 
isters. 

Waldo  as  a  leader  maintained  an  iron  discipline, 
requiring  the  inner  circle  of  his  followers  to  give 
up  family  relationships  (even  marital),  property, 
and  secular  avocations.  In  Northern  Italy,  Waldo 
early  established  relations  with  a  more  evangelical 
party  (Humiliati,  probably  followers  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia),  who  however  soon  rebelled  against  his 
rigid  requirements.  The  two  parties  agreed  in 
maintaining  baptismal  regeneration,  infant  baptism 
and  .transubstantiation.  The  Italians  denied  the 
efficacy  of  ordinances  administered  by  unworthy 
priests,  the  French  affirmed  it.  The  French 
required  of  the  Italians  acknowledgment  that 
Waldo  was  a  saved  man,  the  Italians  would  go  -no 
further  than  to  say  that  if  he  repented  of  his  sins 
(no  doubt  meaning  his  intolerant  attitude  toward 
themselves)  he  might  be  saved.  Both  parties  had 
during  the  13th.  and  14th.  centuries  strong  con- 
nexional  organizations,  with  bishops  or  majors, 
elders  and  deacons,  annual  conventions  (usually 
in  Lombardy),  itinerant  evangelists,  schools  or 
meeting  places  for  the  entertainment  of  evangelists 
and  meeting  houses.  By  1260,  as  we  learn  from 
preserved  inquisitorial  accounts,  both  parties  had 
become  far  more  evangelical,  maintaining  that  they 
themselves  constituted  the  true  apostolic  church, 
that  the  ministration  of  Roman  Catholic  priests 
constituted  a  malediction  rather  than  a  benediction, 
denying  transubstantiation,  while  some  rejected 
infant  baptism  and  insisted  on  personal  faith  as 
prerequisite  to  baptism,  etc.  No  doubt  they  had 
been  influenced  by  earlier  more  evangelical  parties 
(Petrobrusians,  Henricians,  Arnoldists).  In  the 
16th.  century  they  negotiated  with  the  Lutheran 
and  the  Reformed  movements.  With  the  latter 
(especially  the  Zwinglian  type)  they  had  more  in 
common  and,  accepting  infant  baptism,  took  their 
place  as  a  definite  denomination  in  the  great 
Reformed  (Presbyterian)  body,  those  radically 
opposed  to  infant  baptism  no  doubt  finding  their 
place  among  Anabaptists.  The  Waldenses  have 
maintained  their  independent  status,  and  their 
sense  of  religious  loyalty  has  been  greatly  strength- 
ened by  the  persecutions  which  they  have  under- 
gone at  the  hands  of  the  Catholics.  _  An  English 
officer,  Colonel  Beckwith,  devoted  his  life  in  the 
first  half  of  the  18th.  century  to  the  establishment 
of  schools  and  the  raising  of  their  religious  ideals. 
Today  the  Waldenses  are  a  vigorous  evangelistic 
body,  numbering  some  13,000.     A.  H.  Newman 


WALHALLA.— The  dwelling  of  Odhin  in  Asgard. 
It  was  the  paradise  of  warriors  selected  on  the  field 
of  battle  by  the  Walkyries.  Heroes  there  lived  a 
joyous  hfe  of  fighting  and  feasting.  The  hall  had  a 
roof  of  shields,  spears  for  beams  and  was  brilliant 
with  the  flashing  of  armour. 

WALIS.^ee  Welis. 

WALKYRIES. — Divine  warrior-maidens,  fates 
of  the  battle-field  in  Norse  mythology.  They 
selected  the  bravest  of  the  warriors  falUng  in  battle 
for  the  companionship  of  the  gods  in  WalhaUa. 

WANDERING  CLERGY.— See  Vaqantes. 

WANDERING  JEW.— A  mythical  character, 
described  in  a  legend  originating  in  Germany  in  1602. 
The  tradition  records  that  because  he  refused  to 
permit  Jesus  to  rest  at  his  door  while  bearing  the 
cross,  he  was  condemned  to  be  a  wanderer  in  the 
earth  until  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 

yANG  YANG  MING  (1472-1528  a.d.).— A 
Chinese  teacher  of  absolute  ideahsm  whose  influence 
extended  to  Japan.  He  held  that  reaUty  is  one,  per- 
sonal and  spiritual;  that  the  old  distinction  between 
the  material  and  spiritual  is  unreal;  that  the  nature 
of  man  is  one  with  reaUty ,  and  therefore  in  the  human 
conscience  man  may  read  the  meaning  and  nature  of 
ihe  universe.  The  way  to  truth,  then,  is  by  intui- 
tion not  by  much  learning  nor  by  logic.  "Knowl- 
edge is  dyspepsia"  he  said._  By  keeping  the  heart 
clean,  by  spiritual  discipline,  the  real  intuitive 
knowledge  will  become  clear  and  find  natural 
expression  i.n  social  conduct.  His  system  released 
many  from  bondage  to  the  old  authorities  and 
became  a  philosophic  aid  to  modern  liberalism 
in  Japan. 

WAR  OF  INVESTITURE.— See  Investttube; 
Worms,  Concordat  of. 

WARNECK,  GUSTAV  ADOLF  (1834-1910).— 
German  divine;  best  known  for  his  activity  in 
support  of  missions,  and  especially  for  his  literary 
works  on  the  history  of  missions. 

WARS  OF  RELIGION.— A  series  of  wars 
beginning  in  1562  in  which  the  Huguenots  (French 
Protestants)  sought  to  establish  rights  of  worship 
within  specific  areas  of  France.  A  series  of  Edicts 
(Amboise  1563,  St.  Germ/iin  1570,  Rochelle  1573, 
Beaulieu  1576,  Bergerac  1578,  Fleix  1580)  conceding 
sUght  advantages  to  opposing  forces  almost  evenly 
matched,  served  only  as  breathing  speUs  for  the 
renewal  of  the  conffict,  which  remained  indecisive 
until  the  Politiques,  interposing  as  nationalists,  were 
able  to  effect  a  compromise  in  the  conversion  to 
Rome  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  the  leader  of  the 
Huguenots,  with  the  concession  to  them  of  impor- 
tant privileges,  reUgious  and  civic,  embodied  in  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (q.v.). 

WASHING,   CEREMONIAL.— See  PuBmcA- 

TiON,  Rites  op. 

WATER,  HOLY.— See  Holy  Watbb. 

WATER,  LITURGICAL  USE  OF.— Water  is 
one  of  the  most  universal  of  religious  symbols. 
As  "the  waters  of  life"  the  element  is  significant 
not  only  because  of  its  importance  in  quenching 
thirst,  but  also  because  of  the  relation  of  vegetation 
to  water.  This  relation  leads  to  most  elaborate 
rituals  and  beliefs  especially  in  regions  where  the 
rainfall  is  slight  or  precarious,  as  on  the  borders  of 


471 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Werewolf 


the  Arabian  Desert  or  in  the  arid  Southwest  of 
the  United  States,  among  the  Pueblo  and  other  agri- 
cultural Indians.  In  such  regions  springs  and  pools 
become  sacred  places,  while  the  waters  from  above, 
the  descending  rains,  are  viewed  with  veneration.  ^ 

Water  being  so  regarded,  it  is  natural  that  it 
should  be  widely  employed  in  religious  ritual, 
both  as  a  symbol  of  purification  and  as  a  symbol 
of  life  and  strength.  Its  more  important  ritualistic 
uses  are:  (1)  Libation,  in  which  drink-offerings  of 
water  or  of  water  mixed  with  blood  or  wine  are 
presented  to  deities  or  poured  forth  as  propitiations 
to  the  dead.  (2)  Lustration,  or  purification  by 
water  sprinkled  or  poured  upon  the  body  or 
ceremonial  objects.  (3)  Ablution,  or  ceremonial 
bathing,  a  rite  which  is  todajr  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Muslim  practices,  is  known  in  certain 
Christian  sects  in  the  bathing  of  the  feet,  and  is  a 
feature  of  many  pagan  cults.  (4)  Baptism,  or 
ceremonial  devotion  through  the  life-symbolism  of 
water;  known  not  only  as  a  Christian  rite,  but  also 
in  other  ancient  religions  and  in  America  among 
the  Aztecs  of  Mexico  and  various  wild  tribes  of 
North  America  from  pre-Columbian  times.  _  (5) 
Ordeals,  in  which  swearing  by  water,  being  cast  into 
water,  drinking  ceremonial  or  sanctified  waters,  etc., 
are  made  tests  of  guilt  or  innocence,  as  in  Num.  5 : 
11-31.  (6)  Oracles,  springs,  pools,  ceremonial 
waters  being  used  in  many  fashions  as  a  basis  for 
reading  fate  or  fortune. 

The  phrase  livinq  water-  commonly  denotes 
running  water,  and  it  is  this  which  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  natural  vehicle  of  the  powers  of  this 
element.  Running  water  is  closely  associated  with 
the  sanctity  of  the  earth,  which  is  its  natural 
vessel;  and  it  is  this  symbolism  which  appears  in 
Num.  5:17,  and  again  in  Ley.  14:5,  where  the 
running  water  must  be  placed  in  an  earthen  vessel 
or  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  caught  in  such  a  vessel 
over  running  water.  In  certain  American  Indian 
rites  (baptismal  and  other)  running  water  must  be 
caught  in  a  bowl  hewn  from  the  wood  of  a  living 
tree,  the  rite  thus  symbolizing  the  relation  of  water 
to  earth  through  the  vegetation  born  of  earth. 

H.  B.  Alexander 

WATTS,  ISAAC  (1674-1748).— English  minis- 
ter among  the  Independents,  whose  fame  rests  on 
his  contributions  to  English  hymnology.  He 
held  that  hymns  should  be  an  expression  of  the 
devotion  of  evangelical  Christians,  not  simply  a 
reproduction  of  the  ideas  in  the  Psalms.  He  thus 
opened  the  way  for  the  free  composition  of  hymns. 

WAY  OF  THE  CROSS.— Same  as  Stations  of 

THE  Cross  (q.v.). 

"WEE  FREE"  CHURCH.— The  name  popu- 
larly applied  to  the  few  congregations  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  which  resisted  union  with  the 
United  Presbyterian  body  in  1900,  and  pressed  legal 
proceedings  so  as  to  retain  separate  possession 
of  the  endowments  belonging  to  the  Free  Church. 

WEEK. — A  time  measurement  probably  of 
Babylonian  origin,  being  one-fourth  of  the  lunar 
month.  The  Hebrews  adopted  the  institution, 
and  made  the  seventh  day  their  day  of  rest.  In 
Christianity  this  usage  continued  with  the  change 
to  the  first  day  for  rest  and  worship.  Gradually 
services  were  attached  to  other  days  until  the 
Cathohc  church  had  worked  out  a  hturgy  for  the 
whole  week,  the  liturgical  week. 

WEEKS,  FEAST  OF.— See  Pentecost. 

WEIGEL,  VALENTIN  (1533-1588).— German 
mystic.    He  was  a  Lutheran  pastor  and  formally 


signed  the  Formula  of  Concord,  but  his  views  philo- 
sophically and  theologically  tended  to  pantheism, 
and  he  became  a  leader  of  "spiritual"  Christianity. 

WEIZSAECKER,    KARL    HEINRICH    VON 

(1822-1899). — German  pastor  and  theologian,  pro- 
fessor at  Tubingen,  who  made  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  History  of  Christianity  in  the  early 
period.     His  best  known  work  is  The  Apostolic  Age. 

WELIS. — Moslem  saints  who  are  credited  with 
miraculous  powers.  They  are  usually  ranked  lower 
than  the  prophets  but  as  the  favorites  of  God  their 
help  is  nearest  at  hand  in  times  of  need.  In  theory 
they  are  not  supposed  to  receive  worship  and  in 
the  mosque  they  receive  recognition  only  as  holy 
ones  who  may  make  intercession  to  God  in  behalf 
of  men.  In  reaUty,  however,  their  tombs  are  places 
of  devotion  and  they  are  directly  appealed  to 
for  aid. 

WELLHAUSEN,  JULIUS  (1844-1918).— Ger- 
man Old  Testament  and  Oriental  scholar,  well 
known  for  his  critical  investigations  in  connection 
with  the  Old  Testament.  He  gave  wide  currency 
to  that  interpretation  of  Israelitish  History  which 
exalts  the  prophetic  period,  and  interprets  the 
Law  as  a  later  development. 

WELSH  CHURCH.— It  is  not  known  how  soon 
after  its  introduction  into  Britain  toward  the  end 
of  the  2nd.  century,  nor  through  what  channels, 
Christianity  entered  Wales.  With  the  invasion  of 
the  Saxons  it  became  strategically  identified 
with  Wales,  where  British  civiUzation  had  not  been 
ruthlessly  broken  down.  There  it  evolved  an 
advanced  ecclesiastical  system  and  estabUshed 
several  monasteries.  Distinctive  features  mani- 
fested at  Augustine's  conference  (603)  were  the 
Easter  date,  the  ceremony  of  baptism  and  the 
tonsure.  The  triumph  of  Roman  Christianity  in 
Wales  was  effected  in  the  13th.  century.  The 
influence  of  the  Renaissance,  tardy  in  penetrating 
Wales,  appears  (1588)  in  the  first  complete  Welsh 
Bible,  known  as  Bishop  Morgan's  Bible.  The 
growth  of  Puritanism  is  connected  with  the  names  of 
John  Henry,  Vicar  Prichard,  and  William  Roth. 
With  the  ejection  of  hundreds  of  the  Welsh  clergy 
shortly  after  the  execution  of  Charles,  nonconform- 
ity made  rapid  growth  during  the  Commonwealth, 
and  under  the  unwise  Stuart-Hanoverian  poUcy  of 
appointing  only  Englishmen  to  vacant  Welsh  sees. 
Under  a  system  of  catechizing  in  the  vernacular, 
GriflSth  Jones  (1683-1761)  was  able  to  reach  a 
third  of  the  Welsh  population  with  scriptural 
teaching.  The  indifference  of  the  EngUsh  prelates 
in  Wales  to  the  marked  revival  that  accompanied 
this  system  of  teaching,  led  to  the  Great  Schism  of 
1811  when  the  mass  of  farming  and  laboring  mem- 
bers abandoned  the  Established  Church.  In  1906 
a  Commission  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
status,  endowment,  and  work  done  by  the  churches 
in  Wales.  The  report  of  this  Commission,  pre- 
sented in  1910,  was  followed  by  a  Welsh  Disestab- 
lishment Act  (1914),  according  to  which  during  a 
forty-year  period,  the  EstabUshed  Church  in 
Wales  is  to  be  dispossessed  of  its  temporahties, 
the  money  therefrom  to  be  devoted  through  a 
Board  of  Commissioners  to  universities  and  Ubraries 
throughout  Wales.  On  account  of  the  War,  this 
act  has  not  yet  been  brought  into  force. 

Peter  G.  Mode 

WEREWOLF. — A  human  being  who  at  times 
assumes  the  form  and  nature  of  a  wolf.  Even  in 
human  form  he  is  supposed  to  possess  a  wolf's 
heart.  In  the  transformed  shape  the  eye  remains 
human.    Akin  to  the  werewolf  is  the  berserker^  a 


Wergild 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


472 


man  in  the  shape  of  a  bear.    Such  folk-beliefs 
are  most  common  in  Europe. 

WERGILD. — A  money  compensation  paid  by 
a  man-slayer  or  his  kin  to  the  kin  of  the  slain  man. 
This  ciistom  replaced  the  primitive  blood-revenge 
among  the  Teutonic  peoples.  The  amount  paid 
varied  according  to  the  social  status  of  the  dead 
man  and  was  shared  by  his  relatives  according  to 
nearness  of  kin. 

WESEL,  JOHN  OF  (d.  1479).— Pre-reformation 
Protestant.  He  adversely  criticized  the  church's 
doctrines  regarding  original  sin,  indulgences, 
transubstantiation,  feasts  and  fasts,  the  filioque 
clause  and  many  ritualistic  forms,  insisting  that 
the  authority  of  pope,  church,  and  councils  should 
be  subordinate  to  that  of  Scripture.  He  was 
forced  to  recant  in  1479,  his  writings  were  burned, 
and  he  was  incarcerated  in  the  monastery  at  Mainz 
until  his  death  soon  after. 

WESLEY,  CHARLES  (1707-1788)  AND  JOHN 
(1703-1791). — The  two  brothers,  sons  of  Samuel 
and  Susanna  Wesley,  and  the  leaders  of  the  Metho- 
dist movement.  Both  were  educated  at  Oxford 
University,  and  John  filled  there  for  an  interval 
an  office  of  instruction. 

John  Wesley,  in  respect  of  organizing  talent 
and  agency,  was  the  unrivalled  leader  of  18th. 
century  Methodism.  His  energy  was  unwearying 
and  his  industry  enormous.  From  the  tinae  when 
his  marked  religious  experience  (1738)  inspired 
him  for  his  mission  of  itinerant  evangelism  he 
traveled,  mostly  on  horseback,  about  forty-five 
hundred  miles  annually,  during  a  period  of  more 
than  fifty  years,  and  preached  throughout  this 
period  not  less  than  twice  a  day  on  the  average. 
In  addition  he  wrote  extensively,  and  was  very 
alert  to  take  account  of  all  important  developments 
of  his  era.  As  Professor  Frederic  Loofs  has 
remarked:  "In  the  many-sidedness  of  his  education, 
and  in  his  unwearied  interest  in  all  branches  of 
knowledge,  he  is  without  a  peer  amongst  revival 
preachers  in  any  age." 

Charles  Wesley,  though  an  able  preacher,  was 
above  all  the  hymnist  of  early  Methodism.  He 
lived  and  moved  and  had  his  being  in  sacred  song. 
Of  the  several  thousand  poetical  productions  with 
which  he  is  credited  not  a  few  are  universally 
adjudged  to  be  masterpieces.  See  Wesleyan 
Chtjeches;  Methodism.       Henry  C.  Sheldon 

WESLEYAN  CHURCHES.— See  Methodism. 

WESSEL,  JOHANN  (1419-1489).— Known  also 
as  Wessel  Harmenss  _  Gansfort.  _  His  theology 
was  basically  Augustinian^  mysticism.  He  was 
a  man  of  profound  religious  experience,  and 
engaged  in  vigorous  criticism  of  those  aspects  of 
the  prevaiUng  R.C.  theology  and  ritual  which 
encouraged  mere  formalism.  For  this  reason  he 
is  sometimes  called  one  of  the  "reformers  before 
the  Reformation." 

WESTCOTT,  BROOKE  FOSS  (1825-1901).— 
Anglican  bishop  and  scholar;  best  known  for  his 
commentaries,  works  on  the  New  Testament  Canon, 
and  his  joint  production  with  Fenton  John  Anthony 
Hort  of  a  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament. 

WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY.— A  synod 
(1643-1648)  which  formulated  the  Westminster 
Standards,  embodying  the  doctrines  of  Puritanism 
in  England,  after  a  century  of  struggle. 

I.  Antecedents. — The  Act  of  Uniformity, 
1559,  requiring  the  use  of  the  Book  of  Common 


Prayer  without  alteration,  was  enforced  with 
increasing  rigor  under  Elizabeth,  James  I.  and 
Charles  I,  Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  under 
Charles,  by  his  attempt  to  force  prelacy  and 
liturgy  upon  Scotland  provoked  the  renewal  of  the 
Scotch  National  Covenant  (1638)  and  called  forth 
armed  resistance.  The  popular  demand  expressed 
in  the  Root  and  Branch  Petition  (1640)  to  root 
out  episcopacy,  and  in  the  Grand  Remonstrance 
(1641)  calling  for  an  ecclesiastical  synod  was  met 
by  the  Long  Parliament,  which  abolished  episcopacy 
and  the  liturgy,  1642,  and  summoned  the  West- 
minster Assembly. 

II.  Rules  and  Membership. — The  rules 
governing  the  Assembly  were  made  by  Parliament 
which  also  appointed  the  members,  121  ministers 
and  30  laymen,  the  prolocutor,  Twisse,  and  other 
officers,  paid  the  expenses  of  the  members  and 
revised  and  gave  authority  to  the  Assembly's 
work.  The  Assembly  met  July  1,  1643  in  Jerusa- 
lem Chamber,  Westminster  Abbey,  and  held  1163 
sessions.  The  Scotch  who  were  invited  to  partici- 
pate made  their  own  terms  in  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  which  demanded  "the  nearest 
conjunction  in  religion,  confession  of  faith,  form 
of  church  government,  directory  of  worship  and 
catechizing"  for  the  two  kingdoms,  the  docu- 
ment being  solemnly  assented  to  at  a  joint  meeting 
of  Assembly  and  Parliament  Sept.  25,  1643.  The 
Scotch  members  attending,  four  ministers  and  two 
laymen,  dominated  the  situation  and  the  Presby- 
terian element,  preponderant  at  the  start,  gained 
as  the  meetings  went  on. 

III.  Achievements. — ^The  Assembly  produced 
the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (q.v.),  the 
Large  and  Shorter  Catechisms,  the  Directory  for 
the  Public  Worship  of  God  and  the  Form  of  Church 
Government,  the  last  providing  for  the  erection 
of  presbyteries  in  England  and  Ireland.  These 
formularies  were  completely  set  aside  in  the  land 
of  their  birth  by  Charles  II.,  (1660)  but  with 
amendments  have  dominated  the  Presbyterian 
churches  in  English-speaking  countries.  See  also 
Presbyterianism.  David  S.  Schapf 

WESTMINSTER  CONFESSION.— The  doc- 
trinal statements  formulated  by  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  divines  (1644-1647),  consisting  of 
thirty-three  articles,  with  appended  proof-texts. 

The  Confession  embodying  the  five^  points  of 
Calvinism — divine  sovereignty,  human  impotence, 
limited  atonement,  irresistible  grace,  and  final 
perseverance — is  the  last  creed  drawn  up  by 
Calvinist  theologians;  it  appears  to  have  exhausted 
the  impulse  for  elaborate  statements  of  doctrine,  if 
indeed  the  hour  has  not  forever  passed  for  such 
attempts.  Excepting  the  Tridentine  Creed,  it  is 
the  ablest,  most  highly  reasoned  confession  of  faith 
since  the  5th.  century.  With  omissions  concerning 
church  government  and  discipline,  it  is  the  doctrinal 
standard  of  the  American  Presbyterian  churches, 
and  the  system  contained  in  it  is  prescribed  for  all 
office-bearers.  With  further  omissions  and  addi- 
tions, it  was  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  after 
1648  adopted  "for  substance  of  doctrine"  by  Ameri- 
can Congregational  churches.  It  appears  also 
in  the  Philadelphia  Confession  of  the  Baptists. 
More  recently  the  Presbyterian  body  has  drawn 
up  a  "Brief  Statement  of  the  Reformed  Faith," 
which  presents  more  simply  and  with  changed 
emphasis  the  content  of  the  Confession,  inserting 
sections  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  missions,  denying 
damnation  of  infants  dying  in  infancy,  and  bringing 
the  love  of  God  into  the  foreground. 

Cv    A.   "Rf'Pkx^th 

WESTPHALIA,  PEACE  OF.— A  name  com- 
monly given  to  a  collection  of  treaties  negotiated 


473 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


wm 


between  1645  and  1648  at  the  cities  of  Osnabriick 
and  Munster,  and  finally  signed  in  October  of  the 
latter  year. 

The  parties  to  these  treaties  were:  the  Emperor, 
the  kings  of  France  and  Spain,  and  the  United 
Netherlands.  The  independence  of  the  Netherlands 
was*  acknowledged,  and  that  of  Switzerland  was 
confirmed.  Sweden  received  Western  Pomerania; 
the  Upper  Palatinate  was  permanently  united  to 
Bavaria  and  the  Duke's  electoral  dignity  was  con- 
firmed; but  the  Count  Palatine  was  restored  to  his 
diminished  realm  and  an  eighth  electorate  created 
for  him.  The  year  1624  was  taken  as  a  normal 
year  (a  compromise  between  the  Protestant  claim 
of  1618  and  the  CathoUc  contention  for  1630),  and 
Germany  was  restored  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
status  of  that  year.  For  the  first  time  the  Reformed 
churches  were  granted  equal  toleration  with  adlier- 
ents  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  This  was  the 
first  European  peace,  and  its  unsatisfactory  terms 
became  effective  because  all  Europe  was  concerned 
in  preventing  another  conflict. 

Henry  C.  Vedder 

"WHEEL  OF  LIFE. — See  Samsara. 

WHITEFIELD,  GEORGE  (1714-1770).— Eng- 
lish Calvinistic  Methodist;  a  companion  and 
collaborator  with  the  Wesleys  in  the  beginnings  of 
the  Methodist  movement;  established  the  innova- 
tion of  out-door  preaching,  gaining  a  reputation  as 
a  preacher  and  evangelist  both  in  England  and 
America. 

WHITE  FRIARS.— The  English  designation 
for  members  of  the  order  of  the  Carmelites  (q.v.). 

WHITSUNDAY.— The  seventh  Sunday  after 
Easter,  commemorating  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (see  Acts,  chap.  2). 

WICHERN,  JOHANN  HINRICH  (1808-1881). 
— German  social  and  religious  worker;  noted  as 
the  founder  of  the  Inner  Mission  (q.v.), 

WICKEDNESS. — Sin  or  moral  delinquency  on 
its  active  side;  usually  referring  to  evil  that  is 
wilfully  committed  with  intent  to  injure,  and 
including  such  wrongs  as  torture,  cruelty,  calumny, 
terrorism,  etc.,  in  contrast  with  injurious  conduct 
due  to  ignorance  or  involuntarily  committed. 
The  term  is  applied  both  socially  and  individual- 
istically. 

WICLIF. — See  Wtclifpe. 

WIDOWS,  TREATMENT  OF.— The  prohibi- 
tion of  the  remarriage  of  widows  is  common  among 
many  uncivilized  peoples,  though  curiously  enough 
among  no  people  do  we  find  similar  prohibition  of 
the  remarriage  of  widowers.  The  prohibition  of 
the  remarriage  of  widows  seems  to  be  connected 
with  the  idea  of  the  wife  as  the  property  of  her 
husband,  and  in  some  cases  was  preceded  by  the 
still  earlier  practice  of  killing  wives  at  funerals, 
especially  those  of  chiefs  or  prominent  men.  The 
burning  of  widows  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  their 
husbands  was  a  common  practice  in  India,  which 
persisted  down  into  the  19th.  century  until  sup- 
pressed by  the  British  government,  the  last  case 
reported  being  in  1877.  Such  immolation  was 
usually  voluntary  in  a  measure  on  the  part  of  the 
victim,  death  being  considered  preferable  to  the 
fate  of  a  widow,  condemned  to  fasting  and  absti- 
nence under  the  control  of  her  husband  s  kin.  The 
status  of  widows  in  India  still,  especially  of  child 
widows,  is  deplorable. 


More  often  among  uncivilized  peoples  widows 
become  the  wives  of  relatives,  and  this  is  also  fre- 
quently the  practice  of  early  civilizations.  This 
usage  is  most  widely  distributed  in  the  form  of  the 
Levirate,  according  to  which  custom  a  brother  of 
the  dead  husband  is  compelled  to  marry  the  widow. 
Among  the  Hebrews  the  Levirate  was  limited  to 
the  case  in  which  the  dead  husband  had  no  children. 
For  this  reason  the  practice  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  have  grown  out  of  ancestor  worship;  but 
as  among  other  peoples  this  limitation  does  not 
obtain,  it  is  probable  that  the  practice  primitively 
had  its  origin  in  the  notion  of  the  wife  as  property; 
or  in  some  cases  in  the  desire  to  protect  the  property 
of  the  family. 

Both  Judaism  and  Christianity  are  notable 
for  the  consideration  which  they  accord  to  widows. 
The  relief  of  widows  is  made  a  prime  virtue  by 
both.  The  widow's  pensions  of  modern  philan- 
thropy may  thus  be  said  to  have  had  a  primitive 
prototype  in  the  practices  of  Judaism  and  early 
Christianity.  Charles  A.  Ellwood 

WIDOWS,  TREATMENT  OF  (CHRISTIAN). 

— No  explanation  is  needed  of  the  many  Biblical 
and  later  references  to  widows  as  an  important 
class  of  social  dependents.  But  in  the  later  Apos- 
tolic age  an  attempt  was  made  to  provide  for 
them  by  enrolling  those  entirely  destitute  in  an 
order  supported  from  the  church  funds  (I  Tim. 
5:9ff.).  This  treatment  was  copied  more  or  less 
systematically  for  some  four  centuries  and  the 
duties  and  privileges  of  enrolled  widows  are 
described  in  detail  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
(especially  iii,  1-8).  But  the  other  references 
are  few  and  the  "widows"  were  eventually  absorbed 
by  the  deaconesses  (q.v.)  or  by  religious  orders. 

B.  S.  Easton 
WILBERFORCE,  WILLIAM  (1759-1833).— 
English  statesman  and  social  reformer;  the  leader 
of  the  movement  in  England  resulting  in  the  emanci- 
pation of  slaves,  1806;  a  supporter  of  Catholic 
emancipation;  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  and  of  the  Bible  Society. 

WILFRID  (ca.  634-709).— English  archbishop, 
who  succeeded  in  displacing  the  Celtic  by  the 
Roman  ecclesiastical  discipline.  He  advanced 
the  cause  of  education  and  of  architecture,  and  is 
especially  noted  for  the  evangelization  of  the 
Frisians. 

WILL. — ^That  power  possessed  by  man  of  de- 
termining action  in  a  given  direction  on  the  basis  of 
deliberate  choice. 

The  word  "wUl"  is  very  variously  conceived  and 
defined.  It  has  often  been  represented  as  a  specific 
psychological  "faculty,"  and  the  analysis  of  moral 
action  has  been  pictured  as  if  the  "will"  arbitrarily 
stepped  in  at  the  moment  of  decision.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  will  is  simply  one  aspect  of  a  total, 
indivisible  psychological  complex.  It  might  be 
informally  described  as  the  capacity  of  a  person 
to  be  deliberate  and  self-controlled  in  his  acts 
rather  than  merely  impulsive.  At  the  same  time 
the  impulses  furnish  the  dynamic  which  leads  to 
action .  When  response  is  so  immediately  emotional 
that  it  calls  for  no  thought  or  dehberation,  we  are 
not  conscious  of  having  willed  the  act,  in  fact, 
there  are  some  reflex  actions  which  we  cannot  will 
to  prevent,  such  as  winking  the  eyes  if  a  sudden 
thrust  at  them  is  made. 

In  ethical  conduct  the  action  of  the  will  indicates 
that  a  good  end  is  not  only  rationally  approved 
but  that  the  person  consciously  pledges  himself 
to  devote  his  energies  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  end. 
The   will  is  thus  the  self  unified   in    conscious 


William  of  Occam 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


474 


action  in  accordance  with  a  rational  choice.  The 
"freedom  of  the  will"  is  thus  not  so  much  a  meta- 
physical question  as  it  is  a  question  of  the  ability 
of  a  person  so  to  discipUne  his  emotions  and  to 
unify  them  with  his  best  ideals  that  action  may  be 
deliberately  rational  rather  than  left  to  mere  impulse 
or  to  hap-hazard  conceptions  of  what  is  best.  See 
Motive;  Voluntarism;  Value. 

Gerald  Birney  Smith 
WILLIAM    OF    OCCAM.— See    Occam, 
William  of. 

WILLIAMS,  SIR  GEORGE  (1821-1905).— 
English  merchant;  noted  as  the  founder  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  (q.v.);  also  a 
prominent  leader  in  missionary  and  Bible  society 
activities. 

WILLIAMS,  ROGER  (ca.  1604-1684).— 
Pounder  of  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island.  Born  in 
England,  he  came  to  Massachusetts  as  a  preacher 
and  teacher,  but  as  a  Baptist  encountered  trouble 
for  declaring  against  state  interference  in  religious 
matters.  Banished  from  Massachusetts,  he  went  to 
Rhode  Island,  founding  (1636)  the  first  colony  where 
complete  religious  toleration  was  practiced.  He 
returned  to  England  where  he  joined  the  "Seekers," 

WILLIBRORD  (or  WILBRORD)  (ca.  657-738). 
— English  missionary  and  apostle  to  the  Frisians, 
carrying  out  the  work  begun  by  Wilfrid  (q.v.); 
spent  a  long  career  in  active  missionary  propaganda. 

WINER,     JOHANN      GEORG     BENEDIKT 

(1789-1858). — German  philologist  and  orientalist, 
professor  at  Leipzig,  noted  as  a  grammarian  of  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament. 

WISDOM. — In  ancient  Greek  usage,  practical 
skill  or  unusual  capacity;  also  a  deep  apprecia- 
tion of  the  problems  and  needs  of  life.  It  is  one 
of  the  cardinal  virtues  in  Greek  and  Christian 
thought.  See  Virtues  and  Vices.  In  the  Old 
Testament  wisdom  is  the  discernment  of  right 
relationships,  a  quasi-personified  instrument  through 
which  the  will  of  God  is  revealed.  Thus  the 
"Wisdom  Literature"  comprises  proverbs,  maxims, 
and  parabolic  sayings,  the  philosophical  expressions 
of  later  pre-Christian  Jewish  thinkers,  designed  to 
teach  practical  ethics,  consonant  with  the  divine 
will.  It  includes  the  books  of  Job,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  as  well  as  certain  apocryphal  books 
such  as  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Tobit,  Fourth 
Maccabees,  and  Jesus  ben-Sira.  In  modem  ethical 
theory  wisdom  or  conscientiousness  still  holds  a 
place  of  cardinal  importance. 

WISDOM,    BOOK    OF.— See  Wisdom   op 

Solomon. 

WISDOM   LITERATURE.— See  Wisdom. 

WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON.— An  apocryphal 
book  of  the  Wisdom  Literature,  appearing  in  Greek, 
the  product  probably  of  an  Alexandrian  Jew  of  the 
1st.  century  B.C.,  recognized  as  canonical  by 
the  R.C.  church.  It  was  the  best  expression  of 
pre-Christian  Jewish  philosophy,  great  in  thought 
as  well  as  in  language.     See  Apocrypha. 

WISEMAN,  NICHOLAS  PATRICK  STEPHEN 

(1802-1865). — English  cardinal;  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  power  of  leadership.  While  he 
was  a  devoted  Romanist,  he  believed  the  church 
should  assimilate  the  worthful  elements  of  con- 
temporary culture  and  science.  He  was  very 
influential  in  increasing  the  prestige  of  the  Catholic 


Church  in  England.     At  the  same  time  he  was 
active  in  matters  of  social  reform  and  piety. 

WITCHCRAFT.— This  word  and  sorcery  refer 
to  practically  the  same  sort  of  beliefs  and  practices, 
namely  the  use  of  magic  powers  or  spirit  agencies 
for  purposes,  usually,  but  not  always,  private  and 
malevolent. 

Witchcraft,  in  a  narrower  sense,  refers  to  the 
arts  of  the  female  sorceress,  or  witch,  while  sorcery 
is  a  more  general  term  covering  the  arts  of  both  the 
sorcerer  and  Sorceress.  For  a  general  statement 
of  the  methods  of  sorcery,  see  Magic.  Both  the 
sorcerer  and  the  witch  are  supposedly  in  control  of 
secret  powers,  sometimes  magical  and  sometimes 
spiritistic. 

Among  primitive  peoples. — The  attitude  of  the 
natural  races  toward  sorcery  varies  greatly,  among 
some  the  practice  of  sorcery  is  common  to  all 
the  members  of  the  group,  among  others  the 
sorcerer  is  somewhat  of  a  public  character  with  a 
recognized  status,  still  others  regard  the  art  with 
disfavor  and  in  extreme  cases  consider  all  sorcery 
as  evil  and  a  constant  menace  to  the  legitimate 
functions  of  life.  Sorcery,  both  good  and  bad, 
is  especially  associated  with  the  cause  and  cure  of 
disease,  the  bringing  of  misfortune  upon  others  or 
the  counteracting  of  evil  sorcery  of  enemies.  In 
fact,  the  only  way  to  avert  evil  magic,  as  in  sickness, 
is  through  the  magic  of  some  more  powerful  but 
friendly  adept  at  the  art. 

Am,ong  the  culture  races. — The  development  of 
sorcery  in  medieval  Europe  occurred  chiefly  under 
the  form  of  witchcraft,  although  the  witch  had 
been  known  long  previously,  e.g.,  among  the 
Hebrews,  Greeks  and  Romans.  She  seems  always 
to  have  been  regarded  as  an  evilly  disposed  person 
in  league  with  evil  spirits.  The  general  cycle  of 
beliefs  in  the  Middle  Ages  with  reference  to  demons 
and  the  devil  furnished  a  fertile  soil  for  the  spread 
of  belief  in  witchcraft.  The  rites  of  witchcraft 
were  often  conceived  as  inversions  of  Christian 
beliefs  and  ceremonies,  the  witches  celebrating  a 
Black  Mass  and  holding  special  communion  with 
the  devil.  They  were  supposed  to  have  the  power 
to  transform  themselves  into  animals,  to  ride 
broomsticks  through  the  air  at  night,  to  inflict  all 
sorts  of  torments  upon  innocent  persons,  to  eat 
children  or  to  kill  them  in  connection  with  the 
making  of  their  vile  potions.  All  untoward 
happenings,  abnormal  psychic  phenomena,  sick- 
ness, etc.,  were  readily  transformed  by  the  excitable 
imagination  of  those  times  into  evidences  of  witch- 
craft. 

It  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  history  of  witch- 
craft falls  into  two  parts,  first  the  actual  practice 
of  the  art  by  persons  believing  themselves  to  have 
superior  powers,  and  second  the  waves  of  perse- 
cution directed  against  persons  supposed  to  be 
witches  by  people  whose  minds  were  saturated  with 
the  delusion  that  it  was  a  reality.  The  church  and 
civil  authorities  in  the  Middle  Ages  Seem  largely 
to  have  regarded  the  matter  as  a  delusion  but  to  the 
mind  of  the  masses  it  was  always  a  serious  reality. 
With  the  early  Renaissance,  however,  the  beUef 
seemed  to  gain  prestige  and  the  seeking  out  and 
punishment  of  those  guilty  of  witchcraft  was  taken 
up  by  the  Church  through  the  Inquisition.  With 
an  apparently  unquestioned  belief  in  the  whole 
savage  "philosophy"  of  sorcery,  religious  leaders 
condemned  those  who  disbelieved  as  practically 
atheists;  old,  ill-favored  and  friendless  women  were 
singled  out  for  public  vengeance  on  the  most  fan- 
tastic evidence.  When  the  persecution  of  supposed 
witches  was  at  its  height  accusations  were  often 
based  on  the  wild  statements  of  weakminded  or 
neurotic  girls.    The  lack  of  any  knowledge  of  the 


475 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Woman 


true  nature  of  abnormal  psychic  phenomena  such 
ds  hysteria,  caused  them  to  be  regarded  as  signs 
and  as  effects  of  witchcraft.  For  example,  persons 
with  hysteria  are  often  insensitive  to  pain  in 
certain  parts  of  the  body  and  one  of  the  favorite 
methods  of  detecting  the  witch  was  the  thrusting 
of  needles  into  the  flesh  to  discover  these  spots 
which,  if  found,  were  taken  as  proof  that  the  person 
was  in  league  with  the  devil.  Various  ordeals  by 
fire  and  water  were  applied  to  suspects  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  devil  would  save  his  follower  from 
injury.  During  the  15th.  to  17th.  centuries  it  is 
estimated  that  millions  of  persons  were  tortured  and 
put  to  death  for  witchcraft. 

The  delusion  spread  to  America  in  the  17th. 
century  and  was  especially  fostered  by  Cotton 
Mather  in  Massachusetts.  Here  it  died  out  finally 
through  its  very  excesses.  The  law  against  witches 
in  England  was  not  repealed  until  1735. 

Irving  King 

WITTENBERG,  CONCORD  OF.— An  at- 
tempted agreement  entered  into  by  the  Reformers 
in  1536  in  settlement  of  the  eucharistic  controversy. 
The  principle  participants  were  Luther,  Butzer, 
and  Melanchthon.  The  outcome  was  a  verbal 
submission  by  the  others  to  the  Lutheran  positions, 
and  a  friendly  truce,  but  the  churches  did  not  concur 
in  the  agreement. 

WIZARD. — A  member  of  primitive  society 
trained  in  the  use  of  magic  powers  in  spell,  charm 
and  rite  and  consequently  capable  of  controlhng 
demons,  spirits  and  ghosts  in  the  interest  of  his 
clients.    See  also  Shamaj^tism. 

WO  DAN.— See  Odhin. 

WOLFENBEUTTEL  FRAGMENTS.— A  post- 
humous work  by  Hermann  Samuel  Reimarus  pub- 
lished by  Lessing  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th. 
century.  The  work  comprised  five  fragments, 
and  dealt  with  the  questions  of  revelation,  miracle, 
and  other  religious  questions  from  the  deistic  point 
of  view. 

WOLFF,  CHRISTIAN  (1679-1754).— German 
philosopher,  professor  at  Halle  and  Marburg. 
He  systematized  and  modified  the  philosophy 
of  Leibniz,  making  philosophy  a  comprehensive 
system  of  human  science  as  conceived  by  the 
Enlightenment  (q.v.).  By  giving  a  completely 
rational  accoimt  of  the  existence  and  attributes 
of  God,  he  offended  pietistic  orthodoxy  which  insisted 
on  the  primary  place  of  the  supernatural. 

WOLSEY,  THOMAS  (ca.  1475-1530).— English 
statesman  and  cardinal.  Under  Henry  VIII.  the 
poUtical  and  ecclesiastical  power  was  concentrated 
in  Wolsey,  a  man  of  brilliant  gifts,  though  of  uncom- 
mon pride.  He  strengthened  the  position  of  the 
English  king  in  European  politics,  tried  to  secure 
election  to  the  papacy  but  failed  through  the 
jealousy  of  Charles  V.,  and  eventually  fell  from 
his  position  of  power  through  his  failure  to  secure 
from  Rome  a  divorce  for  the  king  from  Catherine  of 
Aragon. 

WOMAN,  RELIGIOUS  AND  ETHICAL 
STATUS  OF. — Many  misconceptions  have  pre- 
vailed regarding  the  status  of  woman  in  primitive 
society.  While  always  the  weaker  sex  and  subject 
to  the  domination,  and  at  times  the  brutality,  of 
man,  her  position  was  not  so  degraded  as  often 
represented.  With  the  exception  of  the  Australian 
aborigines,  who  are  probably  not  true  primitives 
and  whose  social  system  may  be  considered  more 
or  less  degenerate,  the  Dosition  of  woman  among 


primitive  peoples  generally  has  been  found  to  be  one 
of  respect  and  of  considerable  influence.  Primitive 
hetairism,  or  "communism  in  women,"  alleged  by 
Lubbock,  Morgan  and  others,  has  not  been  found 
to  exist.  Marriage  is  usually  of  the  monogamic 
type,  and  the  wife  has  considerable  control  over  the 
children  and  social  influence  in  general.  Under  the 
maternal  form  of  the  family  and  society,  which  is 
usually  considered  primitive  (see  Family),  not 
only  did  the  mother  and  her  kin  control  the  children, 
but  many  of  the  most  essential  social  and  religious 
functions  remained  in  the  hands  of  women.  An 
extreme  example  of  a  maternal  people  are  the  Zuni 
of  New  Mexico,  among  whom  the  husband  is  a 
guest  in  the  house  of  his  wife  and  her  people  all  his 
life.  The  right  of  divorce  also  rests  exclusively  in 
her  hands.  Among  maternal  peoples  in  general 
women  have  extensive  social  and  political  rights, 
often  sharing  even  in  deliberations  concerning 
peace  or  war.  They  are  dominant  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  household  and  have  a  part  in 
most  religious  rites. 

But  all  this  was  changed  with  the  advent  of  the 
patriarchal  system  (q.v.) .  This  system  presupposed 
the  religious,  social,  and  political  subjection  of 
woman.  Even  among  the  most  extreme  patriarchal 
peoples,  however,  such  as  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Romans,  the  woman  who  was  a  wife  and  mother, 
although  she  had  no  legal  rights,  held  a  respected 
and  honored  position  in  the  social  life  with  consider- 
able influence.  Among  the  wild  Teutonic  tribes 
of  North  Europe,  whose  patriarchal  system  was 
less  developed,  women  retained  considerable  vestiges 
of  their  ancient  maternal  rights,  especially  in 
religious  matters. 

In  general,  however,  among  the  ancient  patri- 
archal peoples  of  Europe  and  Asia  the  woman  had 
no  part  in  politics,  except  that  in  some  countries 
female  succession  to  the  throne  was  permitted. 
The  Mosaic  law  made  divorce  exclusively  a  privilege 
of  the  husband.  The  early  Roman  law  also  gave 
the  husband  alone  the  right  of  divorce,  and  greatly 
limited  the  rights  of  inheritance  and  of  property  on 
the  part  of  women.  In  India,  the  same  state  of 
dependence  of  women  was  recognized  as  basic  in 
the  laws  of  Manu,  and  has  continued  down  to  the 
present. 

In  the  civilizations  arovmd  the  Mediterranean, 
the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  women  began 
several  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  Thus 
in  Rome  women  acquired  the  rights  of  inheritance 
and  later  full  property  rights.  Already  in  the 
1st.  century  B.C.,  Roman  women  had  gained  the 
right  to  divorce  their  husbands.  By  the  middle 
of  this  century,  their  status  had  become  that  of 
almost  complete  "personal  and  proprietary  inde- 
pendence," amounting  to  almost  complete  emanci- 
pation socially,  economically,  and  morally.  Owing 
to  the  simultaneous  disintegration  of  the  Roman 
family  life  they  failed  to  retain  a  position  of  social 
respect  and  honor.  Many  loose  forms  of  marriage 
came  to  be  practiced,  childlessness  was  frequent, 
and  divorce  common. 

The  influence  of  the  early  Church  was  in  general 
to  restrict  the  legal  rights  of  women,  while  at  the 
same  time  exalting  her  social  and  religious  position. 
In  aiming  to  re-establish  the  stability  of  the  family 
it  naturally,  and  perhaps  of  necessity,  took  the 
patriarchal  family  of  the  Old  Testament  as  in 
the  main  its  model.  Thus  a  semi-patriarchal 
type  of  the  family  was  established,  although  the 
Code  of  Justinian  tended  toward  liberality  in 
recognizing  the  legal  rights  of  women.  The  tend- 
ency of  the  Canon  Law,  however,  was  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  continued  to  be  so  through  the  Middle 
Ages.  At  the  same  time  the  influence  of  the  Church 
tended  to  exalt  the  social  and  religious  position  of 


Woolston,  Thomas 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  EELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


476 


woman,  first  through  recognizing  the  general 
equality  of  men  and  women  in  matters  of  religion 
and  morality,  and  secondly  through  inculcating 
the  veneration  of  the  Virgin  as  the  type  of  a  pure 
and  sanctified  motherhood.  However,  ecclesiastical 
writers  of  the  ascetic  trend  represented  woman  in 
the  main  as  a  temptress,  and  the  Roman  Church 
refused  to  allow  her  to  take  sacred  orders. 

Changes  came  with  the  Reformation.  The 
Protestant  leaders  in  general  repudiated  ascetic 
doctrines  and  practices,  and  recognized  the  equal 
right  of  the  wife  to  divorce  with  the  husband,  if 
there  was  Biblical  ground.  But  they  left  the 
authoritarian  type  of  family  life  intact,  and 
enlarged  the  legal  rights  of  women  but  little.  The 
real  beginnings  of  the  modern  movement  for  the 
social,  legal,  and  political  emancipation  of  woman 
are  to  be  found  in  the  period  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. In  October,  1789,  Parisian  women  petitioned 
the  National  Assembly  for  equal  political  rights. 
In  1790,  Mary  WoUstoncraft  published  her  "Vindi- 
cation of  the  Rights  of  Women,"  and  these  dates 
are  usually  taken  as  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
"Woman's  Movement."  This  movement  is  not 
to  be  attributed  so  directly  to  the  influence  of 
Christianity,  as  to  the  rise  of  individualism,  demo- 
cratic government,  and  machine  industry  in  the 
modern  world.  Partly  on  ^  account  of  changed 
economic  and  political  conditions,  partly  on  account 
of  the  spread  of  scientific  ideas  and  general  enlight- 
enment, the  complete  emancipation  of  woman  in 
the  modem  world  cannot  be  far  away.  Already 
practically  all  occupations  for  which  she  is  physically 
and  mentally  fit  have  been  opened  to  her.  ^  In 
education  she  has  practically  the  same  opportunities 
as  man,  only  a  few  universities  in  the  civilized 
world  yet  withholding  from  her  their  degrees. 
In  most  English-speaking  countries  her  legal 
rights  are  on  a  level  with  those  of  man,  while 
complete  political  enfranchisement,  already  achieved 
in  the  United  States  (1920),  is  apparently  near 
at  hand.  In  all  this  new  freedom  of  woman, 
however,  there  is  to  be  discerned  some  loss  of 
social  respect  and  honor.  Evidently  a  democratic, 
ethical  family  life  of  stable  type  must  be  developed 
as  the  necessary  complement  of  the  woman's 
movement  if  it  is  not  to  result  in  disaster. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 

WOOLSTON,  THOMAS  (1669-1731).— Eng- 
lish deist  who  wrote  in  interpretation  of  the  Bible 
and  Christianity,  emphasizing  the  allegorical  or 
symbolical  exposition  of  miracles.  He  suffered  im- 
prisonment for  his  writings. 

WORD.— See  Logos. 

WORD  OF  GOD. — This  term  has  a  variety 
of  meanings,  all,  however,  embodying  a  common 
element — a  message  from  God.  (1)  It  is  used  to 
account  for  a  call  or  illumination  of  a  prophet,  by 
pointing  to  the  source  of  his  experience  as  not  in 
himself  but  in  a  revelation  of  God.  (2)  It  is  applied 
to  the  divine  nature  in  Jesus  Christ  as  that  which 
was  with  God  and  became  incarnate  in  Christ;  or  a 
designation  of  the  risen  and  glorified  Lord.  The 
immediate  origin  of  the  word  in  this  reference  lies 
in  the  Platonic-Stoic  philosophy,  in  which  the  term 
Logos  (=word)  signifies  both  immanent  reason 
and  spoken  word.  The  concept  also  appears  less 
philosophically  developed  in  the  Hebrew  "memra" 
or  word.  (3)  The  word  of  God  as  used  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  forms  the  essential  content  of  the 
preacher's  message.  (4)  For  Luther  the  word 
is  "the  gospel  of  God  concerning  his  Son."  (5)  Its 
modem  appUcation  is  chiefly  to  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
which  either  "are"  or  "contain"  the  word  of  God. 
See  Bible;   Logos.  C.  A.  Beckwith 


WORKS  OF  MERCY.— Deeds  of  a  compassion- 
ate character,  designed  to  alleviate  suffering  of 
any  kind.  Many  R.C.  orders  such  as  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy  and  the  Fathers  of  Mercy  are  associations 
devoted  to  works  of  mercy. 

WORLD  CONFERENCE  ON  FAITH  AND 
ORDER. — In  October  1910  the  American  Episcopal 
Church  invited  all  the  churches  throughout  the 
world  which  confess  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  God 
and  Savior  to  unite  in  arranging  for  a  World 
Conference  for  the  consideration  of  questions  of  the 
Faith  and  Order  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  This 
wasdone  in  the  behef  that  all  Christian  Churches 
are  in  accord  in  the  desire  to  lay  aside  self-will  and 
to  put  on  the  mind  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  our 
Lord,  and  that  such  a  conference,  held  in  a  spirit  of 
love  and  humility,  and  in  the  desire  to  appreciate 
the  convictions  of  other  Christians,  would  remove 
much  of  the  prejudice  and  mutual  ignorance 
engendered  by  centuries  of  division,  and  thus  pre- 
pare the  way  for  directly  constructive  effort  toward 
such  a  manifestation  of  the  visible  unity  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  one  Church,  which  is  the  Body  of  Christ, 
as  will  convince  the  world  that  God  the  Son  was 
sent  by  the  Father  to  redeem  mankind. 

A  deputation  was  sent  to  the  AngUcan  Churches 
and  another  to  the  Free  Churches  in  England, 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  Armistice  a  third  was  sent  to  Europe  and  the 
East,  which  visited  Athens,  Smyrna,  Constanti- 
nople, Sofia,  Bucharest,  Belgrade,  Alexandria, 
Cairo,  Jerusalem,  Damascus,  Rome,  Stockholm 
and  Christiania.  Nearly  two  milhon  pamphlets, 
explaining^  different  aspects  of  the  movement,  have 
been  published  and  distributed  all  over  the  world. 

A  preliminary  meeting  was  held  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  in  August,  1920,  attended  by  120 
delegates  from  40  different  countries  and  aU  the 
Trinitarian  groups  or  famiUes  except  Rome.  For 
the  first  time  in  a  thousand  years,  East  and  West 
met  together  in  an  earnest  effort  to  find  the  road 
to  the  reunion  of  Christians.  A  Continuation 
Committee  of  55  members  living  in  the  United 
States,  India,  Japan,  Australia,  England,  Constanti- 
nople, China,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Russia,  Serbia, 
Greece,  Bulgaria,  Rumania,  Germany,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Norway,  Hungary,  Canada,  Switzer- 
land and  Scotland,  was  appointed  to  carry  on  the 
movement  and  to  promote  such  a  discussion 
throughout  the  world  of  the  fundamental  questions 
as  will  prepare  for  the  World  Conference  itself. 
Robert  H.  Gardiner 

WORMS,  CONCORDAT  OF.— The  agreement 
reached  in  1122  by  Pope  CaUxtus  II.  and  Emperor 
Henry  V.  which  ended  the  War  of  Investitures. 
By  its  terms  the  Emperor  conceded  investiture  by 
ring  and  crozier  (i.e.,  the  spiritual  powers  of  the 
bishop)  and  the  free  election  of  bishops  and  abbots. 
The  Pope  conceded  to  the  Emperor  the  right  of 
investiture  of  bishops  with  "regaUa,"  i.e.,  poUtical 
power. 

WORMS,  DIET  OF.— Commonly  denotes  the 
meeting  of  the  first  imperial  diet  called  by  Charles  V., 
in  1521. 

The  Diet  at  Worms  is  memorable  as  that  at 
which  Martin  Luther  was  heard  on  a  charge  of 
heresy.  Luther  had  been  excommunicated  by 
Pope  Leo  X.,  and  the  bull  was  pubHshed  in  Germany 
September  21,  1520.  The  papal  legate  demanded 
that  the  ban  of  the  empire  should  be  proclaimed 
against  the  heretic,  but  Charles  had  agreed  at  his 
coronation  not  to  proclaim  the  ban  against  any 
German  without  giving  him  a  hearing.  Luther 
was  summoned  to  Worms,  therefore,  but  defended 
himself  vigorously  and  refused  to  retract  anything 


477 


A  DICrriONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Xystus 


in  his  books  until  convinced  of  his  error  from 
Scripture.  A  decree  was  pubUshed  by  Charles, 
but  not  passed  by  the  Diet,  and  issued  May  26, 
but  falsely  dated  May  8.  It  declared  the  ban  of 
the  empire  against  Luther  and  all  his  adherents  and 
commanded  his  books  to  be  burned. 

Henry  C.  Vedder 
WORSHIP. — Exercises,  public  or  private,  per- 
formed as  a  matter  of  divine  prescription  or  as  ex- 
pressive of  one's  feelings  of  relationship  to  the  deity. 

1.  The  origin  of  worship. — Worship  arose  in  an 
endeavor  to  perform  some  acts  which  were  thought 
to  be  pleasing  to  the  deity,  such  as  the  offering  of 
sacrifices,  singing  hymns  of  praise,  and  executing 
sacred  dances.  The  worshiper  found  himself  gain- 
ing certain  emotional  experiences  from  these  acts, 
and  these  he  interpreted  as  the  inner  evidence  of 
divine  favor.  In  proportion  as  these  experiences 
grew  in  intensity  and  interest,  the  worship  was  felt 
to  be  significant. 

2.  Christian  worship. — The  tendency  in  the 
spiritual  religion  of  the  Hebrews  and  of  the  Chris- 
tians was  to  lay  less  stress  upon  the  former  of  these 
two  aspects  of  worship,  although  sacramental 
ritual  is  still  based  on  the  idea  that  God  has  pre- 
scribed certain  forms  upon  the  observance  of  which 
his  favor  depends.  Yet  the  sacraments  are  not 
thought  of  as  for  the  advantage  of  God,  but  of  men; 
they  are  means  of  grace.  So  that  it  is  the  second 
phase  of  worship — its  value  to  the  religious  person — 
that  is  really  prominent.  It  expresses  and  thereby 
intensifies  his  rehgious  feelings. 

3.  Ritual  and  spontaneity. — Again  there  are 
two  forms  toward  which  worship  tends.  The  one 
is  the  repetition  of  regular  and  traditional  prac- 
tices, the  other  is  the  free,  extemporaneous  expres- 
tion  of  feeUng.  The  former  carries  all  those  emo- 
tional values  that  attach  to  symbolism  and  the 
experience  of  continuity  with  the  religious  spirits 
of  the  past,  the  latter  emphasizes  the  immediacy 
of  religious  experience  and  its  individual  character 
Probably  different  temperaments  find  religious  help 
in  different  ways.  Perhaps  all  might  be  benefited 
by  the  use  of  both  the  ritual  and  spontaneous 
worship.  A  good  hymn  admirably  combines  both 
characteristics.  Theodore  G.  Scares 

WOUNDS,    THE    FIVE     SACRED.— fl)     A 

devotion  in  the  Roman  CathoUc  offices,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  the 
content  of  which  varies  among  those  who  observe 
it.  (2)  A  feast  in  the  R.C.  church  observed  on 
the  Friday  after  the  3rd  Sunday  in  Lent,  established 
for  a  like  purpose. 


WRATH  OF  GOD.— Reaction  of  the  divine 
justice  against  those  who  disobey  the  will  of  God. 

The  Hebrews  shared  their  conception  of  the 
divine  anger  with  other  ancient  peoples,  only  in  their 
case  it  was  directed  against  disobedient  Israehtes 
or  the  enemies  of  Israel.  As  an  essential  feature  of 
their  eschatological  program,  taken  over  also  by 
the  apostles,  it  was  to  be  completely  revealed  in 
the  "Day  of  the  Lord."  By  poets  as  Dante,  by 
painters  as  Michael  Angelo,  by  theologians  as 
Jonathan  Edwards,  the  wrath  of  God,  dissociated 
from  his  good  will,  is  presented  as  a  horrible  travesty 
on  the  divine  justice.  Ritschl  maintained  that 
God's  wrath  is  an  Old  Testament  representation; 
so  far  as  it  appeared  in  the  New  Testament  it 
signified  God's  purpose  to  annihilate  those  who 
obdurately  and  finally  oppose  his  will  in  his 
kingdom.  The  alleged  conflict,  sometimes  por- 
trayed in  doctrines  of  the  Atonement,  between 
God's  wrath  and  his  mercy  is  a  purely  human 
invention.  C.  A.  Beckwith 

WU-WEI. — ^A  Taoist  doctrine  of  laissez-faire 
or  quiescent  submission  to  the  Tao  or  order  of 
nature.  By  this  attitude  of  non-activity  the  soul 
of  man  was  thought  to  be  made  pliable  and  open  to 
the  harmonious  working  of  the  universal  law  of  Ufe 
and  so  might  grow  naturally  to  the  perfection  of  all 
its  powers. 

WYCLIFFE  (or  WYCLIF),  JOHN  (ca.  1320- 
1384) . — Enghsh  preacher  and  reformer.  Wycliffe's 
influence  was  first  felt  at  Oxford.  Not  until  after 
his  admission  to  the  doctorate  (1372)  did  he  show 
signs  of  opposition  to  orthodoxy  and  the  papacy. 
In  1376  he  first  proclaimed  that  the  unrighteousness 
of  the  clergy  should  cause  them  to  forfeit  their 
property  privileges.  He  was  at  the  same  time  a 
great  popular  preacher  and  a  vigorous  philosopher 
and  theologian,  leaning  to  realism  in  the  scholastic 
controversy.  Gradually  he  developed  his  doctrine 
of  the  supremacy  of  the  Scriptures  which  he  pro- 
claimed through  his  secular  priests  and  itinerant 
preachers.  He  also  translated  the  Vulgate  into 
English.  At  the  same  time  he  assailed  the  papal 
and  sacerdotal  power,  declaring  the  king  to  be  the 
vicar  of  God.  Further  he  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  as  blasphemous,  foolish, 
and  unphilosophical.  He  declared  the  individual 
to  be  directly  responsible  to  God  and  priestly 
mediation  unnecessary.  His  views  were  per- 
petuated by  the  Lollards  (q.v.)  in  England  and 
by  Hus  (q.v.)  in  Bohemia,  who  in  turn  influenced 
Luther. 


XAVIER,  FRANCISCO  DE  (1506-1552).— 
Spanish  R.C.  missionary  to  India,  one  of  the  original 
seven  to  take  the  Jesuit  vows.  He  was  a  man  of 
attractive  personality,  and  of  wide  learning  with  an 
unusual  gift  for  organization,  distinguished  as  an 
indefatigable  worker.  He  worked  through  inter- 
preters in  India,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
Japan,  accomphshing  many  conversions,  and 
consolidating  his  gains  by  thorough  organiza- 
tion. He  was  beatified  in  1619  and  canonized 
in  1621. 

XAVIERIAN  BROTHERS.— A  R.C.  association 
of  teaching  brothers,  organized  in  1839  by  Theodor 
Jakob  Rycken  (1797-1871)  for  Christian  educa- 
tion, with  especial  attention  to  orphans  and  deaf- 
mutes.  The  educational  work  of  the  order  has 
been  extended  from  Belgium  to  America.  The 
patron  saint  is  St.  Xavier. 


XENOPHANES.— Greek  philosopher  who  lived 
in  the  6th.  century  B.C.  He  severely  criticized  the 
anthropomorphic  conceptions  of  deity  in  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  and  defined  God  as  the  immutable 
ultimate  reality. 

XIMENES,    DE    CISNEROS,    FRANCISCO 

(1436-1517). — A  Spanish  cardinal  who  lived  in  one 
of  the  great  periods  of  Spanish  history  and  helped 
to  rehabilitate  Spain.  As  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
confessor  of  Queen  Isabella,  reformer  of  the  clergy, 
and  evangelist  to  the  Moors,  he  won  admiration. 
He  was  made  chancellor  of  Castile  and  regent  dur- 
ing Charles'  minority  after  Ferdinand's  death. 
He  was  also  Grand  Inquisitor  of  Castile,  in  which 
office  he  exalted  the  church  by  punishment  of 
heretics. 

XYSTUS.— Same  as  Sixtus  (q.v.),  pope. 


Tahweh 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


478 


YAHWEH. — The  pronunciation  commonly 
given  by  scholars  to  the  original  form  of  the  Hebrew 
name  for  God,  which  in  the  Revised  Version  is 
transcribed  as  Jehovah  (q.v.).  _  The  early  Hebrews 
thought  of  Yahweh  as  a  national  God  alongside 
of  other  and  similar  gods  among  the  neighboring 
peoples.  Through  the  work  of  the  prophets  Yah- 
weh came  to  be  thought  of  as  the  only  god  of  the 
universe,  and  was  credited  with  a  pre-eminent 
passion  for  justice  and  a  glowing  hatred  for  sin. 
Through  the  entire  range  of  Hebrew  history  the 
thought  of  Yahweh's  personal  interest  in  and  love 
for  Israel  persisted.    See  Israel,  Religion  of. 

J.  M.  Powis  Smith 

YAJTJR-VEDA.— The  book  of  Uturgy  of  early 
Vedic  religion  consisting  of  hymns  and  formulae  to 
be  recited  in  connection  with  the  details  of  the 
sacrifices.  Since  the  ritual  was  acquiring  the 
character  of  a  coercive  magic  these  formulae  which 
accompanied  every  act  have  the  nature  of  magic 
spells.  There  are  two  types  of  this  Veda  called 
White  or  Black  according  to  the  arrangement  of 
materials. 

YAMA. — ^The  mythical  ancestor  of  the  Indo- 
Aryans.  He  first  entered  the  heavenly  realm  of  the 
dead  and  became  the  ruler  of  that  happy  land 
where  the  ancestors  dwell  in  bUss  in  the  presence 
of  Varuna.  Later  he  is  known  as  the  god  of  the 
dead  and  of  death.  In  the  developed  philosophic 
religion  of  India  the  figure  of  Yama  fades  away. 
He  appears  again,  however,  as  a  Hindu  god  of 
Hell  in  the  later  hterature  and  as  Yen-lo-wang,  one 
of  the  gods  of  Hell  in  Chinese  and  Korean  Buddhism. 
He  is  the  original  form  of  the  later  god,  Jizo,  of 
Japan.    See  Yima. 

YAMATO-DAMASHH.— "The  soul  of  old 
Japan,"  a  phrase  used  to  express  the  characteristic 
attitude  of  fihal  piety,  loyalty  and  patriotism  of 
the  Japanese. 

YANG  and  YIN.— In  Chinese  thought  the 
"Great  Extreme"  or  First  Cause,  containing  within 
itself  material  (ki)  and  energy  or  formative  powers 
(li),  gave  rise  to  the  Yang  and  Yin  from  which  came 
all  the  succeeding  phenomena  of  the  universe. 
The  Yang  is  the  active,  light,  male  principle  con- 
centrated in  heaven;  the  Yin  is  the  passive,  dark, 
female  principle  concentrated  in  earth.  All  phe- 
nomenal things  partake  of  both  and  their  interaction 
under  the  working  of  Tao  is  the  history  of  the 
imiverse. 

YANTRA. — ^A  mystic  diagram  possessing  the 
magical  power  of  an  amulet  or  charm  used  by  the 
Hindu  sects  who  worship  the  Sakti  of  Shiva.  See 
Sakti. 

YASHTS. — Songs  of  praise  in  honor  of  the 
angeUc  and  heroic  beings  of  Zoroastrian  reUgion. 
They  are  gathered  into  a  book  of  21  hymns. 

YASNA. — ^The  Zoroastrian  book  of  Uturgy  con- 
sisting of  72  chapters.  The  Yasna  ceremony 
centers  around  the  haoma  and  is  an  interesting 
parallel  to  the  central  position  of  soma  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  ritual  and  hterature  of  Vedic  religion. 

YAZATAS. — ^The  general  name  for  all  those 
divine  and  angelic  powers  of  lower  rank  than 
Ahura  Mazda  (Ormazd)  and  the  Amesha  Spentas 
in  Zoroastrian  reUgion. 

YEZIDIS. — A  group  of  demon-worshipers  in 
Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  the  Caucasus,  whose  reli- 


gion is  an  admixture  of  Iranian,  Assyrian,  Mani- 
chaean,  Mohammedan,  and  Christian  elements,  so 
named  from  Yazdan,  a  Kurdish  and  Persian  name 
for  God. 

YGGDRASIL.— The  world-tree  of  Teutonic 
mythology  with  its  roots  in  the  imderworld  and 
branches  in  the  world  of  men  and  in  Asgard,  the 
home  of  the  gods.  Its  significance  is  doubtful 
but  probably  the  life-giving  powers  of  nature  are 
thus  symbolized  as  a  tree  feeding  the  three  worlds. 

YI-KING. — One  of  the  Chinese  canonical  books 
consisting  of  the  gradual  elaboration  by  a  succession 
of  writers  of  a  primitive  system  of  divination. 

YIMA. — The  original  ancestor  of  the  race 
according  to  the  Iranian-Aryans.  See  Yama.  He 
was  a  great  king,  favorite  of  Ahura  Mazda,  ruling  in 
a  golden  age  of  peace  and  plenty.  When  evil  began 
to  multiply  on  the  earth  he  estabhshed  a  hidden 
earthly  realm  of  the  blest  where  he  continued  to  rule. 

YOGA. — ^The  Hindu  science  of  gaining  complete 
mastery  of  the  self  in  order  to  break  the  bondage 
of  the  world  of  sense  and  reaUze  the  state  of  bHss.  It 
involves  ascetic  practices,  severe  control  of  the 
senses,  physical  and  mental  exercises^  steady  con- 
centration of  attention  and  meditation  until  the 
rapt  mystic  state  of  ecstasy  and  full  illumination 
are  attained.  There  are  several  forms  of  yoga 
suited  to  the  varied  capacities  of  men.  The  Hatha- 
yoga  is  a  severe  method  of  restraining  the  senses  and 
mastering  the  body  in  order  to  make  possible  the 
concentration  of  the  mind.  Bhakti-yoga  secures 
the  same  result  by  a  whole-souled  devotion  to  a 
personal  God  or  an  ideal  master.  The  Raja-yoga 
is  a  method  of  mental  concentration.  The  highest 
form  is  the  Jnana-yoga  or  the  way  of  union  through 
knowledge  in  which  the  soul  concentrates  upon 
itself.  AH  methods  are  intended  to  lead  to  the 
same  result,  the  reahzation  of  the  union  of  the  soul 
with  God  or,  in  the  atheistic  groups,  the  reali- 
zation of  the  true  status  of  the  soul  as  possessing 
complete  existence,  knowledge  and  bUss. 

YOGA  PHILOSOPHY.— See  India,  Reli- 
gions OP. 

YOGI. — ^A  Hindu  ascetic  who  practices  the 
yoga  method  to  attain  salvation.  This  consists  of 
rigid  discipline  of  the  physical  senses,  special  bodily 
postures  and  breathings,  mental  concentration 
according  to  a  prescribed  rule — all  of  which  leads 
finally  to  the  mystic  ecstasy  and  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  nature  of  the  soul. 

YOMEI. — See  0-Y6mei;  Wang  Yang  Ming. 

YOM  KIPPUR. — See  Atonement,  Day  op. 

YOUNG,  BRIGHAM  (1801-1877).— American 
Mormon  leader;  the  second  president  of  the  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints,  who  estab- 
lished Mormonism  on  a  secure  footing  in  Utah. 
See  Mormonism. 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION. 

— An  organization  founded  in  London,  June  6, 
1844,  by  George  WiUiams,  at  that  time  a  clerk 
in  a  large  mercantile  establishment.  He  was  later 
knighted  by  Queen  Victoria  and  known  as  Sir  George 
Wilhams.  The  declared  purpose  of  the  organiza- 
tion was  the  "spiritual  development  of  young 
men." 


479 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS     Young  People's  Societies 


Associations  after  the  order  of  the  London 
Association  were  early  estabUshed  in  leading  conti- 
nental cities.  The  first  Association  established  in 
North  America  was  in  Montreal,  November  25, 
1851;  the  first  Association  in  the  United  States 
at  Boston,  December  29,  1851. 

Among  the  most  notable  characteristics  of  the 
present  day  Association  Movement  are  the  following : 

1.  The  rehgious  motive  dominates  all  activities. 

2.  It  is  broadly  inter-denominational,  drawing  its 
leadership  from  the  membership  of  all  evangelical 
churches. 

3.  Its  activities  and  privileges,  including  com- 
mittee service,  are  open  to  all  men  and  boys  upon 
the  same  basis  and  conditions. 

4.  Its  officers  and  members  of  governing  boards 
must  be  chosen  from  the  membership  of  evangelical 
churches,  thus  vesting  the  control  of  the  Association 
within  these  churches. 

5.  It  recognizes  the  imity  of  man  and  seeks  to 
serve  him  in  all  his  faculties.  To  this  end  it  has  a 
comprehensive  and  widely  diversified  program  of 
activities — social,  mental,  physical,  rehgious,  and 
economic. 

6.  It  seeks  to  adapt  its  program  of  activities 
to  the  differing  conditions  and  needs  of  men,  serving 
men  in  commercial  pursuits,  in  student  life,  in 
industrial  life,  in  the  army  and  navy,  in  rural 
Ufe,  etc.,  by  methods  best  adapted  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  men  concerned. 

7.  It  emphasizes  the  importance  of  work 
among  boys.  Here  also  its  activities  are  widely 
diversified  and  calculated  to  appeal  to  boys  of 
different  circumstances  and  to  most  effectively 
contribute  to  them. 

8.  There  is  constantly  emphasized  the  thought 
of  a  Movement — an  Association — rather  than  an 
institution.  The  responsibility  and  leadership  of 
business  men  and  of  the  membership  is  stressed. 
Its  conventions  and  conferences  to  a  degree  unusual 
in  rehgious  organizations  are  composed  of  laymen. 

9.  A  trained  executive  staff  of  employed  officers 
serves  as  the  executive  agent  of  the  governing 
Association  bodies.  Professional  schools  have  been 
estabhshed  for  the  thorough  training  of  men  for 
this  new  profession. 

10.  The  provision  of  suitable  and  adequate 
equipment  for  the  conduct  of  the  work  desired 
is  emphasized  in  all  communities  where  the  organi- 
zation of  an  Association  is  proposed.  The  organiza- 
tion of  Associations  in  cities  and  at  railroad  and 
industrial  centers  is  not  encouraged  unless  the 
community  concerned,  through  its  citizens,  is 
wilhng  to  provide  such  equipment.  This  principle 
does  not  apply  in  student  and  rural  centers,  nor  in 
sections  of  cities  where  a  definite  non-equipment 
work  may  be  undertaken. 

11.  The  Association  Movement  has  so  adapted 
itself  to  the  needs  of  young  men  and  boys  that  it  is 
now  estabUshed  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Each 
local  Association  is  an  independent  self-governing 
unit.  The  Associations  of  the  United  States  are 
closely  related  in  state  and  national  organizations. 
In  similar  manner,  the  Associations  of  other  nations 
have  established  their  national  organizations,  and 
all  national  Movements  are  related  in  a  world's 
organization  with  headquarters  at  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land. 

12.  The  representative  assembly  of  the  Associa- 
tions of  the  United  States  is  known  as  the  Inter- 
national Convention  (this  title  surviving  from  the 
period  in  which  the  Associations  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  were  organized  as  a  unit).  It 
meets  triennially  and  functions  through  an  Execu- 
tive Committee  of  approximately  two  hundred 
members  selected  by  the  Convention  and  known  as 
the  International  Committee.    The  headquarters 


of  this  Committee  is  in  New  York  City.  Its  General 
Secretary  is  John  R.  Mott.  A  yearbook,  with  up 
to  date  statistical  and  other  information  regarding 
the  Association  Movement  in  all  lands  is  regularly 
issued  by  this  Committee.  There  are  at  present 
1979  organized  Associations  in  the  United  States. 

Frank  H.  Burt 

YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  SOCIETIES.— I.  The 
Beginnings. — If  records  were  available,  we  should 
doubtless  find  that  young  people's  organizations  of 
a  more  or  less  permanent  character  had  existed  in 
every  century.  Incidental  notices  of  such  young 
men's  devotional  societies,  as  that  of  Dr.  Anthony 
Horneck  at  Westminster,  1678,  show  us  what  was 
taking  place  sporadically  all  through  Christian 
history. 

In  1677,  Cotton  Mather  belonged  to  a  devo- 
tional society  meeting  on  Sunday  evenings.  A 
printed  "Constitution,"  dated  1724,  indicates  that 
such  societies  became  fairly  common  in  New  Eng- 
land. The  Holy  Club  of  Oxford  University,  1729, 
was  formed  by  four  young  men  including  John 
and  Charles  Wesley.  Rules  for  the  devotional  hfe 
and  for  Christian  service  were  carefully  made  and 
practised.  Out  of  this  grew  the  Wesleyan  revival, 
with  its  far-reaching  results  in  religious  and  philan- 
thropic movements.  Zinzendorf's  Senfkorn  Orden, 
Halle,  Germany,  1715,  with  its  rules  "to  follow 
Christ — to  love  your  neighbor,  and  to  strive  for 
the  conversion  of  Jews  and  heathen,"  seems  not 
to  have  been  perpetuated.  But  at  Basel,  1758, 
Pastor  Mayenrock  organized  the  young  men  of  his 
congregation  into  a  society  with  a  five-fold  pledge: 
to  abide  by  the  teaching  of  the  Word;  to  shun 
sectarianism;  to  be  true  to  God,  to  oneself  and  to 
aU  men;  to  reprove  others  of  their  faults;  to 
retail  no  gossip.  Out  of  this  grew  the  German 
Jiinglingsvereine,  which  became  part  of  the  Inter- 
national Y.M.C.A, 

II.  Earlt  Forms  op  Organization. — By  the 
end  of  the  first  third  of  the  19th.  century,  the  or- 
ganization of  young  people  had  attained  the 
dimensions  and  form  of  a  movement.  Among 
important  social  organizations  may  be  mentioned 
the  singing  schools.  By  1800,  sixty  singing  books 
for  these  schools  were  in  existence.  Out  of  the 
singing  school  grew  the  church  choir  and  some 
remarkable  choral  societies.  Temperance  societies 
had  a  remarkable  growth  in  the  first  third  of  the 
19th.  century.  These  have  always  been  composed  to 
a  large  extent  of  young  people.  In  1829,  New  York 
State  alone  had  1000  societies  with  over  100,000 
members. 

The  growth  of  the  Sunday  school  brought  to  the 
front  two  significant  groups  of  young  people.  One 
was  the  senior  classes,  made  up  of  those  over  four- 
teen years  of  age  who  wished  to  continue  Bible 
study.  The  other  group  was  the  Teachers'  Meeting, 
where  the  Sunday  school  lesson  for  the  following 
Sunday  was  taught.  The  earnest  young  people 
who  so  largely  do  the  teaching  in  our  Sunday  schools 
here  found  immediate  help  and  the  inspiration  of 
Christian  fellowship.  The  missionary  challenge 
found  a  warm  response  in  the  heart  of  youth.  See 
Missionary  Movement.  Along  with  all  these 
other  organizations,  there  grew  up  the  strictly  devo- 
tional societies.  Revivals  frequently  inspired  the 
young  people  to  hold  meetings  by  themselves  for 
prayer  and  Bible  study.  When  the  revival  passed, 
these  temporary  organizations  continued  for  a  time. 
But  it  is  safe  to  say  that  since  the  days  of  the 
Wesleys  there  has  been  no  time  in  which  such 
groups,  few  or  many,  were  not  meeting  somewhere 
for  the  deepening  of  the  devotional  hfe. 

Each  of  these  types  of  association  has  gone  on  up 
to  the  present.  Each  has  contributed  something 
to  others  and  nearly  all  have  accepted  something 


Young  People's  Societies     A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


480 


from  others.    Some  have  grown  rapidly,  none  has 
died  altogether. 

III.  The  Young  Men's  Chkistian  Associa- 
tion AND  Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
(qq.v.)  are  the  most  notable  organizations  of  the 
19th.  century. 

IV.  The  Young  People's  Society  in  the 
Local  Church. — At  the  same  time  that  the 
Y.M.C.A.  was  expanding  to  meet  the  needs  of  young 
men  and  boys,  pastors  were  organizing  young 
people's  societies  in  their  churches.  Sometimes  a 
society  was  formed  after  a  revival,  as  when  a 
pastor  at  Marengo,  111.,  organized  the  "Pastor's 
Helpers"  in  1857-58,  for  purposes  of  prayer,  sick 
visiting,  Sunday  school  and  mission  work.  Some- 
times it  was  an  organized  class  such  as  an  Episcopal 
clergyman  in  1873  utiUzed  for  parish  visitation. 
Sometimes  it  was  simply  the  getting  together  of  a 
group  of  young  people  under  the  pastor's  guidance 
for  devotional  or  other  purposes,  such  as  we  find  at 
Rochester,  N.Y.,  in  1848.  The  important  point  is 
that  considerably  before  1850,  and  very  rapidly 
after  1850,  wide-awake  churches  of  all  denomi- 
nations were  organizing  their  yoimg  people  for 
Christian  growth  and  usefulness.  Pledges  were 
sometimes  used,  but  the  church  covenant  was 
usually  considered  sufficient.  By  1881,  there  were 
hundreds  of  such  organizations  in  existence. 

V.  General  Organizations  of  Young 
People. — It  is  inevitable  that  when  a  large  number 
of  societies  of  a  particular  type  are  organized, 
the  leaders  will  get  together  and  form  a  general 
or  central  organization.  That  central  orgamzation 
in  its  turn  will  direct  and  inspire  the  local  societies 
and  will  seek  to  form  new  societies.  An  instance  of 
this  is  found  in  the  Lend-a-Hand  Clubs.  Edward 
Everett  Hale's  story,  "Ten  Times  One  Is  Ten" 
(1870),  centers  about  four  mottoes:  "Look  up  and 
not  down:  Look  forward  and  not  back;  Look  out 
and  not  in;  Lend  a  hand."  The  book  received 
a  cordial  welcome  and  Look-up  Legions  and  Lend-a- 
Hand  Clubs  multiphed,  all  seeking  Dr.  Hale's 
guidance.  He  could  easily  have  formed  a  world- 
wide federation  of  such  clubs,  and  woiild  have 
rendered  notable  service.  In  course  of  time,  the 
King's  Daughters  organization  was  founded  on 
these  mottoes  (1886).  Today  as  the  International 
Order  of  the  King's  Daughters  and  Sons,  with  their 
silver  cross  and  their  motto,  "In  His  Name,"  they 
are  loyal  successors  to  the  spirit  of  the  earlier  un- 
organized movement.  The  local  chapters  draw 
their  membership  either  from  the  community  as  such 
or  from  a  single  church. 

A  Christian  Endeavor  Society  belongs  distinctly 
to  a  local  church  though  a  few  are  found  elsewhere. 
Its  overhead  organization  is  interdenominational. 
Dr.  Francis  E.  Clark  formed  the  first  C.E.  Society 
in  Portland,  Maine,  1881.  The  constitution 
gathered  up  the  best  features  in  current  yoiing 
people's  church  organizations,  and  the  attractive 
name  won  cordial  support.  The  three  outstanding 
features  were  the  prayer-meeting  pledge,  the  conse- 
cration meeting  and  the  committee  work.  Copies 
of  the  constitution  were  sent  broadcast.  Accounts 
of  the  organization  were  mailed  to  hundreds  of 
papers.  Pastors  of  evangelical  denominations 
and  young  people  aUke  welcomed  the  new  organiza- 
tion. In  six  years  (1887),  7000  societies  were 
reported  with  nearly  500,000  members.  A  weekly 
paper  was  purchased  in  1886,  now  the  Christian 
Endeavor  World.  The  trustees  of  the  United 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  are  chosen  from  the 
denominational  leaders  of  the  country,  but  the 
denominations  as  such  have  no  voice  in  their 
selection. 

The  Epworth  League  is  the  Methodist  protest 
against  a  church  society  imder  non-denominational 


direction.  The  League  was  formed  in  1889  by  the 
union  of  five  or  more  less  general  organizations 
competing  for  supremacy  within  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  and  was  approved  by  the 
General  Conference  of  1892.  A  Board  of  Control 
named  by  the  denomination  determines  policies  and 
approves  plans.  In  other  words,  the  Epworth 
League  both  in  the  local  church  and  in  the  denomina- 
tion is  part  of  the  church  organization,  and  not  in 
any  sense  an  independent  entity.  The  result  is  that 
there  are  few,  if  any,  young  people's  societies  other 
than  Epworth  Leagues  in  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches. 

As  distinct  from  the  connectional  type  of  society 
represented  by  the  Epworth  League  the  Baptist 
Young  People's  Union  of  America  is  a  federation 
of  all  young  people's^  organizations  in  Baptist 
churches,  whatever  their  name  or  form  of  consti- 
tution. In  its  intent^  it  was  to  include  all  the 
Baptist  young-  people  of  the  United  States  (north 
and  south)  and  Canada.  The  great  contribution 
of  the  B.Y.P.U.A.  has  been  the  study-course  idea. 
Four  series  of  studies  (Bible,  Church  History  and 
Pohty,  Christian  Work  and  Missionary  Knowledge, 
and  Science  and  General  Literature)  were  arranged. 
These  became  the  Christian  Culture  Courses,  pre- 
sented in  four-year  cycles.  The  purpose  was  (1  )to 
read  the  Bible  through;  (2)  to  cover  the  denomina- 
tion's mission  ^  work;  (3)  to  study  Messianic 
Expectation,  Life  of  Christ,  Apostolic  Age,  and 
Christian  Ethics.  The  B.Y.P.U.A.  has  never 
been  under  denominational  control,  but  has  always 
worked  heartily  to  advance  denominational  poKcies 
and  programs. 

The  young  people's  societies  in  other  denomina- 
tions follow  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  types  of 
organization,  connectional  or  federal,  but  have 
nothing  to  add  to  our  understanding  of  the  move- 
ment. Several  denominations  have  officially 
adopted  Christian  Endeavor;  for  instance,  the 
Reformed  Church  in  America,  the  Society  of 
Friends,  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  the  Congregational- 
ists.  The  United  EvangeUcal  Church  has  the 
Keystone  League  of  Christian  Endeavor;  and  the 
United  Brethren  have  the  Young  People's  Christian 
Elndeavor  Union  of  the  United  Brethren  Church. 

^  The  Interdenominational  Young  People's  Comr- 
mission  was  organized  by  representatives  of  the 
leading  denominations  and  including  the  United 
Society  of  C.E.  at  Philadelphia  in  1917  for  the  pur- 
pose of  framing  common  topics  for  young  people's 
praver-meetings,  and  of  studying  young  people's 
problems  from  the  standpoint  of  young  people's  so- 
cieties. This  Commission  has  already  developed  a 
sympathetic  understanding  among  the  leading 
workers  in  the  young  people's  field. 

This  rapid  survey  will  fitly  close  with  a  brief 
mention  of  the  Student  Volunteer  Movement  in  its 
outlook  toward  a  world  to  be  won  for  Christ.  Its 
origin  is  to  be  traced  to  the  formation  of  the  mis- 
sionary department  of  the  college  Y.M.C.A.  (1880). 
In  1886,  the  movement  was  laimched  at  North- 
field,  when  100  men  took  the  Volunteer  pledge: 
"I  am  willing  and  desirous,  God  willing,  to  become  a 
foreign  missionary,"  In  1888,  an  organization  was 
effected,  with  the  watchword,  "The  evangeUzation 
of  the  world  in  this  generation."  The  quadrennial 
conventions  have  been  notable  from  every  point  of 
view.  The  movement  has  developed  missionary 
knowledge  and  enthusiasm  in  colleges,  seminaries, 
and  churches;  has  largely  increased  the  giving  to 
missions;  and  has  sent  thousands  of  "Volimteers" 
to  the  foreign  field.  Frank  O.  Erb 

THE  YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSO- 
CIATION.— A  volimtary  organization  for  rehgious, 
physical  and  social  culture.    The  Association  took 


481 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


Zeno  of  Verona 


form  in  1855  out  of  the  union  of  two  groups  of 
young  women  organized  in  England  by  Lady 
Kinnaird  and  Miss  Emma  Robarts.  The  first 
association  in  the  United  States  was  organized  in 
Boston  in  1866. 

It  is  the  ultimate  aim  of  the  Association  to  help 
girls  and  young  women  to  become  Christians,  and 
to  aid  in  the  development  of  Christian  character. 
And  as  an  institution,  the  Association  is  in  some 
sense,  however  imperfect,  a  visible  expression  in  a 
community  of  the  love  of  Christ  in  terms  that  any 
girl  can  understand.  It  aims  to  make  the  resources 
of  the  Christian  people  of  the  city  or  town  or  college 
available  in  a  given  place  and  at  any  time. 

The  Association  does  its  thinking  about  young 
women  in  terms  of  the  wliole  hfe: — body,  mind, 
and  spirit.  Its  institutions  are  planned  to  supple- 
ment deficiencies  and  to  make  good  meagerness  of 
opportunity.  It  conceives  of  a  girl  as  less  than 
an  ideal  Christian  woman  in  measure  as  body, 
mind,  or  soul  is  allowed  to  grow  to  the  neglect  of  the 
other.  It  is  interdenominational — a  way  by  which 
the  young  women  of  a  community  who  are  members 
of  different  church  communions  may  associate  their 
efforts.  It  is  self-directed.  It  is  not  an  organization 
of  one  group  of  women  altruistically  moved  to  do 
good  to  girls  of  another  and  less  favored  class, 
but  it  is  an  associating  together  of  young  women. 
The  member  is  the  vdtimate  authority ._ 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associations^  are 
organized  in  four  different  types  of  communities — 
cities,  towns,  counties  and  districts,  colleges  and 
schools.  Among  the  activities  conducted  by  Young 
Women's  Christian  Associations  are:  Classes 
in  physical  training,  commercial  subjects,  language 
study,  domestic  arts  and  sciences,  vocational 
training,  business  law,  parliamentary  law,  current 
topics,  Bible  and  mission  study,  etc.;  religious 
meetings;  clubs  of  various  _  types;  cafeterias; 
room  registries;  boarding  residences;  residential 
and  transient  hotels;  summer  camps  and  confer- 
ences; vacation  homes;  employment  bureaus; 
and  health  centers. 


No  one  Association  includes  all  of  these  activities, 
those  which  are  undertaken  in  any  one  place  being 
determined  by  the  character  and  needs  of  the 
community.  The  Association  program  is  adapted 
also  to  the  particular  needs  of  special  groups  as, 
for  example,  indxistrial  workers,  colored  girls, 
foreign  born  women,  foreign  women  students, 
Indian  girls,  etc. 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  of 
local  communities  are  organized  into  a  national 
association  called  The  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  of  the  United  States  of  America.  The 
National  Board  is  the  executive  body  of  this  Na- 
tional Association,  appointed  to  carry  out  the  poU- 
cies  adopted  by  the  voting  delegates  at  the  national 
conventions  which  are  the  regular  business  meetings 
of  the  National  Association. 

Through  the  Foreign  and  Overseas  Department 
of  the  National  Board  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  of  the  United  States  co-operates  with 
the  work  of  the  World's  Committee  by  sending 
secretaries  from  the  United  States  for  work  in 
foreign  lands.  Funds  for  the  carrying  on  of  the 
work  in  a  foreign  country  are  raised  in  the  country 
itself.  The  salaries  of  secretaries  from  the  United 
States  and  grants  towards  buildings  or  advance 
program  are  paid  by  the  National  Board.  The 
secretaries  from  the  United  States  are  under  the 
direction  of  the  national  committees  of  the  coun- 
tries to  which  they  go.  There  are  at  present 
more  than  1000  organized  Associations  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  niunber  is  constantly 
growing.  Margaret  E.  Burton 

YOUTH. — See  Adolescence. 

YULE  or  YULETIDE.— The  Christmas  (q.v.) 
season.  The  name  is  Scandinavian,  being  a  feast 
celebrating  the  turning  of  the  year  in  pre-Christian 
times,  and  becoming  identified  with  the  Christian 
festival  which  fell  in  the  same  season.  Some  of  the 
Christmas  customs  such  as  burning  the  yule-log 
are  traceable  to  the  old  Scandanavian  feast. 


ZACHARIAS.— Pope,  741-752;  a  man  of  wide 
influence,  as  shown  by  extant  correspondence  with 
Boniface. 

ZAKAT.— The  Moslem  tax  for  the  benefit  of 
the  poor.  It  is  a  reUgious  duty  in  Islam  to  give 
alms,  and  the  poor-rate  is  merely  the  minimum 
required  by  the  law. 

ZARATHUSHTRA.— See  Zoroaster. 

ZEALOTS. — A  party  of  Jewish  patriots  in 
Palestine  in  the  1st.  century  a.d.  Beginning  in 
6  a.d.  with  resistance  to  Roman  taxation,  the 
Zealot  movement  grew  rapidly  through  sixty 
years  (during  the  ministries  of  Jesus  and  Paul), 
and  culminated  in  the  Jewish-Roman  War  of 
66-70  a.d.  Trusting  the  promises  of  God  to 
the  children  of  Abraham,  thinking  that  God  helps 
those  who  help  themselves,  the  Zealots  made  an 
unsuccessful  but  determined  effort  by  arms  for 
national  independence.  C.  W.  Votaw 

ZEN. — An  important  sect  of  Japanese  Buddhism 
with  two  main  divisions,  Rinzai,  founded  by  Eisai 
(1145-1215)  and  Sodo,  founded  by  Dogen  (1200- 
1253).  It  laid  stress  upon  the  ancient  Hindu 
method  of  attaining  enhghtenment  by  dhyana  or 
meditation.  Since  the  inner  nature  of  man  is  one 
with  ultimate  reality  there  is  no  need  for  formal 


ritual  or  laborious  study.  The  truth  is  in  man's  own 
heart  and  may  be  reahzed  in  contemplation.  This 
form  of  religion  appealed  to  the  military  class  of 
Japan  because  of  its  simpUcity,  its  identification 
of  the  religious  Hfe  with  the  normal  performance  of 
duty  and  loyalty  and  because  of  its  guarantee 
of  a  spiritual  control  weaving  the  destinies  of  men. 
Owing  to  the  adherence  of  the  samurai  it  has  had 
a  large  influence  on  Japanese  life. 

ZEND-AVESTA.— The  original  sacred  writings 
of  Zoroastrianism  (q.v.).  See  A  vesta;  Sacred 
Books. 

ZENDS. — See  Zoroastrianism. 

ZENO  OF  CITIUM  (ca.  342-260  B.C.).— Greek 
philosopher,  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Stoicism 
(q.v.). 

ZENO  OF  ELIA.— Greek  philosopher  of  the 
5th.  century  B.C.;  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
"dialectic"  form  of  argument,  the  aim  of  which 
is  the  ascertaining  of  truth  by  a  logical  arrangement 
of  propositions. 

ZENO  OF  VERONA.— Bishop  and  patron  saint 
of  Verona;  an  early  Latin  writer.  The  tractates 
of  Zeno  are  among  the  earliest  examples  of  Latin 
sermons.     They  are  Pauline  in  their  interpretation 


Zephyrinus 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


482 


of   Christianity.     His  bishopric  was   probably   in 
the  second  half  of  the  4th.  century. 

ZEPHYRINUS  (ca.  198-217).— Bishop  of  Rome, 
appears  in  the  list  of  popes. 

ZERVAN  AKARANA.— "Boundless  time."  The 
First  Cause  of  post-Zoroastrian  speculation,  akin 
to  Fate,  who  ordered  the  movements  of  the  uni- 
verse and  was  the  final  master  of  destiny.  He 
appears  as  a  Uon-headed  figure  in  Mithraic  sculpture. 
In  modern  Parsi  Theosophy  he  loses  personality  and 
becomes  the  one  universal  spiritual  reality  beneath 
the  phenomenal  world. 

ZEUS.— The  chief  deity  of  the  Hellenic  pan- 
theon. The  name  is  from  a  common  Aryan  root 
meaning  "sky,"  and  is  coupled  with  the  word  for 
"father"  among  various  peoples.  The  Roman 
Ju-piter  and  the  Sanskrit  Dyaus+pitar  are  counter- 
parts philologically  and  functionally.  See  Greek 
Religion. 

ZIEGENBALG,  BARTHOLOMAEUS  (1683- 
1719). — First  German  Protestant  missionary  to 
India;  sent  by  the  Danish  king.  He  translated  the 
New  Testament  and  a  large  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment into  Tamil,  the  first  translation  into  an 
Indian  vernacular. 

ZIKR.— See  Dhikr. 

ZINZENDORF,  NICOLAUS  LUDWIG  (1700- 
1760). — German  nobleman  and  rehgious  leader. 
Bom  of  Pietist  parents  and  educated  under  Pietist 
surroundings,   he  devoted   his  life  to   furthering 

Eractical  religion.  On  his  estate  at  Berthelsdorf 
e  founded  the  village  of  Herrnhut  where  the  perse- 
cuted wanderers  from  Moravia  settled,  and  formed 
the  Bohemian  Brethren  (q.v.).  Zinzendorf  was  a 
man  of  splendid  gifts,  and  unselfish  devotion. 

ZIONISM. — ^A  modem  movement  intended  to 
re-establish  the  Jews  in  an  autonomous  common- 
wealth in  Palestine.  The  movement  has  two  dis- 
tinct purposes,  one  looking  towards  a  protection 
against  oppression  and  discrimination,  the  other 
toward  the  preservation  of  Judaism  which  is  suffer- 
ing from  the  disintegrating  influences  in  modern 
cultural  environments. 

In  the  many  years  since  the  loss  of  their  national 
independence  by  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  in  70 
the  Jews  never  gave  up  their  hope  for  a  re-establish- 
ment of  their  national  life.  It  is  the  central  thought 
of  their  liturgy,  both  in  the  synagog  and  in  private 
devotion,  as  at  weddings  and  funerals.  This 
thought  gained  more  tangible  expression  when  in 
especially  critical  days  of  persecution  the  longing 
for  freedom  became  acute.  So  we  find  the  expul- 
sions from  Spain  (1492),  Portugal  (1496)  southern 
Italy  (1510),  and  other  places  followed  by  the 
Messianic  movement  of  David  Reubeni.  The 
terrible  butcheries  in  Poland,  due  to  the  Cossack 
rebellion  in  1648,  were  succeeded  by  the  almost 
world-wide  movement  of  Shabbetai  Zebi  (1666) 
to  which  the  millenarian  expectations  of  the  English 
Puritans  also  contributed. 

The  two  currents  in  the  movement  of  renationali- 
zation  of  the  Jewish  people  are  strongly  evident  in 
two  pamphlets  which  appeared  almost  simultane- 
ously about  the  middle  of  the  19th.  century. 
Hirsch  KaUscher  an  orthodox  Talmudist  of  Thorn, 
pubUshed  in  1859  a  Hebrew  pamphlet  Seeking  Zion, 
in  which  he  advocated  the  re-estabUshment  of  the 
Jews  in  Palestine  as  the  only  means  of  preserving 
Judaism,  while  Moritz  He3«  Q81 1-1875),  a  radical 


communist  and  co-worker  of  Karl  Marx,  in  a 
German  pamphlet  Rom  und  Jerusalem  (1862), 
advocated  the  same  idea  on  the  opposite  ground 
that  the  Jew  can  never  shed  his  national  identity. 

The  movement  did  not,  however,  receive  a 
practical  impetus  until,  in  the  19th.  century, 
political  conditions  seemed  to  call  for  a  radical 
and  immediate  solution  of  the  Jewish  question. 
Roumania,  where  the  Jews  suffered  from  renewed 
persecution  after  the  Congress  of  BerUn  (1878)  had 
decreed  their  full  emancipation,  and  Russia,  where 
after  the  assassination  of  Czar  Alexander  II.  (1881) 
an  era  of  brutal  reaction  began,  made  the  Jewish 
question  acute.  Leon  Pinsker,  a  Russian  physician, 
published  in  1882  a  German  pamphlet  Auto- 
Emancipation,  in  which  he  practically  repeated  the 
ideas  of  Hess  that  the  Jews  will  always  suffer  because 
they  represent  a  different  nationality,  and  there- 
fore their  only  salvation  lies  in  renationalizing 
themselves.  A  considerable  number  of  Jews  from 
Russia  and  Roumania  emigrated  to  Palestine  where 
in  1882  the  first  agricultural  colony,  Rishon  Lezion, 
was  founded.  This  was  followed  by  similar  enter- 
prises which  were  patronized  by  a  net  of  societies, 
called  "Lovers  of  Zion." 

New  life  came  into  this  charitable  rather  than 
political  movement  through  Theodore  Herzl  (1860- 
1904),  correspondent  for  a  Vienna  paper  in  Paris. 
The  Dreyfus  affair  in  France  in  1895  clearly  showed 
that  antipathy  to  the  Jews  was  always  sure  to  meet 
with  popular  response.  This  inspired  Herzl  to 
write  his  pamphlet  D*er  Judenstaat  (1896),  in  which 
he  advocated  the  estabhshment  of  a  Jewish  com- 
monwealth in  Palestine  along  the  lines  of  British 
colonies,  proceeding  from  a  chartered  company  to 
an  autonomous  commonwealth.  The  success  of 
this  publication  was  phenomenal.  His  sympa- 
thizers called  a  congress  in  Basel  in  1897  which  was 
followed  by  ten  others  and  drew  constantly  larger 
masses.  The  culmination  of  the  efforts  of  Zionism 
came  when  the  British  minister  Balfour  in  a  note 
issued  Nov.  2,  1917,  expressed  the  sympathy  of  his 
government  with  Zionist  endeavors,  followed  after- 
wards by  similar  expressions  on  the  part  of  the 
foreign  secretaries  of  Prance  and  Italy  and  of  the 
president  of  the  United  States,  Woodrow  WUson, 
Sept.  5,  1918. 

While  Herzl  strongly  opposed  all  colonization 
as  useless  charity,  as  long  as  the  charter  guaranteeing 
to  the  settlers  autonomy  should  not  be  granted,  the 
slow  progress  of  the  movement  and  the  evident 
unwillingness  of  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  to  make  any 
concession,  encouraged  a  "temporary  action"  which 
led  to  the  foundation  of  model  farms,  schools  and 
sociological  institutions  in  Palestine.  In  this 
activity  various  ideals  are  noticed  which  led  to 
divisions  in  the  ranks  of  the  Zionists.  The  Russian 
intellectuals  whose  main  _  spokesman  is  Asher 
Guenzburg,  known  by  his  pseudonym,  "Ahad 
Ha-Am,"  opposed  the  Herzl  idea  which  was  mainly 
political.  They  demand  a  distinct  Jewish  Kultur. 
An  orthodox  fraction,  called  "Mizrachi,"  founded 
in  1902  by  Rabbi  Isaac  Jacob  Reines  (1839-1915) 
wish  to  utilize  the  facihties  of  an  independent  Jewish 
state  for  the  sake  of  perpetuating  Jewish  religious 
practices,  thus  following  Hirsch  Kalischer.  Finally 
the  Po-ale  Zion  represent  the  socialist  elements 
which,  antagonistic^  to  all  reUgious  ideals,  are 
endeavoring  to  find  in  Palestine  a  place  where  the 
socialistic  ideas  can  be  put  into  effect.  They  are 
also  divided  as  to  the  national  language.  The 
socialist  element  proposes  the  Yiddish  which  is 
spoken  by  the  greater  majority  of  the  Jewish 
people,  while  the  "Kultur -Zionists"  insist  on  the 
restoration  of  the  Hebrew  as  the  official  language 
of  the  Jewish  commonwealth. 

GOTTHARD  DeUTSCH 


483 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


2wingli,  Huldreich 


ZIONITES.— See  Zionism. 

ZOHAR. — The  most  important  literary  product 
of  the  Jewish  mystical  movement  known  as  the 
Kabbala.  The  book  dates  from  the  14th.  century 
and  consists  of  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  the 
Pentateuch  in  terms  of  the  symbohsm  of  the  group. 

ZOROASTRIANISM.— A  Persian  reUgion 
founded  by  Zoroaster  (Zarathushtra). 

I,  The  Prophet. — The  traditional  date  of  his 
birth,  based  on  Greek  sources,  is  660  B.C.  Evidence 
is  accumulating  which  makes  it  probable  that  he 
lived  as  early  as  1000  B.C.  The  scene  of  his  activity 
is  usually  assumed  to  have  been  Western  Persia 
(Adarbaijan),  but  there  are  some  reasons  for 
believing  that  he  may  have  lived  in  Bactria. 

II.  Teachings. — Zoroastrianism  was  an  ethical 
reform  movement  away  from  the  old  popular 
Iranian  nature  worhip,  which  must  have  been  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Vedic  Indians.  Abstract 
moral  figures  took  the  place  of  the  concrete,  anthro- 
pomorphic nature  gods. 

Zoroaster  taught  a  duahsm  of  the  powers  of 
Good  and  Evil  (Light  and  Darkness).  On  the  one 
side  was  Ahura  Mazda  "The  Wise,"  who  wills  and 
creates  all  that  is  good.  On  the  other  side  is  Angra 
Mainyu  "Hostile  Spirit,"  or  Ahriman,  who  creates 
all  that  is  bad,  and  does  all  that  he  can  to  lead 
men  away  from  the  Good  and  Right.  AUied  to 
Ahura  Mazda  are  the  six  Amesha  Spentas  "Im- 
mortal Holy  Ones"— Vohu  Manah  "Good  Thought," 
Asha  "Truth,  Right,"  Khsathra  "Sovereignty, 
Kingdom  of  God,  Aramaiti  "Devotion,  Piety," 
Haurvatat  "Welfare,  Health,"  Ameratat  "Immor- 
tality." Apparently  these  are  not  archangels  but 
parts  of  the  divine  essence.  Allied  to  Ahriman  are 
the  daevas  "demons"  such  as  Mithra  (Vedic  Mitra) 
and  Verethraghna  (Vedic  Indra).  In  India,  on 
the  contrary,  the  devas  are  the  nature  gods  wor- 
shiped in  the  Rig  Veda.  Fire  alone  of  the  old  gods 
remains  holy.  The  origin  of  Ahriman  and  his 
relation  to  Ahura  Mazda  are  not  clearly  defined, 
but  the  Good  is  destined  to  triumph  ultimately. 

In  the  field  of  battle,  the  present  world,  man  is 
free  to  choose  between  Good  and  Evil.  At  death, 
when  a  man  comes  to  cross  the  bridge  which  leads 
to  the  other  world,  there  is  a  strict  reckoning  of  his 
works.  For  the  good  the  bridge  is  broad  and  leads 
to  paradise;  for  the  wicked  it  is  "narrow  as  a 
razor's  edge  so  that  he  falls  into  hell";  those  who 
are  neither  good  or  bad  go  to  an  intermediate  limbo. 
Bad  deeds  cannot  be  undone,  but  can  be  counter- 
balanced by  good  deeds.  There  is  no  forgiveness 
of  sins  or  divine  grace.  In  later  speculation  at  least, 
whether  or  not  it  is  ascribed  to  the  earliest  period, 
there  is  a  final  resurrection  and  judgment.  Ahri- 
man and  the  wicked  are  to  be  cast  into  the  abyss 
forever.  The  mountains  are  to  be  smoothed  down 
and  there  is  to  ensue  on  earth  an  eternal  Kingdom 
of  God  for  the  righteous. 

The  old  religion  was  not  ritualistic.  In  it  was  no 
mysticism,  no  asceticism,  no  metaphysics.  It  was  a 
practical  ethics.  Man  was  not  to  flee  the  world, 
but  to  combat  and  overcome  evil  by  "good  thoughts, 
good  words,  good  deeds."  The  great  reverence  for 
Gaush  Urvan  "Ox-Spirit"  shows  the  practical, 
agricultural  background  of  the  rehgion.  The 
following  passage  from  an  old  confession  of  faith  is 
significant.  "I  repudiate  the  Daevas.  I  confess 
myself  a  worshiper  of  Mazda,  a  Zarathushtrian, 
as  an  enemy  of  the  Daevas,  a  prophet  of  the  Lord, 
praising  and  worshiping  the  Immortal  Holy  Ones 
(Amesha  Spentas).  To  the  Wise  Lord  I  promise 
all  good;  to  him,  the  good,  beneficent,  righteous, 
glorious,  venerable,  I  vow  all  the  best;  to  him  from 
whom  is  the  cow,  the  law,  the  (celestial)  luminaries, 


with  whose  luminaries  (heavenly)  blessedness  is 
conjoined.  I  choose  the  holy,  good  Aramaiti 
(Humble  Devotion),  she  shall  be  mine.  I  abjure 
theft,  and  cattle-stealing,  plundering  and  devastat- 
ing the  villages  of  Mazda-worshipers."  Later,  under 
the  gradually  formed  hereditary  caste  of  priests, 
"Magi,"  minute  injimctions  for  ceremonials  of 
purification  developed. 

As  the  rehgion  was  adopted  by  the  kings  and 
spread  among  the  masses  there  came  a  return  of 
the  nature  gods  (daevas  (especially  Mithra,  who  had 
been  repudiated  by  Zoroaster),  elaborate  fire- 
ceremonies,  the  sacrifice  of  the  ox,  the  exposure  of 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  to  vultures,  next-of-kin 
marriage,  astrology,  divination  and  magic,  and 
ancestor-spirits.  Zoroaster  became  a  supernatural 
figure  and  a  mythology  grew  up  around  him. 
Mithraism  marks  a  recrudescence  of  the  religious 
elements  which  Zoroaster  sought  to  suppress. 

The  bloom  of  the  rehgion  is  to  be  placed  in  the 
period  of  the  Achaemenian  kings (  558-330  B.C.). 
Under  the  Sassanians  (226-641  a.d.)  the  old  popular 
superstitions  and  practices  preponderated  over  the 
higher  elements  which  were  too  abstract  and  ethical 
for  a  popular  reUgion.  The  Mohammedan  invasion 
and  consequent  persecution  (from  636  a.d.),  and 
the  Mongol  invasions,  completely  crushed  the 
religion.  Many  fled  to  India  with  their  sacred 
books  and  formed  the  nucleus  for  the  present  com- 
munity of  Parsees.  W.  E.  CijARK 

ZOSIMUS.— Pope,  417-418. 

ZUCCHETTC— A  skull-cap  worn  by  R.C. 
ecclesiastics,  covering  the  tonsure. 

ZURICH  CONSENSUS.— A  creed  approved 
by  the  Swiss  Reformed  churches  setting  forth  the 
Reformed  Church  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper; 
formulated  by  Calvin  and  BuUinger  in  1549  and 
approved  in  1551,  but  never  becoming  a  formal 
confession. 

ZWINGLI,  HULDREICH  (1481-1531).— Swiss 
reformer.  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  farmer, 
the  chief  magistrate  of  his  village.  His  uncle  was  a 
priest,  and  by  his  advice  young  Zwingh  was  educated 
for  the  Church.  After  preUminary  schooling  at 
Basel  and  Bern  he  was  sent  to  the  University 
of  Vienna  in  1500,  and  after  two  years  there  matricu- 
lated at  Basel,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1504  and  M.A.  in  1506.  He  became  priest  in  the 
town  of  Glarus  and  devoted  himself  to  humanistic 
studies.  A  friendship  formed  with  Erasmus  in 
1514  had  a  great  influence  on  him.  He  had  already 
begun  the  study  of  Greek,  and  the  publication  of 
the  Greek  N.T.  by  Erasmus  in  1516  set  him  to  the 
serious  study  of  the  Scriptures.  He  served  as 
chaplain  of  the  Glarus  contingent  in  two  Italian 
campaigns  and  his  experience  led  him  to  strong 
opposition  towards  the  mercenary  system.  _  In  1516 
he  was  called  to  Einsiedeln,  and  there  continued  his 
studies.  His  growing  fame  as  scholar  and  preacher 
led  to  his  call  to  Zurich,  to  be  chief  preacher  at 
the  Great  Minster,  Beginning  his  work  with  the 
New  Year  of  1518  by  daily  expositions  of  the  Gospels 
and  Epistles  his  faithful  preaching  prepared  the 
way  for  reform,  which  began  in  1523  and  was  meas- 
urably completed  within  two  years.  On  Maundy 
Thursday,  April  13,  1525,  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
administered  for  the  first  time  in  Zurich  according 
to  the  reformed  rite.  The  Zurich  reformation  was 
more  radical  than  the  German,  and  a  break  with 
Luther  and  his  followers  was  the  inevitable  though 
unfortunate  consequence.  See  Marburg,  Colloquy 
AT.  Part  of  the  Swiss  cantons  remained  faithful 
to  the  Roman  Cathohc  faith;    civU  war  ensuedi 


Zwingli,  Huldreicb 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


484 


and,  at  the  battle  of  Kappel,  Zwingli  was  killed. 
The  reform  suffered  a  severe  check,  but  finally 
triumphed  under  the  leadership  of  Henry  Bulhnger 
(q.v.). 

Zwingli's  theology  bears  clear  traces  of  Augus- 
tine's influence,  though  it  was  primarily  based  on 
original  study  of  the  Scriptures.  He  conceived 
God  to  be  the  "highest  Good,"  the  sum  of  all 
excellence,  including  power,  wisdom  and  love. 
He  is  source'  and  fountain  of  all  things,  which 
exist  only  in  him,  who  alone  has  true  being. 
"Nothing  exists  that  is  not  from  him,  in  him  and 
through  him."  Hence,  there  is  but  one  Cause,  and 
the  divine  activity  is  all-pervading.  It  was  this 
idea  of  all  things  existing  m  God  that  led  Zwingli 
to  conclude  that  He  had  revealed  himself  to  the 
heathen;  and  he  scandahzed  the  other  reformers  by 
arguing  that  good  men  like  Socrates  might  be  saved. 

The  origin  of  sin  Zwingli  finds  in  Adam's  self- 
love,  his  desire  to  be  equal  with  God  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  good  and  evil.  This  sin  of  Adam's  has 
infected  and  corrupted  the  whole  of  human  nature 
like  a  disease;  yet  this  taint  derived  from  Adam  is 
improperly  called  "sin" — only  actual  transgression 
constitutes  real  sin.  The  moral  law  is  an  expression 
of  God's  essence — for  us  it  is  law,  for  him  it  is  nature. 
We  are  justly  punished  for  transgression  of  this 
law,  but  God,  of  his  goodness,  has  provided  redemp- 
tion. 

This  leads  Zwingli  to  his  doctrine  of  election, 
in  which  he  anticipated  Calvin.  Election  is  the 
free  determination  of  the  divine  will,  in  distinction 
from  his  wisdom,  concerning  those  who  are  to  be 
made  blessed.    While  once  inclined  to  the  theory 


of  Thomas  Aquinas  (afterwards  taught  by  Arminius, 
q.v.)  that  election  was  conditioned  by  the  fore- 
seen faith  of  the  elect,  Zwingli  finally  concluded  that 
election  must  be  a  matter  of  the  divine  will  purely. 
But  he  never  went  to  the  extreme  of  Luther,  m 
maintaining  that  the  divine  will  was  purely  arbi- 
trary and  determined  by  no  rational  motive. 
Faith  is  the  gift  of  God,  "the  symbol  of  election," 
so  we  are  in  reality  justified  by  election  rather  than 
by  faith.  As  to  the  atonement,  Zwingli  adopted 
without  examination  the  Anselmic  theory,  that 
the  Son  of  God  had  by  his  sacrificial  death  expiated 
the  sins  of  the  world. 

Zwingli's  chief  divergence  from  the  other  reform- 
ers was  with  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  sacra- 
ments. He  rejected  altogether  the  idea  that  the 
sacraments  actually  convey  divine  grace,  either 
with  or  without  faith  on  the  part  of  the  recipient. 
He  interpreted  the  words  "This  is"  in  the  words  of 
institution,  to  mean  "This  represents,"  and  hence 
maintained  that  the  sacraments  are  only  outward 
symbols  of  an  inward  spiritual  grace.  They  are 
not  even  "seals"  of_  grace,  stiU  less  channels; 
grace  can  come  only  in  response  to  faith.  After 
wavering  for  a  time,  as  he  confesses,  Zwingli  con- 
cluded that  baptism  should  be  conferred  on  infants, 
as  children  of  the  new  covenant,  as  circumcision 
was  given  under  the  old.  He  was  led  to  this  con- 
clusion less  by  the  validity  of  the  arguments  by  which 
he  supported  it  after  his  final  decision,  than  by  the 
practical  consideration  that  the  success  of  his  reform 
m  Zurich  would  be  imperilled  by  the  adoption 
of  so  radical  a  measure  as  rejection  of  infant  baptism. 

Henry  C.  Vedder 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Edited  and  amplified  by  Frank  Grant  Lewis,  Ph.D.,  Librarian  of  The  Crozer  Theological  Seminary, 
on  the  basis  of  titles  suggested  by  contributors. 

Many  of  those  who  use  this  dictionary  may  wish  to  read  further  on  the  topics  treated.  To  meet  such 
wishes  this  bibliography  is  prepared.  It  is  in  no  sense  exhaustive,  but  can  be  used  to  start  readers  in  the 
profitable  investigation  of  the  subjects  listed. 

As  this  volume  is  prepared  primarily  for  EngUsh  readers,  preference  has  been  given  in  the  bibUography 
to  books  in  English,  or  English  translations  of  works  written  in  other  languages.  The  few  non-English 
titles  call  attention  to  volumes  which  are  important  for  those  who  may  find  them  useful. 

Works  whose  titles  do  not  suggest  their  relation  to  the  topics  with  which  they  are  connected  will  be 
found,  on  examination,  to  contain  a  chapter,  or  section,  deahng  specifically  with  the  subject  mentioned. 
Such  books  are  selected  because  the  relevant  portions  of  each  offer  some  of  the  best  material  on  the  topic. 

The  alphabetical  order  of  the  references  is  for  convenience.  Any  attempt  to  arrange  such  brief  lists 
according  to  value  would  be  futile.     Each  title  is  important  in  its  own  way. 

ENCYCLOPEDIAS 


J.  M.  Baldwin,  ed. :  Dictionary  of  Philosophy 
and  Psychology.    3  v.     1901-1906. 

The  CathoHc  Encyclopedia.     15  v.     1907-1912. 

James  Hastings,  ed. :  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 
5  V.     1898-1904. 

James  Hastings,  ed. :  Encyclopaedia  of  ReUgion 
and  Ethics.     15  v.     1908-. 


The  Jewish  Encyclopedia.    12  v.    1901-1906. 

John  M'CUntock  and  James  Strong,  eds. :  Cyclo- 
paedia of  BibUcal,  Theological  and  Ecclesiastical 
Literature.     12  v.     1867-1891. 

The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Reh- 
gious  Knowledge.     12  v.     1908-1912. 


Absolute. 

Andrew  Seth  Pringle-Pattison:  The  Idea  of 
Grod  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Philosophy.     1917. 

Josiah  Royce:  The  World  and  the  Individual. 
2  V.    1900,  1901. 

Absolution. 

H.  G.  Lea:  A  History  of  Auricular  Confession 
and  Indulgences  in  the  Latin  Church,     v.  1.     1896. 

Gerhard  Rauschen:  Eucharist  and  Penance  in 
the  First  Six  Centuries  of  the  Church.     1913. 

Henry  Wace:  Confession  and  Absolution.    1902. 

Adolescence. 

G.  Stanley  Hall:  Adolescence.     1904. 

Irving  King:  The  High-School  Age.     1914. 

Antoinnette  A.  Lamoreaux:  The  Unfolding  Life. 
1907. 

J.  B.  Pratt:  The  Religious  Consciousness.    1920. 

Aesthetics. 

Bernard  Bosanquet:  A  History  of  Aesthetic. 
1900. 

Kate  Gordon:  Aesthetics.     1909. 

W.  A.  Knight:  The  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful. 
2  V.     1891,  1893. 

E.  D.  Puffer:  The  Psychology  of  Beauty.    1905. 

Africa,  Missions  to. 

David  Livingstone:  Narrative  of  an  Exjsedition 
to  the  Zambesi  and  Its  Tributaries.     1866. 

Ellen  C.  Parsons:  Christus  Liberator,  an  Out- 
line Study  of  Africa.     1905. 

James  Stewart:  Dawn  in  the  Dark  Continent. 
1903. 

S.  E.  Taylor:   The  Price  of  Africa.     1902. 

See  also  under  Africa,  ReUgions  of. 

Africa,  Religions  of. 

E.  W.  Hopkins:  The  History  of  Religions. 
1918. 

Mary  H.  Kingsley :  West  African  Studies .    1897. 

R.  H.  Nassau:  Fetichism  in  West  Africa.     1904. 

S.  M.  Zwemer:  The  Unoccupied  Mission  Fields 
of  Africa  and  Asia.     1911. 


Agnosticism. 

R.  Fhnt:  Agnosticism.     1903. 
A.  C.  McGiffert:  The  Rise  of  Modern  Religious 
Ideas.     1915. 

G.  Romanes:  Thoughts  on  Rehgion.     1895. 

Albigenses. 

G.  S.  Faber:  Inquiry  into  the  History  and 
Theology  of  the  Ancient  Vallenses  and  Albigenses. 
1838. 

S.  R.  Maitland:  Facts  and  Documents  Illus- 
trative of  the  History,  Doctrine,  and  Rites  of  the 
Ancient  Albigenses  and  Waldenses.     1832. 

Amusements. 

Jane  Addams:  The  Spirit  of  Youth  in  the  City 
Streets.     1912. 

W.  E.  H.  Lecky:  The  Map  of  Life.     1899. 

S.  N.  Patten:  The  New  Basis  of  Civihzation. 
1907. 

Anabaptists. 

E.  B.  Bax:  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Anabaptists. 
1903. 

Richard  Heath:    Anabaptism.     1895. 

H.  C.  Vedder:  Balthasar  Hubmaier.     1905. 

Ancestor  Worship. 

J.  J.  M.  de  Groot:  The  Religion  of  the  Chinese. 
1910. 

W.  E.  Hearn:   The  Aryan  Household.     1879. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture.     2  v.     1903. 

Angels. 

A.  B.  Davidson:  The  Theology  of  the  Old 
Testament.     1904.     Pp.  289-306. 

M.  N.  Dhalla:  Zoroastrian  Theology.  1914. 
Pp.  96-142;  236-242. 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma.  7  v.  1896- 
1900.    ,See  Index  for  "Angel."     Pp.  289-306. 

E.  Schiirer:  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ.  7  vols.  1891.  See  Index 
for  "Angel." 

Animals,  Worship  of. 

E.  S.  Hartland:   Science  of  Fairy  Tales.     1891. 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie:  The  ReUgion  of  Ancient 
Egypt.     1906. 


485 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


4«6 


Animism. 

George  W.  Gilmore:   Animism.     1919. 

Irving  King:  The  Development  of  Religion. 
1910. 

R.  R.  Marett:  The  Threshold  of  ReUgion. 
2d.  ed.    1914. 

Herbert  Spencer:  The  Principles  of  Sociology. 
3  V.    completed  1896. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Anthropology.     1881. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture.    2  v.     1903. 

Apocalyptic  Literature. 

F.  C.  Burkitt:  Jewish  and  Christian  Apoca- 
lypses.    1914. 

R.  H.  Charles:  The  Apocrypha  and  Pseude- 
pigrapha  of  the  Old  Testament  in  EngUsh.  2  v. 
1913. 

F.  C.  Porter:  The  Messages  of  the  Apocalyptic 
Writers.     1905. 

Apocrypha. 

The  Apocrypha,  Translated  out  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Tongues Revised.     1895. 

B.  H.  Cowper:  The  Apocryphal  Gospels,  2d.  ed. 
1867. 

H.  J.  Wicks:  The  Doctrine  of  God  in  the  Jewish 
Apocryphal  and  Apocalyptic  Literature.     1915. 

Apologetics. 

Joseph  Butler:  The  Analogy  of  ReUgion.  First 
published  in  1736.     M^ny  editions. 

G.  P.  Fisher:  The  Grounds  of  Theistic  and 
Christian  Belief.    Rev.  ed.     1902. 

A.  E.  Garvie:  Handbook  of  Christian  Apolo- 
getics.   1913. 

PaulSchanz:  A  Christian  Apology.  (CathoUc). 
3d.  ed.    3  v.     1910. 

Apologists. 

A.  Bardenhewer:  Patrology.     1908.    Pp.  44-72. 

Charles  Bigg:  The  Origins  of  Christianity. 
1909. 

A.  Hamack:  History  of  Dogma.  7  vols.  1896- 
1900.    Vol.  II,  pp.  169-330. 

W.  N.  Stearns:  A  Manual  of  Patrology.     1899. 

Apostolic  Constitutions. 

Ante-Nicene  Fathers,     v.  7.     1887. 

Adolf  Harnack:  Sources  of  the  ApostoUc 
Canons.     1895. 

D.  E.  O'Leary:  ApostoUcal  Constitutions  and 
Cognate  Doctrines.     1906. 

Aquinas. 

Joseph  Rickaby :  Moral  Teaching  of  St.  Thomas. 
2v.    1896.1 

The  Summa  Theologica.  (Translation  not  all 
pubUshed.)     1911-. 

Arabia,  Religions  of. 

C.  M.  Douhgty:  Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta. 
2d.  ed.     1921. 

Koran.     Rodwell's  translation. 

H.  P.  Smith:  The  Bible  and  Islam.     1897. 

W.  Robertson  Smith:  ReUgion  of  the  Semites. 
1889. 

S.  M.  Zwemer:  Arabia:  The  Cradle  of  Islam. 
1900. 

See  also  under  Mohammedanism. 

Arabic  Philosophy. 

T.  J.  de  Boer:  The  History  of  Philosophy  in 
Islam.     1903. 

Archaeology. 

G.  A.  Barton:  Archaeology  and  the  Bible. 
1916. 

J.  H.  Breasted:   A  History  of  Egypt.     1905. 

D.  G.  Hogarth,  ed.:  Authority  and  Archaeology 
1899. 


Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.:  The  CiviUzation  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria.     1915. 

H.F.Osborn:  Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age.     1915. 

Aristotle  and  Aristotelianism. 

Aristotle's  Works:   Bohn's  Classical  Library. 

Ernest  Barker:  PoUtical  Thought  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle.     1906. 

Edward  Moore:  Introduction  to  Aristotle's 
Ethics.    5th.  ed.    1896. 

Arius. 

L.  M.  O.  Duchesne:  Early  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,    v.  2.     1907. 

H.  M.  Gwatkin:  The  Arian  Controversy.     1891. 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma.  Vol.  II. 
1896-1900. 

Armenia,  Church  of. 

Arminianism  and  Arminius. 

Caspar  Brandt:  Life  of  Arminius;  tr.  by  J. 
Guthrie.     1854. 

PhiUp  Schaff:  The  Creeds  of  Christendom. 
V.  1.    1877. 

H.  C.  Sheldon:  History  of  Christian  Doctrine. 
2  V.    1886. 

Aryan  Religion. 

C.  F.  Keary :  OutUnes  of  Primitive  BeUef  among 
the  Indo-European  Races.     1882. 

O.  _  Schrader:  Aryan  ReUgion — ^Encyclopaedia 
of  ReUgion  and  Ethics  (Hastings).    Vol.  II. 

Leopold  Schroeder:  Arische  ReUgion.  2  v. 
1914-16. 

Asceticism. 

F.  D.  Leete:  Christian  Brotherhoods.     1912. 
J.  C.  Oman:  The  Mystics,  Ascetics  and  Saints 

of  India.     1903. 

PhiUp  Schaff:  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
V.  2.     1882. 

Ass]n:ian  and  Babylonian  Religion. 

G.A.Barton:  Archaeology  and  the  Bible.    1916. 

G.  A.  Barton:  A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins, 
Social  and  Religious.     1902. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. :  Aspects  of  ReUgious  BeUef 
and  Practice  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria.     1911. 

L.  W.  King:  Babylonian  Religion  and  Mythol- 
ogy.    1900. 

L.  W.  King:  The  Seven  Tablets  of  Creation. 
1902. 

R.  W.  Rogers:  Cuneiform  ParaUels  to  the 
Old  Testament.     1912. 

Astrology. 

Franz  Cumont:  Astrology  and  ReUgion  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.     1912. 

WilUam  Lilly:  Introduction  to  Astrology.  First 
pubUshed,    1832. 

Atheism. 

Robert  FUnt:    Anti-theistic  Theories.     1879. 

F.  Max  Muller:  Six  Systems  of  Indian  Philoso- 
phy.    1903. 

Atonement. 

E.  D.  Burton,  J.  M.  P.  Smith  and  G.  B.  Smith: 
Biblical  Ideas  of  Atonement.     1909. 

R.  S.  Franks:  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  ihe 
Work  of  Christ.     1819. 

H.  Rashdall:  History  of  the  Christian  Doctrine 
of  the  Atonement.     1920. 

Auguste  Sabatier:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment and  Its  Historical  Evolution.     1904. 

G.  B.  Stevens:  Christian  Doctrine  of  Salvation. 
1905. 

Augustine. 

Works:  The  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers^ 
1st.  ser.  V.  1-8.     188&-188S. 


487 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Louis  Bertrand :  Saint  Augustin.     1914. 
Adolf  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma,     v.  5.    1899. 
Joseph  McCabe:  St.  Augustine  and  His  Age. 
1902. 

Australia,  Mission  to. 

H.  S.  Woollcombe:  Beneath  the  Southern  Cross. 
1913. 

Australia,  Religions  of. 

A.  E.  David:  Australia.    About  1910. 

C.  H.  S.  Matthews:  A  Parson  in  the  Australian 
Bush.     1909. 

Baldwin  Spencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen:  The  Native 
Tribes  of  Central  AustraUa.     1899. 

Baldwin  Spencer  and  F.J.  Gillen:  The  Northern 
Tribes  of  Central  Australia.     1904. 

Authority. 

A.  J.  Balfour:  The  Foundations  of  Belief.  8th. 
ed.     1902. 

G.  B.  Foster:  The  Finality  of  the  Christian 
ReUgion.     1906. 

G.  P.  Gooch:  History  of  English  Democratic 
Ideas  in  the  17th.  Century.     1912. 

James  Martineau:  The  Seat  of  Authority  in 
Rehgion.     1890. 

Auguste  Sabatier :  ReUgions  of  Authority  and  the 
Rehgion  of  the  Spirit.    4th.  ed.     1904. 

Avesta. 

A.  V.  W.  Jackson:  Zoroaster,  the  I*rophet  of 
Ancient  Iran.     1898. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  Early  Religious  Poetry  of 
Persia.     1911. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  Early  Zoroastrianism.     1914. 

Bahaism. 

Beh^'u'Mh:  ....  Compilation    of    the    Holy 

Utterances  of  Baha'u'llah  and  Abdul  Baha 

2d. ed.     1918. 

E.  G.  Browne:  Materials  for  the  Study  of  the 
Babi  Rehgion.     1918. 

Horace  HoUey:  Bahaism,  The  Modern  Social 
Rehgion.     1913. 

M.  H.  Phelps:  Life  and  Teaching  of  Abbas 
EfTendi 1903. 

Baptism,  Christian. 

A.  H.  Newman:  A  History  of  the  Baptist 
Churches  in  the  United  States.     1898. 

Philip  Schaff:  The  Oldest  Church  Manual 

2d.  ed.     1886. 

A.  P.  Stanley:  Christian  Institutions.    1881. 

Baptists. 

A.  H.  Newman:  A  History  of  the  Baptist 
Churches  in  the  United  States.     1898. 

T,  G.  Soares:  A  Baptist  Manual.     1911. 

H.  C.  Vedder:  A  Short  History  of  the  Baptists. 
1897. 

Bible. 

W.  N.  Clarke:  Sixty  Years  with  the  Bible. 
1909. 

M.  Dods:  The  Bible:  Its  Origin  and  Nature. 
1905. 

F.  G.  Lewis:  How  the  Bible  Grew.     1919. 

A.  S.  Peake:  The  Bible;  Its  Origin,  Its  Signifi- 
cance, and  Its  Abiding  Worth.     1914. 

I.  M.  Price:  The  Ancestry  of  Our  EngUsh  Bible. 
1907. 

Biblical  Criticism. 

B.  W.  Bacon:  An  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament.     1900. 

S.  R.  Driver:  An  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  the  Old  Testament.    Rev.  ed.    1914. 


G.  B.  Gray:  A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament.     1913. 

James  Moffatt:  An  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  the  New  Testament.     1911. 

Biblical  Theology. 

A.  B.  Davidson:  Theology  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.   1904. 

G.  B.  Stevens:  Theology  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.   1899. 

Bishops. 

A.  V.  G.  Allen:  Christian  Institutions.     1897. 

Edwin  Hatch:  The  Growth  of  Church  Institu- 
tions.    1887. 

Edwin  Hatch:  Organization  of  the  Early 
Christian  Churches.    6th.  ed.     1901. 

Blood. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough.  1907-1915. 
See  references  under  "Blood"  in  the  Index. 

H.  L.  Strack:  Das  Blut  im  Glauben  und  Aber- 
glauben  der  Menschheit.     1900. 

Bohemian  Brethren. 

A.  Bost:  History  of  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian 
Brethren.    New  ed.     1863. 

G.  Burkhardt:  Die  Briidergemeine.     1905. 

David  Krantz  [Cranzi] :  The  Ancient  and  Modern 
History  of  the  Brethren.     1780. 

Brahmanism. 

L.     D.     Bamett:     Brahma-knowledge 

1907. 

A.  Barth:  The  ReUgions  of  India.     1882. 

Paul  Deussen:  The  Philosophy  of  the  Upani- 
shads.     1906. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  A  Primer  of  Hinduism.     1912. 

Paul  Oltramare:  L'histoire  des  idees  theo- 
sophiques  dans  I'lnde.     1907. 

J.  C.  Oman:  The  Brahmans,  Theists,  and 
Mushms  of  India.     1907. 

Brotherhood. 

F.  A.  Gasquet:   English  Monastic  Life.     1904. 

W.  B.  Patterson:  Modern  Church  Brother- 
hoods.    1911. 

W.  Robertson  Smith:  Kinship  and  Marriage  in 
Early  Arabia.     2d.  ed.     1903. 

Buddhism. 

Masaharu  Anesaki:  Nichiren,  the  Buddhist 
Prophet.     1916. 

A.  K.  Coomaraswamy:  Buddha  and  the  Gospel 
of  Buddhism.     1916. 

CaroUne  A.  Davids:  Buddhist  Psychology. 
1914.  ^^ 

T.  Rhys  Davids:  Buddhism.     1906. 

H.  Hackmann:  Buddhism  as  a  Rehgion.     1910. 

H.  Oldenberg:  Buddha.     1914. 

Louis  de  la  Vall6e  Poussin :  The  Way  to  Nirvana. 
1917. 

K.  J.  Saunders:  Gotama  Buddha.     1920. 

See^  also  under  China,  Religions  of;  Chinese 
Buddhism;  Japan,  Religions  of. 

Burma,  Religions  of  and  Missions  to. 

H.  P.  Cochrane:    Among  the  Burmans.     1904. 

H.  Fielding  Hall:  The  Soul  of  a  People.     1903. 

J.  F.  Smith:  A  Century  of  Baptist  Missions  in 
Burma.     1913. 

Shway  Yoe:  The  Burman,  his  Life  and  Notions. 
2  V.     1882. 

Calvinism. 

W.  P.  Armstrong,  ed. :  Calvin  and  the  Reforma- 
tion.   1909. 

J.  Calvin:  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Rehgion. 
Many   editions. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


488 


William  Cunningham:  The  Reformers  and  the 
Theology  of  the  Reformation.     2d.  ed.     1866. 

William  Hastie:  The  Theology  of  the  Reformed 
Church  and  Its  Fundamental  Principles.     1904. 

Abraham  Kuyper:  Calvinism.     1899. 

Canaanites. 

J.  H.  Breasted:  A  History  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians.    1908. 

Stanley  A.  Cook:  The  ReUgion  of  Ancient 
Palestine.     1908. 

Canon,  Biblical. 

C.  R.  Gregory:  The  Canon  and  Text  of  the 
New  Testament.     1907. 

E.  C.  Moore:  The  New  Testament  in  the 
Christian  Church.     1904. 

H.  E.  Ryle:  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 
1902. 

W.  Robertson  Smith:  The  Old  Testament  in 
the  Jewish  Church.    2d.  ed.     1892. 

Capitalism,  Ethics  of. 

A.  T.  Hadley:  Economics.     1896. 

J.  A.  Hobson:  The  Evolution  of  Modem 
Capitalism.     1917. 

J.  A.  Hobson:  The  Morals  of  Economic  Inter- 
nationalism.    1920. 

J.  H.  Meckhn:  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics. 
1920. 

F.  W.  Taussig:  Principles  of  Pohtical  Economy. 
2v.     1911. 

Caste. 

S.  K.  Datta:  The  Desire  of  India.     About  1912. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  Modern  Rehgious  Movements 
in  India.     1915. 

T.  W.  Holderness:  Peoples  and  Problems  of 
India.     1912. 

A.  A.  Macdonnell:  "The  Early  History  of 
Caste."     The  American  Historical  Review,     v.  19. 

T.  M.  Nair:  Caste  and  Democracy.  Edinburgh 
Review.     Vol.  228.    Oct.,  1918. 

H.  H.  Risley:  The  People  of  India.     1915. 

Casuistry. 

Benjamin  Jowett:   On  Casuistry.     1906. 

Thomas  Slater:  Cases  of  Conscience  for  EngUsh 
Speaking  Countries.     2  v.     1911,  1912. 

Catechism. 

PhUip  Schaff:  Creeds  of  Christendom.  3  v. 
1877. 

Cathedral. 

J.  L.  Meagher:  Great  Cathedrals  and  Most 
Celebrated  Churches  of  the  World.     7th.  ed.     1911. 

Catholic,  Catholicism. 

J.  V.  Bartlet:  Christianity  in  History.     1917. 

C.  A.  Briggs:  Church  Unity.     1909. 

C.  A.  Briggs:  Theological  Symbolics.     1914. 

A.  M.  Fairbairn:  CathoHcism:  Roman  and 
Anghcan.     1899. 

Catholic  Societies. 

Handbook  of  CathoUc  Charitable  and  Social 
Works.    New  ed.     1912. 

Peter  Rosen:  The  CathoUc  Church  and  Secret 
Societies.     1902. 

Celtic  Religion. 

Edward  Anwyl:  Celtic  ReUgion  in  Pre-Christian 
Times.     1906. 

J.  A.  MacCuUoch:  The  ReUgion  of  the  Ancient 
Celts.     1911. 

J.  Rhys:  Celtic  Heathendom.     1888. 

Charles  Squire:  The  Mythology  of  Ancient 
Britain  and  Ireland.     1906. 

W.  G.  Wood-Martin:  Elder  Faiths  of  Ireland. 
1903. 


Charity  and  Almsgiving. 

C.  R.  Henderson:  Modern  Methods  of  Charitv 
1904.  ^ 

C.  S.  Loch:  Charity  and  Social  Life.     1910. 

National  Conference  of  Social  Work.  Proceed- 
ings.    1875- . 

G.  Uhlhorn:  Christian  Charity  in  the  Earlv 
Church.     1882.  ^ 

A.  G.  Warner:  American  Charities.  Rev.  ed. 
1908. 

Charity  Organization. 

E.  T.  Devine:   Principles  of  ReUef.     1904. 

C.  D.  KeUogg:  Charity  Organization  in  the 
United  States.     1900. 

C.  S.  Loch :  Charity  Organization.    2d.  ed.    1892. 

Mary  E.  Richmond:  Friendly  Visiting  among 
the  Poor.     1899. 

M.  E.  Richmond:  Social  Diagnosis.     1917. 

Charlemagne. 

James  Bryce:  The  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
Various  editions. 

J.  I.  Mombert:  A  History  of  Charles  the  Great. 
1888. 

Charms  and  Amulets. 

A.  C.  Haddon:   Magic  and  Fetishism.     1906. 
R.  H.  Nassau:  Fetichism  in  West  Africa.     1904. 

Childhood,  Religion  of. 

H.  F.  Cope:  ReUgious  Education  in  the  Familv 
1915.  ^ 

G.  E.  Dawson:  The  Child  and  his  ReUgion 
1909. 

J.  M.  Farrar:  Little  Talks  to  Little  Peonle 
1910.  ^ 

George  Hodges:  The  Training  of  Children  in 
ReUgion.     1911. 

E.  L.  Pell:  Bringing  up  John.     1920. 

Thomas  Stephens,  ed.:  The  Child  and  ReUgion. 
1905.  ^ 

China,  Missions  to. 

China  Centenary  Missionary  Conference  Records . 
1907. 

China  Mission  Yearbook.     1910-. 

Charles  Denby:  China  and  Her  People.  2  v 
1906. 

J.  R.  Mott,  ed.:  The  Continuation  Committee 
Conferences  in  Asia.     1913. 

A.  H.  Smith:  The  UpUft  of  China.     1912. 

China,  Religions  of. 

H.A.Giles:  ReUgions  of  Ancient  China.     1905. 

J.  J.  M.  de  Groot:  The  ReUgion  of  the  Chinese. 
1910. 

E.  H.  Parker:   China  and  ReUgion.     1905. 

John  Ross:  The  Original  ReUgion  of  China. 
1909. 

Chinese  Buddhism. 

Samuel  Beal:   Buddhism  in  China.     1884. 

Li  Ung  Bing:  OutUnes  of  Chinese  History. 
1914. 

J.  Edkins:   Chinese  Buddhism.     1893. 

H.  Hackmann:  Buddhism  as  a  ReUgion.     1910. 

D.  T.  Suzuki:  OutUnes  of  Mahayana  Buddhism. 
1907. 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance. 

Christian  and  Missionary  AlUance:  Manual. 
1917. 

G.P.Pardington:  Twenty-five  Wonderful  Years. 
1914. 

Christian  Science. 

Mary  Baker  Eddy:  Science  and  Health  with 
Key  to  the  Scriptures.     Many  editions. 


489 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Lyroan  W.  Powell:  Christian  Science:  The 
Faith  and  Its  Founder.     1907. 

James  W.  Snowden:  The  Truth  about  Christian 
Science.     1920. 

See  also  literature  cited  in  article,  Christian 
Science. 

Christianity. 

W.  Adams  Brown:  The  Essence  of  Christianity. 
1902. 

George  Cross:  What  Is  Christianity  ?     1918. 

Foundations,  a  Statement  of  Christian  Behef  in 
Terms  of  Modern  Thought:  by  Seven  Oxford  Men. 
1912. 

Adolf  Harnack :  What  Is  Christianity  ?  2d.  ed. 
1901. 

A.  S,  Peake:  Christianity,  Its  Nature  and  Its 
Truth.     1908. 

PhiUp  Schaff:  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
8  V.     1882-1910. 

G.  B.  Smith,  ed.:  A  Guide  to  the  Study  of 
the  Christian  Rehgion.     1916. 

WilUston  Walker:  A  History  of  the  Christian 
Church.     1918. 

Christmas  and  Christmas  Customs. 

John  Brand:  Popular  Antiquities  of  Great 
Britain.     Various  editions. 

L.  M.  O.  Duchesne:  Christian  Worship.  2d.  ed. 
1905. 

R.  H.  Schauflaer:  Christmas,  Its  Origin,  Cele- 
bration and  Significance.     1907. 

Christology. 

Horace  Bushnell:  The  Character  of  Jesus.  First 
published,  1860. 

J.  E.  Carpenter:  The  Historical  Jesus  and  the 
Theological  Christ.     19 1 1 . 

J.  Denney:  Jesus  and  the  Gospel.     1909. 

R.  S.  Franks:  A  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Work  of  Christ.     1918. 

Hibbert  Journal:  Jesus  or  Christ?     1909. 

H.  R.  Macintosh:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Person 
of  Jesus  Christ.     1912. 

Church. 

H.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma,  7  v.    1894-1899. 

E.  Hatch:  The  Organization  of  the  Early 
Christian  Churches.    2d.  ed.     1882. 

F.  J.  A.  Hort:  The  Christian  Ecclesia.     1897. 
D.  Stone:  The  Christian  Church.     1905. 

Church  Federation. 

Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ: 
Christian  Unity  at  Work.     1913. 

Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ: 
Library  of  Christian  Co-operation.     6  v.     1917. 

J.  H.  Shakespeare:  The  Churches  at  the  Cross- 
roads.    1918. 

Church  of  England. 

G.  R.  Balleine:  A  History  of  the  Evangelical 
Party  in  the  Church  of  England.     1908. 

G.  W.  Child:  Church  and  State  under  the 
Tudors.     1890. 

R.  T.  Davidson,  ed.:  The  Five  Lambeth  Con- 
ferences.    1920. 

R.  G.  Usher:  The  Reconstruction  of  the  EngUsh 
Church.    2v.     1910. 

Church  Union. 

Peter  Ainslie:  Towards  Christian  Unity.     1918. 

C.  A.  Briggs:  Church  Unity.     1909. 

R.  T.  Davidson,  ed.:  The  Five  Lambeth  Con- 
fprcncGS      1920 

J.  H.  Shakespeare:  The  Churches  at  the  Cross- 
roads.    1918. 

See  also  under  Church  Federation. 


Circumcision. 

P.  C.  Remondino:  A  History  of  Circumcision. 
1891. 

City  Missions. 

L.  W.  Betts :  The  Leaven  in  a  Great  City.     1902. 

F.  C.  Howe:  The  City  the  Hope  of  Democracy. 
1905. 

Edward  Judson:  The  Church  in  its  Social 
Aspects.     1907. 

J.  E.  McCiiUoch:  The  Open  Church  for  the 
Unchurched.    3d.  ed.    1905. 

J.  A.  Riis:  The  Battle  with  the  Slum.     1902. 

C.  H.  Sears:  The  Redemption  of  the  City. 
1911. 

Josiah  Strong:  The  Challenge  of  the  City.    1907. 

A.  F.  Weber:  Growth  of  Cities  in  the  19th.  Cen- 
tury.    1899. 

Clergy. 

WiUiam  Sanday:  The  Conception  of  Priesthood 
in  the  Early  Church  and  the  Church  of  England. 
1898. 

John  Watson  and  others:   Clerical  Life.     1898. 

A.  R.  Whitham:   Holy  Orders.     1903. 

Commxinism. 

Morris  Hillquit:  History  of  SociaUsm  in  the 
United  States.     1903. 

P.  A.  Kropotkin:  The  Conquest  of  Bread.    1906. 

Karl  Marx:  Manifesto  of  the  Communist  Party: 
ed.  by  Frederick  Engels.    1902. 

T.  D.  Woolsey:  Communism  and  SociaUsm  in 
Their  History  and  Theory.     1880. 

Confession  of  Faith. 

C.  A.  Briggs:   Theological  Symbolics.     1914. 

S.  G.  Green:  The  Christian  Creed  and  the 
Creeds  of  Christendom.     1898. 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma.  7  v.  1894r- 
1899. 

P.  Schaff:  Creeds  of  Christendom.    3  v.     1877. 

Confessional. 

F.  G.  Belton:  A  Manual  for  Confessors  .... 
for  the  Use  of  Priests  for  the  EngUsh  Church.     19 16. 

S.  P.  Delany:  The  Value  of  Confession.     1914. 

H.  C.  Lea:  The  History  of  Auricular  Confession 
and  Indulgences  in  the  Latin  Church.     3  v.     1896. 

C.  E.  Schieler:  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the 
Confessional.     1905. 

Confirmation. 

Charles  Coppens:  A  Systematic  Study  of  the 
CathoUc  ReUgion.    9th.  ed.     1911. 

H.  E.  Jacobs:  A  Summary  of  the  Christian 
Faith.     1906. 

A.  J.  Mason:  The  Relation  of  Confirmation  to 
Baptism  as  Taught  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the 
Fathers.     1892. 

Confucianism. 

The  Sayings  of  Confuciiw;  tr.  by  Lionel  Giles. 
1907. 

M.  M.  Dawson:  The  Ethics  of  Confucianism. 
1916. 

H.  A.  Giles:  ReUgions  of  Ancient  China.    1905. 

J.  J.  M.  de  Groot:  The  ReUgion  of  the  Chinese. 
1910. 

E.  H.  Parker:   China  and  ReUgion:     1910. 

W.  Gilbert  Walshe:  Confucius  and  Confucian- 
ism.    1910. 

See  also  under  China,  ReUgions  of. 

Congregationalism. 

ChampUn  Burrage:  The  True  Story  of  Robert 
Browne.     1906. 

R.  W.  Dale:  A  History  of  EngUsh  Congrega- 
tionalism.   2d.  ed.     1907, 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


490 


H.  M.  Dexter:  The  Congregationalism  of  the 
Last  Three  Hundred  Years,  as  Seen  in  Its  Literature. 
1880. 

Williston  Walker:  The  Creeds  and  Platforms  of 
Congregationalism.     1893. 

Consubstantiation. 

K.  R.  Hagenbach:  A  Textbook  of  the  History 
of  Doctrines,    v.  2.     1867. 

See  also  under  Lord's  Supper. 

Convent. 

Lina  Eckenstein:  Woman  under  Monasticism. 
1896. 

R.  W.  Sockman:  Revival  of  the  Conventual  Life 
in  the  Church  of  England  in  the  19th.  Century. 
1917. 

•Francesca  M.  Steele:  The  Convents  of  Great 
Britain.     1902. 

Conversion. 

G.  A.  Coe:  The  Psychology  of  Religion.     1916. 

E.  P.  Hammond:    Early  Conversion.     1901. 

William  James:  The  Varieties  of  Religious 
Experience.     1902. 

E.  D.  Starbuck:  The  Psychology  of  Religion. 
1901. 

Coptic  Church. 

A.  J.  Butler:  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of 
Egypt.    2  V.     1884. 

R.  S.  McClenahan:  "Reform  Movements  in  the 
Coptic  Church."     Bibhcal  Review,    v.  5. 

G.  S.  Milehan:  The  Chiu-ches  in  Lower  Nubia. 
1910. 

Cosmogony  and  Cosmology. 

A.  Erman:  Handbook  of  Egyptian  Religion. 
1907. 

Andrew  Lang:  Myth,  Ritual,  and  ReUgion. 
1899. 

Lukas:  Die  Grundbegriffe  in  den  Cosmogonien 
der  alten  Volker.     1893. 

R.  W.  Rogers:  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria.     1908. 

Counter  Reformation. 

E.  M.  Hulme:  The  Renaissance,  the  Protestant 
Revolution  and  the  CathoUc  Reformation  in  Conti- 
nental Europe.     1914. 

T.  M.  Lindsay:  A  History  of  the  Reformation. 
V.  2.     1907. 

James  MacCaffrey:  History  of  the  Cathohc 
Church  from  the  Renaissance  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion.    1915. 

A.W.Ward:  The  Counter-Reformation.     1888. 

Courts,  Ecclesiastical. 

Nikolaus  Hilling:  Procedure  at  the  Roman 
Curia.     1907. 

Andr6  Mater:  L'figUse  CathoUque  sa  Constitu- 
tion, son  Administration.     1906. 

J.  B.  Sagmiiller:  Lehrbuch  des  Kath.  Kirchen- 
rechts.    2d.  ed.    1909. 

Creed. 

H.  E.  Burr:  Introduction  to  the  Creeds.     1899. 

C.  A.  Briggs:    Theological  Symbohcs.     1914. 

PhiHp  Schaff:  The  Creeds  of  Christendom. 
3  v.     1877. 

C.  H.  Turner:  History  and  Use  of  Creeds  and 
Anathemas.    1908. 

Cult. 

fimile  Durkheim:  The  Elementary  Forms  of  the 
ReUgious  Life.     1915. 

L.  R.  Farnell:  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States. 
5v.    1896-1909. 

Jane  E.  Harrison:  Ancient  Art  and  Ritual. 
1913. 


F.  B.  Jevons:  The  Idea  of  God  in  Early  Reli- 
gions.    1910. 

Salomon  Reinach:  Cultes,  Mythes  et  Rehgions. 
2d.  ed.    3  v.     1908-1909. 

Dancing. 

Ernst  Grosse:  The  Beginnings  of  Art.    1897. 

Loomis  Havemeyer:  The  Drama  of  Savage 
Peoples.     1916. 

William  Ridgeway:  The  Dramas  and  Dramatic 
Dances  of  the  Non-European  Races  in  Special 
Reference  to  the  Origin  of  Greek  Tragedy.     1915. 

Ethel  L.  H.  Urlin:  Dancing,  Ancient  and 
Modern.     1912. 

Death  and  Ftmeral  Customs. 

Q.  L.  Dowd:  Funeral  Management  and  Costs. 
1921. 

Arnold  van  Gennep:  Les  Rites  de  Passage. 
1909. 

E.  S.  Hartland:  The  Legend  of  Perseus.  3  v. 
1896. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture.    4th.  ed.   1903. 

Decalogue. 

W.  F.  BadS:  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light 
of  To-day.     1915. 

J.  O.  Dykes:  The  Law  of  the  Ten  Words.     1884. 

J.  E.  McFadyen:  The  Decalogue.  The  Exposi- 
tor.    1916.     [v.  1.] 

B.  W.  Randolph:  The  Law  of  Sinai.     1896. 

Decretals. 

A.  C.  Fhck:  The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Chiu-ch. 
1909. 

O.  J.  Reichel:  Complete  Manual  of  Canon  Law. 
2  V.     1895-1896. 

See  also  under  Courts,  Ecclesiastical. 

Deism. 

A.  C.  McGiflfert:  Protestant  Thought  before 
Kant.     1911. 

J.  M.  Robertson:  Short  History  of  Free 
Thought.    2d.  ed.     1906. 

Deluge. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  Folk-lore  in  the  Old  Testament. 
V.  1.    1919. 

A.  R.  Gordon:  The  Early  Traditions  of  Genesis. 
1907. 

H.  E.  Ryle:  The  Early  Narratives  of  Genesis. 
1892. 

George  Smith:  The  Chaldean  Account  of  Gene- 
sis.   New  ed.     1876. 

Democracy. 

Jane  Addams:  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 
1902. 

James  Bryce:  Modem  Democracies.    2  v.    1921. 

J.  G.  Brooks:  Labor's  Challenge  to  the  Social 
Order.     1920. 

G.  B.  Gooch:  History  of  Enghsh  Democratic 
Ideas  in  the  17th.  Century.     1912. 

F.  C.    Howe:     Privilege    and    Democracy   in 

H.  f".  Ward":   The  New  Social  Order.     1919. 

Demons,  Demon-possession. 

F.  C.  Conybeare:  "The  Demonology  of  the  New 
Testament,"  Jemsh  Quarterly  Review,  VIII  (1895- 
1896),  576-608;  IX  (1896-1897),  59-114. 

T.  R.  Glover:  "The  Demon  Environment  of  the 
Primitive  Christians,"  Hibbert  Journal,  XI  (1912). 

J.  L.  Nevius:  Demon  Possession  and  Allied 
Themes.     1895. 

E.  Schiirer:  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ.  7  v.  1891.  See  Index, 
Magic,  Magical  Books. 


491 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


R.  C.  Thompson:  Devils  and  Evil  Spirits  of 
Babylonia.    2  v.    1904  f;  Semitic  Magic.    1908. 

E.  H.  Zaugg:  A  Genetic  Study  of  the  Spirit- 
Phenomena  in  the  New  Testament.     1917. 

Didache,  The. 

G.  C.  Allen:    The  Teaching   of   the  Twelve 

Apostles.  1903. 

PhiUp  Schaff:  The  Oldest  Church  Manual. 
1885. 

PhiUp  Schaff:    The  Teaching   of   the  Twelve 

Apostles.  3d.  ed.    1890. 

Disciples  of  Christ. 

Errett  Gates:  Disciples  of  Christ.     1905. 

J.  J.  Haley:  Makers  and  Molders  of  the  Refor- 
mation Movement.     1914. 

J.  S.  Lamar:  Memoirs  of  Isaac  Errett.  2  v. 
1893. 

Robert  Richardson:  Memoirs  of  Alexander 
Campbell.    2  v.     1868. 

C.  A.  Young,  ed.:  Historical  Documents  Advo- 
cating Christian  Union.     1904. 
• 
Divination. 

C.  H.  Toy:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
ReUgions.     1913. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture.  4th.  ed.  v.  1. 
1903.  . 

Divorce. 

Willystine  Gogdsell:  A  History  of  the  Family  as 
a  Social  and  Educational  Institution.     1915. 

G.  E.  Howard:  A  History  of  Matrimonial 
Institutions.    3  v.     1904. 

J.  P.  Lichtenberger:  Divorce:  a  Study  in 
Social  Causation.     1909. 

U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census:  Marriage  and 
Divorce,  1867-1906.     2  v.     1908-1909. 

W.  F.  Willcox:  The  Divorce  Problem.     1897. 

Dominican  Order. 

Raymund  Devas:  The  Dominican  Revival  in 
the  19th.  Century.     1913. 

A.  T.  Drane:  The  Spirit  of  the  Dominican 
Order.     2d.  ed.     1910. 

R.  P.  Mortier:  Histoire  des  Mattres  G6neraux 
de  L'Ordre  des  Freres  Precheurs.     7  v.     1903-1914. 

Dort,  Synod  of. 

Gerard  Brandt :  The  History  of  the  Refonnation. 
V.  3.     1722. 

C.  A.  Briggs:   Theological  Symbolics.     1914. 

Peter  Hall:  Harmony  of  Protestant  Confessions. 
1842. 

Dragon. 

H.  C.  Du  Bose:  The  Dragon,  Image,  and 
Demon.     1887. 

R.  W.  Rogers:  Cuneiform  Parallels  to  the  Old 
Testament.     1912. 

Drama  in  Religion. 

Katherine  L.  Bates:  EngHsh  Rehgious  Drama. 
1893. 

E.  K.  Chambers:  The  Mediaeval  Stage.  2  v. 
1903. 

Louis  Petit  de  JuUeville :  Histoire  du  Theatre  en 
France.     4  v.     1880-1889. 

W.  R.  Mackenzie:  English  Moralities.     1914. 

Dravidians,  Religion  of  the. 

W.  T.  Elmore:  Dravidian  Gods  in  Modern 
Hinduism.     1915. 

Articles  in  Hastings:  Encyclopaedia  of  Religion 
and  Ethics.    Vol.  V. 

Edgar  Thurston:  The  Omens  and  Superstitions 
of  Southern  India.     1912. 


Henry  Whitehead:  The  Village  Gods  of  South 
India.     1916. 

Dreams. 

Havelock  Elhs:   The  World  of  Dreams.     1911. 

Sigmund  Freud:  The  Interpretation  of  Dreams. 
4th.  ed.     1915. 

W.  M.  Wundt:  Lectures  on  Human  and  Animal 
Psychology.     1894. 

Dunkards. 

M.  G.  Brumbaugh:  A  History  of  the  German 
Baptist  Brethren  in  Europe  and  America.     1899. 

H.  R.  Holsinger:  Holsinger's  History  of  the 
Timkers  and  the  Brethren  Church.     1901. 

Earth,  Earth  Gods. 

Albrecht  Dieterich:  Mutter  Erde.  3d.  ed. 
1913. 

James  Hastings,  ed.:  Encyclopaedia  of  ReUgion 
and  Ethics,     v.  5.     1912. 
Easter  and  Easter  Controversy. 

Charles  Bigg:  The  Origins  of  Christianity. 
1909. 

E.  M.  Deems:  Holy-days  and  Hohdays.     1902. 

Eddy,  Mary  Baker. 

Augusta  E.  Stetson:  Reminiscences,  Sermons, 
and  Correspondence.     1913. 

Sibyl  Wilbur:  The  Life  of  Mary  Baker  Eddy. 
4th.  ed.     1913. 

See  also  under  Christian  Science. 

Egypt,  Religion  of. 

J.  H.  Breasted:  Development  of  Rehgion  and 
Thought  in  Ancient  Egypt.     1912. 

Adolf  Erman:  A  Handbook  of  Egyptian  Reh- 
gion.    1907. 

A.  S.  Geden:  Studies  in  the  Religions  of  the 
East.     1913. 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie:  The  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt. 
1906. 

Emotion  in  Religion. 

E.  S.  Ames:  The  Psychology  of  Rehgious 
Experience.     1910. 

Jane  E.  Harrison:  Ancient  Art  and  Ritual. 
1913. 

Irving  King:  The  Development  of  Rehgion. 
1910. 

Emperor  Worship. 

S.  J.  Case:  The  Evolution  of  Early  Christianity. 
1914.     Pp.  195-238. 

A.  Deissmann:  Light  from  the  Ancient  East. 
1910.     Pp.  342-384. 

W.  W.  Fowler:  Roman  Ideas  of  Deity.  1914. 
Pp.  81-133. 

L.  M.  Sweet:  Roman  Emperor  Worship.     1919. 

Encyclopedists. 

John  Morley:  Diderot  and  the  Encyclopedists. 
2  V.     1878. 

P.  A.  Wadia:  The  Philosophers  and  the  French 
Revolution.     1904. 

Consult  also  the  General  Works. 

Enlightenment,  The. 

R.  C.  Eucken:  The  Problem  of  Hiunan  Life  as 
Viewed  by  the  Great  Thinkers.     1909. 

J.  G.  Hibben:  The  Philosophy  of  the  Enhghten- 
ment.    1910. 

A.  C.  McGiffert:  The  Rise  of  Modern  Rehgious 
Ideas.     1915. 

Environment. 

E.  G.  Conklin:  Heredity  and  Environment  in 
the  Development  of  Men.    3d.  ed.     1919. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


492 


E.  C.  Semple:  The  Influences  of  Geographic 
Environment.     1911. 

A.  R.  Wallace:  Social  Environment  and  Moral 
Progress.     1913. 

L.  F.  Ward:  Applied  Sociology.     1906. 

Epicureanism. 

R.  D.  Hicks:   Stoic  and  Epicurean.     1910. 

William  Wallace:  Epicureanism.     1880. 

Eduard  Zeller:  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Skeptics. 
1892. 

Eschatology. 

C.  H.  Charles:  Eschatology,  Hebrew,  Jewish 
and  Christian.    2d.  ed.     1913. 

C.  C.  Clemen:  Primitive  Christianity  and  Its 
Non- Jewish  Sources.     1912. 

C.  W.  Emmet:  The  Eschatological  Question  in 
the  Gospels  and  Other  Studies.     1911. 

L.  H.  Mills :  Avesta  Eschatology  Compared  with 
the  Books  of  Daniel  and  Revelations  (sic).     1908. 

Ethical  Culture,  Societies  for. 

Felix  Adler:  The  Essentials  of  Spirituality. 
1905. 

Felix  Adler:  The  ReUgion  of  Duty.     1905. 

W.  M.  Salter:  Ethical  Religion.     1889. 

W.  L.  Sheldon:  An  Ethical  Sunday  School. 
1900. 

Ethics. 

J.  Dewey  and  J.  H.  Tufts:   Ethics.     1908. 

T.  H.  Green:  Prolegomena  to  Ethics.  5th.  ed. 
1906. 

Theodore  de  Leo  de  Laguna:  An  Introduction  to 
the  Science  of  Ethics.     1914. 

G.  E.  Moore:  Principia  Ethica.     1907. 

R.  B.  Perry:  The  Present  Conflict  of  Ideals. 
1918. 

Hastings  Rashdall:  The  Theory  of  Good  and 
Evil.    2  V.     1906. 

Josiah  Royce:  The  Philosophy  of  Loyalty. 
1908. 

Henry  Sidgwick:  Methods  of  Ethics.  7th.  ed. 
1904. 


Etruscan  Religion. 

George    Dennis:     Cities    and    Cemeteries 
Etruria.     2  v.     First  pubUshed,  1848. 

K.  O.  MiiUer:   Die  Etrusker.    2  v.     1877. 


of 


Eugenics. 

C.  B.  Davenport:  Heredity  in  Relation  to 
Eugenics.     1911. 

G.  E.  Dawson:  The  Right  of  the  Child  to  be 
Well  Born.     1912. 

Francis  Galton:  Inquiries  into  the  Hiunan 
Faculty  and  Its  Development.     1908. 

M.  F.  Guyer:   Being  Well  Born.     1916. 

C.  W.  Saleeby:  Parenthood  and  Race  Culture. 
1909. 

Evidences  of  Christianity. 

Theodor  Christheb:  Modem  Doubt  and  Chris- 
tian Behef.     1875. 

G.  P.  Fisher:  The  Grounds  of  Theistic  and 
Christian  Behef.     1902. 

A.  E.  Garvie:  Christian  Certainty  amid  the 
Modem  Perplexity.     1910. 

Mark  Hopkins:  Evidences  of  Christianity. 
New  ed.    1909. 

Is  Christianity  True?     1904. 

J.  S.  Lidgett:  The  Christian  ReUgion,  Its 
Meaning  and  Proof.     1907. 

W.  H.  Mallock:  The  Reconstmction  of  ReU- 
gious  Behef.     1905. 


Evolution. 

Charles  Darwin:  The  Origin  of  Species.  First 
pubUshed,  1859. 

Patrick  Geddes:  Evolution.     1911. 

J.  C.  KimbaU:  The  Ethical  Aspects  of  Evolu- 
tion.    1913. 

Joseph  Le  Conte:  Evolution.     1891. 

H.  F.  Osborn:  The  Origin  and  Evolution  of 
Life.    1917. 

G.  J.  Romanes:  An  Examination  of  Weismann- 
ism.     1893. 

Herbert  Spencer:  First  Principles.  First  pub- 
lished, 1862. 

Exegesis. 

F.  W.  Farrar:  History  of  Interpretation.     1886. 

F.  E.  C.  Gigot:  General  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.     1904. 

G.  H.  Gilbert:  The  Interpretation  of  the  Bible. 
1908.    . 

Benjamin  Jowett:  The  Interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture.    1906. 

Exorcism. 

See  under  Demons. 

Fairy. 

A.  E.  B.  Chodzko:   Slav  Fairy  Tales.     1905. 

J.  L.  K.  Grimm  and  W.  K.  Grimm:  Fairy  Tales. 
Many  editions. 

Joseph  Jacobs:  EngUsh  Fairy  Tales.     1904. 

L.  F.  Kready:  The  Study  of  Fairy  Tales.     1916. 

Faith. 

Thomas  Aquinas:  Summa  Theologica.  v.  7. 
1917. 

W.  R.  Inge:  Faith  and  Its  Psychology.     1910. 

J.  H.  Newman:  An  Essay  in  Aid  of  a  Grammar 
of  Assent.    New  cd.     1891. 

J.  W.  Oman:  The  Problem  of  Faith  and  Free- 
dom in  the  Last  Two  Centuries.     1906. 

J.  B.  Pratt:  Psychology  of  ReUgious  BeUef. 
1907. 

Faith  Healing. 

G.  B.  Cutten:  Three  Thousand  Years  of  Mental, 
HeaUng.     1911. 

Hugo  Miinsterberg:    Psychotherapy.     1909. 

L.  P.  Powell:  Christian  Science,  the  Faith  and 
Its  Founder.     1907. 

E.  E.  Weaver:  Mind  and  Health.     1913. 

El  wood  Worcester  and  Others:  ReUgion  and 
Medicine.     1908. 

Fall  of  Man. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  Folk-lore  in  the  Old  Testament. 
V.  1.     1919. 

F.  R.  Tennant:  The  Sources  of  the  Doctrines 
of  the  FaU  and  Original  Sin.     1903. 

Albin  Van  Hoonacker:  "The  Literary  Origin 
of  the  Narrative  of  the  FaU,"  Expositor.  1914. 
[V.  2.] 

Family,  The. 

J.  Q.  Dealey:  The  Family  in  Its  Sociological 
Aspects.     1912. 

J.  M.  GiUette:  The  Family  and  Society.     1914. 

Willystine  Goodsell:  The  History  of  the  Family 
as  a  Social  and  Educational  Institution.     1915. 

G.  E.  Howard:  The  History  of  Matrimonial 
Institutions.     3  v.     1904. 

W.  H.  R.  Rivers:  Kinship  and  Social  Organiza- 
tion.   1914. 

R.  H.  Lowie:    Primitive  Society.     1920. 

E.  A.  Westermarck:  The  History  of  Human 
Marriage.     3d.  ed.     1902. 

See  also  under  Marriage. 


493 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Fasting. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture,  v.  2.  4th  ed. 
1903. 

Leopold  Wagner:  Manners,  Customs,  and 
Observances.     1895. 

E.  A.  Westermarck:  The  Origin  and  Develop- 
ment of  the  Moral  Ideas,    v.  2.     1908. 

Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in 
America. 

C.  S.  McFarland,  ed.:  Library  of  Christian 
Co-operation.    6  v.     1917. 

Year  Book  of  the  Churches.     1915-. 

Festivals  and  Feasts. 

P.  D.  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye:  A  Manual  of 
the  Science  of  Religion.     1891. 

Leopold  Wagner:  Maimers,  Customs,  and 
Observations.     1895. 

See  also  Fasting. 

Fetishism. 

A.  C.  Haddon:   Magic  and  Fetishism.     1906. 

F.  B.  Jevons:  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Comparative  Religion.     1908. 

R.  H.  Nassau:  Fetichism  in  West  Africa.     1904. 

Foundling  Asylimis. 

C.  R.  Henderson  and  Others:  Modem  Methods 
of  Charity.     1904. 

A.  G.  Warner:  American  Charities.     1894. 

Franciscans. 

Heribert  Holzapfel:  Handbuch  der  Geschichte 
des  Franziskanerordens.     1909. 

R.  M.  Jones:  Studies  in  Mystical  ReUgion. 
1909. 

Paul  Sabatier:  The  Life  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi; 
tr.  by  L.  S.  Houghton.     1894. 

Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

C.  S.  Home:  A  Popular  History  of  the  Free 
Churches.     5th.  ed.     1903. 

A.  R.  MacEwen:  A  History  of  the  Church  in 
Scotland,     v.  1.     1913. 

Freemasonry. 

G.  F.  Fort:  The  Early  History  and  Antiquities 
of  Freemasonry.     1875. 

WiUiam  Hutchinson:  The  Spirit  of  Masonry. 
1903. 

J.  B.  McGee:  Complete  Exposition  and  Revela- 
tion of  Ancient,  Free  and  Accepted  Masonry,     1902. 

George  Thomburgh:  Freemasonry;  When, 
Where,  How?     1914. 

Free  Will. 

H.  L.  Bergson:  Time  and  Free  Will;  tr.  by 
F.  L.  Pogson.     1910. 

Jonathan  Edwards:  On  the  WiU.  First  pub- 
lished, 1754. 

H.  H.  Home:  Free  Will  and  Hiunan  Responsi- 
bihty.     1912. 

WiUiam  James:  The  Principles  of  Psychology, 
v.  2.     1890. 

Friends,  Society  of  (Quakers). 

W.  C.  Braithwaite:  The  Beginnings  of  Quaker- 
ism.    1912. 

W.  C.  Braithwaite:  The  Second  Period  of 
Quakerism.     1919. 

George  Fox:  An  Autobiography.  Various  edi- 
tions. 

R.  M.  Jones:  The  Story  of  George  Fox.     1919. 

A.  C.  Thomas:  A  History  of  the  Friends  in 
America.    5th.  ed.     1919. 

Future  Life. 

C.  R.  Bowen:  The  Resurrection  in  the  New 
Testament.    1911. 


W.  A.  Brown:  The  Christian  Hope.     1912. 

R.  H.  Charles:  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doc- 
trine of  a  Future  Life.    Rev.  ed.     1913. 

S.  M.  Crothers:   The  Endless  Life.     1905. 

C.  F.  Dole:  The  Hope  of  ImmbrtaUty.     1906. 

John  Fiske:   Life  Everlasting.     1901. 

H.  E.  Fosdick:  The  Assurance  of  Immortality. 
1913. 

J.  H.  Leuba:  The  BeUef  in  God  and  Immortality. 
1916. 

Samuel  McComb:  The  Future  Life  in  the  Light 
of  Modern  Inquiry.     1919. 

Josiah  Royce:  The  Conception  of  ImmortaUtv. 
1900. 

S.  D.  F.  Salmond:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
ImmortaUty.     1896. 

B.  H.  Streeter  and  Others:  Immortality.     1917. 

Future  Ptmishment. 

W.  R.  Alger:  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine 
of  a  Future  Life.     10th.  ed.     1880. 

C.  A.  Row:  Future  Retribution  Viewed  in  the 
Light  of  Reason  and  Revelation.     1887. 

See  also  under  Future  Life. 

Gemara. 

A.  S.  Geden:    Outlines  of  Introduction  to  the 
Hebrew  Bible.     1909. 
See  also  under  Talmud. 

Gnosticism. 

W.  Bousset:  "Gnosticism,"  Encyclopedia 
Britannica.     nth.  ed.    Vol.  XII.     1911. 

C.  W.  King:  The  Gnostics  and  Their  Remains. 
2d.  ed.     1887. 

G.  R.  S.  Mead:  Fragments  of  a  Faith  Forgotten. 
1900. 

O.  Pfleiderer:  Primitive  Christianity.  Vol.  III. 
1910.     Pp.  113-271. 

E.  F.  Scott:  "Gnosticism,"  Encyclopaedia  of 
Religion  and  Ethics.    Vol.  VI.     1914. 

God. 

G.  Allen:  The  Evolution  of  the  Idea  of  God. 
1897. 

A.  J.  Balfour:   Theism  and  Humanism.     1915. 

W.  N.  Clarke:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  God. 
1909. 

C.  C.  Everett:  Theism  and  the  Christian  Faith. 
1909. 

W.  E.  Hocking:  The  Meaning  of  God  in  Human 
Experience.     1912. 

F.  B.  Jevons:  The  Idea  of  God  in  Early  ReU- 
gions.     1910. 

Andrew  Seth  Pringle-Pattison :  The  Idea  of 
God  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Philosophy.     1917. 

E.  H.  Reeman:  Do  We  Need  a  New  Idea  of 
God?     1917. 

W.  R.  Sorley:  Moral  Values  and  the  Idea  of 
God.    1919. 

Gods. 

W.  G.  Aston:  Shinto.    1905. 

Maurice  Bloomfield:  The"  Religion  of  the  Veda. 
1908. 

E.  A.  W.  Budge:  The  Gods  of  the  Egyptians. 
2  V.     1904. 

Edward  Carpenter:  Pagan  and  Christian  Creeds. 
1920. 

W.  W.  Fowler:  Roman  Ideas  of  Deity.     1914. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. :  The  CiviUzation  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria.     1915. 

Andrew  Lang:  The  Making  of  Rehgion.  3d.  ed. 
1909. 

C.  H.  Toy:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Religious.    1913. 


A  DICTIONARY  OP  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


494 


Good  and  Evil. 

Mary  W.  Calkins:  The  Good  Man  and  the  Good. 
1918. 

George  GaUoway:  The  Philosophy  of  Rehgion. 
1914. 

G.  H.  Pahner:  The  Nature  of  Goodness.     1903. 

Hastings  Rashdall:  The  Theory  of  Good  and 
Evil.    2v.     1906. 

Josiah  Royce:  Studies  of  Good  and  Evil.    1898. 

Gospel. 

J.  Denney:  Jesus  and  the  Gospel.    1909. 

A.  Harnack:   What  Is  Christianity  ?        1904. 

A.  Loisy :  The  Gospel  and  the  Church.     1908. 

S.  Mathews:  The  Gospel  and  the  Modern 
Man.     1910. 

H.  Van  Dyke:  The  Gospel  for  an  Age  of  Doubt. 
1897. 

H.  Van  Dyke:  The  Gospel  for  an  Age  of  Sin. 
1899. 

Gospels,  The. 

F.  C.  Burkitt:  The  Gospel  History  and  Its 
Transmission.    2d.  ed.     1907. 

E.  D.  Burton:  A  Short  Introduction  to  the 
Gospels.     1904. 

V.  H.  Stanton:  The  Gospels  as  Historical 
Documents.    2  v.  published.     1903,  1909. 

Paul  Wemle:  The  Soiu-ces  of  Our  Knowledge 
of  the  Life  of  Jesus.     1907. 

Grace. 

Thomas  Aquinas:  Summa  Theologica.  v.  6. 
1915. 

Catholic  Encyclopedia.    Article  "  Grace." 

Grail,  The  Holy. 

Sylvester  Baxter:  The  Legend  of  the  Holy 
GraU.    1904. 

Sebastian  Evans:  The  High  History  of  the 
Holy  Graal.    Various  editions. 

James  Hastings,  ed. :  Encyclopaedia  of  ReUgion 
and  Ethics,    v.  6.     1914. 

Thomas  Malory:  The  Story  of  the  Holy  Grail. 
1907. 

A.  Nutt:  Studies  in  the  Legend  of  the  Holy 
Grail.     1888. 

Howard  Pyle:  The  Story  of  the  GraU  and  the 
Passing  of  Arthur.     1910. 

Greek  Orthodox  Church. 

W.  F.  Adeney:  The  Greek  and  Eastern 
Churches.     1908. 

F.  J.  Bliss:  The  Religions  of  Modem  SjTia  and 
Palestine.     1912. 

A.  H.  Hore:  Eighteen  Centuries  of  the  Orthodox 
Greek  Church.     1899. 

A.  P.  Stanley:  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 
Eastern  Church.    3d.  ed.     1865. 

H.  F.  Tozer:  The  Church  and  the  Eastern 
Empire.     1900. 

Greek  Religion. 

James  Adam:  The  ReUgious  Teachers  of  Greece. 
1908. 

A.  Fairbanks:  A  Handbook  of  Greek  Religion. 
1910. 

L.  R.  Farnell:  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States. 
5v.     189&-1909. 

Jane  E.  Harrison:  The  ReUgion  of  Ancient 
Greece.     1905. 

J.  A.  Montgomery,  ed.:  Rehgions  of  the  Past 
and  Present.     1918. 

C.  H.  Moore:  ReUgious  Thought  of  the  Greeks. 
1916. 

Gilbert  Murray :  Four  Stages  of  Greek  ReUgion. 
1912. 


Guilds. 

L.  J.  Brentano:  History  of  Guilds  and  Origin  of 
Trade-Unions.     1870. 

WilUam  Cunningham:  The  Growth  of  English 
Industry  and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times.  4th.  ed. 
1904. 

Charles  Gross:  The  Guild  Merchant.  2  v. 
1890. 

J.  M.  Lambert:  Two  Thousand  Years  of  Gild 
Life.     1913. 

Edgcumbe  Staley:  The  Guilds  of  Florence. 
1906. 

George  Unwin:  Industrial  Organization  in  the 
16th.  and  17th.  Centuries.     1904. 

Hammurabi,  Code  of. 

S.  A.  Cook:  The  Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of 
Hammurabi.     1903. 

Hammurabi:  The  Oldest  Code  of  Laws  in  the 
World;   tr.  by  C.  H.  W.  Johns.     1903. 

R.  F.  Harper,  ed.:  The  Code  of  Hammurabi. 
2d.  ed.     1904. 

C.  H.  W.  Johns:  Relations  between  the  Laws  of 
Babylonia  and  the  Laws  of  the  Hebrew  Peoples. 
1915. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 

E.  D.  Burton  and  E.  J.  Goodspeed:  A  Harmony 
of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  for  Historical  and  Critical 
Study.     1917. 

W.  A.  Stevens  and  E.  D.  Burton:  A  Harmony  of 
the  Gospels  for  Historical  Study.    3d.  ed.     1904. 

Tatian:  The  Earliest  Life  of  Christ  Ever  Com- 
piled from  the  Four  Gospels  [about  160  a.d.]  .... 
tr by  J.  H.  HiU.     2d.  ed.     1910. 

Harvest  Festivals.  , 

^ee  under  Festivals  and  Feasts. 

Hawau,  Religion  of  and  Missions  to. 

J.  M.  Alexander:  The  Islands  of  the  Pacific. 
2d.  ed.     1908. 

F.  F.  Ellin  wood:  Questions  and  Phases  of 
Modern  Missions.     1899. 

Helen  B.  Montgomery:  Christus  Redemptor; 
an  Outline  Study  of  the  Island  World  of  the  Pacific. 
1906. 

Healing  and  Gods  of  Healing. 

A.  Carnoy:  "The  Iranian  Gods  of  HeaUng." 
Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society.  XXXIII. 
(1918),  pp.  294-307. 

G.  B.  Cutten:  Three  Thousand  Years  of  Mental 
HeaUng.     1910. 

Mary  Hamilton:  Incubation.     1906. 

A.  Harnack:  Mission  and  Expansion  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  First  Three  Centuries.  2d.  ed.  1908. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  101-146. 

AUce  Walton:  The  Cult  of  Asklepios.     1894. 

Heaven  and  Hell. 

W.  A.  Brown :  The  Christian  Hope.     191 1. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  BeUef  in  the  ImmortaUty  of 
the  Soul  and  the  Worship  of  the  Dead.     1913. 

S.  D.  F.  Salmond:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
ImmortaUty.    4th.  ed.     1901. 

See  also  under  Future  Life;  Eschatology. 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich. 

Edward  Caird:  Hegel.     1889. 

W.T.Harris:  Hegel's  Logic.     1890. 

G.  W.  F.  Hegel :  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
ReUgion.    3  v.     1895. 

Andrew  Seth  Pringle-Pattison:  Hegelianism  and 
PersonaUty.     1887. 

Heredity. 

C.  B.  Davenport:  Heredity  in  Relation  to 
Eugenics.    1911. 


495 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


E.  R.  Downing:  The  Third  and  Fourth  Genera- 
tion.    1918. 

D.S.Jordan:  The  Human  Harvest.     1907. 

Carl  Kelsey:  The  Physical  Basis  of  Society. 
1916. 

G.  J.  Romanes:  An  Examination  of  Weismann- 
ism.     1893. 

A.  R.  Wallace:   Social  Environment  and  Moral 
Progress.     1913. 
Hennas,  Shepherd  of. 

Ante-Nicene  Fathers,     v.  2. 

Charles  Bigg:  The  Origins  of  Christianity. 
1909. 

A.   W.    Martin:    The   Dawn   of   Christianity. 
1914. 
Heroes  and  Hero- Worship. 

D.  G.  Brinton:   American  Hero-Myths.     1887. 

H.  Gunkel:  The  Legends  of  Genesis.     1901. 

J.  E.  Harrison:  Prolegomena  to  tTie  Study  of 
Greek  ReUgion.  2d.  ed.  1903.  Pp.  323-363;  and 
Themis.     1912.    Pp.  260-444. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. :  The  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria.     1898. 

W.  Wundt:  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology. 
1916.    Pp.  281-469. 

Hexateuch. 

J.  E.  Carpenter  and  G.  Harford  Battersby:  The 
Hexateuch  According  to  the  Revised  Version.  2  v. 
1900. 

A.  T.  Chapman:  Introduction  to  the  Penta- 
teuch.    1911. 

F.  C  Eiselen:  The  Books  of  the  Pentateuch. 
1916. 

D.  C.  Simpson:  Pentateuchal  Criticism.     1913. 

Hinduism. 

L.  D.  Bamett:  Hinduism.     1906. 

A.  Barth:  Religions  of  India.     1882. 

WilUam  Crooke:  Popular  Religion  and  Folk 
Lore  of  Northern  India.     2  v.     1897. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  The  Crown  of  Hinduism.    1913. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  A  Primer  of  Hinduism.     1912. 

Monier  Monier-Williams:    Hinduism.     1894. 

J.  C.  Oman:  The  Mystics,  Ascetics,  and«Saints  of 
India.     1903. 

Hittites,  Religion  of  the. 

J.  H.  Breasted:  Ancient  Records  of  Sgypt. 
v.  3.     1906. 

A.  E.  Cowley:  The  Hittites.     1920. 

JohnGarstang:  The  Land  of  the  Hittites.    1910. 

J.  L.  Myres:  The  Dawn  of  History.     1911. 

Georges  Perrot  and  Charles  Chipiez:  The  His- 
tory of  Art  in  Sardinia,  Judea,  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor,    v.  2.     1890. 

Holiness. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  Taboo  and  the  Perils  of  the  Soul. 
1911. 

R.R.  Marett:  The  Threshold  of  Religion.   1909. 

W.  Robertson  Smith:  The  Rehgion  of  the 
Semites.    2d.  ed.    1894. 

Holy  Roman  Empire. 

James  Bryce:  The  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Varij 
ous  editions. 

A.  C.  FUck:  The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church. 
1909. 

E.  F.  Henderson:  Select  Historical  Documents 
of  the  Middle  Ages.     1903. 

Philip  Schaff:  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
V.  4.     1885. 

Holy  Spirit. 

T.  Ries :  The  Holy  Spirit  in  Thought  and  Expe- 
rience. 


H.  B.  Swete:  The  Holy  Spirit  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    1909. 

I.  F.  Word :  The  Spirit  of  God  in  Biblical  Litera- 
ture.    1904. 

Home  Missions. 

Edith  H.  AUen:  Home  Missions  in  Action. 
1915. 

L.  C.  Barnes:  Elemental  Forces  in  Home  Mis- 
sions.    1912. 

Mary  E.  and  L.  C.  Barnes:  The  New  America. 
1913. 

C.  A.  Brooks:  Christian  Americanization.    1919. 

H.  P.  Douglass:  Christian  Reconstruction  in 
the  South.     1909. 

H.  P.  Douglass:  The  Home  Missions.     1914. 

Ward  Piatt:  The  Frontier.     1908. 

W.  H.  Wilson :  The  Church  of  the  Open  Country. 
1911. 

Homiletics. 

H.  W.  Beecher:  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching. 
3  V.     1872-1874. 

Phillips  Brooks:  Lectures  on  Preaching.  First 
pubUshed,  1877. 

A.  E.  Garvie:   The  Christian  Preacher.     1921. 

C.  S.Horne:  The  Romance  of  Preaching.     1914. 

A.  S.  Hoyt:  The  Work  of  Preaching.  2d.  ed. 
1917. 

T.  H.  Pattison:  The  History  of  Christian 
Preaching.     1903. 

Hospitality. 

W.  I.  Thomas,  ed.:  Source  Book  for  Social 
Origins.     1909. 

G.  Uhlhorn:  Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient 
Church.     1882. 

Humanism,    Himianists. 

Willystine  Goodsell:  The  Conflict  of  Naturalism 
and  Himianism.     1910. 

F.  C.  S.  Schiller:  Humanism.    2d.  ed.     1912. 

J.  A.  Sjrmonds:  The  Renaissance  in  Italy: 
The  Revival  of  Learning.     1877. 

Hymns. 

L.  F.  Benson:   The  English  Hymn.     1915. 

John  Julian:  A  Dictionary  of  Hymnology. 
Rev.  ed.     1907. 

E.  S.  Lorenz:   Practical  Church  Music.     1909. 

Idealism. 

George  Berkeley:  Treatise  Concerning  the 
Principles  of  Human  Knowledge.  First  published 
1710. 

B.  P.  Bowne:  Metaphysics.     1898. 
Immanual   Kant:     Critique   of   Pure   Reason. 

Various  editions. 

D.  C.  Macintosh:  The  Problem  of  Knowledge. 
1915. 

Josiah  Royce:  The  Spirit  of  Modern  Philosophy. 
1892. 

Idols  and  Images. 

F.  S.  Dobbins:  Story  of  the  World's  Worship. 
1901. 

E.  R.  Hull:   Studies  in  Idolatry.     1905. 
See  also  under  Fetichism. 

Ignatius. 

Works  tr.  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,     v.  1.     1885. 

Charles  Bigg:  The  Origins  of  Christianity. 
1909. 

C.  T.  Cruttwell:  A  Literary  History  of  Early 
Christianity,    v.  1.    1893. 

Immaculate  Conception. 

W.  B.  Ullathorne:  On  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception of  the  Mother  of  God.  First  published, 
1855.     Later  ed.   1905. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


496 


For  the  decree  itself  see  Philip  Schaff:  The 
Creeds  of  Christendom,     v.  2. 

Immanence. 

B.  P.  Bowne:   The  Immanence  of  God.     1905. 
A.  C.  McGiffert:  The  Rise  of  Modern  Religious 

Ideas.    1915. 

Incarnation. 

W.  A.  Brown:  Christian  Theology  in  Outline. 
1906.    Pp.  326-352. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough.  12  v. 
3d.  ed.     1911-1915.     See  Index  "Incarnation." 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma.  7  v.  1896- 
1900.    See  Index  "Incarnation." 

H.  R.  Mackintosh:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Person 
of  Christ.     1912. 

G.  F.  Moore:  History  of  Rehgions.  Vol.  I. 
Rev.  ed.  1920.  See  Index  "Incarnation"  and 
"Avataras." 

Incense. 

E.  G.  C.  F.  Atchley:  The  History  of  the  Use  of 
Incense  in  Divine  Worship.     1909. 

C.  L.  Moore:    Incense  and  Iconoclasm.     1915. 

India,  Religions  and  Philosophies  of. 

A.  Barth:  The  Religions  of  India.     1882, 

M.  Bloomfield:  The  Religion  of  the  Vedas. 
1908. 

Paul  Deussen:  The  Philosophy  of  the  Upani- 
shads.     1906. 

Paul  Deussen:  The  System  of  the  Vedanta. 
1913. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  An  Outline  of  the  Religious 
Literature  of  India.     1920. 

E.  W.  Hopkins:  The  Religions  of  India.     1895. 

Max  Mtiller:  Six  Systems  of  Indian  Philosophy. 
1903. 

Indulgences. 

H.  C.  Lea:  A  History  of  Auricular  Confession 
and  Indulgences  in  the  Latin  Church.     3  v.     1896. 

A.  M.  Lepicier:  Indulgences:  Their  Origin, 
Nature,  and  Development.     1909. 

Letters  to  His  HoUness,  Pope  Pius  X.     1910. 

InfalUbiUty. 

C.  A.  Briggs:   Theological  SymboUcs.     1914. 

J.  H.  Newman:  Essay  in  Aid  of  a  Grammar  of 
Assent.    Newed.     1891. 

A.  Sabatier:  Rehgions  of  Authority  and  the 
Religion  of  the  Spirit.     1904, 

George  Sahnon:  The  InfaUibility  of  the  Church. 
3d.  ed.     1899. 

See  also  under  Authority. 

Initiation. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough,     v.  11.    1913. 

Arnold  van  Gennep:  Les  Rites  de  Passage. 
1909. 

Hutton  Webster:    Primitive  Secret  Societies. 

1908. 

Inquisition. 

H.  C.  Lea:  A  History  of  the  Inquisition  of  the 
Middle  Ages.    3  v.    1887. 

E.  Vacandard:    LTnquisition.     5th.  ed.     1913. 

Inspiration. 

F.  E.  C.  Gigot:  General  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.     1904. 

James  Orr:  Revelation  and  Inspiration.     1910. 
A.  S.  Peake:  The  Bible:   Its  Origin,  Its  Signifi- 
cance, and  Its  Abiding  Worth.    5th.  ed.     1914. 
W.  Sanday:  Inspiration.    3d.  ed.    1896. 

Institutional  Church. 

Agnes  R.  Burr:  Russell  H.  Con  well,  Founder  of 
the  Institutional  Church  in  America.     1905. 


George  Hodges:  Faith  and  Social  Service.    1915. 

C.  H.  Sears:  Edward  Judson,  Interpreter  of 
God.     1917. 

Charles  Stelzle:  Christianity's  Storm  Centre. 
1907. 

Year  Book  of  the  Churches.     1915-. 

Interchurch  World  Movement. 

Intorchurch  World  Movement  of  North  America: 
Worid's  Survey.     2  v.     1920. 

See  also  references  under  Interchurch  World 
Movement  in  Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical  lAteror 
ture.     1920. 

Intermediate  State. 

Henry  Alford:  The  State  of  the  Blessed  Dead. 
1875. 

H.  M.  Luckock:  The  Intermediate  State  be- 
tween Death  and  Judgment.    3d.  ed.     1892. 

E.  H.  Plumptre:   The  Spirits  in  Prison.     1885. 

Interpretation. 

C.  A.  Briggs:  A  General  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Holy  Scripture.     1899. 

J.  E.  Carpenter:  The  Bible  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century.     1903, 

G.  H.  Gilbert:  The  Interpretation  of  the  Bible. 
1908. 

Investiture  Controversy. 

Herbert  Fisher:  The  Mediaeval  Empire.  2  v. 
1899. 

E.  F.  Henderson:  Select  Historical  Documents 
of  the  Middle  Ages,     1903, 

A.  C.  Welch:   Ansehn  and  His  Work.     1901. 

Irenaeus. 

Works.     Ante-Nicene  Fathers,     v.  1. 

Charles  Bigg:  The  Origins  of  Christianity. 
1909. 

F.  G.  Lewis:  The  Irenaeus  Testimony  to  the 
Fourth  Gospel.     1908, 

Israel,  Religion  of. 

Karl  Budde:  The  Religion  of  Israel  to  the 
ExUe.     1899. 

T.  K.  Chejme:  Jewish  Religious  Life  after  the 
Exile.     1898. 

Karl  Marti:  The  Rehgion  of  the  Old  Testament. 
1907. 

J.  P.  Peters:  The  Religion  of  the  Hebrews, 
1914. 

H.  P.  Smith:  The  Religion  of  Israel.     1914. 

Jainism. 

J.  G.  Biihler:  On  the  Indian  Sect  of  the  Jains. 
1903. 

C.  R.  Jain:  The  Key  of  Knowledge.     1919. 

Jagmanderial  Jaini:  OutUnes  of  Jainism.     1916. 

J,  B.  Pratt:  India  and  Its  Faiths,     1915, 

Mrs.  Sinclair  Stevenson:  The  Heart  of  Jainism, 
1915. 

Jansenism. 

E,  K.  Sanders:  F^nelon,  His  Friends  and  His 
Enemies.     1901. 

Mrs.  M.  ToUemache:  The  French  Jansenists. 
1893, 

S.P.  TregeUes:  The  Jansenists.     1851. 

Japan,  Missions  to. 

The  Christian  Movement  in  Japan.  [Annual.] 
1903-, 

E,  W.  Clement:  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan. 
1905, 

J,  H.  DeForest:  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom. 
1904, 


4d7 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


C.  K.  Harrington:  Captain  Bickel  of  the  Inland 
Sea.    1919.  ^    ^^. 

James  Murdoch  and  Isoh  Yamagata:  The  His- 
tory of  Japan.     1903. 

See  aiso  under  Japan,  Religions  of. 

Japan,  Religions  of. 

W.  G.  Aston:  Shinto.     1905. 

Otis  Gary:  The  History  of  Christianity  m 
Japan.    2  v.     1909. 

Tasuku  Harada:  The  Faith  of  Japan.     1914. 

G.  W.  Knox:  The  Development  of  ReUgion  in 
Japan.    1907. 

Arthur  Lloyd:  The  Creed  of  Half  Japan.     1911. 

B.  Nam  jo:  A  Short  History  of  the  Twelve 
Japanese  Buddhist  Sects.     1886. 

I.  Nitobe:  Bushido.     1905. 

E.  D.  Soper:  The  ReUgions  of  Mankind.  1921. 
Chap.  IX,  pp.  235-256. 

See  also  under  Japan,  Missions  to. 

Jerusalem. 

Selah  Merrill:  Ancient  Jerusalem.     1908. 

L.  B.  Paton:  Jerusalem  in  Bible  Times.     1908. 

G.  A.  Smith:  Jerusalem:  the  Topography, 
Economics,  and  History  from  the  Earhest  Times  to 
A.D.  70.    2v.     1908.  „    ,       .        . 

L.  H.  Vincent:  Jerusalem:  Recherches  de 
Topographic,  d'Arch6ologie  et  d'Histoire.  2  v. 
1912,  1914. 

Jesus  Christ. 

F.  L.  Anderson:  The  Man  of  Nazareth.     1914. 
Wilhelm  Bousset:  Jesus.     1906. 

F.  C.  Burkitt:  The  Gospel  History  and  Its 
Transmission.    2d.  ed.     1907. 

O.  Holtzmann:  Life  of  Jesus.     1904. 

WUham  Sanday:  Outlines  of  the  Life  of  Christ. 
2d.  ed.     1908. 

Albert  Schweitzer:  The  Quest  of  the  Historical 
Jesus.     1910. 

Jesus,  Society  of. 

T.  A.  Hughes:  The  History  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  North  America.    6  v.     1907-. 

Joseph  McCabe:  A  Candid  History  of  the 
Jesuits.    1913. 

Francis  Parkman:  The  Jesuits  in  North  Amer- 
ica.    1867. 

W.  W.  Rockwell:  "The  Jesuits  as  Portrayed  by 
non-CathoUc  Historians,"  The  Harvard  Theological 
Remew.    v.  7.     1914. 

Stewart  Rose:  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  and  the  Early 
Jesuits.    1912. 

E.  L.  Taimton:  The  History  of  the  Jesuits  in 
England.    1901. 

Justine  B.  Ward:  William  Pardow  of  the  Com- 
pany of  Jesus.    1914. 

Jinn. 

R.  C.  Thompson:  Devils  and  Evil  Spirits  of 
Babylonia.    1904-1905. 

G.  E.  White:  "Evil  Spirits  and  the  Evil  Eye  in 
Turkish  Lore,"  The  Moslem  World,    v.  9.    1919. 

Josephus. 

N.  D.  Bentwich:   Josephus.     1914. 
The  Works  of  Josephus,  with  a  Life  Written  by 
Himself.    Various  editions. 

Judaism. 

Israel  Abrahams:  Judaism.     1910. 

W.  E.  Addis:  Hebrew  ReUgion  to  the  Establish- 
ment of  Judaism  under  Ezra.     1906. 

M.  Friedlander:  The  Jewish  Rehgion.     1891. 

G.  W.  HoUmann:  The  Jewish  Religion  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus.    1909. 


Kaufman  Kohler:  Jewish  Theology  Systemati- 
cally and  Historically  Considered.     1918. 
See  also  under  Israel,  Rehgion  of. 

Justice. 

Herbert  Sp>encer:  The  Principles  of  Ethics. 
2  v.     1879,  1892. 

W.  W.  Willoughby:  Social  Justice.     1900. 

Justification. 

James  Hastings:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
Faith.     1919. 

J.  H.  Newman:  Lectures  on  the  Doctrine  of 
Justification.    3d.  ed.     1874. 

Albrecht  Ritschl:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
Justification  and  ReconciUation.     1900. 

G.  B.  Stevens:  The  Theology  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    1899. 

F.  B.  Westcott:  St.  Paul  and  Justification. 
1913. 

Justin  Martyr. 

Works.    Ante-Nicene  Fathers,     v.  1. 

Mrs.  Charles  Martin:  St.  Justin,  Martyr.  New 
ed.     1911. 

V.  H.  Stanton:  The  Gospels  as  Historical 
Documents,     v.  1.     1903. 

Juvenile  Protection. 

S.  P.  Breckinridge  and  Edith  Abbott:  The 
Dehnquent  Child  and  the  Home.    2d.  ed.     1916. 

T.  D.  EUot:  The  Juvenile  Court  and  the  Com- 
munity.    1914. 

Bernard  Flexner  and  R.  N.  Baldwin:  Juvenile 
Courts  and  Probation.     1914. 

H.  H.  Hart:  Juvenile  Court  Laws  in  the  United 
States.     1910. 

H.  H.  Hart:  The  Preventive  Treatment  of 
Neglected  Children.     1910. 

William  Healy:  The  Individual  Delinquent. 
1915. 

C.  R.  Henderson,  ed.:  Correction  and  Pre- 
vention.    V.  3.     1910. 

Kabbala. 

J.  Abelson:  Jewish  Mysticism.     1913. 

L.  A.  Bosman:  The  Mysteries  of  the  Qabbalah. 
1914. 

W.  W.  J.  Colville:  The  Kabbalah,  the  Harmony 
of  Opposites.     1916. 

Bernhard  Pick:  The  Cabala:  Its  Influence  on 
Judaism  and  Christianity.     1913. 

Kant,  Immanuel. 

Edward  Caird:  The  Critical  Philosophy  of 
Immanuel  Kant.    2d.  ed.    2  v.     1908. 

Kuno  Fischer:  Immanuel  Kant  und  seine  Lehre. 
4th. ed.     1898-1899. 

Friedrich  Paulsen:  Immanuel  Kant:  His 
Life  and  Doctrine.     1902. 

R.  M.  Wenley:  Kant  and  His  Philosophical 
Revolution.     1911. 

Kingdom  of  God. 

A.  B.  Bruce:  The  Kingdom  of  God.  4th.  ed. 
1891. 

H.  A.  A.  Kennedy:  St.  Paul's  Conceptions  of 
the  Last  Things.    2d.  ed.     1904. 

Shailer  Mathews:  The  Messianic  Hope  in  the 
New  Testament.     1904. 

E.  F.  Scott:  The  Kingdom  and  the  Messiah. 
1911. 

J.H.Snowden:  The  Coming  of  the  Lord.     1919. 

Korea,  Religions  of  and  Missions  to. 

Annie  L.  A.  Baird:  Daybreak  in  Korea.     1909. 

A.  J.  Brown:  The  Mastery  of  the  Far  East. 
1919. 


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498 


The  Christian  Movement  in  the  Japanese 
Empire,    v.  13.     1915. 

H.  H.  Cynn :  The  Rebirth  of  Korea.     1920. 

W.  E.  Griffis:  Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation.  9th. 
ed.     1911. 

H.  B.  Hulvert:  The  Passing  of  Korea.    1906. 

Labor  Movement,  Ethics  of. 

G.  D.  H.  Cole:  Labour  in  the  Commonwealth. 
1919. 

A.  T.  Hadley:  Economics.     1896. 

R.  F.  Hoxie:  Trade  Unionism  in  the  United 
States.     1917. 

John  Mitchell:  Organized  Labor,  Its  Problems, 
Purposes  and  Ideals.     1903. 

Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb:  History  of  Trade 
Unionism.    Rev.  ed.     1920. 

Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb:  Industrial  Democ- 
racy.   Edition  of  1920. 

Latin  America,  Religions  of  and  Missions  to. 

H.  W.  Brown:  Latin  America.    2d.  ed.     1901. 

James  Bryce:  South  America;  Observations 
and  Impressions.     New  ed.     1914. 

F.  E.  Clark:  The  Continent  of  Opportunity. 
1907. 

Congress  on  Christian  Work  in  Latin  America. 

3  v.     1917. 

Francisco  Garcia-Calder6n:  Latin  America: 
Its  Rise  and  Progress.     1913. 

R.  E.  Speer:   South  American  Problems.     1912. 

E.  D.  Trowbridge:  Mexico  Today  and  Tomor- 
row.    1919. 

Law,  Canon. 

Adolf  Harnack:  The  History  of  Dogma.  7  v. 
1899. 

W.  S.  Holdsworth:    History  of  English  Law. 

4  V.     1908-. 

H.  C.  Lea:  Studies  in  Church  History.  2d.  ed. 
1883. 

F.  W.  Maitland :  Canon  Law  in  England.     1899. 
O.   J.   Reichel:    Complete   Manual   of    Canon 

Law.    2  V.     1908. 

Law,  Hebrew. 

J.  E.  Carpenter  and  G.  H.  Battersby,  eds. :  The 
Hexateuch  According  to  the  Revised  Version. 
2  V.     1900. 

C.  F.  Kent,  ed.:  Israel's  Laws  and  Legal  Prece- 
dents.    1907. 

Law,  PoliticaL 

J.  A.  Lapp,  comp.:  Important  Federal  Laws. 
1917. 

C.  L.  de  S.  Montesqmeu:  The  Spirit  of  Laws. 
Various  editions. 

J.  J.  Rousseau:  The  Social  Contract:  or, 
Principles  of  Political  Law.     1893. 

J.  J.  SulUvan:  American  Business  Law,  with 
Legal  Forms.     1909. 

Woodrow  Wilson:  The  State;  Elements  of  His- 
torical and  Practical  Politics.     1898. 

Laymen's  Missionary  Movement. 

J.  S.  Dennis:  The  Modern  Call  of  Missions. 
1913. 

Laymen's  Missionary  Movement:  The  Call  of 
God  to  Man.     1908. 

Men  and  Missions.     1910-1920. 

Liberal  Theology. 

J.  E.  Carpenter  and  P.  H.  Wicksteed:  Studies  in 
Theology.     1903. 

H.  W.  Clark:  Liberal  Orthodoxy.     1914. 

Hakluyt  Egerton:  Liberal  Theology  and  the 
Ground  of  Faith.     1908. 


Walter  Rauschenbusch:  A  Theology  for  the 
Social  Gospel.     1917. 

E.  H.  Reeman:  Do  We  Need  a  New  Idea  of 
God?    1917. 

G.  B.  Smith:  Social  Idealism  and  the  Changing 
Theology.     1913. 

B.  H.  Streeter  and  Others:  Foundations,  a 
Statement  of  Christian  BeUef  in  Terms  of  Modern 
Thought.     1912. 

Liberty. 

J.  W.  Burgess:  The  Reconciliation  of  Govern- 
ment with  Liberty.     1915. 

Durant  Drake:  Problems  of  Conduct.     1914. 

International  Congress  of  Religious  Liberals: 
Freedom  and  Fellowship  in  Religion.     1907. 

John  Locke:  Two  Treatises  on  Civil  Govern- 
ment.    Various  editions. 

J.  S.  MiU:  On  Liberty.     5th  ed.     1868. 

Richard  Roberts:  The  Church  in  the  Common- 
wealth.    1917. 

O.  S.  Straus:  Roger  Williams,  the  Pioneer  of 
Religious   Liberty.     1894. 

Life. 

H .  Bergson :  Creative  Evolution .     1911. 
J.    S.   Haldane:     Mechanism,    Life,    and   Per- 
sonaUty.     1913. 

F.  von  Hiigel:  Eternal  Life.     1912. 

Oliver  Lodge:  Life  and  Matter.     4th.  ed.     1906. 
Jacques  Loeb:   The  Mechanistic  Conception  of 
Life.     1912. 

Litany. 

J.  H.  Blunt:  The  Annotated  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.     New  ed.     1876. 

William  Muss-Arnolt:  The  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  among  the  Nations  of  the  World.     1914. 

Francis  Proctor:  A  New  History  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer;  Revised  by  W.  H.  Frere.     1901. 

Liturgy. 

F.  E.  Brightman:   The  Enghsh  Rite.     1915. 

F.  E.  Brightman,  ed.:  Liturgies,  Eastern  and 
Western.     1896. 

L.  M.  O.  Duchesne:  Christian  Worship.  2d. 
ed.     1905. 

Adrian  Fortescue:  The  Mass:  a  Study  of  the 
Roman  Liturgy.     New  ed.     1915. 

See  also  under  Litany. 
Lollards. 

J.  C.  Carrick:  Wycliffe  and  the  LoUards.     1908. 

H.  W.  Clark:  History  of  English  Nonconformity. 
V.  1.     1911. 

James  Gairdner:  LoUardy  and  the  Reformation 
in  England.     4  v.     1908-1913. 

R.  M.  Jones:  Studies  in  Mystical  Religion. 
1909. 

F.  D.  Leete:   Christian  Brotherhood.     1912. 

H.  B.  Workman:  The  Dawn  of  the  Reformation. 
V.  1.     1901. 

Lord's  Supper,  The. 

W.  B.  Frankland:  The  Early  Eucharist.     1902. 

P.  Gardner:  Origin  of  the  Lord's  Supper.     1893. 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Doctrine.    Vols.  V — ^VI. 

1896-1899. 

D.  Stone:  A  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist.    2  v.     1909. 

Loyalty.    ' 

Josiah  Royce:  The  Philosophy  of  Loyalty. 
1908. 

J.  A.  B.  Scherer:  What  Is  Japanese  Morality? 
1906. 

Luther,  Martin. 

Works.     10  V.     1915. 

H.  E.  Jacobs:  Martin  Luther.     1898. 


490 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Julius  Kostlin:  Martin  Luther,  sein  Leben  und 
seine  Schrifteu.     5th.  ed.    2  v.     1903. 

Preserved  Smith:  Life  and  Letters  of  Martin 
Luther.     1911. 

Lutheran  Church. 

H.  E.  Jacobs:  A  History  of  the  EvangeKcal 
Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States.     1893. 

C.  P.  Krauth:  The  Conservative  Reformation 
and  Its  Theology.     1872. 

I.  T.  Mueller:  The  Book  of  Concord;  or  the 
Symbohcal  Books  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church.    2v.     1882-1883. 

Maccabees,  Books  of. 

R.  H.  Charles,  ed.:  The  Apocrypha  and  Pseude- 
pigrapha  of  the  Old  Testament  in  English.  2  v. 
1913. 

C.  W.  Emmet,  ed.:  Third  and  Fourth  Books  of 
Maccabees.     1918. 

Magic. 

E.  A.  W.  Budge:  Egyptian  Magic.     1901. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough.  3d.  ed.  12  v. 
1907-1915. 

V.Henry:  La Magie dans I'Inde Antique.    1909. 

Irving  King:  The  Development  of  Religion. 
1910. 

J.  H.  Leuba:  The  Psychological  Study  of 
ReUgion.     1912. 

R.  R.  Marett:  The  Threshold  of  ReUgion. 
1909. 

R.  C.  Thompson:  Semitic  Magic.     1908. 

See  also  under  Fetishism. 

Maimonides,  or  Moses  bea  Maimon.  ^ 

Maimonides:  Eight  Chapters  of  Maimonides  on 
Ethics  .  .  .  .  tr.  with  an  introduction.     1912. 

David  Yellin  and  Israel  Abrahams:  Maimonides. 
1903. 

Manuscripts. 

C.  D.  Ginsburg:  Introduction  to  the  Masoretico- 
Critical  Edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.     1897. 

C.  R.  Gregory:  The  Canon  and  Text  of  the 
New  Testament.     1907. 

F.  G.  Kenyon:  Handbook  of  the  Textual  Criti- 
cism of  the  New  Testament.     1901. 

George  MilUgan:  The  New  Testament  Docu- 
ments: Their  Origin  and  Early  History.     1913. 

Marcion,  Marcionism. 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma.  7  v.  1896- 
1900.     I.    Pp.  267-286. 

Maronites. 

F.  J.  Bliss:  The  Religions  of  Modem  Syria 
and  Palestine.     1912. 

Marriage. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  Totemism  and  Exogamy.  4  v. 
1910. 

L.  F.  Post:  Ethical  Principles  of  Marriage  and 
Divorce.     1906. 

W.  I.  Thomas:  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins. 
1909. 

See  also  under  Family. 

Martyr. 

F.  C.  Conybeare,  ed.:  The  Apology  and  Acts  of 
Apollonius  and  Other  Monuments  of  Early  Chris- 
tianity.    1894. 

JohnFoxe:  Book  of  Martyrs.     Various  editions. 

A.  S.  Peake:  Heroes  and  Martyrs  of  Faith. 
1910. 

L.  E.  Smith:  Heroes  and  Martyrs  of  the  Modem 
Missionary  Enterprise.     1853. 


Mass. 

William  Durand :  The  CathoUc  Ceremonies  and 
Explanations  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Year.     1896. 

A.  Fleury:  The  Missal  Explamed.     1916. 

Nicholas  Gihr:  The  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
1908. 

J.  B.  Miiller:  Handbook  of  Ceremonies  for 
Priests  and  Seminarians.     3d.  ed.     1915. 

E.  A.  Pace  and  J.  J.  Wynne :  The  Mass  for  Every 
Day  in  the  Year.     1916. 

Gerhard  Rauschen:  The  Eucharist  and  Penance 
in  the  First  Six  Centuries  of  the  Church.     1913. 

The  Roman  Missal.    A  new  edition.     1912, 

Materialism. 

Frederic  Bettex:  Science  and  Christianity. 
1901. 

Robert  Flint:   Anti-Theistic  Theories.     1879. 

E.  H.  P.  A.  Haeckel:  The  Riddle  of  the  Uni- 
verse.   1900. 

F.  A.  Lange:  History  of  MateriaUsm.     1877-81. 

Mechanism. 

H.  L.  Bergson:  Creative  Evolution.     1911. 

WilUam  James:   A  Pluralistic  Universe.     1909. 

Jacques  Loeb:  A  Mechanistic  Conception  of 
Life.     1912. 

James  Ward:  Naturalism  and  Agnosticism. 
New  ed.     2  v.     1903. 

Medicine  Men. 

A.  W.  Howitt:  The  Native  Tribes  of  South-east 
Australia.     1904. 

Carveth  Read:  The  Origin  of  Man.     1920. 

W.  I.  Thomas:  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins. 
1909. 

Melanchthon,  Philip. 

J.  W.  Richard:  Philip  Melanchthon.     1898. 

Joseph  Stump:  The  Life  of  Philip  Melanchthon. 
1897. 

Mendicant  Monks,  Mendicant  Orders. 

J.  B.  Alzog:  Manual  of  Universal  Church  His- 
tory.   V.  2.     1876. 

Andre  Lagarde :  The  Latin  Church  in  the  Middle 
1915. 

F.  D.  Leete:  Christian  Brotherhoods.     1912. 

A.  W,  Wishart:  A  Short  History  of  Monks  and 
Monasteries.    2d.  ed.     1902. 

Mennonites. 

H.  K.  Carroll:  The  ReUgious  Forces  in  the 
United  States.     1893. 

C.  H.  Smith:  The  Mennonites  of  Amerioa. 
1909. 

Messiah. 

R  H.  Charles :  Religious  Development  between 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments.     1914. 

Shailer  Mathews:  The  Messianic  Hope  in  the 
New  Testament.     1904. 

V.  H.  Stanton:  The  Jewish  and  the  Christian 
Messiah.     1886. 

W.  D.  Wallace:  Messiahs:  Christian  and  Pagan. 
1918. 

Metaphysics. 

H.  L.  Bergson:  Creative  Evolution.     1911. 

B.  P.  Bowne:  Metaphysics.     1898. 

Auguste  Comte :  The  Positive  Philosophy,  v.  3. 
1896. 

WiUiam  Hamilton:  Metaphysics.  Various  edi- 
tions. 

J.  S.  Mackenzie:  Outlines  of  Metaphysics. 
1902. 

Methodism. 

J.  F.  Hurst:  A  History  of  Methodism.  7  v. 
1902. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


500 


Abel  Stevens:  A  History  of  Methodism.  3  v. 
1858. 

W.  J.  Townsend  and  Others:  A  New  History  of 
Methodism.    2  v.     1909. 

LukeTyerman:  The  Oxford  Methodists.     1873. 

Mexico,  Religions  of. 

American  Baptist  Home  Mission  SocietjT  Our 
Spanish  Speaking  Neighbors.     1907. 

F.  F.  Ellinwood:  Questions  and  Phases  of 
Modern  Missions.     1899. 

Albert  Reville:  Native  ReUgions  of  Mexico  and 
Peru.     1884. 

G.  B.  Winton:  Mexico  Today.     1913. 

Midrash. 

Joseph  Cohn:   Gems  from  the  Midrash.     1906. 

Moses  Goldman:  Proverbs  of  the  Sages.     1911. 

R.  T.  Herford:  Christianity  in  Talmud  and 
Midrash.     1903. 

Samuel  Rapaport:  Tales  and  Maxims  from 
the  Midrash.     1907. 

Militarism. 

A.  W.  Allen:  The  Drain  of  Armaments.     1912. 

C.  E.  Jefferson:  The  Delusion  of  Mihtarism. 
1909. 

A  League  of  Nations.     1917-. 

Hudson  Maxim :  Defenseless  America.     1915. 

Theodore  Roosevelt:  Fear  God  and  Take  Your 
Own  Part.     1916. 

World  Peace  Fovmdation:  Pamphlet  Series. 
1910-1917. 

Military  Religious  Orders. 

F.  D.  Leete:  Christian  Brotherhoods.     1912. 

F.  C.  Woodhouse:  The  Military  ReUgious 
Orders  of  the  Middle  Ages.     1879. 

Millenarianism. 

W.  E.  Blackstone:  Jesus  Is  Coming.  Various 
editions. 

F.  C.  Burkitt:  Jewish  and  Christian  Apoca- 
lypses.    1914. 

S.  J.  Case:  The  Millennial  Hope.     1918. 

R.  H.  Charles:  The  Apocrypha  and  Pseude- 
pigrapha  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Enghsh.  2  v. 
1913.  V 

H.  F.  Rail:  Modern  PremiUenarianism  and  tha 
Christian  Hope.     1920.  ~^ 

J.H.Snowden:  The  Coming  of  the  Lord.     1919. 

Millennial    Dawn. 

E.  B.  Pollard:    Russell  and  Russellism.     1915. 

C.  T.  RusseU:   MiUennial  Dawn.     1906. 

H.  C.  Sheldon:  Studies  in  Recent  Adventism. 
1915. 

Ministers  and  Ministry. 

Lyman  Abbott:  The  Christian  Ministry.     1905. 

W.  E.  Chadwick:  The  Pastoral  Teaching  of 
St.  Paul.     1907. 

A.  E.  Garvie:   The  Christian  Preacher.     1921. 

A.  S.  Hoyt:  The  Preacher;  His  Person,  Message, 
and  Method.     1909. 

J.  R.  Mott,  ed. :  The  Claims  and  Opportunities 
of  the  Christian  Ministry.     1911. 

Miracle  Play. 

Katherine  Bates:  The  English  Religious  Drama. 
1893. 

G.  R.  Coffman:  A  New  Theory  Concerning  the 
Origin  of  the  Miracle  Play.     1914. 

C.  M.  Gayley:  The  Plays  of  Our  Forefathers. 
1907. 

P.  E.  Kretzmann:  The  Liturgical  Element  in 
the  EarUest  Forms  of  Medieval  Drama.     1916. 

W.R.Mackenzie:  English  MoraUties.     1914. 


Miracles. 

Joseph  Butler:  An  Analogy  of  Religion.  Vari- 
ous editions. 

G.  A.  Gordon:   ReUgion  and  Miracle.     1909. 

J.  B.  Mozley:  Eight  Lectures  on  Miracles. 
1865. 

J.  H.  Newman:  Two  Essays  on  BibUcal  and  on 
Ecclesiastical  Miracles.     3d.  ed.     1873. 

Johannes  Wendland:  Miracles  and  Christianity. 
1913. 

Missionary  Movement. 

H.  P.  Beach  and  Burton  St.  John:  World 
Statistics  of  Christian  Missions.     1916. 

Adolf  Harnack:  The  Mission  and  Expansion  of 
Christiam'ty  in  the  First  Three  Centuries.  2d.  ed. 
2  V.     1909. 

E.  C.  Moore:  The  Spread  of  Christianity  in  the 
Modern  World.     1919. 

C.  H.  Robinson:  History  of  Christian  Missions. 
1915. 

R.  E.  Speer:  Christianity  and  the  Nations. 
1910. 

Moabites. 

C.  F.  Kent:  Israel's  Historical  and  Biographical 
Narratives.     1905. 

Rudolf  Kittel:  A  History  of  the  Hebrews.  2  v. 
1897. 

G.  A.  Smith:  The  Historical  Geography  of  the 
Holy  Land.     1894. 

H.  P.  Smith:   Old  Testament  History.     1903. 

Modernism. 

Letters  to  His  Hohness,  Pope  Pius  X;  by  a 
modernist.     1910. 

A.  L.  LiUey:  Modernism.     1908. 

A.  F.Loisy:  The  Gospel  and  the  Church.     1912. 

Pope  Pius  X:  The  Encyclical  of  His  HoUness 
Pope  Pius  X.  on  Modernism.     1907. 

The  Programme  of  Modernism.     1908. 

George  TyrreU :  Christianity  at  the  Cross-Roads. 
1909. 

George  Tyrrell:  A  Much-Abused  Letter.     1906. 

George  Tyrrell:  Through  Scylla  and  Charybdis. 
1907. 

Mohammedanism. 

S.  A.  Ah:  The  Spirit  of  Islam.     1896. 

D.  B.  Macdonald:  Aspects  of  Islam.     1911. 

D.  S.  Margohouth:  Mohammed  and  the  Rise  of 
Islam.     1,905. 

Moslem  World.     1911- 

S.  M.  Zwemer:  Arabia:  the  Cradle  of  Islam. 
1900. 

Monasticism. 

Adolf  Harnack:  Monasticism.     1901. 

C.  F.  Montalembert:  The  Monks  of  the  West. 
Various  editions. 

A.  W.  Wishart:  A  Short  History  of  Monks  and 
Monasteries.     1902, 

Monism. 

E.  E.  M.  Boutroux:  Science  and  Religion  in 
Contemporary  Philosophy.     1909. 

E.  Haeckel:    Monism.     1894. 
W.  L.  Walker:  Christian  Theism  and  a  Spiritual 
Monism.     1906. 

Monotheism. 

A.  J.  Balfour:  Theism  and  Humanism.     1915. 

W.  N.  Clarke:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  God. 
1909. 

C.  C.  Everett:  Theism  and  the  Christian  Faith. 
1909. 

Moral  Obligation. 

Aristotle:    The  Nicomachean  Ethics, 
editions. 


Various 


501 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Edward  Caird:  The  Critical  Philosophy  of 
Immanuel  Kant.     v.  2.     1889. 

Durant  Drake:  Problems  of  Conduct.     1914. 

W.  R.  Sorley:  Moral  Values  and  the  Idea  of 
God.     1918. 

Morality  Play. 

See  under  Drama  in  Rehgion;  Miracle  Play. 
Consult  the  General  Works. 

Ml>rmomsm. 

W.  A.  Linn:  The  Story  of  the  Mormons.  1902. 
I.W.Riley:  The  Founder  of  Mormonism.  1902. 
R.C.Webb:  The  Real  Mormonism.     1916. 

Mother  Goddesses. 

L.  R.  Farnell:  Cults  of  the  Greek  States.  5.  v. 
1896-1909.     V.     Pp.  85-344. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough.  12  v.  3d.  ed. 
1911-1915.    See  Index,  "Mother  of  the  Gods." 

L.  B.  Paton:  "The  Cult  of  the  Mother-Goddess 
in  Ancient  Palestine,"  Biblical  World,  XXXVI 
(1910),  pp.  26-38. 

G.  Showennan:  The  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods. 
1901. 

H.  A.  Strong  and  J.  Garstang:  The  Syrian 
Goddess. 

Music  and  Religion. 

Edward  Dickinson:  Music  in  the  History  of  the 
Western  Church.    1902. 

George  Grove,  ed.:  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians.    Rev.  ed.    5  v.  1904-1910. 

P.  C.Lutkin:  Music  in  the  Church.     1910. 

D.  G.  Mason,  ed.:  The  Art  of  Music,  v.  6. 
1916. 

W.  S.  Pratt:  Musical  Ministries  in  the  Church. 
4th.  ed.     1915. 

Mystery  Play. 

See  under  Drama  in  Rehgion;    Miracle  Play. 
Consult  the  General  Works. 

Mystery  Religions. 

S.  J.  Case :  The  Evolution  of  Early  Christianity. 
1914.    Pp.  284-330. 

S.  Cheetham:  The  Mysteries,  Pagan  and  Chris- 
tian.    1897. 

F.  Cumont:  The  Mysteries  of  Mithra.  1903; 
Oriental  Rehgions  in  Roman  Paganism.     1911. 

L.  R.  Farnell:  Cults  of  the  Greek  States.  5.  v. 
1896-1909.    III.    Pp.  29-393;  V.    Pp.  85-344. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  Adonis,  Attis,  Osiris.    2  v.     1914. 

J.  E.  Harrison:  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of 
Greek  Rehgion.    2d.  ed.     1908. 

E.  Hatch:  The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and 
Usages  upon  the  Christian  Church.  1892. 
Pp.  283-309. 

H.  A.  A.  Kennedy:  St.  Paul  and  the  Mystery 
Rehgions.     1913. 

A.  Moret:  Kings  and  Gods  of  Egypt.  1912. 
Pp.  69-108  and  148-198. 

Mysticism. 

W.  E.  Hocking:  The  Meaning  of  God  in 
Human  Experience.     1912. 

Friedrich  Hugel:  The  Mystical  Element  of 
Rehgion.    2  v.     1909. 

Wilham  James:  The  Varieties  of  Rehgious 
Experience.     1902. 

R.  M.  Jones:  Studies  in  Mystical  Rehgion. 
1909. 

Evelyn  Underhill:   Mysticism.     1911. 

Evelyn  Underhill:   The  Mystic  Way.     1913. 

Natural  Religion,  Natural  Theology. 

G.  J.  D.  C.  ArgyU:  The  Reign  of  Law.  Vari- 
ous editions. 

John  Fiske:  Through  Nature  to  God.    1899. 


William  Paley:  Natural  Theology.  Various 
editions. 

Newman  Smyth:  Constructive  Natural  The- 
ology.    1913. 

Natural  Rights. 

Hugo  Grotius:  De  Jure  BeUi  et  Pacis  .  .  .  .  tr. 
by  W.  Whewell.    3  v.     1854, 

John  Locke:  Two  Treatises  of  Government. 
First  published,  1690.  Later  editions  have  various 
titles. 

D.J.Ritchie:  Natural  Rights.     1895. 

Wilham  Wallace:  Lectures  and  Essays  on 
Natural  Theology  and  Ethics;  ed.  by  E.  Caird. 
1899. 

NaturaUsm. 

Rudolf  Otto:    Naturalism  and  Rehgion.     1907. 

R.  B.  Perry:  Present  Philosophical  Tendencies. 
1912. 

James  Ward:  Naturalism  and  Agnosticism. 
New  ed.    2  v.     1903. 

Natiire  and  Nature  Worship. 

M.  Bloomfield:  The  Rehgion  of  the  Vedas. 
1908. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. :  The  Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria.     1898. 

Max  Miiller:  Natural  Rehgion.     1889. 

E.  B.  Tylor:  Prunitive  Culture.  2  v.  4th  ed. 
1903. 

See  also  under  Magic. 

Negroes,  ReUgious  and  Educational  Movements 
among. 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois:  The  Souls  of  Black  Folk. 
Various  editions. 

T.J.Morgan:  The  Negro  in  America.     1898. 

The  Negro  Year  Book.     1912-. 

U.S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin.  1916. 
Nos.  38,  39. 

B.  T.  Washington:  The  Story  of  the  Negro. 
2  V.     1909. 

C.  G.  Woodson:  The  Education  of  the  Negro 
Prior  to  1861.     1915. 

Neoplatonism. 

Charles  Bigg:  The  Christian  Platonists  of 
Alexandria.     2d.  ed.     1913. 

Charles  Bigg:  Neoplatonism.     1895. 

W.R.Inge:  The  Philosophy  of  Plotinus.     1918. 

Thomas  Whittaker:  The  Neo-Platonists.  2d. 
ed.     1918. 

Eduard  ZeUer:  A  History  of  Greek  Philosophy. 
1904. 

New  England  Theology. 

G.  N.  Boardman:  A  History  of  New  England 
Theology.     1899. 

F.  H.  Foster:   A  Genetic  History  of  the  New  * 
England  Theology.     1907. 

G.  A.  Gordon:  "The  CoUapse  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Theology,"  The  Harvard  Theological  Review. 
V.  1.     1908. 

New  Jerusalem,  Church  of. 

The  New-Church  Review.     1894-. 

Theophilus  Parsons:  Outlines  of  the  Religion 
and  Philosophy  of  Swedenborg.     1876. 

B.  N.  Stone:  What  the  New  Church  Stands 
For.     1912. 

Edmund  Swift,  Jr.:  A  Manual  of  the  Doctrines 
of  the  New  Church.     1879. 

George  Trowbridge:  The  Life  of  Emanuel 
Swedenborg.     1913. 

New  Testament. 

B.  W.  Bacon:  The  Making  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    1912. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


602 


C.  R.  Gregory:  The  Canon  and  Text  of  the 
New  Testament.     1907. 

James  Moffatt:  An  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  the  New  Testament.     191L 

E.  C.  Moore:  The  New  Testament  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.     1904. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  A  Grammar  of  New  Testament 
Greek.    2  v.     1906-. 

New  Thought. 

A.  L.  Allen:  The  Message  of  New  Thought. 
1914. 

H.  W.  Dresser:  Man  and  the  Divine  Order. 
1903. 

H.  W.  Dresser:  The  Power  of  Silence.  2d.  ed. 
1904, 

S.  D.  Kirkham:  The  Philosophy  of  Self-Help. 
1909. 

R.  W.  Trine:  In  Tune  with  the  Infinite.     1906. 

Henry  Wood:  New  Thought  SimpUfied.     1903. 

Newman,  John  Henry. 

J.  H.  Newman:  Works.    37  v.     1917. 

E.  A.  Abbott:  The  AngUcan  Career  of  Cardinal 
Newman.    2  v.    1892. 

R.  W.  Church:  The  Oxford  Movement.     1891. 

Nietzsche,  Friedrich  Wilhelm. 

F.  W.  Nietzsche:  Complete  Works.  18  v. 
1913. 

Georges  Chatterton-Hill:  The  Philosophy  of 
Nietzsche.     1913. 

Emily  S.  Hamblen:  Friedrich  Nietzsche  and 
His  New  Gospel.     1911. 

M.  A.  Miigge:  Friedrich  Nietzsche:  His  Life 
and  Work.    1908. 

W.  M.  Salter:  Nietzsche  the  Thinker.     1917. 

Abraham  Wolf:  The  Philosophy  of  Nietzsche. 
1916. 

Nonconformity. 

ChampUn  Burrage:  The  True  Story  of  Robert 
Browne  ....  Father  of  Congregationalism.    1906. 

H.  W.  Clark:  History  of  Enghsh  Nonconformity. 
2  V.     1911-1913. 

W.  B.  Selbie:  English  Sects,  a  History  of  Non- 
conformity.    1912. 

J.  H.  Shakespeare:  Baptist  and  Congregational 
Pioneers.     1907. 

See  also  under  Separatists. 

North  American  Indians,  Missions  to. 

A.  F.  Beard:  A  Crusade  of  Brotherhood.     1909. 

Isabel  A.  H.  Crawford:  Kiowa:  the  History  of 
a  Blanket  Indian  Mission.     1915. 

Sarah  G.  Pomeroy:  All  Along  the  Trail.     1915. 

Eugene  Stock:  The  History  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,    v.  3.     1899. 

North  American  Indians,  Religions  of. 

D.  G.  Brinton:  The  Myths  of  the  New  World. 
3d.  ed.     1896. 

C.A.Eastman:  The  Soul  of  the  Indian.     1911. 

F.  E.  Leupp:  The  Indian  and  His  Problem. 
1910. 

C.  H.  Merriam:  The  Dawn  of  the  World; 
Myths  and  Wierd  Tales  Told  by  the  Mewan 
Indians  of  California.     1910. 

Oaths  and  Vows. 

Peter  Cotel:  A  Catechism  of  Vows.     1868. 

S.  E.  DeVere:  "A  Short  Tract  upon  Oaths," 
Nineteenth  Century,    v.  17.     1885. 

Paul  Trent:   The  Vow.     1913. 

J.  E.  Tyler:  Oaths:  Their  Origin,  Nature,  and 
History.     1834. 


Old  Catholics. 

G.  P.  Fisher:  "Dr.  DoeUinger  and  the  Old 
CathoUc  Movement  in  Germany,"  Scribn^'s 
Monthly,     v.  22.     1881. 

F.  H.  Foster:  "Old  Catholicism,"  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,    v.  38.     1881. 

Old  CathoUc  Missal  and  Ritual.     1913. 

A.  M.  E.  Scarth:  The  Story  of  the  Old  Catholic 
and  Kindred  Movements.     1883. 

Theodorus,  pseud.:  The  New  Reformation,  a 
Narrative  of  the  Old  CathoUc  Movement.     1875. 

Old  Testament. 

W.  F.  Bad6:  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light 
of  To-day.    1915. 

Harlan  Creelman:  An  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament,  Chi'onologicaUy  Arranged.     1917. 

S.  R.  Driver:  An  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  the  Old  Testament.    Several  editions. 

J.  E.  McFadyen:  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.    1906. 

H.  W.  Robinson:  The  ReUgious  Ideas  of  the 
Old  Testament.     1913. 

Ordeals. 

E.  F.  Henderson,  ed.:  Select  Historical  Docu- 
ments of  the  Middle  Ages.     1903. 

A.  C.  Howland,  ed.:  Ordeals,  Compurgation, 
Excommunication,  and  Interdict.  1897.  (Vol.  4, 
No.  4,  of  Translations  and  Reprints,  pubUshed  by 
the  Department  of  History  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.) 

H.  C.  Lea:  Superstition  and  Force.    1866. 

Orders,  Holy. 

Adrian  Fortescue:  The  Orthodox  Eastern 
Church.     1907. 

Charles  Gore:  The  Church  and  the  Ministry. 
1889. 

A.  W.  Haddan:  ApostoUcal  Succession  in  the 
Church  of  England.    1869. 

A.  W.  Hutton:   The  AngUcan  Ministry.     1879. 

T.  M.  Lindsay:  The  Church  and  the  Ministry 
in  the  Early  Centuries.     1902. 

John  Wordsworth:  The  Ministry  of  Grace. 
2d.  ed.    1903. 

Original  Sin. 

JuUus  Miiller:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin. 
2  V.    1868. 

F.  R.  Tennant:  Soiu"ces  of  the  Doctrines  of  the 
FaU  and  Original  Sin.     1903. 

Orphans  and  Orphanages. 

P.  A.  Baart:  Orphans  and  Orphan  Asylums. 
1887. 

Homer  Folks:  The  Care  of  Destitute,  Neglected, 
and  DeUnquent  Children.     1902. 

C.  R.  Henderson,  ed.:  Correction  and  Pre- 
vention.   V.  4.     1910. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  the  Census:  Benevolent  Insti- 
tutions.   2d.  ed.     1914. 

Orthodoxy. 

J.  F.  Clarke:  Orthodoxy:  Its  Truth  and  Errors. 
11th.  ed.     1866. 

G.  B.  Foster:  The  FinaUty  of  the  Christian 
ReUgion.     1906. 

W.  G.  T.  Shedd:  Orthodoxy  and  Heterodoxy. 
1893. 

Oxford  Movement. 

E.  S.  PurceU:  The  Life  of  Cardinal  Manning. 
New  ed.    2  v.     1898. 

P.  M.  P.  Thureau-Dangin:  EngUsh  CathoUc 
Revival  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Rev.  ed.  2.  v. 
1916. 


503 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


W.  P.  Ward:  The  Life  of  John  Henry,  Cardinal 
Newman;  based  on  his  Private  Journals  and 
Correspondence.     1912, 

W.  P.  Ward:  William  George  Ward  and  the 
Oxford  Movement.    2d.  ed.     1893. 

Palestine  Exploration  Fund. 

Palestine  Exploration  Fund:  Quarterly  State- 
ment.    1869. 

F.  J.  BUss:  The  Development  of  Palestine 
Exploration.     1906. 

C.  M.  Watson:  Fifty  Years'  Work  in  the  Holy 
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Panbabylonianism. 

A.  T.  Clay:  Amurru,  the  Home  of  the  Northern 
Semites.     1909. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.:  Hebrew  and  Babylonian 
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Pantheism. 

Robert  Flint:   Anti-Theistic  Theories.     1879. 
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G.  H.  Howison:  Limits  of  Evolution  and 
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J.  A.  Picton:  Pantheism:  Its  Story  and  Sig- 
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Papal  States. 

Raffaele  de  Cesare:  The  Last  Days  of  Papal 
Rome.     1909. 

H.  E.  Manning:  The  Temporal  Power  of  the 
Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ.     3d.  ed.     1880. 

John  Miley:  A  History  of  the  Papal  States. 
1850. 

Papias. 

Ante-Nicene  Fathers,    v.  1. 

B.  W.  Bacon:  The  Fourth  Gospel  in  Research 
and  Debate.     1910. 

Papyrus,  Papjrri. 

B.  P.  Grenfell  and  A.  S.  Hunt  have  edited  several 
volumes  of  Papyri  xmder  various  titles. 

George  Milligan:  Selections  from  the  Greek 
Papyri.     1910. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  From  Egyptian  Rubbish- 
Heaps.     1916. 

A.  H.  Sayce:  Aramaic  Papyri  Discovered  at 
Assuan.     1906. 

Parish. 

P.  L.  Gell:  Maintenance  of  the  Parochial 
System.    2d.  ed.     1909. 

W.  P.  M.  Kennedy:  Parish  Life  under  Queen 
Elizabeth.     1914. 

S.  L.  Ware :  Elizabethan  Parish  in  Its  Ecclesiasti- 
cal and  Financial  Aspects.     1908. 

Sidney  Webb  and  Beatrice  Webb:  EngUsh 
Local  Government  from  the  Revolution  to  the 
Municipal  Corporations  Act.     3  v.    1906-. 

Parsis. 

Martin  Haug:  Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language, 
Writings,  and  Religion  of  the  Parsis;  ed.  and 
enlarged  by  E.  W.  West.     1916. 

Dosabhai  Framji  Karaka:  History  of  the 
Parsis.    2  v.     1884. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  The  Treasure  of  the  Magi. 
1917. 

See  also  under  Persia,  Religions  of. 

Passover. 

W.  E.  Barton:  "The  Samaritan  Passover,"  The 
Open  Court,    v.  22.     1908. 

J.  W.  Beer:  The  Jewish  Passover  and  the  Lord's 
Supper.     1874. 

Central  Union  of  American  Rabbis:  Union 
Haggadah.     1907. 


William  Roseneu:  Home-Service  for  Passover 
Eve.    1905. 

Pastor. 

G.  M.  Boynton:  The  Pilgrim  Pastor's  Manual. 
1894. 

T.  L.  Cuyler:  How  to  Be  a  Pastor.     1890. 

J.  O.  Dykes:  The  Christian  Minister  and  His 
Duties.     1908. 

W.  Gladden:  The  Christian  Pastor  and  the 
Working  Church. 

C.  E.  Jefferson:  The  Minister  as  Shepherd. 
1912. 

A.  J.  Lyman:  The  Christian  Pastor  in  the  New 
Age.     1909. 

C.  F.  Rogers:  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Pastoral  Theology.     1912. 

See  also  under  Minister  and  Ministry. 

Patriarchal  System. 

G.  E.  Howard:  A  History  of  Matrimonial 
Institutions.    3  v.     1904. 

J.  F.  MacLennan:  The  Patriarchal  Theory. 
1884. 

H.  J.  S.  Maine:  Ancient  Law.     5th.  ed.     1874. 

Paul,  the  Apostle. 

B.  W.  Bacon:   The  Story  of  St.  Paul.    1904. 
WilUam  Morgan:    The  Religion  and  Theology 

of  Paul.     1917. 

W.  M.  Ramsay:  St.  Paul,  the  Traveller  and 
Roman  Citizen.     1895. 

Heinrich  Weinel:  St.  Paul,  the  Man  and  His 
Work.     1906. 

Wilhelm  Wrede:  Paul.     1908. 

Peace  Movements  and  Congresses. 

Advocate  of  Peace.     1869-. 

American  Peace  Congress:  Proceedings.  1909, 
1911,  1913,  1915. 

American  Peace  Society:  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Peace  Society  and  Its  Work.     1914. 

A.  P.  Higgins:  The  Hague  Peace  Conferences 
and  Other  International  Conferences  Concerning  the 
Laws  and  Usages  of  War.     1909. 

International  Peace  Congress:  Reports.  1904, 
1906,  1908,  1910,  1912. 

See  also  under  MiUtarism. 

Peasants  War. 

E.  B.  Bax:  The  Peasants  War  in  Germany. 
1899. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,     v.  2.     1907. 

Johannes  Janssen:  History  of  the  German 
People  at  the  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  16  v. 
1896-1911. 

Penance. 

F.  G.  Belton:  Manual  for  Confessors.     1916, 
M.  J.  O'Donnell:  Penance  in  the  Early  Church. 

1907. 

O.  D.  Watkins:  A  History  of  Penance.  2  v. 
1920. 

H.  U.  Whelpton:  The  Sacrament  of  Penance. 
1917. 

Penology. 

H.  M.  Boies:   Science  of  Penology.     1901. 

C.  R.  Henderson:  Cause  and  Cure  of  Crime. 
1914. 

International  Prison  Congress.  Report  of  Pro- 
ceedings.    1890-. 

T.  M.  Osborne:   Society  and  Prisons,     1916. 
Maurice  Parmelee:   Criminology.     1918. 
See  also  under  Prison  Reform. 

Perfection,  Perfectionism. 

P.  T.  Forsyth:  Christian  Perfection.  2d.  ed. 
1910, 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


504 


A.  Mahan:  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Christian 
Perfection.     1839. 

H.  C.  G.  Moule:  Holiness  by  Faith:  a  Manual 
of  Keswick  Teaching.     1906. 

J.  Wesley:  A  Plain  Account  of  Christian  Per- 
fection.    1840. 

Persecutions. 

(Hanserd  Knollys  Society):  Tracts  on  Liberty 
of  Conscience  and  Persecution.     1846. 

E.  G.  Hardy:  Christianity  and  the  Roman 
Government.     1894. 

A.  Harnack:  The  Expansion  of  Christianity  in 
the  First  Three  Centuries.     1904. 

H.  C.  Lea:  History  of  the  Inquisition  of  the 
Middle  Ages.     1908-1911. 

H.  B.  Workman:  Persecution  in  the  Early 
Church.     1906. 

Persia,  Religions  of. 

A.  V.  W.  Jackson:  Persia,  Past  and  Present. 
1906. 

A.  V.  W.  Jackson:  Religion  of  Ancient  Persia. 
1908. 

L.  H.  Mills:  Our  Own  ReUgion  in  Ancient 
Persia.     1913. 

G.F.Moore:  History  of  ReUgions.  v.  1.  Rev. 
ed.     1920. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  Early  Zoroastrianism.     1914. 

Personalism. 

B.  P.  Bowne:  Personalism.     1908. 

R.  T.  FlewelUng:  Personalism  and  the  Problems 
of  Philosophy.     1915. 

J.  R.  Illingworth:  Personahty:  Human  and 
Divine.     1894. 

Personality. 

J.  W.  Buckham:  Personality  and  the  Christian 
Ideal.     1909. 

Harald  H^ffding:  The  Philosophy  of  Rehgion. 
1906. 

John  Laird:   Problems  of  The  Self.     1917. 

Rabindranath  Tagore:   Personahty.     1917. 

Pharisees. 

R.  T.  Herford:  Pharisaism,  Its  Aim  and  Its 
Method.     1912. 

W.  O.  E.  Oesterley  and  G.  Box:  The  Rehgions 
and  Worship  of  the  Synagogue.     1907. 

E.  Schiirer:  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ.     1885-1894. 

Philippine  Islands,  Missions  to. 

C.  W.  Briggs :  The  Progressing  Phihppines.    1913. 
A.  J.  Brown:  The  New  Era  in  the  Phihppines. 

1st.  ed.     1903. 

J.  B.  Devins:  An  Observer  in  the  Phihppines. 
1905. 

Helen  B.  Montgomery:  Christus  Redemptor;  an 
Outhne  Study  of  the  Island  World  of  the  Pacific. 
1906. 

R.  E.  Speer:  Missions  and  Modern  History. 
V.  2.     1904. 

Philippine  Islands,  Religions  of. 

C.  M.  Skinner:  Myths  and  Legends  of  Our  New 
Possessions      1899. 

H.P.Willis:  Our  Philippine  Problem.     1905. 

Philosophy  in  Relation  to  Religion. 

E.  E.  M.  Boutroux:  Science  and  Religion  in 
Contemporary  Philosophy.     1909. 

A.  C.  McGiffert:  The  Rise  of  Modern  Reli- 
gious Ideas.     1915. 

Andrew  Seth  Pringle-Pattison:  The  Idea  of  God 
in  the  Light  of  Recent  Philosophy.     1917. 

Hastings  Rashdall:  Philosophy  and  Religion. 
1909. 

See  also  under  Philosophy  of  Religion. 


Philosophy  of  Religion. 

George  Galloway:  The  Philosophy  of  Religion. 
1914. 

G.  W.  F.  Hegel:  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
ReHgion.     3  v.     1895. 

W.  E.  Hocking:  The  Meaning  of  God  in 
Human  Experience.     1912. 

Harald  H^ffding:  The  Philosophy  of  Religion. 
1906. 

E.  W.  Lyman:  Theology  and  Human  Problems. 
1910. 

Josiah  Royce:  The  Problem  of  Christianity. 
2  V.     1913. 

W.  R.  Sorley:  Moral  Values  and  the  Idea  of 
God.     1918. 

J.  Watson:  The  Philosophical  Basis  of  Rehgion. 
1907. 

Pietism. 

M.  G.  Brumbaugh:  A  History  of  the  German 
Baptist  Brethren  in  Europe  and  America.     1899. 

A.  C.  McGiffert:  Protestant  Thought  before 
Kant.     1911. 

A.  W.  Nagler:  Pietism  and  Methodism.     1918. 

Pilgrims. 

William  Bradford :  History  of  Plymouth  Planta- 
tion.    1620-1647.     2  V.     1912. 

John  Brown:  The  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  New 
England  and  Their  Puritan  Successors.  3d.  Amer. 
ed.     1896. 

H.  M.  and  M.  Dexter:  The  England  and  Holland 
of  the  Pilgrims.     1906. 

Plato  and  Platonism. 

Works:  tr.  by  Benj.Jowett.    2d.  ed.    5v.     1875. 
P.  E.  More:  Platonism.     1917. 
J.A.Stewart:  Plato's  Doctrine  of  Ideas.     1909. 
Eduard  Zeller:   Plato  and  the  Older  Academy. 
1876. 

Pluralism. 

Wilham  James:   PluraUstic  Universe.     1909. 

James  Ward :  The  Realm  of  Ends;  or,  Pluralism 
and  Theism.     1912. 

Plymouth  Brethren. 

H.  K.  Carroll:  The  Rehgious  Forces  in  the 
United  States.     1893. 

W.  B.  Neatby:  History  of  the  Plymouth 
Brethren.     2d.  ed.     1902. 

J.  S.  Teulon:  The  History  and  Teaching  of  the 
Plymouth  Brethren.     1883. 

Poland,  Christianity  in. 

J.  H.  Allen:  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Unitarian 
Movement  since  the  Reformation.     1894. 

Valerian  Krasinski:  The  Religious  History 
of  the  Slavonic  Nations.     1851. 

Valerian  Krasinski :  A  Sketch  of  the  Reformation 
of  Poland.     2  v.     1838-1840. 

W.  R.  Morfill:  The  Story  of  Poland.     1893. 

Politics,  Ethics  of. 

Jane  Addams:  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 
1902. 

R.  C.  Brooks:  Corruption  in  American  Politics 
and  Life.     1910. 

T.  H.  Green:  Lectures  on  the  Principles  of 
Political  Obhgation.     1888. 

A.  T.  Hadley:  Standards  of  Public  Morality. 
1907. 

H.  G.  von  Treitschke:   Pohtics.     2  v.     1916. 

J.  H.  Tufts:  "Ethics  of  States,"  Philosophical 
Review.     1915. 

Poor  Laws. 

T.  W.  Fowle:  Poor  Law.    2d.  ed.     1898. 

George  NichoUs:  A  History  of  the  English  Poor 
Law.    3  V.    First  published,  1864. 


505 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


G.  D.  Reed  and  E.  E.  Shutt:  Overseers  of  the 
Poor  Manual.     1907. 

U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census:  Summary  of  State 
Laws  Relating  to  the  Dependent  Classes.     1913. 

Pope. 

W.  F.  Barry:  The  Papal  Monarchy  from  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  to  Boniface  VIII.     1902. 

A.  C.  Fhck:  The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church. 
1909. 

G.  Kruger:  The  Papacy.     1909. 

Andre  Lagarde:  The  Latin  Church  in  the 
Middle  Ages.     1915. 

L.  Ri\Tngton:   The  Roman  Primacy.     1899. 

Positivism. 

Giacomo  Barzellotti:  The  Ethics  of  Positivism. 
1885. 

Francis  Bowen:  Modem  Philosophy  from 
Descartes  to  Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann.     1877. 

Auguste  Comte:  The  Positive  Philosophy.  3v. 
1896. 

Frederic  Harrison:  The  Philosophy  of  Common 
Sense.     1907. 

Pragmatism. 

John  Dewey  and  Others:  Creative  Intelligence. 
1917. 

WilUam  James:  Pragniatism.     1907. 

A.  W.  Moore :  Pragmatism  and  Its  Critics.    1910. 

Bertrand  Russell:  Philosophical  Essays. 

F.  C.  S.  Schiller:  Studies  in  Humanism.  2d.  ed. 
1912. 

Prayer. 

H.  E.  Fosdick:  The  Meaning  of  Prayer.     1915. 

James  Hastings,  ed. :  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
Prayer.     1915. 

F.  B.  Jevons:  The  Idea  of  God  in  Early  Reli- 
gions.    1910. 

J.  B.  Pratt:  The  Religious  Consciousness.     1920. 
Annie  L.  Sears;    The  Drama  of  the  Spiritual 
Life.     1915. 

Prayer  Books. 

J.  H.  Benton:  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and 
Books  Connected  with  Its  Origin  and  Growth.     1910. 

The  Book  of  Common  Prayer.     Many  editions. 

Jews:  Standard  Prayer  Book.     1915. 

James  Parker:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  Successive  Revisions  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.    1877. 

See  also  under  Mass;  Litany. 

Predestination. 

J.  Calvin:  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion. 

W.  Hastie:  Theology  of  the  Reformed  Church. 
1904. 

G.  W.  Northrup  and  Robert  Watts:  The 
Sovereignty  of  God.     1894. 

W.  R.  Richards:   God's  Choice  of  Men.     1905. 
See   also    under   Arminianism    and    Arminius; 
Calvinism. 

Pre-Existence. 

James  Adam:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Celestial 
Origin  of  the  Soul  from  Pindar  to  Plato.     1906. 

W.  R.  Alger:  A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine 
of  a  Future  Life.    4th.  ed.     1867. 

G.  F.  Moore:  Metempsychosis.     1914. 

Presbjrterianism. 

Charles  Hodge:  Constitutional  History  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States.  2  v.  in 
one.     1840. 

J.  B.  Lightfoot:  "The  Christian  Ministry"  in 
his  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Phihppians.     1868. 

T.  M.  Lindsay:  The  Church  and  the  Ministry 
in  the  Early  Centuries.     1903. 

A.  F.  Mitchell:  The  Westminster  Assembly,  Its 
History  and  Standards.    2d.  ed.     1897. 


R.  C.  Reed:  A  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  of  the  Worid.     1905. 

Priest,  Priesthood. 

E.  R.  Bevan:  Jerusalem  under  the  High- 
Priests.     1914. 

W.  R.  Harper:  The  Priestly  Element  in  the 
Old  Testament.    2d.  ed.     1905. 

James  Keatinge:  The  Priest:  His  Character 
and  Work.     1903. 

Thomas  O'Donnell:  The  Priest  of  To-day; 
His  Ideals  and  Duties.     1910. 

Primitive  Peoples,  Religions  of. 

D.  G.  Brinton:  Religions  of  Primitive  Peoples. 
1897. 

Edward  Clodd :  Animism,  the  Seed  of  ReUgion. 
1905. 

E.  Durkheim:  Elementary  Forms  of  the  Reli- 
gious Life.     1915. 

F.  B.  Jevons:  An  Introduction  to  the  History 
of  Religion.     1896. 

J.  A.  Montgomery,  ed. :  ReUgions  of  the  Past 
and  Present.     1918. 

Carveth  Read:  The  Origin  of  Man.     1920. 

C.  H.  Toy:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
ReUgions.     1910. 

E.B.Tylor:  Primitive  Culture.    4th.  ed.     1903. 

See  also  under  Animism. 

Prison  Reform. 

American  Prison  Association:  Proceedings. 
1873-. 

Corinne  Bacon,  comp.r  Prison  Reform;  together 
with  a  Discussion  of  the  Prison  of  the  Future  by 
Thomas  Mott  Osborne.     1917. 

Enrico  Ferri:    Criminal  Sociology.     1917. 

F.  H.  Wines:  Punishment  and  Reformation. 
New  ed.     1919. 

See  also  under  Penology. 

Prophecy,  Prophets. 

C.  H.  Cormll:  The  Prophets  of  Israel.     1895. 

A.  R.  Gordon:  The  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testae 
ment.     1917. 

J.  M.  P.  Smith:  The  Prophet  and  His  Problems.' 
1914. 

W.  R.  Smith:  The  Prophets  of  Israel.  First 
pubhshed,  1882. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

Latta  Griswold:  The  Episcopal  Church:  Its 
Teaching  and  Worship.     1916. 

W.  R.  Huntington:  A  Short  History  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.     1893. 

S.  D.  McConnell:  History  of  the  American 
Episcopal  Church.     10th.  ed.     1916. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.S.A. 
General  Convention:  Journal  and  Digest.  Pub- 
lished triennially. 

C.  C.  Tiffany :_  A  History  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
1895. 

Protestantism. 

Matthew  Arnold:  St.  Paul  and  Protestantism. 
Several    editions. 

George  Cross:  What  is  Christianity  ?     1918. 

Philip  Schaff:  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
V.  6.     1888. 

Ernst  Troeltsch:  Protestantism  and  Progress. 
1912. 

Providence. 

A.  B.  Bruce:  The  Providential  Order  of  the 
World.     1897. 

W.  N.  Clarke:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  God. 
1909. 

J.  O.  Dykes:  The  Divine  Worker  in  Creation 
and  Providence.    1909. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


506 


George  Galloway:  The  Philosophy  of  Religion. 
1914. 

Pseudo-Isadorian  Decretals. 

W.  F.  Barry:  The  Papal  Monarchy.     1902. 

E.  H.  Davenport:  The  False  Decretals.     1916. 
A.  C.  Flick:  The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church. 

1909. 

Psychical  Research. 

J.  H.  Hyslop:  Science  and  a  Future  Life.     1905. 
O.  J.  Lodge:    Science  and  ImmortaUty.     1908. 

F.  W.  H.  Myers:  Human  PersonaUty  and  Its 
Survival  of  Bodily  Death.     2  v.     1903,  1907. 

F.  W.  H.  Myers  and  Others:  Phantasms  of  the 
Living.     1886. 

Society  for  Psychical  Research:  Proceedings. 
1882-. 

Amy  E.  Tanner:   Studies   in  Spiritism.     1910. 

Psychology  of  Religion.  ~^ 

E.  S.  Ames:  The  Psychology  of  Religious 
Experience.     1910. 

G.  A.  Coe:  The  Psychology  of  ReUgion.     1916. 
William   James:     The    Varieties    of   Rehgious 

Experience.     1902. 

J.  B.  Pratt:  The  Rehgious  Consciousness;  a 
Psychological  Study.     1920. 

E.  D.  Starbuck:  The  Psychology  of  Religion. 
1901. 

Psychotherapy. 

Hippolyte  Bemheim:  Suggestive  Therapeutics. 
1889. 

J.  M.  Bramwell:  Hypnotism:  Its  History,  Prac- 
tice, and  Theory.     New  ed.     1907. 

A.  A.  Brill:  Psychoanalysis.    2d.  ed.     1914. 

Paul  Dubois:  Psychic  Treatment  of  Nervous 
Disorders.    6th.  ed.     1909. 

P.  M.  F.  Janet:  Major  Symptoms  of  Hysteria. 
1907. 

Purgatory. 

W.A.Brown:  The  Christian  Hope.    1912. 

A.  J.  Mason:  Purgatory.     1901. 

Joseph  Pohle:  Eschatology;  or,  the  Catholic 
Doctrine  of  the  Last  Things.    1917. 

Puritanism. 

C.  S.  Home:  A  Popular  History  of  the  Free 
Churches.    1903. 

E.  D.  Hulbert:  The  Enghsh  Reformation  and 
Puritanism.    1907. 

W.  B.  Selbie:  EngUsh  Sects,  a  History  of  Non- 
conformity.   191 2» 

R.  G.  Usher:  The  Reconstruction  of  the  Enghsh 
Church.    2v.     1910. 

Wilhston  Walker:  A  History  of  the  Congre- 
gational Churches  in  the  United  States.     1894. 

Quietism. 

Jeanne  M.  B.  de  la  M.  Guyon:  Autobiography  of 
Madame  Guyon.    Various  editions. 

Quietism  in  the  19th.  Century,  North  Ameri- 
can Review,    v.  97.     1863. 

E.  K.  Sanders:  F6nelon,  His  Friends  and  His 
Enemies.     1901. 

R.  A.  Vaughan:  Hours  with  the  Mystics.  2d. 
ed.    v.  2.    1860. 

Rationalism. 

John  Cairns:  UnbeUef  in  the  18th.  Century  as 
Contrasted  with  Its  Earher  and  Later  History.    1881 . 

W.  E.  H.  Lecky:  History  of  the  Rise  and  Influ- 
ence of  the  Spirit  of  Rationahsm  in  Europe.  5th. 
ed.    2v.     1872. 

A.  C.  McGiffert:  Protestant  Thought  before 
Kant.    1911. 


Red  Cross. 

American  National  Red  Cross:  Manual  of 
Home  Service.    2d.  ed.     1917. 

M.  T.  Boardman:  Under  the  Red  Cross  Flag. 
1915. 

J.  H.  Dunant:  Origin  of  the  Red  Cross.     1911. 

P.  H.  Epler:  Life  of  Clara  Barton.     1917. 
Redemption. 

Sidney  Cave:  Redemption,  Hindu  and  Chris- 
tian.    1919. 

F.  V.  M.  Cumont:    Mysteries  of  Mithra.     1903. 

F.  V.  M.  Cumont:  Oriental  Religions  in  Roman 
Paganism.     1911. 

G.  F.  Moore:  History  of  Religions.  Vol.  I. 
Newed.     1920.    Vol.  11.     1920. 

W.  R.  Smith:  Lectures  on  the  Rehgion  of  the 
Semites.    New  ed.     1907. 

Reformation. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,      v.  2.     1904. 

E.  M.  Hulme:  The  Renaissance,  the  Protestant 
Revolution,  and  the  Catholic  Reformation  in  Conti- 
nental Europe.     1914. 

T.  M.  Lindsay:  A  History  of  the  Reformation. 
2  v.     1906-1907. 

PhiUp  Schaff :  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
V.  6,  7.     1888,  1892. 

Williston  Walker:  The  Reformation.     1900. 

Reformed  Churches. 

E.  T.  Corwin:  History  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
Dutch.     1895. 

D,  D.  Demarest:  The  Reformed  Church  in 
America.     4th.  ed.     1889. 

J.  H.  Dubbs:  History  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
German.    1895. 

J.  I.  Good:  History  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
the  United  States.     1911. 

M.  G.  Hansen:  The  Reformed  Church  in  the 
Netherlands.     1884. 

G.  W.  Richards:  The  Heidelberg  Catechism; 
Historical  and  Doctrinal  Studies.     1913. 

See  also  under  Reformation. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 

H.  K.  Carroll:  The  Rehgious  Forces  in  the 
United  States.     1893. 

R.  B.  Leacock:  "The  Organization  of  the 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church  a  Necessity,"  New 
Englander.    v.  45.     1886. 

"The  Reformed  Episcopal   Church,"    Catholic 
World.    V.  31.    1880. 
Reform  Judaism. 

Israel  Abrahams:  Judaism.     1910. 

American  Jewish  Year  Book.     1899-. 

Kaufmann  Kohler:  Jewish  Theology  Syste- 
matically and  Historically  Considered.     1918. 

C.  G.  Montefiore:  Liberal  Judaism.     1903. 

David  Philipson:  The  Reform  Movement  in 
Judaism.     1907. 

Solomon  Schechter:  Some  Aspects  of  Rabbinic 
Theology.     1909. 
Regeneration. 

Wilham  Anderson:  A  Treatise  on  Regeneration. 
2d.  ed.     1871. 

Harold  Begbie:  Twice-Born  Men,  a  Clinic  in 
Regeneration.     1909. 

Phihp  Doddridge:  On  Regeneration.  First 
published  about  1745. 

Religion. 

E.  S.  Ames:  The  Psychology  of  Rehgious 
Experience.     1910. 

W.  Bousset:  What  Is  Rehgion  ?     1907. 

E.  Durkheim:  Elementary  Forms  of  the  Reh- 
gious Life.     1915. 

G.  B.  Foster:  The  Function  of  Rehgion  in 
Man's  Struggle  for  Existence.     1909. 


507 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


G.  Galloway :  The  Philosophy  of  Rehgion.     1914. 
W.  James:   The  Varieties  of  Religious  Experi- 
ence.    1902. 

I.  King:  The  Development  of  Religion.     1910. 

Religious  Education. 

G.  H.  Betts:  How  to  Teach  Religion.     1919. 

Horace  Bushnell:  Christian  Nurture.  First 
pubUshed,  1860. 

G.  A.  Coe:  A  Social  Theory  of  ReUgious  Educa- 
tion.   1917. 

H.  F.  Cope:  The  School  in  the  Modern  Church. 
1919. 

George  Hodges:  The  Training  of  Children  in 
ReUgion.     1911. 

Religious  Education.     1906-. 

Religious  Education  Association:  Proceedings. 
1903-. 

Religious  Experience. 

W.  W.  Fowler:  The  Religious  Experience  of  the 
Roman  People.     1911. 

Percy  Gardner:  The  Religious  Experience  of 
Saint  Paul.     1911. 

WilUam  James:  The  Varieties  of  ReUgious 
Experience.     1902. 

J.B.Pratt:  The  Religious  Consciousness.    1920. 

Renaissance. 

William  Boulting:  Giordano  Bruno,  His  Life, 
Thought,  and  Martyrdom.     1916. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,    v.  1.     1902. 

J.  A.  Gobineau:  The  Renaissance.     1913. 

W.  H.  Hudson:  The  Story  of  the  Renaissance. 
1912. 

J.  A.  Symonds:  The  Renaissance  in  Italy. 
Newed.    7  v.     1885-1887. 

Revelation. 

Herman  Bavinck:  The  Philosophy  of  Revela- 
tion.     1909. 

G.  P.  Fisher:  The  Nature  and  Method  of  Reve- 
lation.    1890. 

R.  F.  Horton:  Revelation  and  the  Bible.     1892. 

H.  C.  King :  Reconstruction  in  Theology.     1901 . 

James  Orr:  Revelation  and  Inspiration.     1910. 

A.  R.  Whately:  The  Inner  Light.     1908. 

Revivals  of  Religion. 

G.  A.  Coe:  The  Psychology  of  ReUgion.     1916. 

C.  G.  Finney :  Autobiography.    Various  editions. 

C.  G.  Finney:  Lectures  on  Revivals  of  Religion. 
Many  editions. 

C.  H.  Maxson:  The  Great  Awakening  in  the 
Middle  Colonies.     1920. 

W.  R.  Moody:  The  Life  of  Dwight  L.  Moody. 
1900. 

E.  D.  Starbuck:  The  Psychology  of  ReUgion. 
3d.  ed.     1911. 

Joseph  Tracy:  The  Great  Awakening:  a  History 
of  the  Revival  of  Religion  in  the  Time  of  Edwards 
and  Whitefield.     1842. 

Rites,  Rituals  and  Ceremonies. 

E.  S.  Ames:  The  Psychology  of  ReUgious 
Experience.     1910. 

fimile  Durkheim:  Elementary  Forms  of  the 
ReUgious  Life.     1915. 

Jane  E.  Harrison :  Ancient  Art  and  Ritual.    1913. 

F.  G.  Henke:  A  Study  in  the  Psychology  of 
RituaUsm.     1910. 

W.  G.  Sumner:  Folkways.    1907. 

Ritschlianism. 

A.  E.  Garvie:  The  RitschUan  Theology.     1902. 

Wilhelm  Herrmann:  The  Communion  of  the 
Christian  with  God  Described  on  the  Basis  of 
Luther's  Statements.    2d.  ed.  _  1906. 

Paul  Lobstein:  Introduction  to  Protestant 
Dogmatics.     1910, 


A.  T.  Swing:  The  Theology  of  Albrecht  Ritschl. 
1901. 

Roman  Catholic  Church. 

J.  L.  Balmez:  Protestantism  and  CathoUcism 
Compared  in  Their  Effects  on  the  CiviUzation  of 
Europe.     10th.  ed.     1868. 

CathoUc  Encylcopaedia:  Article  "Church." 

J.  J.  I.  von  DolUnger:  History  of  the  Church. 
4  vols.     1840-1842. 

J.  Gibbons:   The  Faith  of  Our  Fathers.     1890. 

A.  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma.  7  v.  1894- 
1900. 

A.  Lagarde:  The  Latin  Church  of  the  Middle 
1915. 

A.  Loisy:  The  Gospel  and  the  Church.  1902. 

L.  Rivington:  The  Primitive  Church  and  the 
See  of  Peter.     1894. 

W.  Walker:  A  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
1918. 

Roman  Religion. 

G.  Boissier:  La  ReUgion  romaine  d'Auguste  aux 
Antonines.    6th.  ed.     1906. 

J.  B.  Carter:  The  ReUgion  of  Numa.     1906. 

J.  B.  Carter:  The  Religious  Life  of  Ancient 
Rome.     1911. 

W.  W.  Fowler:  The  ReUgious  Experience  of  the 
Roman  People.     1911. 

W.  W.  Fowler:  The  Roman  Festivals  of  the 
Period  of  the  RepubUc.    1899. 

G.  Wissowa:  ReUgion  und  Kultus  der  Romer. 
2d.  ed.     1912. 

Romanticism. 

H.  A.  Beers:  A  History  of  EngUsh  Romanticism. 

2  V.     1899,  1901. 

G.  M.  C.  Brandes:  The  Main  Currents  in  19th 
Century  Literature.     New  ed.    6  v.     1906. 

Kuno  Francke:  A  History  of  German  Literature 
as  Determined  by  Social  Forces.     1901. 

John  Morley:   Rousseau.    2  v.     1873. 

Josiah  Royce:  The  Spirit  of  Modem  Philosophy. 
1892. 

Russian  Sects. 

Joseph  Elkinton:  The  Doukhobors.     1903. 

Clara  E.  Fanning:  Selected  Articles  on  Russia. 
1918. 

Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America: 
Report  for  1907. 

R.  S.  Latimer:  Under  Three  Tsars.     1909. 

Sabbath  and  Stmday. 

Robert  Cox:  The  Literature  of  the  Sabbath 
Question.    2  v.     1865. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.:  Hebrew  and  Babylonian 
Traditions.     1914. 

A.  H.  Lewis:  A  Critical  History  of  the  Sabbath 
and  the  Sunday  in  the  Christian  .Church.  Rev.  ed. 
1903. 

A.  H.  Lewis:  Sunday  Legislation:  Its  History 
to  the  Present  Time  and  Its  Results.  Rev.  ed. 
1902. 

Sacraments. 

J.  H.  Blunt:  The  Sacraments  and  Sacramental 
Ordinances  of  the  Church.    First  published,  1867. 

John  Calvin:  Institutes  of  the  Christian  ReU- 
gion.    Various  editions. 

Adolf  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma,  v.  5-7. 
1899-1900. 

S.  J.  Hunter:  OutUnes  of  Dogmatic  Theology. 

3  v.     1895-1896. 

H.  E.  Jacobs:  A  Summary  of  the  Christian 
Faith.     1905. 

Sacrifice. 

Horace  BushneU:  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice.    2  v. 

1877. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


508 


Alfred  Cave:  The  Scriptural  Doctrine  of 
Sacrifice.     1877. 

F.  B.  Jevons:  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Comparative  ReUgion.     1908. 

W.  R.  Smith:  Lectures  on  the  Rehgion  of  the 
Semites.    First  published,  1889. 

E.B.Tylor:  Primitive Culture,Vol. II, 375 f.  1903 

Saints,  Veneration  of. 

Hippolytus  Delehaye:  The  Legends  of  the 
Saints.     1907. 

G.  H.  Gerould:   Saints'  Legends.     1916. 
Salvation. 

Sidney  Cave:  Redemption:  Hindu  and  Chris- 
tian.    1919. 

F.  Cumont:  The  Mysteries  of  Mithra.     1903. 
James    Denney:     The    Christian    Doctrine   of 

Reconciliation.     1918. 

Tasuku  Harada:  The  Faith  of  Japan.     1914. 

D.  B.  MacDonald:  The  Rehgious  Attitude  and 
Life  in  Islam.     1909. 

L.  de  la  Valine  Poussin:  The  Way  to  Nirvana. 
1917. 

G.  B.  Stevens:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Salva- 
tion.    1905. 

Wagiswara  and  Saunders:  The  Buddha's  Way 
of  Virtue.     1912. 

Salvation  Army. 

William  Booth:  In  Darkest  England  and  the 
Way  Out.    Various  editions. 

F.  St.  G.  de  L.  Booth-Tucker:  The  Life  of 
General  William  Booth.     1898. 

T.  F.  G.  Coates:  The  Prophet  of  the  Poor:  the 
Life  Story  of  General  Booth.     1906. 

Orders  and  Regulations  for  Field  Officers  of  the 
Salvation  Army  by  the  Authority  of  the  General. 
Various  editions. 

Sanctification. 

See  under  Perfection. 
Satan. 

Paul  Carus:  A  History  of  the  Devil  and  the 
Idea  of  Evil.     1900. 

E.  H.  Jewett:  Diabolology.     1890. 

Schleiermacher,  F.  E.  D. 

On  ReUgion:  Speeches  to  Its  Cultured  Despisers. 
1893. 

George  Cross:  The  Theology  of  Schleiermacher; 
a  Condensed  Presentation  of  His  Chief  Work.    191 1 . 

W.  B.  Selbie:  Schleiermacher:  a  Critical  and 
Historical  Study.    1913. 

Scholasticism. 

PhiUp  Schaff:  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
V.  5.    Parti.     1907. 

W.  J.  Townsend:  Great  Schoolmen  of  the 
Middle  Ages.     1905. 

Alfred  Weber:   History  of  Philosophy.     1896. 

Science  in  Relation  to  Theology. 

R.  Otto:   Naturalism  and  Religion.     1907. 

G.  J,  Romanes:   Thoughts  on  Rehgion.     1895. 
J.  Y.  Simpson:   The  Spiritual  Interpretation  of 

Nature.    1912. 

A.  D.  White:  A  History  of  the  Warfare  of 
Science  with  Theology.    2  v.     1896. 

Secret  Societies,  Primitive. 

C.  W.  Heckethom:  Secret  Societies  of  All  Ages 
and  Coimtries.    2  v.     1875. 

W.  I.  Thomas:  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins. 
1909. 

Button  Webster:  Primitive  Secret  Societies. 
1908. 

Self-Realization. 

J.  W.  Buckham:  Personality  and  the  Christian 
Ideal.    1909. 


R.  M.  Jones:  Social  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World. 
1904. 

E.  A.  Kirkpatrick:  The  Individual  in  the  Mak- 
ing.    1911. 

G.  H.  Palmer:  The  Nature  of  Goodness.     1903. 

A.  J.  Todd:  Theories  of  Social  Progress.     1918. 

H.  W.  Wright:  Self-Realization:  an  OutUne  of 
Ethics.     1913. 

Semites,  Religion  of. 

G.  A.  Barton:  A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins. 
1902. 

S.  A.  Cook:   The  Study  of  ReUgions.     1914. 

S.  I.  Curtiss:  Primitive  Semitic  Rehgion  To- 
day.    1902. 

L.  R.  Famell:  Greece  and  Babylon.     1912. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough,     v.  5,  6.     1911. 

W.  R.  Smith:  Lectures  on  the  ReUgion  of  the 
Semites.    New  ed.     1894. 

Separatists. 

W.  H.  Burgess:  John  Smith,  The  Se-Baptist, 
Thomas  Helwys  and  the  First  Baptist  Church  in 
England.     1911. 

O.  S.  Davis:  John  Robinson,  the  Pilgrim  Pastor. 
1903. 

J.  H.  Shakespeare:  Baptist  and  Congregational 
Pioneers.     1907. 

See  also  under  Nonconformity;  Pilgrims. 

Shakers. 

John  Dunlavy:  The  Manifesto  or  a  Declaration 
of  the  Doctrine  and  Practice  of  the  Church  of 
Christ.     1847. 

J.  P.  MacLean:  Shakers  of  Ohio.     1907. 

Anna  White  and  LeUa  S.  Taylor:  Shakerism, 
Its  Meaning  and  Message.     1904. 

Shinto. 

W.  G.  Aston:  Shinto,  the  Ancient  ReUgion  of 
Japan.     1907. 

The  Christian  Movement  in  the  Japanese 
Empire,    v.  16.    1918. 

W.  E.  Griffis:  The  ReUgions  of  Japan  from  the 
Dawn  of  History  to  the  Era  of  the  M6iji.  4th.  ed. 
1907. 

G.  W.  Knox:  The  Development  of  ReUgion  in 
Japan.     1907. 

Sikhs,  Religion  of  the. 

J.  D.  Cunningham:  A  History  of  the  Sikhs. 
Rev.  ed.     1918. 

Dorothy  Field :  The  ReUgion  of  the  Sikhs.    1914. 

M.  A.  MacauUfTe:  The  Sikh  ReUgion.  6  v. 
1909. 

J.  B.  Pratt:  India  and  Its  Faiths.     1915. 

Sin. 

JuUus  MuUer:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin. 
2  V.     1868. 

Walter  Rauschenbusch :  A  Theology  for  the 
Social  Gospel.     1917. 

E.  A.  Ross:  Sin  and  Society.     1907. 

F.  R.  Tennant:  The  Origin  and  Propagation  of 
Sin.     1902. 

Skepticism. 

Theodor  ChristUeb:  Modem  Doubt  and  Chris- 
tian BeUef.     1874. 

A.  H.  Lloyd:  The  WiU  to  Doubt.     1908. 

Rehgious  Doubts  of  Common  Men.     1907. 

H.  C.  Sheldon:  UnbeUef  in  the  19th.  Century. 
1907. 

Slavic  Religion. 

E.  W.  Hopkins:  The  History  of  ReUgions.    1918. 
Mythology  of  AU  Races,     v.  3.     1918. 

Social  Ethics. 

J.  A.  Hobson:  Work  and  Wealth,    1914. 


509 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


J.  M.  MeckUn:  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethics. 
1920. 

Property,  Its  Duties  and  Rights.     2d.  ed.     1915. 

Social  Gospel. 

Shailer  Mathews:  The  Gospel  and  the  Modern 
Man.     1910. 

F.  G.  Peabody:  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social 
Question.     1900. 

Walter  Rauschenbusch:    A  Theology  for   the 
Social  Gospel.     1917. 
Social  Service  of  the  Church. 

G.  W.  Coleman,  ed. :  Democracy  in  the  Making. 
1915. 

Committee  on  War  and  the  Religious  Outlook: 
The  Church  and  Industrial  Reconstruction.     1920. 

R.F.  Cutting:  The  Church  and  Society.     1912. 

Shailer  Mathews:  The  Church  and  the  Changing 
Order.     1907. 

Walter  Rauschenbusch:  Christianizing  the 
Social  Order.     1912. 

P.  M.  Strayer:  The  Reconstruction  of  the 
Church  with  Regard  to  Its  Message  and  Program. 
1915. 

H.  F.  Ward,  ed.:  The  Social  Creed  of  the 
Churches.     1913. 

C.  D.  WiUiams:  The  Christian  Ministry  and 
Social  Problems.     1917. 

Socialism. 

Morris  Hillquit:  Socialism  in  Theory  and 
Practice.    1909. 

T.  Kirkup:  A  History  of  Socialism.  4th,  ed. 
1910. 

H.   W.    Laidler:     Socialism    in    Thought    and 
Action.     1920. 
Socinianism. 

R.  S.  Franks:  A  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Work  of  Christ.     1918. 

Adolf  Harnack:  History  of  Dogma,    v.  7.    1899. 

T.  M.  Lindsay:  A  History  of  the  Reformation. 
V.  2.     1907. 

A.  H.  Newman:  A  Manual  of  Church  History. 
V.  2.     1903. 

Sociology. 

C.  H.  Cooley:  Social  Process.     1918. 

C.  A.  EUwood:  Introduction  to  Social  Psy- 
chology.    1917. 

C.  A.  EUwood:  The  Social  Problem.  Rev.  ed. 
1919. 

C.  A.  EUwood:  Sociology  and  Modem  Social 
Problems.    New  ed.     1919. 

F.  H.  Giddings:  The  Principles  of  Sociology. 
1896. 

F.  H.  Giddings,  ed.:  Readings  in  Descriptive 
and  Historical  Sociology.     1906. 

L.  T.  Hobhouse:  Morals  in  Evolution.  New  ed. 
1915. 

R.  M.  Maciver:  The  Community:  a  Sociological 
Study.     1917. 

E.A.Ross:  Principles  of  Sociology.     1920. 

A.  W.  Small:   General  Sociology.     1905. 

Graham  Wallas:   The  Great  Society.     1914. 

Socrates. 

John  Burnet:  Greek  PhUosophy.  Part  1. 
1914. 

Theodor  Gomperz:  Greek  Thinkers,  v.  2. 
1905. 

W.  T.  Marvin:  History  of  European  Philosophy. 
1917. 

Eduard  Zeller:  Socrates  and  the  Socratic 
Schools.    2d.  ed.     1877. 

Soothsaying. 

W.  R.  HoUiday:  Greek  Divination.     1913. 
See  also  under  Divination;  Magic. 


Sophists. 

John  Burnet:  Greek  Philosophy.     Parti.   1914. 

Theodor  Gomperz:  Greek  Thinkers,  v.  1. 
1901. 

A.  K.  Rogers:  Student's  History  of  Philosophy. 
Rev.  ed.     1907. 

Soul. 

A.  E.  Crawley:  The  Idea  of  the  Soul.     1909. 

fimile  Durkheim:  The  Elementary  Forms  of  the 
Religious  Life.     1915. 

G.  W.  Gilmore:  Animism.     1919. 

Carveth  Read:  The  Origin  of  Man  and  His 
Superstitions.     1920. 

S.  Reinach:  Orpheus.     1909. 

E.  Rhode:   Psyche.    2d.  ed.     1910. 

H.  W.  Robinson:  The  Christian  Doctrine  of 
Man.     1913. 

South  Sea  Islands. 

Florence  Coombe:  Islands  of  Enchantment: 
Many  Sided  Melanesia.     1911. 

WiUiam  Elhs:  Polynesian  Researches.  4  v. 
1853. 

C.  F.  Gordon-Cumming:  At  Home  in  Fiji. 
2  V.     1881. 

Helen  B.  Montgomery:  Christus  Redemptor; 
an  OutUne  Study  of  the  Island  World  of  the  Pacific. 
1906. 

George  Turner:  Nineteen  Years  of  Missionary 
Life  in  Poljmesia.     1860. 

Spirit. 

Hereward  Carrington:  Modem  Psychical  Phe- 
nomena.    1919. 

fimile  Durkheim:  The  Elementary  Forms  of 
the  ReUgious  Life.     1915. 

G.W.  Gilmore:  Animism.     1919. 

See  also  under  Soul. 

Spirits.  '• 

See  Demons. 
Spiritiialism. 

W.  F.  Barrett:  Psychical  Research.     1911. 

Hereward  Carrington:  Psychical  Phenomena  of 
Spiritualism.     1907. 

Theodore  Flournoy:  Spiritism  and  Psychology. 
1911. 

Joseph  Jastrow:  Fact  and  Fable  in  Psychology. 
1900. 

Pennsylvania  University  Seybert  Commission: 
Preliminary  Report.     New  ed.     1920. 

Frank  Podmore:  Studies  in  Psychical  Research. 
1897. 

Amy  E.  Tanner:  Studies  in  Spiritism.     1910. 

Stoicism. 

E.  V.  Arnold:  Roman  Stoicism.     1911. 

T.  R.  Glover:  The  Conflict  of  Religions  in  the 
Early  Roman  Empire.    3d.  ed.     1909. 

R.  D.  Hicks:   Stoic  and  Epicurean.     1910. 

Eduard  Zeller:  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Sceptics. 
1880. 

Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Missions. 

Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions: [International  Convention  Report],  1891, 
1894, 1898-. 

Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions: World's  Student  Christian  Federation.    1913. 

S.  R.  Harlow:  Student  Witnesses  for  Christ. 
1919. 

H.  C.  TrumbuU:  Old  Time  Student  Volunteers. 
1902. 

Stiggestion. 

W.  W.  Atkinson:  Suggestion  and  Auto-Sugges- 
tion.    1909. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


510 


Warner  Brown:  Individual  and  Sex  Differences 
in  Suggestibility.     1916. 

A.  H.  Forel:  Hypnotism;  or,  Suggestion  and 
Psychotherapy.     1907. 

P.  M.  F.  Janet:  The  Major  Symptoms  of 
Hysteria.     1907. 

Boris  Sidis:  The  Psychology  of  Suggestion. 
1898. 

Strn,  Stxn- Worship. 

N.  de  G.  Davies:  The  Rock  Tombs  of  El 
Amarna.    6  v.     1903-1909. 

J.  N.  Lockyer:  Stonehenge  and  Other  British 
Stone  Monuments  Astronomically  Considered.   1906. 

W.  T.  Olcott:  Sun  Lore  of  All  Ages.     1914. 

J.  R.  Walker:  The  Sun  Dance  and  Other  Cere- 
monies of  the  Oglala  Division  of  the  Teton  Dakota. 
1917. 

Sunday  Schools. 

W.S.Athearn:  The  Church  School     1914. 

E.  D.  Burton  and  Shailer  Mathews:  Principles 
and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday  School.     1903. 

H.  F.  Cope:  Evolution  of  the  Sunday  School. 
1911. 

H.  F.  Cope:  The  Modern  Sunday  School  and 
its  Present  Day  Task.    Rev.  ed.     1916. 

The  Encyclopedia  of  Sunday  Schools  and 
Religious  Education.     3  v.     1915. 

Marion  Lawrence:  How  to  Conduct  a  Sunday 
School.     1905. 

J.  R.  Sampey:  The  International  Lesson 
System,  the  History  of  Its  Origin  and  Development. 
1911. 

Supernatural,  The. 

Horace  Bushnell:  Nature  and  the  Supernatural 
as  Together  Constituting  the  One  System  of  God. 
Various  editions. 

G.  B.  Foster:  The  Finality  of  the  Christian 
ReUgion.     1906. 

J.  B.  Mozley:  Eight  Lectures  on  Miracles.    1865. 

Johannes  Wendland:  Miracles  and  Christianity. 
1911. 

Swedenborgianism. 

B.  F.  Barrett:  Lectures  on  the  New  Dispensa- 
tion.    Many  editions. 

New  Church  Review.     1904- . 
Emanuel  Swedenborg:    Works.    Various   edi- 
tions. 

Symbols,  Religious. 

Emily  Hermann:  The  Meaning  and  Value  of 
Mysticism.     1915. 

Katherine  L.  Jenner:  Christian  Symbolism. 
1910. 

Walter  Lowrie:  Monuments  of  the  Early 
Church.     1901. 

E.  Recejac:  Essay  on  the  Bases  of  the  Mystic 
Knowledge.    1899. 

Synoptic  Gospels. 

F.  C.  Burkitt:  The  Gospel  History  and  Its 
Transmission.    2d.  ed.     1907. 

E.  D.  Burton:  A  Short  Introduction  to  the 
Gospels.     1904. 

G.  D.  Castor:  Matthew's  Sayings  of  Jesus. 
1918. 

A.  Harnack:  The  Saj^ngs  of  Jesus.     1908. 
J.  Moffatt:  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the 
New  Testament.     1911. 

Syrian  Church. 

F.  J.  BUss:  The  Religions  of  Modern  Syria  and 
Palestine.     1912. 

H.  H.  Jessup:  Fifty-three  Years  in  Syria.     1910. 
Julius  Richter:   A  History  of  Protestant  Mis- 
sions in  the  Near  East.     1910. 


Taboo,  or  Tabu. 

J.  G.  Frazer :  The  Golden  Bough,  v.  3.  3d.  ed. 
1911. 

F.  B.  Jevons:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Rehgion.    2d.  ed.     1903. 

C.  H.  Toy:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Rehgions,     1913. 

Hutton  Webster:  Rest  Days.    1916. 

Talmud. 

H.  Cohen:  Talmudic  Sayings.     1894. 

Moses  Mielziner:  Introduction  to  the  Talmud. 
2d.  ed.     1903. 

Samuel  Rapaport:  Tales  and  Maxims  from 
the  Tahnud.     1910. 

See  also  under  Midrash. 

Taoism. 

R.  K.  Douglas:  Confucianism  and  Taoism. 
1900? 

H.  A.  Giles:  Chuang-tse,  Mystic,  Moralist  and 
Social  Reformer.     1889. 

H.A.Giles:  Religions  of  Ancient  China.     190). 

Lionel  Giles,  tr. :  Musings  of  a  Chinese  Mystic. 
1908. 

J.  J.  M.  de  Groot:  Religion  in  China.     1912. 

J.  J.  M .  de  Groot :  The  Religion  of  the  Chinese . 
1910. 

Sacred  Books  of  the  East.    v.  39,  40.     1891. 

W.  E.  Soothill:  The  Three  Religions  of  China. 
1913. 

Temperance  Movements. 

J.  S.  Billings:  Physiological  Aspects  of  the 
Liquor  Problem.    2  v.     1903. 

The  Cyclopedia  of  Temperance,  Prohibition  and 
Public  Morals.     1917. 

E.  B.  Gordon:  The  Anti-alcohol  Movement  in 
Europe.     1913. 

T.  N.  Kelynack,  ed.:  The  Drink  Problem  in  Its 
Medico-Sociological  Aspects.     1907. 

John  Koren:  Alcohol  and  Society.     1916. 

E.  A.  Pratt:  Licensing  and  Temperance  in 
Sweden,  Norway  and  Denmark.     1907. 

Joseph  Rowntree  and  Arthur  Sherwell:  The 
Temperance  Problem  and  Social  Reform.  7th.  ed 
1900. 

Arthur  Shadwell:  Drink,  Temperance,  and 
Legislation.    1902. 

Templars,  Knights. 

C.  G.  Addison :  A  History  of  Knights  Templars. 
6th.  ed.     1900. 

H.  C.  Lea:  History  of  the  Inquisition,  v.  3. 
1888. 

F.  C.  Woodhouse:  Military  Religious  Orders 
of  the  Middle  Ages.    1879. 

Temples,  Egyptian. 

E.  H.  Naville:  Bubastis.     1891. 
Georg  Steindorff:   The  Rehgion  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians.     1905. 

Consult  also  the  General  Works. 

Temples,  Greek  and  Roman. 

Arthur  Fairbanks :  Handbook  of  Greek  Rehgion. 
1910. 

J.  E.  Sandys,  ed.:  Companion  to  Latin  Studies. 
2d.  ed.    1913. 

Leonard  Whibley,  ed.:  Companion  to  Greek 
Studies.     1905. 

Temples,  Indian. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  The  Crown  of  Hinduism.    1913. 

Monier  Monier-WilUams:  Buddhism  in  Its 
Connection  with  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism. 
1889. 


511 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


J.  B.  Pratt:  India  and  Its  Faiths.     1915. 
T.  G.  Rao :  The  Elements  of  Hind  i  Iconography. 
V.  1.  1914. 

Teutonic  Religion. 

P.  D.  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye:  The  ReUgion  of 
the  Teutons.     1902. 

J.  L.  Grimm:  Teutonic  Mythology.  4  v. 
1882-1889. 

J.  A.  Montgomery,  ed.:  Religions  of  the  Past 
and  Present.     1918. 

Snorri  Sturluson:  Prose  Edda;  tr.  by  A.  G. 
Brodeur.     1916. 

Gudbrand  Vigfusson  and  F.  Y.  Powell,  eds.: 
....  The  Poetry  of  the  Old  Northern  Tongue. 
2v.     1884. 

Theism. 

B.  P.  Bowne :  The  Philosophy  of  Theism.     1902. 

C.  C.  Everett:  Theism  and  the  Christian 
Faith.    1908. 

A.  C.  Frazer:  Philosophy  of  Theism.     1885. 

S.  Harris:  The  Philosophical  Basis  of  Theism. 
2d.  ed.    1894. 

W.  R.  Sorley:  Moral  Values  and  the  Idea  of 
God.    1918. 

Georg  Wobbermin:  Christian  Belief  in  God. 
1918. 

Theosophy. 

Helena  P.  H.  Blavatsky:  Isis  Unveiled.  2  v. 
1877. 

J.  N.  Farquhar:  Modern  Religious  Movements 
in  India.     1915. 

W.  R.  Inge:  Christian  Mysticism.     1899. 

Theosophical  Quarterly.     1903-. 

Theosophical  Society  of  America:  A  Primer  of 
Theosophy.     1909. 

Consult  also  the  General  Works. 

Thirty  Years'  War. 

Cambridge  Modem  History,    v.  4.     1906. 

C.  R.  L.  Fletcher:  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the 
Struggle  of  Protestantism.     1890. 

iGiton  Gindely:  A  History  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.    2v.     1884. 

A.  W.  Ward:  The  House  of  Austria  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.     1869. 

Tibet,  ReUgion  of. 

T.  H.  Holdich:  Tibet,  the  Mysterious.     1906. 

Susie  C.  Rijnhart:  With  the  Tibetans  in  Tent 
and  Temple.     1901. 

W.  W.  Rockhill:  The  Life  of  Buddha,  and  the 
Early  History  of  His  Order.     1916. 

E.   Schlagintweit:   Buddhism  in  Tibet.     1868. 

L.  A.Waddell:  Lhasa  and  Its  Mysteries.     1905. 

L.  A.  Waddell:  The  Buddhism  of  Tibet.     1895. 

Toleration. 

Mandell  Creighton:  Persecution  and  Tolerance. 
1894. 

E.  A.  George:  Seventeenth  Century  Men  of 
Latitude.     1908. 

A.  A.  Seaton:  The  Theory  of  Toleration  vmder 
the  Later  Stuarts.     1911. 

Arthur  Vermeersch:  Tolerance.     1913. 

Tombs  and  Tombstones. 

G.  B.  Brown:  The  Care  of  Ancient  Monimaents. 
1905. 

N.  de  G.  Davies:  The  Rock  Tombs  of  El 
Amarna.    6  v.     1903-1909. 

G.  A.  Douglas:  Experience  of  a  Veteran  Sales- 
man of  Memorial  Monuments.     1908. 

T.  A.  Joyce:  South  American  Archaeology. 
1912. 

J.  P.  Peters:  Painted  Tombs  in  the  Necropolis 
of  Marissa.     1905. 


Totemism. 

fimile  Durkheim :  The  Elementary  Forms  of  th* 
Rehgious  Life.     1915. 

J.  G.  Frazer:  Totemism  and  Exogamy.  4  v. 
1910. 

F,  B.  Jevons:  An  Introduction  to  the  History 
of  Religion.    2d.  ed.     1902. 

C.  H.  Toy:  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Religions.     1913. 

Transcendentalism. 

J.  E.  Cabot:  A  Memoir  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emer- 
son.   2  v.     1887. 

Joseph  Cook:  Transcendentalism.     1877. 

O.  B.  Frothingham:  Transcendentalism  in  New 
England.     1876. 

Michael  Kelly:  Kant's  Philosophy  as  Rectified 
by  Schopenhauer.     1909. 

Transubstanti  ation. 

Catholic  Encyclopaedia:  Article  "Eucharist." 

F.  W.  D.:  Elucidation  of  the  Doctrine  of 
Transubstantiation.     1904. 

T.  B.  Strong :  The  Doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence. 
1899. 

Trent,  Cotincil  of. 

T.  M.  Lindsay:  A  History  of  the  Reformation. 
V.  2.     1907. 

J.  H.  Pollen:  The  English  Cathohcs  in  the 
Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.     1920. 

A.W.Ward:  The  Counter-Reformation.     1888, 

J.  Waterworth:  Canons  and  Decrees  of  the 
Sacred  and  Oeciunenical  Council  of  Trent.  1848. 
Reprinted  1917. 

Trinity. 

W.  S.  Bishop :_  The  Development  of  the  Trini- 
tarian Doctrine  in  the  Nicene  and  Athanasian 
Creeds.     1910. 

James  Drummond:  Studies  in  Christian  Doc- 
trme.     1908. 

J.  R.  lUingworth:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
Apologetically  Considered.     1909. 

L.  L.  Paine:  A  Critical  History  of  the  Evolu- 
tion of  Trinitarianism.     1900. 

Types. 

J.P.Everett:  Bible  Types  Explained.     1880. 
See  also  under  SymboHsm,  Religious. 

Unitarianism. 

J.  H.  Allen:  American  Church  History  Series. 
V.  10.     1894. 

J.  H.  CoUigan:  The  Arian  Movement  in  Eng- 
land.    1913. 

G.  W.  Cooke:   Unitarianism  in  America.  1902. 
Ephraim  Emerton:   Unitarian  Thought.     1911. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Daniel  Berger:  American  Church  History  Series. 
V.  12.     1894. 

Daniel  Berger:  History  of  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren.     1897. 

A.  W.  Drury:  Life  of  Philip  WilUam  Otterbein. 
1884. 

E.  L.  Shuey:  Hand-book  of  the  United  Brethren 
in  Christ.     1885. 

Universalism  and  Universalists. 

Hosea  BaUou :  Ancient  History  of  Universalism. 
First  pubhshed,  1829. 

Hosea  Ballou:  Treatise  on  the  Atonement. 
First  pubhshed  about  1815. 

Richard  Eddy:  American  Church  History 
Series,     v.  10.     1894. 

Life  of  Rev.  John  Murray.  First  published,  1816. 

T.B.Thayer:  Theology  of  Universahsm.     1862 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  RELIGION  AND  ETHICS 


512 


,  Utilitarianism. 

Ernest  Albee:  A  History  of  English  Utilitarian- 
ism.    1902. 

J.  S.  Mill:  Utilitarianism.    Various  editions. 

Vedic  Religion. 

Maurice  Bloomfield:  The  Religion  of  the  Veda. 
1908. 

A.  C.  Clayton:  The  Rig- Veda  and  Vedic  Reli- 
gion.    1912. 

A.  S.  Geden:  Studies  in  the  Religions  of  the 
East.     1913. 

E .  W .  Hopkins :  History  of  Religions.  Chap,  xi . 
pp. 170-180. 

Rig- Veda.     Various  translations. 
See    also  under  India,   ReUgions  and   Philoso- 
phies of. 

Versions  of  the  Bible. 

F.  E.  C.  Gigot:  General  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.     1904. 

James  Hastings,  ed.:  A  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible.    V.  5.    1904. 

F.  G.  Lewis:  How  the  Bible  Grew.     1919. 

A.  S.  Peake:  The  Bible;  Its  Origin,  Its  Signi- 
ficance, and  Its  Abiding  Worth.    5th.  ed.     1914. 

I.  M.  Price:  The  Ancestry  of  Our  English  Bible. 
5th.  ed.     1907. 

Vestments. 

J.  W.  Legg:  Church  Ornaments  and  Their 
Civil  Antecedents.     1917. 

J.  A.  F.  P.  Nainfa:  Costume  of  Prelates  of  the 
Cathohc  Church.     1909. 

W.  J.  S.  Simpson:  The  Use  of  Vestments  in  the 
EngUsh  Church.     1909. 

L.  B.  N.  Weston:  Vestments  and  How  to  Make 
Them.     1914. 

Virgin  Birth. 

J.  H.  Breasted:  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt.  5  v. 
1906-1907.    II,  75  ff. 

C.  Campbell:  The  Miraculous  Birth  of  King 
Amon-Hotep  III  and  Other  Egyptian  Studies. 
1912. 

L.  R.  Farnell:  Cults  of  the  Greek  States.  5  v. 
1896-1909.     Ill,  305  f. 

E.  S.  Hartland:  Primitive  Paternity.  2  v. 
1909  f . 

P.  Lobstein:  The  Virgin  Birth  of  Christ.     1903. 

O.  Meiderer:  Early  Christian  Conception  of 
Christ.     1905.    Pp.  16-48. 

W.  Soltau:  The  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ.     1903. 

Taylor,  V:  The  Historical  Evidence  for  the 
Virgin  Birth.     1920. 

Virtues  and  Vices. 

S.  M.  Crothers:  Three  Lords  of  Destiny.     1913. 
W.F.Lofthouse:  Ethics  and  the  Family.     1912. 
E.  A.  Westermarck:   The  Origin  and  Develop- 
ment of  Moral  Ideas.    2  v.     1906,  1908. 

Visions. 

G.  B.  Cutten:  The  Psychological  Phenomena  of 
Christianity.     1908. 

Andrew  Lang:  The  Making  of  ReUgion.  2d.  ed. 
1900. 

EUzabeth  Morison  and  Frances  Lamont,  pseuds. : 
An  Adventure.     1911. 

Frank  Podmore:  Apparitions  and  Thought 
Transference.     1894. 

Waldenses. 

Emilio  Comba:  History  of  the  Waldenses  of 
Italy.     1889. 


R.  M.  Jones:  Studies  in  Mystical  Religion. 
1909. 

Giovanni  Luzzi:  The  Struggle  for  Christian 
Truth  in  Italy.     1913. 

Wesley,  Charles  and  John. 

John  Wesley:  Works.     Various  editions. 

W.H.Fitchett:  Wesley  and  His  Century.    1906. 

John  Telford:  Life  of  Charles  Welsey.  1st.  ed. 
1886. 

LukeTyerman:  Life  and  Times  of  John  Wesley. 
3  V.     1870-1871. 

C.  T.  Winchester:   Life  of  John  Wesley.     1906. 

Westminster  Assembly. 

William  Beveridge:  A  Short  History  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly.     1904. 

The  Cambridge  Modern  History,     v.  4.     1906. 

A.  F.  Mitchell:  Westminster  Assembly,  Its 
History  and  Standards.     1883. 

Witchcraft. 

G.  L.  Burr:  Narratives  of  the  Witchcraft  Cases, 
1648-1706.     1914. 

W.  E.  H.  Lecky:  A  History  of  the  Rise  and 
Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe. 
5th.  ed.    2v.     1872. 

Wallace  Notestein:  A  History  of  Enghsh  Witch- 
craft from  155&-1718.     1910. 

C.  W.  Upham:  Lectures  on  Witchcraft.  Vari- 
ous editions. 

Thomas  Wright:  Narratives  of  Magic  and 
Sorcery.    2  v.     1851. 

Woman,  Religious  and  Ethical  Status  of. 

W.  L.  Blease:  The  Emancipation  of  English 
Women.     1910. 

Ellen  K.  S.  Key:  The  Woman  Movement. 
1912. 

Scott  Nearing  and  NelUe  M.  Nearing:  Woman 
and  Social  Progress.     1912. 

Ohve  Schremer:  Woman  and  Labor.     1911. 

E.  A.  Westermarck:  The  History  of  Human 
Marriage.    3d.  ed.     1901. 

W.  I.  Thomas:  Sex  and  Society,     1907. 

Worship. 

Edward  Clodd:  Animism,  the  Seed  of  Religion. 
1905. 

F.  S.  Dobbins:  Story  of  the  World's  Worship. 
1901. 

fimile  Durkheim:  The  Elementary  Forms  of 
the  ReUgious  Life.     1915. 

W.  E.  Hocking:  The  Meaning  of  God  in  Himian 
Experience.     1912. 

•A.  S.  Ho}^;:  PubUc  Worship  for  Non-Liturgical 
Churches.    1911 

J.  P.  Hylan:  PubUc  Worship.     1901. 

T.  H.  Pattison:  PubUc  Worship.    1900. 


Yahweh. 

W.  E.  Addis:  Hebrew  Religion  to  the  Estab- 
Ushment  of  Judaism  under  Ezra.     1906. 

W.  F.  Bad6:  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light 
of  To-day.     1915. 

Andrew  Lang:  The  Making  of  Rehgion.  2d.  ed. 
1900. 

A.  F.  Loisy:  The  ReUgion  of  Israel.     1910. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 

Association  Men.     1875- 

H.  F.  Cope:  The  Efficient  Layman.     1911. 

J.  S.  Dennis:  Christian  Missions  and  Social 
Progress,    v.  3.     1906. 

L.  L.  Doggett:  History  of  the  Y.M.C.A.  v.  1. 
1896. 


513 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


R.  C.  Morse:  History  of  the  North  American 
Y.M.C.A.    1913. 

Physical  Education  in  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations  of  North  America.  Rev.  ed. 
1920. 

J.  E.  H.  Williams:  Life  of  Sir  George  WilUams. 
1906. 

Young  People's  Societies. 

L.  W.  Bacon  and  C.  A.  Northrop:  Yoimg 
People's  Societies.     1900. 

Marianna  C.  Brown :  Sunday  School  Movements 
in  America.     1901. 

F.O.Erb:  Development  of  the  Yoimg  People's 
Movement.     1917. 

W.  H.  Watson:  First  Fifty  Years  of  the  Simday 
School  Union.     1868. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 

Handbook  of  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  Movement.    5th.  ed.     1919. 

Elizabeth  Wilson:  Fifty  Years  of  Association 
Work  among  Young  Women.     19 16. 

Year  Book;  ....  of  the  Young  Women's 
Christian  Associations  of  the  United  States  of 
America.    1917. 


Zionism. 

Israel  Cohen:  Jewish  Life  in  Modern  Times. 
1914. 

Paul  Goodman  and  A.  D.  Lewis,  eds. :  Zionism. 
1916. 

R.  J.  H.  Gottheil:  Zionism.     1914. 

Harry  Sacher,  ed.:  Zionism  and  the  Jewish 
Future.     1916. 

Zoroastrianism. 

J.  H.  Breasted:    Ancient  Times.    1916.    ch.  vi. 

A.  S.  Geden:  Studies  in  the  Religions  of  the 
East.     1913. 

A.  V.W.Jackson:  Persia  Past  and  Present.   1906. 

A.  V.  W.  Jackson:  Zoroaster,  the  Prophet  of 
Ancient  Iran.     1901. 

J.  A.  Montgomery,  ed.:  Religions  of  the  Past 
and  Present.     1918. 

J.  H.  Moulton:  Early  Zoroastrianism.     1914. 

J.  H.  Moulton :  The  Treasure  of  the  Magi.    1917. 

Zwingli,  Huldreich. 

Selected  Works  of  Huldreich  Zwingli.     1901. 

JeanGrob:  The  Life  of  Ulric  Zwingli.     1883. 

S.  M.  Jackson:  Huldreich  Zwingli.     1901. 

Samuel  Simpson:  Life  of  Ulrich  Zwingli,  the 
Swiss  Patriot  and  Reformer.    1902. 


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